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 Palacky University in Olomouc
Faculty of Health Sciences
of Physical Anthropology

MANUAL
of Physical
Anthropology
MANUAL

Kopecký M. et al.
Kopecký M. et al.

2019
 Palacky University in Olomouc
Faculty of Health Sciences

MANUAL
of Physical
MAIN AUTHOR
Miroslav Kopecký, doc. PaedDr., Ph.D.
Faculty of Health Sciences, Palacky University in Olomouc, Czech Republic

CO-AUTHORS:
Anthropology
Barbora Matejovičová, RNDr., PhD.
Faculty of Natural Sciences, Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Slovak Republic
Lidia Cymek, RNDr., PhD.
Pomeranian University in Słupsk, Institute of Biology and Environmental Protection, Poland
//
Jarosław Rożnowski, MUDr., PhD.
NZOZ Twój Lekarz Chełmno, Poland MIROSLAV KOPECKÝ,
Marek Švarc, Ing. BARBORA MATEJOVIČOVÁ, LIDIA CYMEK,
TRYSTOM, spol. s. r. o., Olomouc, Czech Republic JAROSŁAW ROŻNOWSKI, MAREK ŠVARC

REVIEWED BY: PUBLISHED

Doc. RNDr. Tünde Juríková, PhD.
Doc. RNDr. Pavel Bláha, CSc. First edition
Mgr. Lucie Stříbrná, Ph.D. Olomouc, 2019
Unauthorized use of the work
TRANSLATORS:
is a breach of copyright and may be subject
Mgr. Eva Černá
to civil, administrative or criminal liability.
Simon Gill, MA

The book was published with the financial
support of the Faculty of Health Sciences,
Palacky University in Olomouc, Czech
Republic, TRYSTOM, spol. s. r. o., Olomouc,
Czech Republic, MedSystem s.r.o., Brno,
Czech Republic, HELAGO-CZ, s. r. o.,
Hradec Králové, Czech Republic, and the
authors’ own resources.
© Miroslav Kopecký, Barbora Matejovičová,
Lidia Cymek, Jarosław Rożnowski, Marek Švarc
© Palacky University in Olomouc, Czech Republic
Ilustrations © Zdeňka Malínská
Photography © YASCHAdesign s.r.o.,
www.yascha.cz
DOI: 10.5507/fzv.19.24453590
ISBN 978-80-244-5359-0

Miroslav Kopecký, doc. PaedDr., Ph.D.
Faculty of Health Sciences, Palacky University in Olomouc, Czech Republic
//
The Manual of Physical Anthropology provides expert information about physi-
cal anthropology and its application in the study ­and research of the biological
variability of humans and human populations in time and space.
First, I would like to explain why we decided to write this book and what pur-
pose it serves.
The Manual is the fruit of long-term international collaboration with excellent
colleagues and my co-authors Barbora Matejovičová, Lidia Cymek, Jarosław
Rożnowski, and Marek Švarc, President of Trystom, a manufacturer of anthro-
pometric instruments.
The impulse for this publication stemmed from study exchange programmes
which all its authors undertook as part of international cooperation and which
were connected to university instruction of physical anthropology in the Czech
Republic, Slovakia, and Poland. There came the need to prepare study materials
for anthropology students and students of human biology. This is why we chose
to publish chapters we consider vital to introducing physical anthropology.
Although anthropology, generally described as the study of humans, i­s much
discussed these days, not all people understand what this fascinating and
beautiful science, or multidiscipline, deals with. Physical anthropology plays
a big role in the large group of anthropological disciplines from t­he historical
and, above all, practical points of view.
The findings of physical anthropology affect daily life: sitting on a chair, work-
ing at a desk, driving a car, wearing different clothes, buying shoes, evaluating
4 5
nutritional status on the basis of one’s height and weight, doctors using refe­
rence standards for the physical growth and development of children, and so
on. These are just a few examples of the application of physical anthropology
in a variety of sciences such as sports anthropology, obesitology, paediatrics,
and ergonomics, as well as in industry (e.g. the clothing and footwear indus-
try). Things in the broadest sense of the word serve humans best if they match
their physical proportions, age, and sexual characteristics. The use of phy­
sical anthropology methods allows physical dimensions to be measured and
their proportions determined, and, above all, the knowledge that is acquired
to be applied to our lives and utilized in a number of sciences.
The accurate measurement of physical dimensions and assessment
of human variability require adequate and high-quality anthropometric in-
struments. These are produced by our long-term partner Trystom, and this
is why this issue is included in this publication.
The book is written for students of healthcare disciplines, for students
of medicine, for students of teaching degrees in human biology and kin­
anthropometry, and for postgraduate students and professionals (doctors,
coaches, nutrition advisors, etc.). Instead of striving to provide comprehen-
sive information on physical anthropology, our aim is to captivate and inte­
rest readers in this field of study. If we manage to do this, we will be happy.
The book is divided into eight chapters. The first chapter introduces
physical anthropology, explaining its position and goals in the system
of anthropological disciplines. This is followed by a chapter presenting the
standardized methods of anthropometry and a chapter describing the or-
ganization of anthropological research and presenting a historical overview
of major anthropological surveys. The subsequent chapters outline methods
designed to evaluate body composition and human constitution and meth-
ods assessing the physical growth and development of children. The last
chapter but one details methods serving to assess the physical parameters
of an individual or group compared to the standard using the Z-score. The
final chapter sets out the anthropometric instruments used in physical an-
thropometry and describes their technical parameters.
The reader may appreciate the glossary of terms in English, Czech, and
Polish provided at the end of each chapter.
The book took a long time to finish, the process was far from easy, and
all the co-authors showed a lot of understanding and patience. My sincere
thanks therefore go to Barbora Matejovičová, Lidia Cymek, and Jaroslaw
Rożnowski for their willingness and patience in our exhaustive correspond-
ence so as to add further details to the chapters. I am also indebted to Eva
Černínová for her diligent translation of the text, Simon Gill for revisions
of the translation, and Zdeňka Malínská for her help with editing the ima­
ges in the text. Next, I thank the editors of the book, Tünde Juríková, Pavel
Bláha, and Lucie Stříbrná, for factual suggestions and further specifications.
Last but not least, I thank Marek Švarc, President of Trystom, for his fi-
nancial support for the publication of the book.
Finally, I would like to thank my wife Dana for the support and patience
she has devoted to me throughout my work on this book.
CONTENTS
of the book
1 INTRODUCTION TO ANTHROPOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1 Definition of Anthropology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Classification of Anthropological Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2.1 General branches of anthropology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.2 Biological Anthropology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.3 Cultural Anthropology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.4 Social Anthropology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.5 Branches of Applied Anthropology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3 Physical Anthropology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.1 The Origin and Development of Physical Anthropology . . . . . . . 15
1.3.2 Definition of Physical Anthropology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2 ANTHROPOMETRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1 Introduction to Anthropometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 Standardization of Anthropometric Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3 Anthropometry and the Organic Laws of Physical Growth
and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4 Standardized Anthropometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.5 Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.6 Anthropometric Landmarks and Methods of Measurement . . . . . . . . 32
2.6.1 Anthropometric Landmarks of the Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.6.1.1 Head measurement method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.6.1.2 Indices of the cephalic dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.6.2 Anthropometric Landmarks of the Trunk and Extremities . . . . . . 38
2.6.2.1 Measurement method for the trunk and extremities . . . 40
2.6.2.2 Definitions of height dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.6.2.3 Definitions of breadth dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.6.2.4 Definitions of girth dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.6.2.5 Indices of the trunk and extremities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3 ORGANIZATION OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . 53
3.1 Steps in the Research Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.2 Anthropological Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3 Anthropometric Laboratory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.4 Measurement Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.5 Anthropological Surveys in the Czech Republic and Slovakia . . . . . . . 62
3.6 The Secular Trend
3.6.1 The secular trend in body height and weight in children
aged six to 14 years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.6.2 The secular trend in body height and weight in the adult
population in the Czech Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.7 Importance of Anthropological Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6 7
4 BODY COMPOSITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.1 Models of Body Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.1.1 Atomic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.1.2 Molecular Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.1.3 Cellular Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.1.4 Tissue-Organ Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.1.5 Whole-Body Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.2 Methods of Assessing Body Composition Components . . . . . . . . . 112
4.2.1 Technically Demanding Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.2.2 Technically Undemanding Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.2.2.1 Body Mass Index (BMI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.2.2.2 Circumferential Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.2.2.3 Skinfold Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.2.2.4 Matiegka’s Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5 BIOTYPOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.1 Concept of Biotypology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.2 Origin and Development of Biotypology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.2.1 French School of Body Typology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
5.2.2 Italian School of Body Typology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
5.2.3 German School of Body Typology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
5.2.4 Differential Somatology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.2.5 New Somatotyping Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5.3 The Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
6 METHODS OF MONITORING AND EVALUATING
PHYSICAL GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.1 Growth (height) Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
6.2 Dental Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.3 Bone age, skeletal age, and skeletal maturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.4 Developmental age, sexual age, or sexual maturation . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.5 Proportional Age – Biological Proportional Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
6.6 Chronological Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
7 THE EVALUATION OF DEVELOPMENT AND PROPORTIONALITY USING
Z-SCORE STANDARDIZATION AND PERKAL’S NATURAL INDICES . . 191
7.1 Z-score . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
7.2 Perkal’s natural indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
8 ANTHROPOMETRIC MEASURING TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
8.1 A-226 Anthropometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
8.2 K-211 Spreading caliper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
8.3 P-216 Pelvimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
8.4 T-520 Modified thoracometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
8.5 V-372 Small height rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
8.6 M-222 Sliding caliper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.7 Best II K-501 Caliper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8.8 Soft metric tape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
8.9 Anthropometry kit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
9 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
ANNEX 1–3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220–222
1 INTRODUCTION cipline. The complexity and problems of human existence in all their variability
have led to a gradual division of anthropology into specific fields with a defined
subject area. Currently, there is strong interdisciplinary collaboration between

to Anthropology biologically oriented professionals and experts focused on the humanities (psy-
chology, education, sociology, linguistics, religion, philosophy, etc.).
The subject matter of anthropology and its study includes humans, the hu-
man body, and its phylogenetic and ontogenetic development, the peculiarities
of its construction, human races, anthropological types, and the status and de-

//
velopment of human society in natural conditions. In this sense, anthropology
is regarded as an important liaison and interdisciplinary science between the
natural sciences and social sciences.
1.1 Definition of Anthropology
The word anthropology is derived from two Greek words: anthrópos – man,
and logos – word, science. In general, anthropology is the study of humans or //
anthropology is the study of man. 1.2 Classification of Anthropological Sciences
Humankind has gone through a relatively long and complicated develop-
ment, which has refined humans as a species into cultural and social beings. The definition of anthropology as a study of humans is very general and does
Beings with highly developed mental skills, who work, produce, and create not reflect the current concept of anthropology in its full depth and breadth.
material and cultural wealth. Additionally, man is a social creature with particu- The current approach to the classification and subject area of anthropological
lar traits of human behaviour and thinking, who is part of a particular society. disciplines researching selected areas of humanity is holistic. The concept
At the onset of human evolution, people would adapt to the natural laws. The of anthropology as a multidiscipline rather than a single branch of science
gradual process of hominization (the process of gradual physical and social is more in line with the definition of Jan Evangelista Purkyně (1787–1869)
changes from primates to humans; humanization), sapientation (the process (Figu­re 1.1), who describes anthropology as “a science studying the natural
of human development following hominization, accompanied by the develop- character and circumstances of the versatile human race” or the concept
ment of the brain, mind, and psyche), and the progressive formation of human of the German-born American anthropologist Franz Boas (1858–1942) (Fi­gure
societies have increasingly pushed into the foreground the laws of human so- 1.2), who understood anthropology as “a  complex discipline of the study
ciety, which are complex and ultimately influence the biological development of humans and their work”.
of humans. For these reasons, the humans of today are the focus of both bio­
logical and social sciences. Anthropology thus studies humans as biological
beings, as well as their role in the structure of society. This interest in human
issues and the role of people on the Earth is greatly increasing today, and is
highly topical for the future development of humans on the planet.
Anthropology as a scientific field is defined as a science of humans that
studies humans as natural, cultural, and social beings, their origin and deve­
lop­ment, their physical and psychological nature, activities, and manifestations
in space and time; it studies changes in human existence at the individual level,
as well as at the level of human groups and humanity as a whole.
Another important mission of contemporary anthropology is to predict the
future development of human society on the basis of the laws of nature, and
often, primarily, on the laws of society. At present, anthropology is a complex
of disciplines that deals with the origin of humans and their physical and bioso-
cial development, and monitors the forecasts and trends concerning the future
development of humanity. The main purpose of anthropology is to contribute to
the all-round development of humankind.
Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2
From the above it is clear that, rather than being a single branch of science
Jan Evangelista Purkyně Franz Boas
the modern concept understands anthropology as a highly branched multidis-
(1787–1869) (1858–1942)

8 9
 Currently, there are two concepts and classifications of  anthropological Provided the above approaches to holistic research on humankind in space
sciences, the concept of general anthropology, which is common in the and time are observed, anthropological disciplines fall into the following
United States and the United Kingdom, and the concept of anthropology as special groups (Figure 1.3).
a biological discipline, applied in continental Europe.
The American concept of general anthropology includes the study of hu-
mans themselves, as well as everything related to their existence in connection BIOLOGICAL
with the cultural and social development of humankind. anthropology
GENERAL CULTURAL
The continental, European concept of biological anthropology chiefly con- BRANCHES anthropology
centrates on anthropology as a natural science. It should be noted that on the of anthropology
European continent, this concept has recently undergone a major change, and
biological anthropologists increasingly apply the findings of, and cooperate ANTHROPOLOGY
with, a number of areas of the humanities. Similarly, the humanities in anthro-
pology rely on findings generated by the various branches of biological anthro-
pology.
The ever closer cooperation between the biological and human branches BRANCHES
of anthropology is the logical consequence of the common subject of their re- SOCIAL OF APPLIED
search, which is humankind and its status in the widest context today. anthropology anthropology
Contemporary anthropologists view anthropology as a constantly evolving
holistic, comparative, and interdisciplinary science that is characterized by Figure 1.3
the dynamic formation of new anthropological specializations. Main fields of anthropology
The systematic classification of anthropological sciences is similarly complex.

American general anthropology is represented by the following
disciplines:
• physical (biological) anthropology: studies the biological nature and variabili­
ty of the human species and humans,
• anthropological archaeology (prehistoric and historic anthropology): studies
the prehistoric and historic evolution of humans,
• sociocultural (social and cultural) anthropology: studies the cultural and
social dimensions of the human race,
• linguistic anthropology: studies the relationship between human language,
thought, and culture, and
• applied anthropology: deals with the application of theoretical anthropology
in practice.
The other classification of anthropological disciplines is based on the per-
spective or approach which anthropology applies when studying human-
kind:
• humankind as the bearer and creator of values – ethical and philosophical
approach,
• humans as natural beings – biological and anthropo-ecological approach,
• humans as cultural beings – cultural and civilizational approach,
• humans as social beings – social and societal approach.
Nevertheless, the anthropologist endeavours to study man from an objective
and scientific viewpoint. His goal is to arrive at a realistic and unbiased under-
standing of human diversity.
1.2.1 General branches of anthropology
This group of anthropological disciplines includes the following:
• General anthropology (theoretical anthropology) constitutes the theoreti-
cal and methodological foundations of anthropology. It examines the most
common questions of human existence and the nature of humans as indi-
viduals and as a species on Earth.
• Integral anthropology creates a proportional model of the general posi-
tion regarding humankind, directed and conditioned by the developmental
trends of human sciences. Integral anthropology integrates the interdiscipli-
nary links and borderland issues common to sciences that study the human
species. It is the basis for the universal study of humans and seeks to un-
derstand the structure and nature of human beings and the anthropological
roots of social phenomena.
• Synthetic anthropology is a broader concept of anthropology as a syn-
thesis of all anthropological disciplines, primarily theoretical, biological,
cultural, and social anthropology, as well as archaeology, linguistics, eth-
nology, and other concepts. This concept is typical of Anglo-American
anthropologists.

10 11
• Philosophical anthropology (philosophy of humans) is not an anthropo-
logical discipline, however; it is classified under philosophy. It was formu-
lated as a special philosophical discipline by Otto Casmann (1562–1607).
He is important to the history of anthropology and psychology. He began the
separation of these two subjects from the Aristotelian framework of meta-
physics, becoming a classical example of the secularization of science in the
early modern period. During his time at Steinfurt he produced the work “Psy-
chologia Anthropologica, sive doctrina animae Humanae” (1594). There he
consolidated the use of the term “anthropology” coined by Magnus Hundt
(1449–1519). During his time in Stade, he wrote the second volume of “Psy-
chologia Anthropologica” (1596) in which he described the construction of the
human body. In 1594, Casmann defined anthropology as “the doctrine of hu-
man nature. Human nature is an essence partaking of two worlds, the spiritual
and the corporeal, yet united in one vehicle”. This definition is still considered
valid today. Modern-day philosophical anthropology is considered to have
been founded by Max Ferdinand Scheler (1874–1928). He was a philoso-
pher known for his work in philosophical anthropology. He wrote “The Human
Place in the Cosmos” (1928). He formulates it as a special method of men-
tal operation, related to multiple sciences and designed to define the es-
sence of man. Philosophical anthropology is based on philosophical idealism.
In present times, it is often associated with Existentialism and other schools.
1.2.2 Biological Anthropology
Biological anthropology was originally conceived as a natural history of hu-
mans. Another term referring to biological anthropology is physical anthropolo-
gy. We believe that biological anthropology is superordinate to other anthro-
pological disciplines that study the biological traits of humans and their races,
and research the biological nature of humans at the level of individuals, groups,
and humanity in space and time. From this perspective, biological anthropo­
logy involves physical anthropology in the narrow sense of the word, together
with other anthropological disciplines. The category of biological anthropology
includes the following major anthropological disciplines:
• Physical anthropology is the basic anthropological discipline; it is con-
cerned with the structure and functions of the human body, the physical
properties of members of different human groups, and heredity and biolog-
ical changes in the human body.
• Physiological anthropology, or functional anthropology, is a branch
of science that is derived from comparative human physiology. It deals with
for instance, the relationships of skin colour and temperature regulation,
variability in the intensity of basic metabolism, differences in the perception
of various taste qualities, etc. Physiological anthropology focuses largely
on studying the effects the environment has on humans, and especially
on studying functional changes in humans.
• Evolutionary anthropology addresses the issues of phylogenetic and on-
togenetic development.
12
• Anthropology of childhood exclusively studies the biology of the child, its
ontogeny, and the peculiarities of the physique and function of the young
organism.
• Paleoanthropology (prehistoric anthropology) is a branch of anthropology
that deals with the development of humans and their status, way of life, and
physical and mental qualities in prehistoric times. It also investigates the
evolution of the animals closest to humans (Primatology) and the animal
ancestors of humans (Hominoidea).
• Historical anthropology is a historical discipline that deals with a person
in history. It examines the person’s behaviour, attitudes, feelings, and way
of thinking, while trying to interpret them in the context of the individual’s
contemporary perceptions.
• Ethnic anthropology addresses the origin and evolution of human races,
identifying and classifying the different anthropological types and studying
their distribution in the past and present. It also deals with theoretical issues
of human races and ethnic groups.
• Differential anthropology studies differences between various ethnic
groups, national groups, and cultural areas. By comparing the differences,
differential anthropology aims to formulate basic cultural images and the
most characteristic collective ideas about communal life and to trace the
roots of current socio-political systems.
• Morphological anthropology deals with the descriptive status of the hu-
man body.
• Systematic anthropology studies the Hominid system and the place hu-
mans hold in the animal taxonomy. In general, it also addresses the issue
of systems in human society.
• Zoological anthropology is a comparative study of humans and animals
(zoology and primatology), and also studies the zoological characteristics
of humankind.
1.2.3 Cultural Anthropology
Cultural anthropology is the study of the human species and its culture. It
focuses on humans as cultural factors and monitors the origin and main cha­
racteristics of cultures in various climatic and geographic conditions on Earth
and the methods and peculiarities of cultural life and securing a livelihood.
Furthermore, it investigates the way people communicate and behave toward
each other, exchange experience and objects, etc. It analyzes human beings
and their material culture, and applies the findings of human ecology, ethno­
logy, and partly also of prehistory, comparative linguistics, and other sciences.
1.2.4 Social Anthropology
It studies: humankind and society; human social phenomena and their levels;
areas of human social life, i.e. family relationships; forms of sexual life; life
13
skills; family, religious, economic, and other systems and organizations that are
fundamental to the life of human society. This branch of anthropology emerged
in the second half of the 19th century in response to comprehensive research
into the formation and evolution of human society.
1.2.5 Branches of Applied Anthropology
The following branches apply theoretical knowledge in the practical areas
of human activity:
• Forensic anthropology makes practical use of anthropological findings
in judicial settings in determining paternity, and in anthropological expertise.
• Criminal anthropology makes practical use of the methods of biological
anthropology for criminological purposes, particularly in the identification
of deceased persons. It studies the physical and psychological characteris-
tics of criminals and compares them with those of the rest of the population.
• Pedagogical anthropology deals with the application of anthropological
findings in the learning process, and contributes to identifying and using
optimal methods of youth and adult education and training.
• Ergonomic anthropology (physical ergonomics) is a multidisciplinary sys-
tem of findings about human work. It studies the properties of the human
body, and seeks how best to adapt work and the occupational environment
to human beings. It focuses on human performance and human factors at
work; it inspects machines, and designs effective workplaces and equip-
ment in order to streamline operations and ensure maximum performance
efficiency. All these issues are addressed with regard to human character-
istics and needs. Anthropology provides ergonomic data on the age spe-
cifics, characteristics, and dimensions of humans in diverse geographic,
professional, ethnic, and other groups.
• Sports anthropology is the practical application of biological anthropology
in sports and in the evaluation of human performance. It examines groups/
individuals and studies the impact that regular physical activity has on their
development; it measures the performance of the human body/its individual
organs at rest, during exercise, and immediately after exercise.
• Psychological anthropology studies the influence of culture on the psy-
che, relations between the physical and the mental aspect of humans, and
relations between personality and culture.
• Psychoanalytic anthropology studies ethnographic phenomena, myths,
dreams, fairy tales, legends, magic rituals, etc.
• Linguistic anthropology studies the evolution of language as a cultural
resource and the thinking and communication of people of different nations
and tribes of the world.
• Political anthropology studies political systems and societies and the
emergence and development of individual political phenomena (authority,
government, power, law) in human society.
• Economic anthropology studies economic phenomena and systems
in human society and their relationships to humans.
14
• Urban anthropology focuses on the study of urban populations and sub-
cultures.
This list of anthropological disciplines is not exhaustive, nor can it be complete,
with regard to new scientific disciplines that seek to understand and learn
about humankind and human society from various angles.
In the broadest sense, anthropology can also be defined as a social science
that includes human biology and the evolution of humanity and its races, and
whose focal point also includes the development and structure of culture, hu-
mans, and society, i.e. questions of cultural and social anthropology.
//
1.3 Physical Anthropology
1.3.1 The Origin and Development
of Physical Anthropology
It is very difficult to describe the origin and formation of physical anthropology,
as physical anthropology developed together with anthropology until almost the
18th and 19th centuries, which marked the differentiation of human sciences.
The beginnings of physical anthropology go back to antiquity, especially
to Greece and Rome, as this was when attention started shifting toward the
scientific knowledge of humans and their anatomy, variability, and position
in nature. Physicians examined the structure and function of the human body,
and philosophers studied the most general questions of human existence and
the role of humans in the animal kingdom.
The term “anthropology” was first used by Aristotle of Stagira (384–322
BC) in reference to a science examining the natural character of humans. Aris­
totle carried out the first major synthesis of anthropological, natural science,
and philosophical findings about humankind. Around 330 BC this Greek think-
er founded his own “peripatetic school of philosophy” in Athens. Aristotle’s
school was the first educational institution to seek to systematically research
nature, while also laying important scientific foundations for the development
of medicine. Aristotle paid great attention to exploring wildlife and aimed at
producing systematic descriptions of plants and animals. His anatomical ob-
servations of animal organisms, captured in the first anatomical descriptions,
were of particularly major importance for medicine. In his “Metaphysics” and
“Historia Animalium (History of Animals)”, he defined humans as social beings,
zoon politikon, and examined the inherent nature of the human species. He
used this term primarily to refer to the exploration of the spiritual qualities
of humans. Aristotle introduced the concept of anthropology in the wider con-
text of the philosophical study of humankind, society, and nature. He claims
that humans emerged and lived in nature not as individuals, but first as a hu-
man group and then a society. Instead of restricting the anthropological point
of view to human biology – physical anthropology only, he saw humans as
15
­ iosocial beings. Aristotle thus anticipated the constitution of disciplines that
b
are now known as cultural anthropology and philosophical anthropology.
The work that for many centuries had a major impact on ancient and medie-
val ideas about the human body was written by a Greek physician working at
the court of the Roman emperors – Galen of Pergamon (Claudius Galenus,
129–200 or 216 AD). He helped popularize medical and anthropological find-
ings by giving public lectures on anatomy, physiology, and therapy. Galen’s
work is the most comprehensive synthetic collection of ancient knowledge
of the human body. Although many of his ideas were time-specific, he remains
one of the most important figures in the history of medicine and physical an-
thropology. As a writer he was very productive and his principal works with
respect to the history of anthropology are: De usum partium corporis humani,
libri XVII; De anatomicis administrationibus, libri XV; De ossibus ad tirones;
De musculorum dissectione, and an entire series of monographs on muscles,
nerves, foetal formation, etc. Galen practiced dissection exclusively on animals,
especially apes, as was later demonstrated by Vesalius, Cuvier, Camper, and
Broca. His treatise fundamentally influenced the history of European medicine.
Galen’s work represents the heyday and at the same time, the twilight of an-
cient studies of the human body. Late Antiquity did not yield any breakthrough
discoveries in anthropology and natural sciences. The fall of the Western Ro-
man Empire in 476 AD brought a temporary halt to the developmental continu-
ity of science.
Under the influence of scholasticism, feudal Europe radically suppressed
empirical research on the human body. Medieval Church institutions particularly
hampered the inductive approach to the study of humankind and nature. This
way of thinking was considered erroneous, and ultimately dangerous. The Bible
became the criterion of true knowledge, and if a discrepancy between scientific
findings and the Bible occurred, the former would be considered false. This con-
tradiction later resulted in an open conflict between religious circles and natural
scientists. At the beginning of the Middle Ages, the level of education dropped.
It was only in  the Renaissance, from the 14th to the 16th centuries, that
anthropology began to be understood as the study of the human physique
in a broader sense. The work of naturalists clearly reflects the interest of the
Renaissance in the human body. Body proportions were also intensely studied
by the Italian masters.
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) built a canon of the human body based
on the relationship between the individual body parts and the body height.
He studied the anatomy of the heart in the hospital of Santa Maria Nuova
in Florence, and captured the findings in his drawings. Focusing on anatomy
from 1489 onward, Leonardo planned to publish a textbook on anatomy based
on his own designs. Leonardo was the first to portray dead bodies as if they
were alive by rendering them with a facial expression and drawing them in mo-
tion. Leonardo managed to convey the spatial depth of the structure of the hu-
man body by illustrating various cross-sections (for example of the skull) in his
drawings (Figure 1.4).
16
Figure 1.4
Anatomical drawings by Leonardo da Vinci (1489)
The first indication of physical anthropology as an independent anthropolog-
ical discipline was presented by the German physician and philosopher Mag-
nus Hundt (1449–1519) in his treatise “The Anthropological Treatise on Man’s
Dignity, His Nature and Qualities, as well as the Elements, Parts, and Limbs
of the Human Body”, published in 1501. In his book he referred to the study
of the human body as “anthropology”. He coined the term anthropology, and,
together with Otto Casmann, has been mentioned as a founder of anthropology
since they used the term in the 16th century.
Anthropology and medicine embarked on a period of new development only
in modern times, during the Renaissance, thanks to the work of Andreas Vesa-
lius (1514–1564), the “reformer of anatomy”. A professor of anatomy at Padua
and Basel, his major work is “On the Fabric of the Human Body in Seven Books
(De humani corporis fabricaLibri septem)”, written in 1543. The work contains
multiple excellent drawings, as well as a very detailed and clear description
of the structure of the human body. In his book, Vesailus pointed out over 200
errors, especially numerous mistakes made in medieval and Galenian anatomy.
The historical significance of this work resides in the fact that instead of rely-
ing on authorities, like the majority of works written till then, this one is based
on actual knowledge of the human body. Vesalius did not hesitate to correct
the erroneous judgements of his predecessors, including such authorities as
Aristotle and Galen. He criticized Galen’s animal anatomy for uncritically trans-
ferring its findings to humans. While his monumental work brings no miraculous
revelations, the drawings, for which he hired the illustrator Jan Steven van
Calcar (Joannes Stephanus Calcarensis, 1499–1546), are so impressive that
they soon found many admirers. Vesalius’s work thus came out in 25 editions,
and in countless illegal copies.
In the late 17th century, attention began turning to the kinship between the
human species and animals. In 1698, the Englishman Edward Tyson (1651–
1708), a comparative anatomist, published his “Orang-Outang, sive Homo
sylvestris, or the Anatomy of a Pygmie Compared with that of a Monkey, an
Ape, and a Man” in London (1699) (Figure 1.5), the first work on the structural
similarities between humans and apes. He identified the degree of  similarity
17
between humankind and different types of animals, and found that in terms
of development, humans are closest to chimpanzees. This marked the first
successful description of  the great ape in  scientific literature. The particular
chimpanzee Tyson studied, referring to it as “pygmie”, had been loaded onto
a ship in Angola and brought to England. Shortly after, it succumbed to compli-
cations from a jaw infection it had sustained from a fall on board. After it died,
Tyson performed a detailed dissection, and was shocked to find that while the
ape shared 34 similarities with monkeys, the amount of similarities it shared
with humans came to no fewer than 48. Tyson resolved this oddity by high-
lighting physical similarities and mental or spiritual discrepancies. The pygmie
embraced both the entities: physically it was human while mentally it was not,
thus representing a link between the material world of animals and the spiritual
world of people. Tyson’s work opened the question of the role of humankind
in the animal kingdom.
Figure 1.5
Title Page
of Tyson’s 
Orang-Outang (1699)
(Cosmas, 1960)
Anthropology became a natural science in the 18th century, following its sepa­
ration from medical disciplines, under which it had been classified until then.
Gradually, the foundations of physical anthropology as a biological discipline
began to take shape. An important role was played by the dispute about the
evolution of species.
18
Anthropology established itself as a natural science in the 18th century
thanks to the Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778).
In 1735, Linnaeus published his systematic work “Systema Naturae”, in which,
for the first time ever, he classified humans under the order of Primates, class
Mammalia, and phylum Vertebrata. Humans were assigned the scientific desig-
nation Homo sapiens – wise man. According to Linnaeus, the only aspect that
distinguishes the human species from apes is the psychological one.
The first ideas of species variability and evolutionism were professed by the
French naturalist Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707–1788),
a specialist in anthropogenesis (Figure 1.6), in his great and multi-volume work
“Histoire Naturelle, générale et particuliere des animaux (1749–1789; Natural
History, General and Particular)”. The problems of special anthropological
interest which he presents in this book are the existence and variations of spe-
cies, relations between man and the animals, and the human races. Buffon
dealt in detail with the position of humans in relation to other species, and with
the origin of humanity. Buffon made humans a part of natural history. He advo-
cated the monogenetic theory of the origin of humankind, and was the first to
discuss human ontogenetic development in his work.
Figure 1.6
Georges-Louis
Leclerc,
Comte de Buffon
(1707–1788)
19
The concept of anthropology in the modern sense was first used by the Ger- Another work of Darwin’s, “Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex”
man naturalist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752–1840) (Figure 1.7), who (London, 1871), became to some extent a milestone in the history of anthropo-
is considered the father of anthropology. It was in his treatise “On the Natu- geny. In the eight chapters of this book, Darwin introduces scientific evidence
ral Variety of Mankind (De generis humani varietate nativa liber)”, published of the animal origin of humankind and of the development of human beings un-
in 1775 in Göttingen, that he used the term ‘anthropology’ in the modern sense. der natural laws from simple to more complex forms. Darwin’s doctrine sparked
In the preface to the third edition of his work, dated 1795, Blumenbach con- paleoanthropological research. The new anthropological questions required
siders human races to be varieties of a single species. He divided humankind a great quantity of factual material. Collected craniological data had to be
into five major races: the Caucasian, the Mongolian, the Ethiopian, and the evaluated in a uniform and objective manner, which helped develop a branch
transition races of the American serving to measure morphological characteristics – anthropometry.
and the Malysian. The elemen- The greatest influence on the development of anthropometry was the ver-
tary charac­teristic on the basis satile French scientist, anatomist, pathologist, histologist, and anthropologist
of which the races were divided Pierre Paul Broca (1824–1880) (Figure 1.9). He founded the Society of Anthro-
was skin colour. Blumenbach pology (Société d’Anthropologie) in Paris (1859) and the Laboratory of Anthro-
contributed to the development pology of Paris (Laboratoire d’Anthropologie de Paris, 1876). Broca specialized
of anthropology with his textbook in craniometry (measurement of the cranium) and designed anthropometric
of comparative anatomy and his instruments. The outputs of Broca and his contemporaries were collected
craniological research, where in a comprehensive monograph by Paul Topinard (1830–1911), titled “Élé-
he provided highly accurate de- ments ďanthropologie générale” and published in 1885.
scriptions of human skulls. Of equal importance for the development of anthropology in the 19th century
were various societies, museums, and institutions that emerged in the world’s
leading centres of research: the British Association for the Advancement of Sci-
Figure 1.7 ence – Section of  Anthropology in  London (1822), Société d’Anthropologie
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach in Paris (1859), Anthropolo-
(1752–1840) gische Gesellschaft in Vienna,
Austria (1870), and the Rus-
sian Anthropological Society
The scientific and ideological significance of anthropology began to mani­ in St. Petersburg (1888); oth-
fest itself and grow considerably only in the second half of the 19th century, er countries included Swe-
in relation to a whole series of major discoveries, and the arrival of the Eng- den (Stockholm, 1873) and
lish naturalist Charles Robert Darwin (1809–1882) (Figure 1.8). His theory the United States (Washing-
of evolution penetrated into anthropo­ ton, 1879; New York, 1880).
logy. In 1859, Darwin published “On the Anthropology now began to
Origin of Species by Means of Natural develop not only as a natural
Selection, or the Preservation of Fa- science of humans, but also
voured Races in the Struggle for Life”, as a social discipline of the
in which he supplied evidence of the physical, cultural, and social
existence of biological evolution, dealt development of humankind.
with the causes and methods of the Along with the foundations
formation of species and the develop- of the modern physical an-
ment of plants and animals, and also thropology emerged the foun-
placed humans in connection with the dations of cultural and social
whole living world of nature. anthropology.

Figure 1.8 Figure 1.9

Charles Robert Darwin Pierre Paul Broca
(1809–1882) (1824–1880)

20 21
1.3.2 Definition of Physical Anthropology
Physical anthropology falls under biological anthropology.
Physical anthropology emerged as that branch of anthropology which focuses
on man as a biological organism.
Physical anthropology researches the biological variability of  human
popu­lations in time and space.
Physical anthropology studies living man, his ontogenetic development from
birth to adulthood, changes caused by ageing, physical activity, and diversity
of physical activity (sport, type of employment), diseases and, of course, here­
dity, innate qualities, and ailments.
Physical anthropology focuses on the biological variability of humanity, fa-
cilitating the understanding of the position humanity has in nature and the
description of humans as biological entities. Physical anthropology has forced
humanity to admit that humans continue to form an integral part of nature.
It is a branch of science that studies the origin, evolution, and patterns of chang-
es in the physical composition of the human species and its races. Physical
anthropology is concerned with morphological studies that serve to differentiate
people through measurements (anthropometry) and type specification (anthropo-
biology).
While holding a fundamental traditional position among the various branches
of anthropology, physical anthropology also plays a key role and is of vital im-
portance to anthropology in general.
Physical anthropology is divided into:
• osteology (the science of bones),
• somatology (the science of the human body and its structure and function),
• anthropometry (somatometry).
In the broadest sense, physical anthropology (biological anthropology) is
a modern science of humans that is concerned with the biological variability
of humankind, and is aimed at learning the maximum about human biology,
in particular the structure and function of the human body and the mechanism
of its physical growth, development, and ageing. Furthermore, it endeavours to
help ensure a healthy lifestyle of populations and establish universally applica-
ble laws that govern biopsychic development across all human groups.
It is a science of the physical characteristics of the human species and its
origin and races, a science that focuses on the diversity (variability) of human
body characteristics in the past and present, while monitoring and interpreting
their development.
Although physical anthropology is closely affiliated to medicine, there is
a significant difference. While medicine basically deals with ill people, seeking
ways to heal them, physical anthropology mainly studies healthy individuals
and their variabilities in order to, among other reasons, detect deviations
from normal development and healthy physique in  a timely manner and
alert the physician. Therefore, physical anthropologists design miscellaneous
22
standards of physical growth and development, termed ‘reference values’,
which help evaluate the health of children and adults.
Current physical anthropology is a synthetic discipline that researches hu-
man biology using a wide range of scientific branches.
Physical anthropology addresses the following issues:
• comprehensive study of the growth, development, and function of the hu-
man body within various racial, ethnic, cultural, and social groups,
• individual variations in the shape and function of the human body,
• growth changes from the early stages of embryonic development up to old age,
• sexual dimorphism,
• qualities of the human physique that develop in response to different living
conditions and types of occupation – the relationship of the body structure
and the external environment.
//
Summary
• Anthropology is, in short, a science of humans. The modern perspective
understands anthropology more as a multidiscipline than a single branch
of science. Anthropology is a synthesizing science. There is strong interdis-
ciplinary collaboration and combination between biologically oriented pro-
fessionals and experts focused on the humanities (psychology, education,
sociology, linguistics, religion, philosophy, etc.).
• Anthropology as a scientific field is defined as a science of humans that
studies humans as natural, cultural, and social beings, their origin and deve­
lopment, and their physical and psychological nature, activities, and manifes-
tations in space and time; it studies changes in human existence at the indi-
vidual level as well as at the level of human groups and humanity as a whole.
• There are two concepts and classifications of anthropological sciences.
The concept of “general anthropology”, common in the United States and
the United Kingdom, studies all aspects of human beings. It is divided
into physical (biological) anthropology, anthropological archaeology, social
and cultural anthropology, linguistic anthropology, and applied anthro-
pology. The continental, European concept understands anthropology as
a biological, purely natural science. It classifies anthropology into five main
branches: general anthropology, biological anthropology, cultural anthro-
pology, social anthropology, and applied anthropology.
• Physical anthropology is classified under biological anthropology. Physical
anthropology is concerned with research on the biological variability of hu-
man populations in space and time; it studies living human beings, their
ontogenetic development from birth to adulthood, the changes induced
by ageing, physical activity, and diversity of physical activity (sport, types
of occupation), diseases and, of course, heredity and innate qualities.
23
Glossary // Slovník // Slownik
anthropological disciplines // antropologické disciplíny // dyscypliny antropo-
logiczne
ageing // stárnutí // starzenie się
biosocial development // biosociální vývoj // rozwój biospołeczny
biological traits // biologické vlastnosti // cechy biologiczne
biological variability // biologická variabilita // zmienność biologiczna
biopsychic development // biopsychický vývoj // rozwój biopsychiczny
comparative science // srovnávací věda // nauki porównawcze
comprehensive study // komplexní studium // kompleksowe badania
concept of anthropology // koncepce antropologie // pojęcia w antropologii
development of anthropology // rozvoj antropologie // rozwój antropologii
development of human society // vývoj lidské společnosti // rozwój spo­
łeczeństwa ludzkiego
development of the human body // vývoj lidského těla // rozwój ciała człowieka
embryonic development // embryonální vývoj // rozwój embrionalny
ethnic groups // etnické skupiny // grupy etniczne
function of the human body // funkce lidského těla // funkcje ciała człowieka
growth changes // změny růstu // zmiany wzrostu
growth of the human body // růst lidského těla // wzrost ludzkiego ciała
healthy lifestyle // zdravý životní styl // zdrowy styl życia
holistic science // celostní věda // wiedza całościowa (holistyczna)
human behaviour // lidské chování // zachowanie człowieka
human body // lidské tělo // ciało człowieka
human evolution // evoluce člověka // ewolucja człowieka
interdisciplinary science // interdisciplinární věda // nauki interdyscyplinarne
laws of nature // přírodní zákony // prawa przyrodnicze
laws of society // společenské zákony // prawa w społeczeństwie
modern science // moderní věda // nowoczesna nauka
natural science // přírodní věda // nauki przyrodnicze
normal development // normální vývoj // prawidłowy rozwój
ontogenetic development // ontogenetický vývoj // rozwój ontogenetyczny
origin of humankind // původ lidstva // pochodzenie ludzkości
phylogenetic development // fylogenetický vývoj // rozwój filigenetyczny
physical development // fyzický vývoj // rozwój fizyczny
physical growth // fyzický růst // wzrost fizyczny
physical characteristics // tělesné charakteristiky // cechy fizyczne
reference values // referenční hodnoty // wartości referencyjne
scientific branches // vědecká odvětví // gałęzie wiedzy
social discipline // sociální disciplína // dyscyplina społeczna
study of humankind // studium lidstva // badanie ludzkości
synthetic discipline // syntetická disciplína // syntetyzująca dyscyplina
24
2 ANTHROPOMETRY
//
2.1 Introduction to Anthropometry
The most important anthropological methods are anthropometric methods
(from Greek anthropos – man, and metron – measure ). Anthropometric meth-
ods serve to measure, describe, and monitor the human body and its parts
while these grow and develop. Anthropometric methods are descriptive,
metric, and photographic.
Anthropometry is the study of the scientific measurement of the human
body and the process of making careful measurements on the body using
precisely defined landmarks as points of reference and comparison to reach
anthropological conclusions.
The anthropometric parameters measured are evaluated using the statistics
of variation. The fundamental importance of these methods in anthropology
led to the development of a special branch – anthropometry, or somatometry.
Anthropometric methods find their use in the evaluation of biological variabi­
lity among animate and inanimate objects (e.g. in archaeological excavations).
Anthropometry categories:
• craniometry: measurement of the skull,
• cephalometry: measurement of the head,
• somatometry: measurement of the human body and its parts,
• osteometry: measurement of bones.
The object under research can also be described with the help of anthropo-
scopic methods.
These are divided as follows:
• cranioscopy: study of the skull using descriptive methods,
• cephaloscopy: study of the head using descriptive methods,
• somatoscopy: study of the body and its parts using descriptive methods,
• osteoscopy: study of bones using descriptive methods.
The application of anthroposcopic methods tends to employ a subjective
point of view. Today, however, researchers attempt to suppress the subjective
perspective by using pattern sets (e.g. sets of eye colour, shape, and hair col-
our, skin colour). Anthropometric instruments help establish more objective
and accurate findings. Anthropometric surveys, however, use both methods
25
to complement each other in order to generate a comprehensive description
of the variables under research.
Aleš Hrdlička (1869–1943) defined anthropometry (somatometry) as a sys-
tem of techniques that measure and monitor the human body and its parts for
scientific purposes with the most accurate means and methods available. It is
only limited by the properties and purpose of the problem it helps to solve. It is
not a goal, but a means by which to arrive at the goal.
Internationally recognized and binding anthropometric techniques have been
in use for nearly two hundred years. The rules, division, limits, and classifications
that anthropometry includes are artificial and subject to agreement and consent.
Any expert using anthropometric methods to assess the physical condition
and monitor the somatic development of an individual or a population group
is obliged to accurately understand and observe the methodology of meas-
uring physical dimensions and use anthropometric instruments properly. The
standardization and unification of anthropometric methods thus enables
all anthropologists worldwide to measure anthropometric parameters in the
same manner and with the same anthropometric instruments. As all researchers
are required to comply with the anthropometric methodology, it is possible to
compare anthropometric parameters for different populations around the world.
//
2.2 Standardization of Anthropometric Methods
In an effort to generate more accurate anthropological descriptions, anthro-
pometry was given a boost in the second half of the 19th century mainly thanks
to the French school of anthropology, especially Pierre Paul Broca (1824–
1880) and his associate, Léonce-Pierre Manouvrier (1850–1927).
The specification and standardization of anthropometric methods witnessed
in this period was set off by the dynamic development of physical anthropolo-
gy as a science that investigates the biological variability of an individual and
a population in space and time.
It was primarily thanks to Broca that craniometric measurements became
more accurate; in his research he pointed out the need for precise measure-
ment in all types of research. He then developed and introduced a system
of anthropometric measurements, which, nonetheless, was never universally
adopted as standardized anthropometry. For instance, English and German
anthropologists used different techniques of measurement. Consequently,
a strong need to unify the methodology and organize the anthropometric re-
search system developed.
The first attempt was the requirement of German anthropologists to clarify
the head measurement procedure. In 1882, they agreed on a measurement
technique set out in the “Frankfurt Agreement”, in which measurements are
carried out with the head held in the standardized position with respect to the
German, Frankfurt horizontal (note: line connecting the upper margins of the
26
ear canals and the lower margins of the orbits ). The Frankfurt agreement
of 1882, which was adopted by the German Anthropological Society, marked
an important step towards the unification of anthropometric methods.
The efforts to create a  unified methodology of  standardized anthropo­
metry resulted in the “International Agreement on Craniometrical Measu­
rements”, adopted by anthropologists in Monaco in 1906 and in Geneva
in 1912.
Anthropometry has long been governed by internationally recognized regu-
lations, which were chiefly drawn up and publicized by the German anthropol-
ogist Rudolf Martin (1864–1925). In 1914 he summed up and classified all the
available data in his textbook “Lehrbuch der Anthropologie in systematischer
Darstellung”. In 1929 in Berlin he published “Anthropometrie”, followed by
a revised version of R. Martin and K. Saller’s textbook “Lehrbuch der Anthro-
pologie”, which was published in Stuttgart in 1957 and 1959.
The importance of  Martin’s work in  Europe is equal to what “Anthropo­
metry”, a concise and clear work published by Aleš Hrdlička in Philadelphia
in 1920, is to the USA. The Czech analogue to such a comprehensive work is
the textbook Antropologie, written by Vojtěch Fetter, Miroslav Prokopec,
Jaroslav Suchý, and Svatava Titlbachová, and published in Prague by the
Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences in 1967.
On the basis of collective experience, the key anthropometric procedures
were defined and regulated by the most experienced professionals in this field.
Following an accurately-defined measurement procedure allows for compari-
son of one’s research findings with the results of other authors based on the
standardization and unification of anthropometric methods. Researchers, how-
ever, cannot be told what measuring or monitoring to carry out in their survey.
Researchers need to be able to choose and apply observations and measure-
ments that best meet their research purpose, while respecting anthropometric
methodology.
If the main goal of anthropology is to study human variability, the greatest
asset of anthropometry is the standardization and unification of methods that
compare measurements made by anthropologists across the world.
It is compulsory always to use uniform methods when measuring a live person.
//
2.3 Anthropometry and the Organic Laws
of Physical Growth and Development
When evaluating and monitoring physical growth with anthropometric methods,
we must realize that the human body develops in accordance with biological
laws, which are modified by environmental factors. a complex of internal and
external factors, organic laws must be taken into account when assessing the
morphological structure and biological variability of an individual.
27
The chief organic laws include:
1. Heredity. Human beings inherit basic distinctive features regarding their
species, race, type, and personal characteristics from their parents. These
characteristics continue to develop throughout life, while each of the par-
ents’ features had already evolved and formed over many generations be-
fore.
2. Laws of growth. From birth onwards, the growth of the human body and its
parts are governed by the laws of growth inherent to all growing organisms.
3. Puberty and sexual differentiation. Depending on gender, the period
of growth is marked by functional and morphological characteristics typical
of the male or female gender.
4. Function-dependent design. If used normally, every organ, every part
of it, and every function respond with adequate growth, capacity, and read-
iness for action. If left inactive, deprived of the standard load, every organ
and its part or function gradually diminish in proportion to their disuse.
5. Variability. Both male and female, the human body and its parts, features,
character, and functions are subject to a  specific variation or oscillation
about the mean at every human age and in every population.
6. Correlation and compensation. This applies broadly to all parts of the
body, and manifests itself in certain basic proportions of the growth of these
parts. In the case of a deviation from the normal development of a part
of the body or organ, the body compensates for this lack with compen-
satory hypertrophy of the relevant parts, by taking over the function of the
affected organs or, as frequently happens, other organs become atrophied
or damaged, depending on their interrelationship.
7. Plasticity, elasticity, reaction, and adaptation. The human body and its
cells are plastic and susceptible to multiple factors. In addition, they are
more or less elastic relative to mechanical force, meaning that if tolerable
pressure which was at work for a certain period of time is released, the
body and its cells tend to resume their original shape. Stimulation or any
strain on the human body or a part thereof, however, triggers a reaction or
counter-reaction, and any reaction which is repeated often enough results
in adaptation, i.e. a structural or other change that helps to neutralize the fu-
ture actions of the primary agent. If sufficiently important to the body, these
organic and thus functional adaptations may gradually become stronger,
leading to a permanent change.
The above organic laws need to be considered in the planning of anthropolog-
ical research and the subsequent analysis and evaluation of anthropometric
measurements.
28
//
2.4 Standardized Anthropometry
Anthropometric techniques that read the exterior parameters of the human body
are standardized and unified, and therefore comparable worldwide. Measure-
ments are conducted with the help of clearly defined anthropometric landmarks.
Anthropometric parameters are measured with anthropometric instru-
ments (e.g. anthropometer, cephalometer, pelvimeter, caliper).
Anthropologists strive to read the exact dimensions both of individuals and
a large number of members of a particular group in order to determine the means
of selected somatic parameters (e.g. body height, weight, head circumference).
The values are expressed with statistical characteristics, i.e. absolute num-
bers, or with relative values, i.e. comparison of relevant somatic parameters and
specification of “proportional indices” (e.g. leg length to body height ratio).
By measuring and assessing physical characteristics we generate numerical
data needed for the determination of reference standards, which serve to eva­
luate the somatic parameters of individuals or monitored groups with respect
to age and gender.
Anthropologists measuring somatic characteristics need to operate with clear-
ly defined points of measurement referred to as “anthropometric landmarks”.
Anthropometric landmarks used in anthropometry have Greek or Latin
names, and are easy to locate on the subject’s body. Correct identification
of the body landmarks used in somatometry requires good knowledge of anat-
omy, as the points generally represent analogous marks on the skeleton, pro-
jected onto the body surface.
After palpation of the landmarks on the subject’s body, the arms of the in-
struments are placed on the landmarks. Each term refers strictly to a certain
point on the body, which experts, independently of one another, locate easily
with the required accuracy.
Good working knowledge of anthropometric landmarks and their identifica-
tion on the body is attained only through personal instruction by a specialist
– a physical anthropologist.
Measurement Precision in Anthropometry
Mastering the measurement method takes time, as the measurements require
very high precision. The permissible error in the measurement of body height,
vertical dimensions, and body measurements is ±1.0 cm, while for perimeter
measurements it is ±0.5 cm and for head measurements ±0.1 cm (Fetter et al.,
1967). Lateral dimensions are usually read on the right side of the body. It is
necessary to bear in mind that the accuracy of subsequent calculations and
indices depends on the accuracy of the readings of the subject and on potential
errors in measurement.
Standardization of anthropometric methods and the thorough training of re-
searchers or members of the research team in measurement techniques do
not guarantee an absolute concordance between values that were read by two
29
different researchers. Experience shows that the margin of error in researchers’
measurements should be within 1 mm.
Differences in the measurement results of a single subject may be due to ex-
ternal factors such as time of day, clothes, the environment in which the meas-
urement is taken, the mental condition of the researchers and subject, etc.
While there are many observer errors, there are also many ways to reduce errors.
The most common errors follow below:
• Errors in the application of technique: even if the definition of the dimen-
sion may seem clear, researchers may not have the same understanding
of it. Even highly experienced researchers differ in how they hold instru-
ments or how they work – for example, how they position the skull when
reading selected dimensions. These differences lead to varied findings.
• Inter-observer errors: this includes different habits of researchers – for
example, different pressure on the instrument, as a result of which two
researchers measuring the same sample produce inconsistent results.
In studies performed by multiple researchers, “coordination measurements”
need to be performed in advance in order to synchronize the method used
for reading body dimensions.
• Intra-observer errors: these errors are made by researchers who are
uncertain how to read the selected dimension. When a  larger sample is
being measured, inconsistencies in the reading of dimensions and location
of landmarks may occur, generating a systematic error.
• Instrument errors: the anthropometric instruments used may be defective.
All instruments intended for use in research should, therefore, be checked
for accuracy in advance (equipment verification ). Another step to take be-
fore each measurement is to check that devices have all their components
attached (e.g. anthropometer and the slider with a needle).
• Instrument reading errors are surprisingly common. Reading values can
be quite challenging, especially on devices that have a scale imprinted on the
meter only. This applies particularly to the small scales of tactile devices.
• Recording errors: if the readings are noted down by another person than
the researcher himself, the numbers may occasionally be written incorrectly.
It is recommended that the record-keeper repeat aloud the data to be writ-
ten down. Another instance of recording errors is entering data in the wrong
box in the form.
• Computer data entry errors. Errors made while transferring data from
a form to a computer are very common. It is, therefore, important to com-
pare the form with the computer results and correct any errors.
During measurement, it is necessary to check-test the accuracy of measure-
ment and the entry of the readings:
• Repeated measurement. Measuring one dimension twice is the best way
to reduce intra-observer errors and recording errors. Because of time re-
strictions, this method can only be carried out a certain number of times
within one research study.
30
• Verification of unusually high or low values. If a value appears too high
or too low, which is something that an experienced researcher or vigilant re-
cord-keeper will notice already during measurement, the researcher should
repeat the measurement to verify the value.
• Inspection of records. After a certain number of subjects have been mea­
sured, the researcher goes through the completed records in search of any
potential errors. The best way to do this is to compare two records.
//
2.5 Indices
Using the absolute measurements, we can calculate “proportion indices”.
Proportions are the mutual ratio of individual body parts to other body parts or
to the body as a whole. At selected intervals, they differ individually according to
age, gender, and race. Body proportions undergo major changes during human
growth and development. The indices have the character of a relative dimension,
expressing the mutual proportionality of the body and its parts. A good working
knowledge of proportion indices is vital, as these may provide a good characte­
rization of, for example, age or sex differences in the formation of the body.
While the indices are not directly measurable, they mathematically express
the percentage share of one (usually smaller) dimension to another (usually
greater) dimension.
The indices serve to express the relationship between two parameters, or to
express two or more dimensions with a single number. The indices express
the ratio between two dimensions, generally as a percentage (%) or in “index
units” (IU). The quotient is multiplied by 100 in order to avoid fractions. The
number of indices is, in practice, limited only by the number of dimensions
(the greater the number of dimensions, the greater the number of indices it is
possible to have).
I = (smaller dimension × 100)/greater dimension
The numerator of the index tends to be smaller than the denominator, and thus
the index is less than 100.
Important: Always calculate indices using measurements, and not the
population averages.
Averages of the indices and proportionality based on various criteria and
population groups are usually available in standardized tables and graphs.
Example
A person is 160 cm tall and has a shoulder breadth of 32 cm. The ratio of the
shoulder breadth to body height is:
I = (32 × 100)/160 = 20
The person’s shoulder breadth equals 20% of their body height; the index is 20 IU.
31
In order to express the ratio between body dimensions, the variation range
of selected proportion indices was divided into classes (categories) based
on their value range.
• Gnathion (gn) – the most inferior median plane point at the bottom on the
mandible. Palpated from below.
• Gonion (go) – the lowest and most lateral point of the mandible angle.
• Nasion (n) – the point on the median plane at the nasal bridge in the area
of the frontonasal suture, on the superior edge of the nasal bones. This point
therefore does not always lie at the most depressed point of the nasal root.

//
• Opisthocranion (op) – the point situated in the occipital part of the head
on the median plane, most distant from the glabella.
• Subnasale (sn) – the point of the base of the nasal septum where it meets
2.6 Anthropometric Landmarks the upper lip.
and Methods of Measurement • Stomion (sto) – the central point where the facial midline crosses the rima
oris when the lips are closed naturally.
These are divided as follows: • Tragion (t) – the point in the notch on the upper margin of the tragus.
• anthropometric landmarks of the head, • Zygion (zy) – the most lateral point on the zygomatic arch. Determined
• anthropometric landmarks of the trunk and extremities. when measuring the maximal breadth of the face. It is found only by meas-
uring.

2.6.1 Anthropometric Landmarks of the Head

There are several planes available for orienting the head for measuring pur-
poses, of which the most widely used is the “Frankfurt horizontal, or the
orientation plane”, named after the resolution adopted in Frankfurt in 1882.
German literature also refers to this as the OAE (Ohr-Augen-Ebene). During
measurement, the head is held straight, in the “orientation plane” defined by
the upper margins of both the ear canals (tragion ) and the lower margins of the
orbits (orbitale). This plane must be horizontal (note: because of the asymmetry
of the skull, it is usually not possible to connect these four points with a plane,
and therefore we use the points on both the ear canals and one orbit, the left ).
The subject gazes straight ahead, without leaning, moving, or watching the
researcher take the measurements.
Anthropometric landmarks of the head (Figure 2.1):
• Vertex (v) – the highest point of the head when the head is oriented in the
Frankfurt horizontal.
• Alare (al) – the most lateral point on each alar contour. It is identified by
measuring the breadth of the nose.
• Exocanthion (ex) – the point at the outer commissure of the eye fissure.
• Endocanthion (en) – the point at the inner commissure of the eye fissure.
• Euryon (eu) – the most laterally positioned point on the side of the head.
Determined when measuring the maximal breadth of the head. It is the most
prominent lateral point of the parietal or temporal bones.
Figure 2.1
• Orbitale (or) – the lowest point on the lower edge of the orbit. Anthropometric landmarks of the head: v – vertex, al – alare,
• Glabella (g) – the point above the nasal root at the bottom part of the fore- ex – exocanthion, en – endocanthion, eu – euryon, or – orbitale,
head, foremost on the median plane between the eyebrows. g – glabella, gn – gnathion, go – gonion, n – nasion, op – opisthocranion,
sn – subnasale, sto – stomion, t – tragion, zy – zygion

32 33
2.6.1.1 Head measurement method
Head dimensions are taken with the subject in a seated position. Tools used
include the spreading caliper (cephalometer), sliding caliper, and tape measure
(note: dimensions marked with a capital M, after Rudolf Martin ):
M 1. Maximum head length (g - op): the distance between the glabella and
opisthocranion. One arm of the spreading caliper is fixed firmly against the gla-
bella; the tip of the other arm is moved over the occipital part of the head until
the maximum length is reached. Pressure is exerted to compress the tissues.
Spreading caliper (Figure 2.2).
M 3. Maximum head breadth (eu - eu): the maximum breadth in the trans-
verse plane and the distance between both euryon points. The tips of the cali-
per are moved over the lateral parts of the head until the maximum breadth is
reached. The connecting line between the tips is perpendicular to the sagittal
plane. Pressure is exerted to compress the tissues. Spreading caliper (Figure
2.3).
With one arm of the caliper held horizontally at the marked nasion, the other
arm of the caliper is hooked under the tip of the chin. The teeth should be fully
occluded. Sliding caliper (Figure 2.5).
M 19. Physiognomic height of the upper face (n - sto): the distance between
the nasion and the stomion. With one arm of the caliper held horizontally at the
marked nasion, the other arm of the caliper is held horizontally at the marked
stomion. The teeth should be fully occluded. Sliding caliper.
M 21. Nose height (n - sn): the distance between the nasion and the subna-
sale. One arm of the caliper is held horizontally at the marked nasion, while the
other arm of the caliper is brought down to reach the union of the upper lip with
the nasal septum. Sliding caliper.
M 45. Head circumference: the circumference measured around the head,
over the glabella and opisthocranion. The tape should be held tightly around
the head and on both sides at the same height. The connecting line of the
glabella and opisthocranion determines the sagittal diameter of the measured
head circumference. The subject sits on a chair or on a table with his leg hang-
ing freely. Soft metric tape.

2.6.1.2 Indices of the cephalic dimensions

The index of cranial dimensions is not indicative of the outline of the head or
of its absolute size.

Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3 Figure 2.4 Cephalic index: index of the maximum head breadth (eu - eu) and maximum
Head length Head breadth Face breadth head length (g - op):
Cephalic index = [maximum head breadth (M 3) × 100]/maximum head length
M 6. Breadth of  the face (bizygion distance) (zy - zy): the distance be- (M 1)
tween both zygion points measured perpendicularly to the sagittal plane. We
pass both arms of the spreading caliper gently over the pons zygomaticus to
the point of maximum breadth. Pressure is exerted to compress the tissues. • The classification according to Martin and Saller (1957):
Spreading caliper (Figure 2.4).
M 8. Bigonial breadth, breadth of the lower face CATEGORY MEN WOMEN
(bigonial distance) (go - go): the distance between
the gonions. The arms of the caliper must be firmly hyperdolichocephalic up to – 70.9 up to – 71.9
pressed against the bony surfaces. Pressure is ex-
erted to compress the tissues. Spreading caliper. dolichocephalic 71.0 – 75.9 72.0 – 76.9

M 13. Nasal breadth (width of the nose) (al - al): mesocephalic 76.0 – 80,9 77.0 – 81.9
the distance between both alare points. The cali-
per is held horizontally and its arms brought into brachycephalic 81.0 – 85.4 82.0 – 86.4
contact with the outside of the nares, but without
pressure. Only the arms of the caliper touch the hyperbrachycephalic 85.5 – 90.9 86.5 – 91.9
skin. Sliding caliper.
Figure 2.5 ultrabrachycephalic 91.0 – and over 92.0 – and over
M 18. Morphological height of the face (n - gn): Morphological height
the distance between the nasion and the gnathion. of the face

34 35
Index facialis: index of the morphological height of the face (n - gn) and bizy- Nasal index: index of the breadth (al - al) and height of the nose (n - sn)
gion distance (zy - zy) Nasal index = [nose breadth (M 13) × 100]/nose height (M 21)
Index facialis = [nasion – gnathion (M 18) × 100]/bizygomatic breadth (M 6)

• The classification according to Martin and Saller (1957):

• The classification according to Martin and Saller (1957):

CATEGORY MEN AND WOMEN
CATEGORY MEN WOMEN
hyperleptorrhine up to – 54.9
hypereuryprosopic up to – 78.9 up to – 76.9
leptorrhine 55.0 – 69.9
ereuryprosopic 79.0 – 83.9 77.0 – 80.9
mesorrhine 70.0 – 84.9
mesoprosopic 84.0 – 87.9 81.0 – 84.9
chamaerrhine 85.0 – 99.9
leptoprosopic 88.0 – 92.9 85.0 – 89.9
hyperchamaerrhine 100.0 – and over
hyperleptoprosopic 93.0 – and over 90.0 – and over

Index jugomandibularis: index of the breadth of the mandibular angle (go - go)
and bizygion distance (zy - zy)
Upper face index: height of the upper face (n - sto) and  bizygion distance
(zy - zy) Index jugomandibularis = [breadth of the lower face (M 8) × 100]/bizygion
breadth (M 6)
Upper face index = [height of the upper face (M 19) x 100]/face breadth
(M 6)
• The classification according to Lundborg-Linders and Saller (1957):

• The classification according to Martin and Saller (1957):

CATEGORY MEN WOMEN

CATEGORY MEN AND WOMEN very narrow up to – 69.9 up to – 67.9

hypereuryen up to – 46.9 narrow 70.0 – 74.9 68.0 – 72.9

euryen 47.0 – 51.9 medium 75.0 – 79.9 73.0 – 77.9

mesen 52.0 – 56.9 wide 80.0 – 84.9 78.0 – 82.9

lepten 57.0 – 60.9 very wide 85.0 – and over 83.0 – and over

hyperlepten 61.0 – and over

36 37
2.6.2 Anthropometric Landmarks of the Trunk
and Extremities
Figure 2.6 show the anthropometric landmarks of the trunk and
extremities:
Vertex (v) – the most superior point of the head, in the mid-sagittal plane, when
the head is held in the Frankfurt horizontal plane.
Acromiale (a) – the most lateral point at the acromial tip of the scapula (acro-
mion) of a subject who is standing upright with shoulders relaxed.
Suprasternale (sst) – a point on the superior edge of the sternum (or incisura
jugularis) in the mid-sagittal plane.
Mesosternale (mst) – the point in the front of the chest in the midline at the
articulation of the fourth rib, in the middle of the sternum.
Thelion (th) – the mid-point of the nipple.
Omphalion (om) – the mid-point of the umbilicus.
Radiale (r) – the topmost point on the superior edge of the head of the radius
of a relaxed arm. The gap between the humerus and the radius palpated with
a finger on the outer side of the arm.
Iliocristale (ic) – the most lateral point on the crest of the ilium (iliac crest) (on
the superior outer edge of the iliac crest).
Iliospinale anterius (is) – the most prominent point located at the anterior su-
perior iliac spine. Palpated by tracing the iliac crest forward.
Lumbale (lu) – the most prominent point located at the peak spinous process-
es on the lumbar vertebrae L5.
Trochanterion (tro) – the highest points of the greater trochanters.
Symphysion (sy) – the upper border of the symphysis-pubis in the middle line.
Where this point is impalpable, guidance as to its position is given by the
cutaneous fold of the lower part of the abdomen in this situation.
Stylion (sty) – the most distal point of the radial styloid process of a relaxed
arm. Palpated on the thumb side of the forearm (in the “anatomical snuff
box”, with the thumb extended).
Dactylion (da) – the lowest point of a fingertip when the arm is relaxed and
hanging by the side. Typically, this concerns the dactylion of the middle
finger.
Tibiale (ti) – the topmost and most median or lateral point (on the inner or outer
edge of the tibia) at the proximal (superior) end of the shin bone (tibia) that is
in an upright position.
Sphyrion (sph) – the point that is the most distal tip of the inner malleolus
(malleolus medialis); the leg is in an upright position.
Pternion (pte) – the most posterior point on the heel of the foot when the sub-
ject is standing.
Akropodion (ap) – the most anterior point of the toe when the subject is Figure 2.6
standing (at the tip of the first or second toe). Anthropometric landmarks of the trunk and extremities

38 39
2.6.2.1 Measurement method for the trunk and extremities
Height measurement method
Prior to the measurement of the height dimensions of the body, the barefooted
subject (proband) assumes an active upright position which he/she maintains
for the whole duration of the measurements of this dimension group. The sub-
ject stands with his/her back against a vertical wall (without a baseboard). The
heels, buttock, upper part of the back, and, usually, but not necessarily, the
back of the head are in contact with the vertical wall (Figure 2.7). The subject
is instructed to “look straight ahead ” so that his/her head is in the Frankfurt
horizontal plane, which ensures the desired position of the vertex landmark (the
highest point on the top of the head). Note: instruct the proband to look straight
ahead at a point at eye level on the opposite wall of the room to prevent him/
her from tilting his/her head back.
The shoulders are in a natural position, i.e. relaxed (when the acromial point
is being determined, some individuals tend to raise their shoulders), with arms
lowered along the body, stretched at the elbow joint; the hand is aligned with
the forearm and the fingers are together and stretched out.
When measuring the dactylion landmark, it is necessary to make sure the
proband does not lean towards the side being measured (is not watching the
tester).
Given that the length of the upper extremity is most frequently evaluated as
a projective measure (i.e. the difference in the acromiale and dactylion heights),
in order to obtain objective data it is absolutely essential that the subject strictly
maintains the required position.
2.6.2.2 Definitions of height dimensions
Instrument: anthropometer
M 1. Body height: the vertical distance between the vertex and the platform
(Figure 2.7).
M 8. Height of acromiale point: the vertical distance between the vertex and
the platform (Figure 2.8).
M 9. Height of radiale point: the vertical distance between the radiale point
and the platform.
M 10. Height of stylion: the vertical distance between the stylion point and the
platform.
M 11. Height of dactylion point: the vertical distance between the dactylion
point and the platform (Figure 2.9).
M 13. Height of anterior superior iliospinale point: the vertical distance be-
tween the iliospinale anterior point and the platform. The subject stands in the
same posture as for body height. The anterior superior iliac spine is located
by palpating with the third finger of the hand holding the horizontal arm of the
anthropometer, which is then applied to the point (Figure 2.10).
M 15. Height of tibiale: the vertical distance between the tibiale point and
the platform. The subject stands in the same posture as for body height. The
anthropometer is held vertically and the distance measured from the standing
surface to tibiale.

Figure 2.7 Figure 2.8 Figure 2.9 Figure 2.10

Basic position of the subject being measured when measuring body height Height Height Height of anterior
and other vertical dimensions of acromiale point of dactylion point superior iliospinale point

40 41
M 17. Arm span: the distance from the left to the right dactylion point when the M 36. Transverse chest diameter: the breadth of the chest measured at the
back of the hand is touching the wall and the palms are turned forward and the level of the mesosternale. The chest must be in a “normal” position, with nei-
outstretched arm is abducted to the horizontal. The subject faces a wall (head ther inspiration nor expiration taking place. The arms of the pelvimeter should
turned to one side) and places one dactylion against an edge or side wall. This be pressed lightly against the body.
dactylion is held in position by an assistant. The other dactylion is volitionally
M 37. Anteroposterior chest diameter: the straight distance between the
stretched along the wall for maximum span, which is identified and then meas-
mesosternale and the spinosus process of a vertebra at the same level. The
ured to the nearest 0.1 cm. The measurement can be made by means of an-
chest must be in a “normal” position, with neither inspiration nor expiration
thropometric tape or against a calibrated wall chart with the distance marked.
taking place. The arms of the pelvimeter should be pressed lightly against the
M 23. Sitting height: the vertical distance between the vertex point and a ta- body. Pelvimeter (Figure 2.12).
ble. The subject is on a horizontal desk positioned with his head in the Frankfurt
M 40. Biiliocristal breadth (pelvic
horizontal; the shoulders are relaxed and the hands rest in the subject’s lap.
breadth): the distance between the
The thighs rest on the table up to the knee, where a right angle is formed be-
most lateral iliocristale points on the
tween the thighs and calves. The proband is asked to sit with a straight back.
superior border of the iliac crest meas-
The measurer’s left hand holds the subjecťs head in the Frankfurt horizontal.
ured from the front. The connection
The right hand of the anthropometer touches the sacral and interscapular re-
between the tips of the instrument is
gions of the proband vertically. The movable arm of the anthropometer touches
perpendicular to the sagittal plane.
the top of the head in the vertex.
Pelvimeter (Figure 2.13).
M 41. Bispinal breadth: the distance
between the iliosponale points on the
2.6.2.3 Definitions of breadth dimensions anterior superior iliac spine border
of the iliac crest measured from the
Instrument: pelvimeter, spreading caliper or sliding caliper front. The connection between the tips
of the instrument is perpendicular to
M 35. Biacromial breadth: the distance between the most lateral points on the the sagittal plane. Pelvimeter.
acromion processes measured from the front. The subject stands erect, shoul-
ders relaxed, arms hanging loosely at the sides. Pelvimeter (Figure 2.11). M 42. Bitrochanteric diameter: the
distance between the highest points
Figure 2.13 of the greater trochanteres.
Biiliocristal breadth
M 43. External conjugate pelvis (Bau­-
de­locque’s diameter): the distance in a straight line between the depression
below the last spinous process of the lumbar vertebrae and the upper edge
of the pubic symphysis. Pelvimeter.
M 52/3. Humerus breadth (biepicondylar breadth;
elbow breadth): the distance between the medial
and lateral epicondyles of the right humerus when
the arm is raised forward to the horizontal and the
forearm is flexed at a right angle at the elbow. The
small bone caliper is applied, pointing upwards to
bisect the right angle formed at the elbow. The epi­
condyles are palpated by the third digits, starting
proximally to the sites. The measured distance is
somewhat oblique since the medial epicondyle is Figure 2.14
lower than the lateral. However, with the altered Humerus breadth
Figure 2.11 Figure 2.12 plane, the anthropometrist keeps the calipers as
Biacromial breadth Anteroposterior chest diameter close to horizontal as possible while ensuring the pressure plates are applied
firmly to the encompassed sites. Spreading caliper or sliding caliper (Figure 2.14).

42 43
M 52/2. Wrist breadth (bistyloid): the bistyloid breadth when the right forearm
is resting on a table or the subject’s thigh and the right wrist is flexed to an an-
gle of about 90°. The subject sits on the table. The caliper is applied to bisect
the angle formed at the wrist. The styloids are palpated by the third digits, start-
ing proximally to the sites. Firm pressure is applied to minimize the intervening
tissue, while, however, not being great enough to alter the position of the radius
with respect to the ulna. Spreading caliper or sliding caliper.
M 52/4. Femur breadth (biepicondylar breadth; knee breadth): the distance
between the medial and lateral epicondyles of the right femur when the subject
is seated and the leg is flexed at the knee to form a right angle with the thigh.
The caliper is applied pointing downwards to bisect the right angle formed at
the knee. The epicondyles are palpated by the third digits, starting proximally
to the sites. The caliper pressure plates are applied firmly. If difficulty is encoun-
tered in locating the epicondyles, the third digits can search in a slightly circular
motion and caliper pressure plates can be manipulated slightly to ensure the
sites are encompassed. Spreading caliper or sliding caliper.
M 52/5. Ankle breadth: bimalleolus breadth of the tibia and fibula, right. Seat
the subject with their knee bent at a right angle. Measure the greatest distance
between the lateral malleolus of the fibula and medial malleolus of the tibia
with firm pressure on the caliper in order to compress the subcutaneous tissue.
Spreading caliper or sliding caliper.
Figure 2.15 Figure 2.16
Chest circumference in the normal position Arm circumference relaxed

2.6.2.4 Definitions of girth dimensions M 67. Wrist circumference: with the tape passing just proximal to the styloid
process of the ulna, the minimum circumference of the wrist is measured.
Girth dimensions are measured using a soft metric tape.
Waist circumference: is measured
M 61. Chest circumference in  the normal position: in the back the tape at the narrowest point above the iliac
measure runs directly below the lower angles of the shoulder blades, while crests, half the distance between the
in the front in men it goes directly above the nipples (thelion) and in women iliac crests and the lower edge of the
over the middle of the sternum (mesosternale). The chest shifts to the normal ribs.
position when the subject is asked a question. At the moment when the subject
replies, his/her chest is in neither the inspiratory or the expiratory positron. To M 62/1. Abdominal circumference:
measure the minimum and maximum chest circumference, the tape remains is measured at the level of the na-
in the same position and is tightened or relaxed (Figure 2.15). vel (omphalion) horizontally; abdo­
minal muscles are relaxed. Note: Do
M 65. Arm circumference relaxed: measured at the greatest protuberance not confuse the above dimensions
of the biceps brachii (musculus biceps brachii), perpendicular to the axis of the of waist circumference and abdomi-
arm, with the arm relaxed and hanging by the side, at the level of the mid-point nal circumference!
between the acromiale point and the tip of the elbow (olecranon process of the
ulna) (Figure 2.16). M 64/1. Gluteal circumference (hip
girth, buttock girth): measured hori-
M 65/1. Arm circumference flexed: measured at the same level as the arm zontally in a standing erect position
circumference relaxed, with the maximum contraction of the flexors and exten- with feet together, at the level of the
sors. The upper limb is bent at a right angle at the elbow joint. greatest protuberance of the but-
M 66. Forearm circumference: the measurement is taken immediately distal tocks (over underwear or thin sports- Figure 2.17
to the elbow joint, with the whole extremity relaxed. wear) (Figure 2.17). Gluteal circumference

44 45
 M 68. Gluteal circumference of the thigh (thigh circumference 1, gluteal line): Index of the length of the upper extremity in relation to body height
the perimeter of the right thigh, which is measured when the subject stands
erect, legs slightly parted, weight equally distributed on both feet. The tape is Index of the relative length of the upper extremity =
just below the gluteal line or the arbitrary joint of the protuberance of the gluteal [total upper extremity length (M 45a) × 100]/body height (M 1)
muscle with the thigh. Perpendicular to the long axis of the maximum thigh.
M 68/1. Median circumference of the thigh (thigh circumference 2, mid tro-
tib lat.): the perimeter of the right thigh perpendicular to the long axis of the • The classification according to Brugsch (Martin and Saller, 1957):
femur at the mid trochanterion-tibiale laterale level. The subject position is the
same as for the gluteal circumference of the thigh 1.
CATEGORY MEN WOMEN
M 69. Maximum circumference of  the calf: the maximum circumference
measured horizontally across the greatest bulge of the gastrocnemius muscle.
brachybrachion
With the subject in a standing position and the weight evenly distributed be- (short upper limb)
up to – 44.0 up to – 43.5
tween both legs.
M 70. Minimum circumference of the calf: the tape is held slightly above the metriobrachion
44.1 – 44.5 43.6 – 44.0
(intermediate)
projections of the ankle bones, and the minimum circumference of the leg is
measured. The anthropometrist’s third digits are used to maintain the perpen- macrobrachion
dicular orientation of the tape relative to the long axis of the tibia. With the sub- 44.6 – and over 44.1 – and over
(long upper limb)
ject in a standing position and the weight evenly distributed between both legs.
M 71. Body weight: the subject stands in the centre of the scale platform.
The individual is weighed wearing little clothing and standing with their weight M 45a. Total upper extremity length: projective distance – obtained deduc-
distributed evenly on both feet. The arms hang loosely by the sides. Weight tion of the dimension M 8 (height to the acromiale point) to the dimension M 11
measurements are reported to the nearest 0.1 kg. Personal scale. (height of dactylion point).

Index of the length of the lower extremity in relation to body height

2.6.2.5 Indices of the trunk and extremities
Index of the relative length of the lower extremity =
Index of the sitting heights in relation to body height [lower extremity length (M 13) × 100]/body height (M 1)
Index of the sitting heights and body height =
[sitting heights (M 23) × 100]/body height (M 1)
• The classification according to Brugsch (Martin and Saller, 1957):

• The classification according to Brugsch (Martin and Saller, 1957): CATEGORY MEN WOMEN

CATEGORY MEN WOMEN brachyskel

up to – 53.5 up to – 54.0
(short lower limb)

brachycormic (short) up to – 51.0 up to – 52.5 metrioskel (intermedi-

53.6 – 54.0 54.1 – 54.5
ate long lower limb)
metriocormic
51.1 – 52.0 52.6 – 53.0 macroskel
(medium long) 54.1 – and over 54.6 – and over
(long lower limb)

macrocormic (long) 52.1 – and over 53.1 – and over

46 47
Index of the biacromial breadth and body height Proportion index of the arm (brachial index)
Index of the biacromial breadth and body height = Brachial index =
[biacromial breadth (M 35) × 100]/body height (M 1) [forearm length (M 48) × 100]/upper arm length (M 47)

CATEGORY MEN WOMEN CATEGORY MEN AND WOMEN

narrow shoulders up to – 22.0 up to – 21.5 short forearm up to – 77.9

intermediate wide shoulders 22.1 – 23.0 21.6 – 22.5 medium long forearm 78.0 – 82.9

wide shoulders 23.1 – and over 22.6 – and over long forearm 83.0 – and over

M 47a. Upper arm length: projective distance – obtained deduction of the

Index of the bicristal breadth and body height
Index of the bicristal breadth and body height =
[bicristal breadth (M 40) × 100]/body height (M 1)
dimension M 8 (height to the acromiale point) to the dimension M 9 (height
to the radiale point).
M 48a. Forearm length: projective distance – obtained deduction of the
dimension M 9 (height to the radiale point) to the dimension M 10 (height to
the stylion point).

CATEGORY MEN WOMEN

Pignet-Vervaek Index
stenopyelic The classifications of body types (Fetter et al., 1967).
up to – 16.5 up to – 17.5
(narrow pelvic)
metriopyelic Pignet-Vervaek Index =
16.6 – 17.5 17,6 – 18.5
(intermediate wide pelvic) [body weight (M 71) + chest circumference (M 61) × 100]/body height (M 1)
eurypyelic (wide pelvic) 17.6 – and over 18.6 – and over
CATEGORY MEN AND WOMEN

Index of the chest circumference measured across the mesosternal point astenic type up to – 70.0
and body height
slim type 70.1 – 83.0
Index of the chest circumference in the normal position =
[chest circumference (M 61) × 100]/body height (M 1) normal type
83.1 – 93.0
(middle type)

CATEGORY MEN AND WOMEN robust type 93.1 – 104.0

narrow chest up to – 51.0 hyperstenic type 104.1 – and over

intermediate wide chest 51.1 – 56.0

Body surface area (BSA)
wide chest 56.1 – and over
BSA (cm 2 ) = 167 × √ body height (cm) × body weight (kg)

48 49
//
Summary
• Anthropometry is the science of physical anthropology that deals with the
measurement of the human body and its parts. Using anthropometric meth-
ods, we can measure and assess physical condition and monitor physical
growth, development, and nutritional status.
• The principal advantage of anthropometric methods is their global stand-
ardization and unification. Thanks to this anthropometric findings are also
comparable worldwide. Nevertheless, it is imperative that both experts and
trained non-professionals learn to measure accurately and avoid measure-
ment errors, which may have an adverse impact on anthropological findings.
• Basic measurement errors include: errors in the technique of measurement,
inter-observer errors, intra-observer errors, instrument errors, reading er-
rors, recording errors, and computer data entry errors. Consequently, it
is necessary to take repeated measurements, verify very low or very high
values, and check the data entry of measured parameters.
• Measurement accuracy depends on thorough understanding of anthropo-
metric landmarks, their localization on the human body, and the measuring
technique. Anthropometric landmarks usually comprise points on the skel-
eton which are projected onto the body surface. Good knowledge of the
anatomy of the skeleton is required for their localization. Anthropometric
points are palpable.
• Anthropometric landmarks are located on the head, trunk, and extremities.
On the basis of measured body dimensions, we can calculate proportion in-
dices to identify the relative proportions of various body parts to other parts
or to the body as a whole.
• Measurements are carried out with the help of special anthropometric in-
struments: the anthropometer, pelvimeter, cephalometer, sliding gauge,
modified thoracometer, caliper, and tape measure. When measuring the
body height, we can also use a paper ruler attached to a smooth surface
(door, wall, etc.).
50
Glossary // Slovník // Slownik
abdominal circumference // obvod břicha // obwód brzucha
ankle breadth // šířka kotníku // szerokość kostki
anteroposterior chest diameter // sagitální průměr hrudníku // pomiar strzałkowy
klatki piersiowej
anthropometric instruments // antropometrické nástroje (instrumentář) // instru-
mentarium antropometryczne
anthropometric landmarks // antropometrické body // punkty antropometryczne
anthropometric methods // antropometrické metody // metody antropometry-
czne
arm circumference relaxed // obvod paže relaxované // obwód ramienia
w spoczynku (największy)
arm circumference flexed // obvod paže kontrahované // obwód ramienia
w napięciu (największy)
arm span // rozpětí paží // siąg (rozwartość największa ramion)
biacromial breadth // šířka biakromiální (šířka ramen) // szerokość barkowa
biepicondylar breadth of the femur (femur breadth) // šířka dolní epifýzy femuru
// szerokość kolana
biepicondylar breadth of the humerus (elbow breadth) // šířka dolní epifýzy hu-
meru // szerokość łokcia
biiliocristal breadth // vzdálenost bikristální // szerokość górna bioder
bispinal breadth // vzdálenost bispinální // szerokość miednicy
bitrochanteric diameter // vzdálenost bitrochanterická // szerokość międzykręta­
rzowa
body dimensions // rozměry těla // pomiary ciała
body height // tělesná výška // wysokość ciała
body surface area // plocha povrchu těla // powierzchnia ciała
body weight // tělesná hmotnost // masa ciała (ciężar ciała)
breadth of the mandibular angle // šířka úhlu dolní čelisti // szerokość twarzy
dolnej
chest circumference in the normal position // obvod hrudníku v normální poloze
// obwód klatki piersiowej
correlation and compensation // korelace a kompenzace // korelacja i kompen-
sacja
descriptive methods // popisné metody // metody opisowe
external conjugate pelvis // conjugata externa // konjugata zewnętrzna mied-
nicy
face breadth // šířka obličeje // największa szerokość twarzy
forearm circumference // obvod předloktí // obwód przedramienia
forearm length // délka předloktí // długość przedramienia
function-dependent design // závislost tvaru na funkci // zależność funkcji od
wzorca
gluteal circumference (hip girth, buttock girth) // obvod boků // obwód bioder
51
gluteal circumference of the thigh // obvod gluteální (obvod stehna) // obwód
przez pośladki
head circumference // obvod hlavy // obwód głowy
head length // délka hlavy // długość głowy
head breadth // šířka hlavy // szerokość głowy
height of acromiale point // výška nadpažku // wysokość punktu acromion
height of anterior superior iliospinale point // výška předního kyčelního trnu
// wysokość punktu iliospinale
height of dactylion point // výška daktylion // wysokość punktu daktylion
height of radiale point // výška radiale // wysokość punktu radiale
height of stylion // výška stylion // wysokość punktu stylion
height of tibiale // výška tibiale // wysokość punktu tibiale
heredity // dědičnost // dziedziczność
laws of growth // zákonitosti růstu // prawidłowości rozwoju
maximum circumference of the calf // maximální obvod lýtka // maksymalny
obwód łydki
minimum circumference of the calf // minimální obvod lýtka // minimalny obwód
łydki
maximum head breadth // největší šířka mozkovny // szerokość głowy
maximum head length // největší délka mozkovny // długość głowy największa
measuring technique // měřící technika // techniki pomiarowe
median circumference of the thigh // střední obvod stehna // średni obwód uda
minimum frontal breadth // najmenší šířka čela // najmniejsza szerokość czoła
morphological height of the face // morfologická výška obličeje // wysokość
twarzy morfologiczna
morphological facial index // morfologický index obličeje // wskaźnik twarzy
morfologiczny
nose breadth // šířka nosu // szerokość nosa
nose height // výška nosu // wysokość nosa
palpating // vypalpování, vyhmatávání // badanie palpacyjne
pelvic breadth // šířka pánve // szerokość miednicy
plasticity, elasticity, reaction, and adaptation // plasticita, elasticita, reakce
a adaptace // plastyczność, elastyczość, reakcja i adaptacja
proportion indices // proporční indexy // wskaźniki ilorazowe
puberty and sexual differentiation // puberta a pohlavní diferenciace // pokwit-
anie i zróżnicowanie płciowe
sitting height // výška vsedě // wysokość siedząco
transverse chest diameter // transverzální průměr hrudníku // szerokość po-
przeczna klatki piersiowej
upper arm length // délka paže // długość ramienia
variability // variabilita // zmienność
variation range // variační rozsah // zakres zmian
waist circumference // obvod pasu // obwód w pasie
wrist circumference // obvod zápěstí // obwód nadgarstka
wrist breadth // šířka zápěstí // szerokość nadgarstka
52
3 ORGANIZATION
of Anthropological
Research
//
3.1 Steps in the Research Process
Every scientific work has to provide an exact definition of methods and their
application in research. Many challenging and lengthy studies have amounted
to nothing because they were conducted on the basis of inadequate method-
ological information.
Prior to commencing research, the problem is usually defined as accurately
as possible, and a solution design is prepared. This is preconditioned by
reviewing all the literature on the problem that is available.
The research itself is divided into time-specific steps operating with differ-
ent working methods:
Step 1: Organization of research
Proper organization of research is absolutely essential if the research is to be
successful. It begins well in advance in the form of a specific plan, which in-
cludes:
• Research schedule.
• Selection of monitored parameters with regard to research objectives.
• Preparation of measurement methodology for all team members.
• Selection of the number of subjects to be monitored (with regard to classi-
fication into age groups).
• Selection of research site and arrangement with the facility management
(e.g. school, sports club, laboratory).
• If children and adolescents are to be measured, parental consent for child
participants is usually required.
• A sufficient number of data sheets (different colours for men and for women).
• A sufficient number of anthropometric instruments.
• Formation and training of a research team; contracting co-workers and re-
cord-keepers.
• Procurement of measurement site (different rooms for boys/men and for
girls/women if there are enough rooms; if not, make special appointments
for men and for women).
53
• Cooperation with local officials; preparation of a list of persons and detailed
measurement schedule for each day. Fewer measured traits and character-
istics logically allow for higher numbers of subjects.
• Contracting a statistician for planning and processing research findings,
and, depending on the nature of the research, also experts from other fields.
Step 2: Data collection
This includes anthropometric measurements of the subject group, a survey
questionnaire, and measurement review.
Step 3: Processing of measurements
Data established and measured during research is processed as follows: data-
base storage of data; verification of stored data; verification of low and high val-
ues; statistical analysis of measured parameters; research findings processed
in tables and charts.
Step 4: Interpretation and evaluation of findings
Interpretation of assessed parameters, comparison thereof with the findings of
other studies; conclusions; publication of research findings.
Conclusions need to be specific and clearly summarize which method was
used, what was researched, and with what results. The entire work procedure
also needs to be published so that any other expert could validate the findings
with their own observations or measurements.
Anthropological research follows these anthropometric principles:
• Establishing and describing the dimensions of the human body or its parts
in a manner and amount and with accuracy that will provide faithful dimen-
sional and descriptive characteristics of the body that was researched or its
parts in the group of subjects.
• Processing data intended for publication so that both the researcher and
other experts can use it quickly and safely for comparison and conclusions.
The metric method serves to establish changes in the growth of individu-
als and populations, and the impact of the environment, work, nutrition, and
sports on physical condition. Measuring the physical characteristics of a part
of a population (representative sample) facilitates the definition of standards
(benchmarks), i.e. guidelines for assessing the developmental stage of individ-
uals and groups.
Data is generated by measuring the object being studied. Measurements of
an individual are usually recorded on a data sheet, which contains important
information with regard to the nature of the research (see below). The measured
parameters are referred to using standardized anthropometric terms or acro-
nyms. One of the first steps of each research project is to determine which data
to measure in all subjects, which requires a standardized data sheet. The number
of parameters measured needs to match the number of fields for the data meas-
ured. The more subjects participate in a survey, the more valuable the results.
54
Nowadays, it is difficult to measure living subjects of a selected age and sex,
especially if there are social or other prejudices. The best conditions are in insti-
tutions that gather the largest numbers of individuals. When measuring children
and adolescents under 18 years of age, it is essential to have the written con-
sent of the legal guardians allowing the child to participate in the anthro-
pological measurement. School surveys must always be preceded by consul-
tation with the school management. Extensive research is best carried out by
working groups, but on a smaller scale it can also be conducted by individuals.
//
3.2 Anthropological Research
Types of Anthropological Research
Anthropological research employs a host of various methods to produce back-
ground data. Basically, there are two ways to divide anthropological research,
according to the span of time and the number of subjects:
Depending on the span of time involved, there are:
• cross-sectional – transversal research or growth study: a sample of
the population is described at one specific point in time, a short period if
possible; it may involve various age groups (e.g. a one-off survey of children
in grades 1 to 9). Measurement on a single occasion of individuals grouped
by age and sex, and sometimes other characteristics;
• longitudinal research or growth study: measurement of the same indi-
vidual or group of individuals, repeated over regular and long periods of
time. Although highly time-consuming, these studies can be carried out by
a smaller number of employees (e.g. monitoring the physical growth of the
same group of 1st-to-9th-graders);
• semi-longitudinal research or growth study: combination of the previous
two types of research.
Transversal (cross-sectional) research on, for example, the body height and
body mass of a representative sample of the child population has the following
objectives:
• to gain information about the current level of physical development and nu-
tritional status of the population;
• to provide data entries for reference values (standards), growth charts,
and tools in order to evaluate the growth of individuals and groups of child­
ren, adolescents, and adults;
• to enable comparison with similar domestic and foreign research – both
past and future.
By analyzing the findings of cross-sectional and longitudinal research on
various time periods, conclusions can be drawn about the growth trends in
55
a population. Comparing growth studies of different population groups is also
a useful tool for the evaluation of the population’s ethnic characteristics and
overall social and cultural level.
Types of research in relation to the number of research participants:
The basic type of reasoning in statistics is usually derivation of the whole from
a part, i.e. the population from a sample.
Depending on the number of subjects, there are:
• Total population sampling (population), measuring a complete popula-
tion sample. It is the sum of all the individuals who should theoretically be
surveyed (e.g. the sum of all the individuals within a selected age group in
the country). In most cases, however, it is impossible to monitor the entire
group, whether for economic, technical, or time-related reasons.
• Representative sample (selection) – usually, only a limited number of in-
dividuals are selected in accordance with set criteria; this is termed a sam-
ple. This is research based on a random representative sample selected in
such a way that the findings equal those obtained with total sampling. It is
vital that the sample represents the whole properly and is sufficiently large.
A representative sample is a smaller version of the whole. What is most
representative is simple random sampling because of the fact that each unit
of the population has the same chance (is equally likely) of being selected.
• In purposive sampling, research operates with specially selected individ-
uals. These are chosen from a population and monitored on the basis of
a criterion (overweight children, research on subjects doing sport. etc.).
Anthropological Team
An important factor affecting the success of anthropological research is the
management and composition of the research team. It is important to realize
that a constantly fluctuating team has an impact on the results of anthropo-
metric examinations, and considerably complicates the organization of the
research.
Entities carrying out anthropological surveys:
• Experts, professional anthropologists: All measurements are performed
by a single person; this method is, however, viable only in the case of small
groups. All characteristics are measured using the same criterion, instru-
ments, and subjective error. It can serve to identify a large number of chara­
cteristics. The disadvantage of a single-person measurement is the fact
that a single expert can measure only a relatively small group of subjects,
which makes the research only locally valid and unsuitable for standards. As
a rule, there is no control expert in this type of survey, and it is impossible
to monitor people of both sexes. Starting with teenagers, male researchers
56
should not measure girls and women, and female researchers should not
measure boys and men.
• Instructed lay public: While able to encompass large groups, these studies
can describe only a small number of simple, easy-to-measure characteris-
tics. An advantage of a team composed of instructed laity is that the survey
can cover a randomly selected sample of even a large number of individ-
uals over a short span of time, and the results are used to set standards,
reference values for larger areas or the entire country. Because of the high
number of researchers and data collectors, their subjective errors are par-
tially offset. Errors in measurement can largely be identified and eliminated
through strict logical control. Data collectors need to be instructed both in
person and in writing by a professional expert.
• Expert teams: The best option, which combines the advantages of both.
The team comprises professionals, an expert, and trained members of the
lay public. This composition allows the research team to measure a large
number of characteristics and large groups. Ensuring that there are enough
instruments and experts is a challenge. It is imperative that each person
carrying out measurements works with their own record-keeper.
Measurement Record Sheet
Pre-printed record sheets and possibly also questionnaires, designed to match
the research objectives, are used for the measurements.
Each record sheet has five sections (Table 3.1):
• Subject’s personal data: name, date, place of measurement (geographical
area, school, town, village, residence, etc.), and possibly also information
about parents, number of siblings, and factors that could affect the current
physical condition of the subject (sports, military service, diseases, acci-
dents, etc.).
• Description of physical characteristics: for example the overall nutritional
condition; muscle condition; chest shape; pigmentation of hair, iris; shape of
nose, lips, eyes; dental status.
• Numerical data: weight, and height, breadth, and perimeter dimensions.
The dimensions follow an order based on how convenient it is to read the
dimensions on the body, and on the type of the apparatus, in order to avoid
frequent alternation of instruments during measurement.
• Notes: includes data that is considered important and was ignored in the
other parts of the record sheet (posture, position of the legs, foot arch, etc.).
• Name of expert and record-keeper, place and date, possibly also the hour
of measurement (note: important especially in longitudinal and semi-longi-
tudinal studies of the same subjects).
57
Table 3.1
A measurement record sheet (example) //
Name or subject number Birth date
3.3 Anthropometric Laboratory
Sex (1 = Male; A bright room with natural light, ventilation, and heating is required, preferably
Examination date
2 = Female) with wooden flooring with linoleum or cork instead of tiling. This room can also
Chronological age serve as a photographic studio.
Place of measurement
(Decimal Year)
An anthropometric laboratory must have the following basic equipment:
Body height Body weight a hanger for the clothes of the subjects being measured; a (dressing) screen;
chairs for those waiting and for record-keepers; a desk for the recording and for
Height acromiale Head length tools; a level bench or desk to measure height in a seated position; a cabinet for
anthropometric instruments; a sink with hot and cold running water.
Height radiale Head breadth

Height dactylion Bizygomatic diameter Basic anthropometric instruments and equipment

of an anthropometric laboratory:
Height tibiale Biacromial breadth
anthropometric wall – wood wall panelling in the corner of a room, fitted with
Transverse chest
Sitting height
diameter a height board for the subject to be measured against (Figure 3.1)
Anteroposterior chest weighing scale – decimal (lever), digital
Arm span
diameter
anthropometer – designed to measure only the vertical dimensions of the hu-
Head circumference Biiliocristal breadth man body (Figure 3.1)

Chest circumference small height rod – the instrument is primarily designated to determine selected
Bispinal breadth vertical dimensions of the lower extremity (e.g. sphyrion height) (Figure 3.2)
(normal)
Waist circumference Humerus breadth spreading caliper – the instrument may be used to measure not only the di-
mensions of the head, but also selected body breadth or depth dimensions
Abdominal circumference Wrist breadth in children up to the age about 15 (e.g. biacromial breadth, bispinal breadth,
biepicondylar breadth of the humerus) (Figure 3.3)
Gluteal circumference Femur breadth pelvimeter – it is predominantly used for measuring the breadth and dimen-
sions of the adult population (Figure 3. 4)
Calf circumference Ankle breadth
modified thoracometer – a modification of Hrdlička’s “classic” thoracometer,
Skinfolds (mm): the instrument primarily serves for easy determination of the length of the
foot (Figure 3.5)
Triceps Menarche/Menopause
sliding caliper – the instrument is designated to determine selected dimensions
of the head (e.g. nasal height and breadth, lower jaw height) (Figure 3.6)
Subscapular 1 = No menarche
caliper – is designed for standard measuring of skinfold thickness (Figure 3.7)
2 = Menarche
Abdominal
periodically soft metric tape – is used for girth dimensions (e.g. arm circumference, chest
3 = Menarche occurred circumference) (Figure 3.8)
Suprailiac
(no menopause)
For the technical description of anthropometric instruments and their use,
4 = Menopause see Chapter 8 Anthropometric measuring tools.
Calf
occurred

58 59
 //
3.4 Measurement Principles
Measurements must adhere to principles that respect the personality of
the subject. It is unacceptable for researchers to assess in any way, with
words or gestures, the physical condition of the subject. The subjects (this
is particularly sensitive in young children and adolescents) must feel safe and
comfortable. If a subject feels the environment is inappropriate, they may refuse
Figure 3.6 to be measured. Such information rapidly spreads among other participants
Sliding caliper and may subsequently pose a serious risk to the progress of the research, be-
cause the subjects refuse to be measured. A person refusing to be measured
cannot be forced even if their parents have issued a written consent.
Figure 3.4
Pelvimeter Therefore, the following principles of subject measurement need to
be observed:
Figure 3.1 • Only one subject at a time is measured, without any other subject present
Anthropometric wall in the room. It is necessary to treat the subjects being measured with con-
and A-226 sideration and respect; as a matter of principle, men measure men, women
Anthropometer measure women.
• Measurements are taken in the laboratory, always directly on the subject’s
body clothed in minimum attire (e.g. underwear); if measurements are tak-
en outside the lab, subjects wear minimum sportswear.
Figure 3.7
• Physical dimensions are measured on the right side of the body. If there
Caliper is asymmetry in the body, both sides of the body are measured.
• It is disadvantageous for the researcher to both read measurements and
enter data. Experts usually work together with a record-keeper; if the re-
searcher has to record the data him-/herself, not more than two dimensions
Figure 3.5
are to be taken at a time in order to remember them safely.
Figure 3.2 Modified • If the subject is restless or the researcher tired, it is recommended that the
Small height rod thoracometer measurement be postponed.
• Hygiene: always wash hands before and after measurement.
• After use, wipe anthropometric instruments with a disinfectant (e.g.
80% ethyl alcohol or ether alcohol) and then wipe dry; if the tools are to be
stored for a longer period of time, grease them lightly with Vaseline.
• Measurements are always taken at the same time each day, preferably in the
morning, as in the afternoon the body height tends to decrease and weight
to increase.
• With measurements and description, the number of characteristics meas-
ured or described always depends on the number of subjects availa-
ble for measurement. For science, it is more valuable to describe fewer
characteristics or dimensions of a large number of members compared with
a lot of data of only a few individuals.
Figure 3.3 Figure 3.8 • Prior to research, it is necessary to check the accuracy of the measuring ap-
Spreading caliper Soft metric tape paratus (scale, gauges, spirometer, dynamometer), i.e. verify the equipment.

60 61
//
3.5 Anthropological Surveys
in the Czech Republic and Slovakia
Identifying growth and development changes in somatic characteristics during
ontogeny has been the goal of multiple anthropological studies. Nationwide
surveys, which provided a background for further monitoring of the develop-
ment of individual subjects and the population, and smaller-scale local stud-
ies, which monitored somatic characteristics, are crucial to assessing growth
trends and comparing results. In the broader spectrum, however, there are not
very many studies that comprehensively characterize the development of the
physique of various age groups across the population.
Major Anthropological Surveys in Czech Republic
The first major cross-sectional survey of the population was carried out by
Jindřich Matiegka (1862–1941) for the 1895 Ethnographic Exhibition. Quite
extensive for the time, the survey included measurements of the height and
weight of 100,000 children aged six to fourteen years and living in Bohemia
and Moravia in the former Austro-Hungarian Empire. The survey also laid the
foundations for a comparative study of the growth of the child population.
The first mention of the evaluation of the physical performance of the then
Czechoslovak children and adolescents dates to 1923. At a secondary school
exhibition, held as part of the congress ‘International Federation of Secondary
School Instructors’ in Prague in 1923, Evžen Roubal and Jan Roubal gave an
account of the physical condition of secondary school students in Czecho-
slovakia. In late March and early April 1923, they had measured the physical
condition and performance of 16,167 boys and 8,967 girls aged l0 to 19 years
from all over the country.
Following Matiegka’s example, František Štampach (1925) measured 3,000
children in the Kralupy region. The parameters he surveyed included the chil-
dren’s age, weight, height, nutritional status, parents’ health, and housing con-
ditions. Drawing on his investigation, he suggests that in addition to hereditary
factors, physical development is also affected by nutrition. In conclusion, he
compares his measurement data with Matiegka’s findings from 1895. The com-
parison shows that the Kralupy children were taller and heavier than the aver-
age for children of the same age from Bohemia and Moravia, including Prague.
According to Štampach, the difference was caused by the better nutrition the
Kralupy children had available at the time and the better living conditions in the
Kralupy region.
62
Nationwide anthropological surveys
Extensive nationwide anthropological surveys (NAS) have a long-standing tra-
dition in the Czech Republic.
1st Nationwide Anthropological Survey 1951
The cross-sectional systematic measurements of children and adolescents
were launched in 1951 by Vojtěch Fetter and his colleagues (Prokopec, Suchý,
and Šobová). Conducted across Czechoslovakia in 1951, the 1st Nationwide
Anthropological Survey measured children aged three to 18 years. It focused
on height and weight, with a view to assessing the health and nutritional status
of children and adolescents after World War 2.
2nd Nationwide Anthropological Survey 1961
In 1961, Fetter, Prokopec, Suchý, and Šobová carried out the 2nd Nationwide
Anthropological Survey. In order to allow comparison with the 1951 survey, the
same conditions were ensured, including the location and size of the group.
The survey measured over 250,000 persons aged zero to 18 and living in
Czechoslovakia. The somatic characteristics monitored included body height,
weight, head circumference, and chest circumference.
3rd Nationwide Anthropological Survey 1971
The 3rd Nationwide Survey of young Czechoslovak people was performed in
1971 by Prokopec, Suchý, and Titlbachová. The survey investigated 120,000
children, of whom half were boys and half girls. The somatic characteristics
under study included body height, weight, chest circumference, and head cir-
cumference.
4th Nationwide Anthropological Survey 1981
The 4th Nationwide Anthropological Survey was conducted in 1981, monitoring
children and adolescents aged zero to 18 years. The anthropological survey
was organized by Prokopec and Titlbachová. The sample monitored included
4% of all Czech children, i.e. 120,000 individuals. The survey measured the
following characteristics: head circumference, chest circumference, abdominal
circumference, and leg length. In addition, multiple items of social and econom-
ic data about the child and its family were assessed as part of the analysis of
the impact of external factors on the children’s growth and development.
5th Nationwide Anthropological Survey 1991
The 5th Nationwide Anthropological Survey of children and adolescents took
place in 1991. The research team of Bláha, Lhotská, Vignerová, and Bošková
presented valuable results and findings on the growth and development of
children and adolescents aged zero to 18. A total of 90,910 individuals was
surveyed for the following parameters: body weight, body height, head circum-
ference, arm circumference, chest circumference, abdominal circumference,
and hip circumference. Additionally, a survey questionnaire was used to inves-
tigate the family environment of the child, its eating habits and health, the basic
anthropometric data about its parents, and family history.
63
6th Nationwide Anthropological Survey 2001
The 5th Nationwide Anthropological Survey of 1991, the last one to be held in
the past century, was followed in 2001 by the 6th Nationwide Anthropological
Survey of Children and Adolescents in the Czech Republic (Bláha, Vignerová,
Kobzová, Krejčovský, and Riedlová). The survey monitored the following so-
matic characteristics: body height, weight, head circumference, left arm cir-
cumference, abdominal circumference, and hip circumference. Overall, 59,109
children and adolescents aged zero to 19 years were surveyed.
All the above nationwide anthropological surveys always produced the latest
growth and development standards of the Czech child population.
The year 2011 was supposed to see the 7th Nationwide Anthropological
Survey of Children and Adolescents in the Czech Republic. Unfortunately,
for financial and other reasons, this survey could not be conducted, which
brought a stop to a tradition unique even on the global level, of monitoring the
physical condition of children and adolescents in the Czech Republic.
Spartakiad surveys
A major contribution to growth (auxological) studies of the Czechoslovak popu-
lation was made by measurements performed at the Czechoslovak Spartakiad
mass gymnastics events (CSS), where researchers took advantage of the high
concentration of members of the population from various regions of the Czech
Republic in one place in 1955, 1960, and 1965 (Fetter, Suchý). These surveys
were followed up in 1975 by Klementa, Machová, and Menzelová. Likewise,
this tradition was continued by Bláha and his team at the 1980 CSS and the
1985 CSS. The benchmarks of the 1985 CSS survey continue to serve as the
standards for the adult population until today.
Other important anthropological surveys
A valuable contribution to understanding the somatic characteristics of the
Czech population was made by the surveys carried out under the International
Biological Programme (IBP). Between l968 and 1974 a survey focused on the
somatic development and fitness of the population aged l2 to 55 years. Con-
ducted across all the continents, this particular survey monitored growth as a
sign of the adaptability of the human organism to various social and environ-
mental conditions.
Between 1976 and 1978 Hajniš, Brůžek, and Blažek ran an anthropological
research programme in the former Czechoslovakia (at 13 locations in the Czech
Republic and seven in the Slovak Republic). The representative sample surveyed
included a total of 11,000 Czech and Slovak children of both sexes, aged 1.5 to
15 years.
Longitudinal studies were of great importance for monitoring growth in chil-
dren. One that is noteworthy is a survey that was run between 1956 and 1962,
whose findings are reported by Kapalín, Kotásková, and Prokopec. This survey
studied the development of children in Prague aged zero to 18 years. Boucha­
lová conducted a similar survey from 1961 in the Brno region. She studied the
growth and development of children aged zero to 18 years.
64
Another major cross-sectional anthropological research study was conduct-
ed from 1995 to 1996 by Bláha, Vignerová, Paulová, Riedlová, Kobzová, and
Krejčovský. Primarily focusing on head dimensions, the survey covered a total
of 33 measurements of over 28,500 subjects aged zero to 16 years from all over
the Czech Republic. The survey was a follow-up to the preceding nationwide
anthropological studies of children and adolescents, as well as of surveys per-
formed as part of the Czechoslovak Spartakiad.
This study served as the basis for “Somatic Development of Contempo-
rary Czech Children – Semi-Longitudinal Study”, a project headed by Bláha,
Krejčovský, Jiroutová, Kobzová, Sedlak, Brabec, Riedlová, and Vignerová.
From 1997 to 1999, a total of 1,925 children were monitored and repeatedly
measured for 29 body dimensions. Within the three years, every child was
measured five times at half-year intervals.
Major Anthropological Surveys in Slovakia
Every 10 years since 1951, the standards of basic body dimensions have been
redefined in Slovakia. In 1951 this survey was led in Slovakia by Straka and
Valšík, while in 1961, 1971, and 1981 it was primarily by Lipková and Grunt, and
in 1991 and 2001 by Novotná. Initially, the standards were developed for the
Czech Republic and for the Slovak Republic, but later they were also prepared
for regions and the number of attributes monitored continued to increase. The
results of the surveys included the means of the dimensions that were moni­
tored and data giving information about their variability (standard deviations
and percentiles). These national standards describe the growth and develop-
ment of children and adolescents aged zero to 18 years.
The improvements in nutrition in Slovakia after World War Two explained
the diminishing gap in the growth of the Slovak and Czech child and youth
populations. Comparative analyses of the findings of national measurements
of children and adolescents revealed that the differences between western and
eastern Slovakia have been evened out since 1951.
The influence that the changes in living conditions have had on growth pa-
rameters is evidenced in the acceleration and secular trend recorded in recent
centuries in Slovakia, similarly to other developed countries. The dynamics of
changes in the nutrition and physical development of children and adolescents
and the assessment of health indicators against the background of social
changes in Slovak society have been analyzed in multiple investigations (e.g.
Lipková et al., 1966; Lipková & Grunt, 1984, 1988; Netriová et al., 1990; Slová­
ková et al., 1991; Nováková & Ševčíková, 1994, 1995; Bernasovská et al., 1997,
1998; Ševčíková & Nováková, 2004).
The trend in the physical development of children and adolescents is the
result of many genetic and environmental factors, as well as the psychoso-
cial conditions associated with nutrition in particular. The parameters of the
physical development of Slovak children and adolescents obtained in nation-
al measurements taken at ten-year intervals have confirmed the continuing
acceleration of growth in Slovak boys and girls, with a tendency to decelerate.
In boys aged 18 years, a positive long-term trend was observed (an increase
by 0.7 cm, 2 cm, and 1.5 cm in the decades under study; in 2001 the average
65
height of the boys was 179.6 ± 6.7 cm). The height of girls was found to stag-
nate at the age of 18 (increasing by 1 cm, 1.9 cm, and 0.3 cm in the decades
concerned; in 2001 the average height of the girls was 165.5 ± 6.3 cm). Their
mean height did not increase in 2001 from the age of 16 years. The results
indicated the termination of the the acceleration of growth and development
and the secular trend in girls.
Average body weight in Slovak children and adolescents has altered in line
with changes in body height, with the exception of adolescents aged 16 to 18
years. While in the 18-year-old boys the increase in the past was 1.4 and 1.6
kg per decade, in the past 10 years it was only 0.6 kg. In 2001, their average
weight in emerging adulthood was 70.4 ± 11.2 kg. The average weight of girls
grew until 15 years of age, while in older girls the weight remained the same
and from 1981 onwards it began to drop. The trend of weight loss in adolescent
girls comes into play here. In 2001 the average weight of girls aged 18 years
was 57.6 ± 8.9 kg (Ševčíková et al., 2001).
Changes in BMI, regarded as overweight and obesity in children and ado-
lescents, correspond mainly to changes in weight. The increase was noted in
nine-to-15-year-old boys and seven-to-11-year-old girls. For 16-to-18-year-old
boys, the mean BMI remained the same after the ten-year interval. In 13-to-
18-year-old girls a significant decrease in this index was observed. In 2001 the
average BMI of the 18-year-olds was 21.8 ± 3.1 kg/m2 for Slovak boys and 21.0
± 3.1 kg/m2 for Slovak girls. According to internationally accepted BMI limits for
overweight and obesity, Slovakia was a low-obesity country.
National standards are developed on the basis of a systematic monitoring
of the population’s development in the particular country, and therefore provide
the most accurate picture of the eating habits and local genotype. Findings
about overweight and obesity in Slovak children aged seven to 18 years were
generated by processing the results of the national anthropometric survey
(CAP), which was organized by the Public Health Service of the Slovak Re-
public in 2001. Slovakia thus became one of the few countries in the world
with its own BMI national standards that allow it to obtain long-term reports
on the developmental trends of the young population and compare them with
trends in other countries (Ševčíková, Rovný et al., 2004; Ševčíková, Hamade
et al., 2004).
A number of authors currently point out the significantly higher average
body weight in children across all age groups. These findings are alarming as
they point to the negative aspects of the long-term trend, which also includes
hypertension and stress in addition to the increased prevalence of obesity.
Obesity is a complex multifactorial disease whose pathogenesis is marked by
the interaction of metabolic, behavioural, environmental, and genetic factors.
The influence of the genetic aspect on obesity is estimated to range from 30
to 70%. Advances in molecular genetics have triggered progress in obesity re-
search aimed at identifying genes whose mutations lead to its individual forms.
In Slovakia this issue is studied by multiple researchers, for example Mačeková
et al. (2016). The epidemic of obesity is one of the most serious challenges for
public health in Slovakia, as it raises morbidity and premature mortality, and,
last but not least, increases the cost of healthcare.
66
The prevalence of overweight and obesity of children and students has
been evaluated by many authors in Slovakia (Gerová et al., 2012; Kollárová et
al., 2013; Uhrová et al., 2016). A number of anthropometric methods are used
to diagnose obesity: from simple measurements of body height, weight, and
circumferences to measuring the skinfold thickness or determining the risk of
obesity with the help of BMI, WHR, and waist circumference. In recent years,
developmental, sports, epidemiological, and health research has focused on
the analysis of the overall body composition of individuals. One of the methods
used to determine body composition is the BIA method based on bioelectric
impedance and tissue conductivity. Several Slovak studies aim to evaluate the
physical composition of individuals in different age groups by gender and life-
style, and to determine the number of individuals at risk of obesity (e.g. Dank-
ová, Cvíčelová, & Siváková, 2013). These evaluations indicate that in the last
few years, the means of obesity parameters have increased in young Slovaks.
A growing interest in Roma has been registered among the Slovak profes-
sional public. The growth and development of the Romani ethnic group have
long been studied by Bernasovský and his team (Bernasovský & Bernasovská,
1999, 2000; Duranková et al., 2016). These authors reported as early as the
1970s that Romani newborns are smaller compared with non-Romani infants,
which was manifested mainly in lower birth weight and shorter birth lengths.
The findings of the nationwide anthropological surveys helped establish refer-
ence standards for the Bohemian and Moravian populations, and in the past
also for the Slovak population. Additionally, the findings facilitate comparison
with both past and future domestic and foreign research.
//
3.6 The Secular Trend
The upward trend of indicators of the physical development of children and
adolescents in recent years is explained as being due to the ever-improving
social conditions and hygiene in life. This is also confirmed by earlier findings
of research on children and adolescents living in different social environments.
Recent anthropological studies, particularly surveys from 1991 and 2001, show
that the positive secular (long-term) trend of body height in the highest age
groups is probably coming to an end, meaning the secular trend is likewise
coming to an end.
The secular trend is the process that involves a change in the mean size or
shape of individuals in the population from one generation to the next. Such
trends can be positive (increasing size) or negative (decreasing size).
67
 The secular trend is the process that leads to changes in the physical de-
velopment, growth, size, or shape of individuals in a certain population over
successive generations which live in the same place. It is a trend that lasts
a long time (Bodzsár & Susanne, 1998; Hermanussen et al., 2013; Ulijaszek,
Johnston, & Preece, 1998). Over the past century, we have observed a notice-
able process of growth and acceleration of development in humans. The rate
of postnatal growth, maturation, and body parameters achieved in adulthood
has fundamentally changed (Bláha, Susanne, & Rebato, 2007; Cole, 2000; Uli-
jaszek, Johnston, & Preece, 1998). Over the past 100 to 200 years in all coun-
tries with higher socio-economic status, the height and weight of adults have
increased and the growth and development of children and adolescents have
accelerated (Bláha, Susanne, & Rebato, 2007; Cole, 2000). These changes,
observed in the biological evolution of man, are manifestations of the secular
trend. By the secular long-term trend we understand the tendency towards
greater final stature, e.g. body height of successive generations in compar-
ison with previous generations. This means that there has been an increase
in ave­rage body height and other body dimensions in the adult population
(Bodzsár & Susanne, 1998; Bláha, Susanne, & Rebato, 2007; Vignerová,
Bláha, & Riedlová, 2005).
Tanner (1992) asserts that the body height of adults is an expression of
not only the interaction of genetic and environmental factors, but also of the
status of social class, family income, parents’ education, level of hygiene, and
disease. Experts agree (Bodzsár & Susanne, 1998) that secular trends in an-
thropometric parameters reflect socio-economic changes and political events
in various countries. However, they consider socio-economic conditions to be
the main factor. This fact was expressed very aptly by Tanner (1986): “Growth
mirrors the condition of society.”
3.6.1 The secular trend in body height and weight
in children aged six to 14 years
Transversal anthropological surveys of the height and weight of a representative
sample of children and adolescents are crucial for the development and updat-
ing of the anthropological standards of a population. They provide information
about the physical condition, health, and nutritional status of the population
and allow the monitoring and comparison of varied population groups, which
reflect the influence of environmental factors on the development of a person
and population, and, last but not least, the findings of anthropological surveys
are applied in ergonomics, etc. Regularly updated population growth standards
are an important prerequisite for a qualified growth diagnosis in medicine.
The analysis of the results of anthropological surveys from various periods
indicates current growth trends in relation to the secular trend and the impact
of environmental factors on the physical condition and health of the population.
These surveys serve as a sensitive indicator for continual assessment of the
impact of ongoing social, demographic, economic, and other factors on the
current population.
68
Objective
The main objective of the survey was to compare the mean height and weight
of present-day six-to-14-year-old boys and girls from the Moravian part of the
Czech Republic with the 1895 survey of boys and girls and with the reference
data of the 6th Nationwide Anthropological Survey of Children and Adolescents
2001 in the Czech Republic, and to identify any positive secular changes in
height and weight between 2001 and 2015.
Methodology
The basic physical dimensions, height and weight, were measured as part
of the transverse anthropological research survey conducted on 2,050 boys
and 1,881 girls aged six to 14 years at Moravian elementary schools between
2012 and 2015. A total of 4,031 children were measured*.
The boys and girls were measured exclusively on the basis of the written
consent of their legal guardians/parents. The wording of the informed consent
and letter sent to the legal guardians and the research focus were approved by
the Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Health Sciences of Palacky University
Olomouc.
Height and weight were measured using the methods of standardized an-
thropometry. Height was measured with the A-226 (Kopecký, Krejčovský &
Švarc, 2014) anthropometer with an accuracy of 0.1 cm, and weight (accuracy
of 0.1 kg) with the InBody 230 diagnostic instrument (InBody 720). The boys
and girls were measured while wearing PE kit or underwear. The measurements
were taken at the relevant schools in the morning, and the boys and girls were
measured in separate classrooms.
The chronological age of each subject as of the date of measurement was
determined. The decimal age of the subjects was calculated according to the
IBP methodology (Weinera & Lourie, 1969). The subjects were subsequently
grouped into whole-year age categories (e.g. six-year-olds = 6.00-6.99 years).
The age intervals are similar to those used by Matiegka in his survey in 1895
(Matiegka, 1927; Suchý, 1972). The age categories of the boys and girls were
6–7, 7–8 years (Matiegka, 1927), etc., and children aged 6.5; an age of 7.5
years was in the middle of the age interval. These whole-year age categories
(e.g. 6.00-6.99 years) were also used to construct reference standards for the
6th Nationwide Anthropological Survey of Children and Adolescents in 2001
(Bláha et al., 2005). The consolidation of the age intervals is vital in order to en-
sure that the results of the statistical analysis are comparable. Table 3.2 show
the numbers of boys and girls aged six to 14 years.
On the basis of the 1895 statistical characteristics of boys and girls (Matieg-
ka, 1927), the statistical characteristics (M – arithmetic mean, SD – standard
deviation, year-on-year gains in height and weight (diff), and intersexual dif-
ferences between the mean attributes in boys and girls in the appropriate age
category (d)) were calculated using the measured physical parameters for each
age category of the population under study.
The corpulence index (Matiegka, 1927) was calculated for the sample of
boys and girls in order to assess their physical condition. The index describes
69
the relationship between weight and height (weight [grams] is divided by height There are significant differences in the year-on-year gain in height between
[cm]). Matiegka (1927) notes that the index measures the number of grams of boys and girls aged six to 14 years. The gender difference is distinct at the
weight per 1 cm of height. The higher the corpulence index, the more grams of time of the peak height velocity (PHV): in boys, it was recorded at the ages of
weight per 1 cm of height. The corpulence index (P/S) was calculated using the 13 to 14 and equalled 7.55 cm, while in girls, the PHV is as early as at 11 to 12
formula provided by Matiegka (1927, p. 80): years. Girls grew by 7.05 cm in this period (Table 3.2, Figure 3.9). In short, girls
experience the onset of the growth spurt two years earlier than boys. Sexual
I = P/S dimorphism is also evident in the year-on-year gain in height after the peak
with P – weight (g), S – height (cm) height velocity. In girls, the survey found a reduction in year-on-year gains in
height and a marked slowdown in growth rate compared to boys of the same
The Corpulence Index was calculated for the relevant population so as to age (Table 3.2, Figure 3.9). Bláha, Sussane, and Rebato (2007), Hermanus-
compare the measurements with the results reported by Matiegka (1927, pp. sen et al. (2013), Karlberg et al. (2003), Malina, Bouchard, and Bar-Or, (2004)
75, 79, and 80) in his 1895 survey of boys and girls aged six to 14 years. and Rogol et al. (2002) report a similar intersexual dimorphism in terms of the
A two-tailed t-test was used to statistically assess the differences in the growth in height.
height and weight of present-day boys and girls aged six to 14, and the dif-
ferences in year-on-year gains in the height and weight of boys and girls were
Table 3.2
determined using the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the post hoc
Boys’ and girls’ height (cm)
Scheffe test.
The mean body parameters of the group of boys and girls from the Moravi-
an region who were monitored (hereinafter “2015 Boys” and “2015 Girls”) AGE 2015 BOYS 2015 GIRLS t-test
were compared both to the 1895 results for six-to-14-year-old boys and girls (YEARS) d p
(hereinafter “1895 Boys” and “1895 Girls”) reported by Matiegka (1927) and N M SD diff N M SD diff
to the reference data of the 6th Nationwide Anthropological Survey of Chil-
dren and Adolescents 2001 Czech Republic (Bláha, Vignerová, Riedlová, Kob- 6 159 123.08 3.99 – 251 121.97 4.37 – 1.11 0.0096**
zová, Krejčovský, & Brabec, 2005) (hereinafter “6th NAS 2001 Boys” and “6th 7 503 128.06 5.44 4.98** 450 126.75 5.13 4.78** 1.31 0.0004**
NAS 2001 Girls”). The findings of these surveys were compared using an un-
paired one-tailed t-test. Statistical tests were performed at significance levels 8 323 133.32 5.93 5.26** 294 132.24 6.54 5.49** 1.08 0.0311*
of *p<.05 and **p<.01 (Hinton, 2004). The results were statistically processed 9 197 139.02 5.69 5.70** 169 138.47 6.73 6.23** 0.54 0.4020
using the TIBCO STATISTICA program, version 13.3.
10 165 144.61 6.71 5.59** 165 144.12 7.03 5.65** 0.49 0.5206
11 174 150.26 7.44 5.65** 166 150.97 7.10 6.85** –0.70 0.3725
Results
12 174 157.41 8.60 7.15** 180 158.02 6.90 7.05** –0.61 0.4603
A comparison of the mean height of subjects aged six to 14 suggests a diffe­
rent level of development for both sexes in the Infans II period (Table 3.2, Figure 13 180 163.75 8.38 6.34** 145 161.50 5.87 3.48** 2.35 0.0045**
3.9). In the younger school age, specifically from six to 12 years of age, there 14 175 171.30 8.47 7.55** 161 163.99 6.53 2.49 7.71 0.0000**
is a difference in the growth trend in boys and girls. Until the age of nine, boys
have a higher mean height compared with girls of the same age. In contrast, at Note: N – number of subjects, M – arithmetic mean, SD – standard deviation, diff
the age of 10 to 12, girls grow taller than boys of the same age as a result of the – difference in mean yearly increases and their statistical significance (ANOVA),
earlier onset of their pubertal growth spurt. The differences in height in this age d – difference in the means of boys and girls in the respective age category, t-test –
period, however, are not statistically significant. significance level, *p<.05 and **p<.01.
A major sex differentiation in height was found at the age of 13 to 14, where
the growth spurt begins to manifest itself in boys, two years later than in girls,
and boys start to have a significantly greater height compared to girls of the Table 3.2 and Figure 3.9 show that, as a result of an earlier growth spurt in
same age (Table 3.2, Figure 3.9). There is also an evident intersexual difference height, girls between the ages of nine and 12 first compensate and later, at the
in the total growth in height within the period in question. Between the ages of ages of 11 to 12, experience a statistically insignificant increase in mean height.
six and 14 years, boys grew by 48.22 cm and girls by 42.02 cm (Table 3.2). The At this point, the girls’ curve crosses above the boys’ height. From the age of
total relative growth in height between the ages of six and 14 years is 39.12% 13, boys begin to have a higher mean height compared to girls of the same age,
in boys and 34.45% in girls. and this trend continues until adulthood (Kopecký et al., 2016).

70 71
 Table 3.3
Boys’ and girls’ weight (kg)

AGE 2015 BOYS 2015 GIRLS t-test

(YEARS) d p
N M SD diff N M SD diff

6 159 23.87 3.47 - 251 23.41 3.96 - 0.46 0.1884

7 503 27.01 5.33 3.14** 450 26.20 4.97 2.79** 0.81 0.0161*
8 323 31.00 6.95 3.99** 294 29.79 7.02 3.59** 1.21 0.0320*
9 197 34.40 7.52 3.40** 169 33.29 7.53 3.50** 0.54 0.4020
10 165 38.51 9.42 4.11** 165 37.82 9.54 4.53** 0.70 0.5048
11 174 42.86 9.32 4.35** 166 42.38 9.90 4.56** 0.48 0.6434
12 174 48.67 11.59 5.81** 180 48.58 10.56 6.20** 0.09 0.9400
13 180 55.60 11.92 6.93** 145 52.31 10.64 3.73** 3.28 0.0100*
14 175 62.19 14.09 6.59** 161 55.72 9.63 3.41 6.47 0.0000**
Figure 3.9
Intersexual dimorphism in the height (cm) of boys and girls Note: N – number of subjects, M – arithmetic mean, SD – standard deviation, diff
– difference in mean yearly increases and their statistical significance (ANOVA),
d – difference in the means of boys and girls in the respective age category, t-test –
significance level, *p<.05 and **p<.01.

Table 3.3 and Figure 3.10 show increases in weight and the differences in the
values of boys and girls aged six to 14 years. Boys across all the surveyed age
groups show a greater weight compared to girls, with statistically significant
differences recorded only between the ages of seven and eight and 13 and 14.
Intersexual differences begin to deepen considerably from the age of 13. While
the weight difference in six-year-old boys and girls is 0.46 kg, at the age of 14,
it is 6.47 kg (Table 3.3, Figure 3.10). The above differences in the weight of boys
and girls are due to a different representation of body fractions. While there is
an increase in skeletal muscle and bones and a decrease in the fat fraction in
boys, in girls, weight increases mainly as a result of the growing share of the fat
fraction (Bláha et al., 1986; Kopecký, 2006; Malina, Bouchard, & Bar-Or, 2004;
Rogol et al., 2002; Shepard, 2005). A one-way analysis of variance established
joint significant differences in year-on-year weight gains from the age of six to
14 in the group of boys and girls that was monitored. The maximum increase in
weight (peak weight velocity PWV) in girls was established aged 11 to 12 (6.20
kg), and in boys aged 12 to 13 (6.93 kg). After this period, the year-on-year
weight gains are markedly lower in girls compared with boys of the same age.
The total weight increase from the age of six until the age of 14 was 38.32 kg
in boys and 32.31 kg in girls. The relative weight increase between the ages of
six and 14 years was 160.54% in boys and 138.02% in girls.
Figure 3.10
Intersexual dimorphism in the weight (kg) of boys and girls

72 73
Discussion (Table 3.4, Figure 3.11). Different results were established by Kopecký (2006)
in boys from the Olomouc region, measured in 2002, where the peak height
The mean height and weight of the groups of boys and girls aged six to 14 velocity was one year later (at the ages of 14 to 15) and equalled 9.02 cm. The
from the Moravian region who were monitored indicate growth and intersexual total increase in the height of boys aged six to 14 is 49 cm (39.84%) in the 2001
patterns of physical growth and development. Consistently with the literature Boys and 48.22 cm (39.20%) in the 2015 Boys.
(Bláha, Susane, & Rebato, 2007; Cardoso, 2008; Hermanussen et al., 2013;
Karlberg et al., 2003; Malina, Bouchard, & Bar-Or, 2004; Rogol et al., 2002;
Vignerová et al., 2006), the survey found different growth rates, peak height
velocity (PHV), and peak weight velocity (PWV) between boys and girls, and
a gradual decrease in the growth rates in the following growth period and ac-
centuation of intersexual differences between boys and girls. Sudimáková et
al. (2013) report similar data on physical development in boys and girls living
in the Prešov region. The authors determined that the growth spurt in girls be-
gins two years earlier than in boys, and that year-on-year gains in height and
weight also drop faster. Weight was found to develop similarly in boys and girls
until the age of 13. From the age of 13, boys have a significantly higher weight
compared to girls of the same age.
The growth in height in present-day boys aged six to 14 years from the
Moravian region is nearly identical to the reference standards of the 6th NAS
2001 (Bláha et al., 2005), exhibiting the same dynamics. No significant differ-
ences in mean height between the two groups were found in any of the age
categories (Table 3.4, Figure 3.11). Concordance was also established in the
age of the peak height velocity (PHV) – this was at the ages of 13 to 14 for both
the groups. Similarly, the greatest height gain is the same for both the groups
– 2015 Boys (7.55 cm) and the reference group Boys 6th NAS 2001 (7.30 cm)

Table 3.4 Figure 3.11

Boys’ height (cm) in 2001 and in 2015 Boys’ height (cm) in 2001 and in 2015

AGE 6th NAS 2001 BOYS 2015 BOYS diff t-test

(YEARS)
N M SD N M SD 2001–2015 p The mean height of the girls in 2015 Girls corresponds to the reference data
of the 6th NAS 2001 (Bláha et al., 2005) and also shows similar growth dynam-
6 802 122.68 5.52 159 123.08 3.99 0.40 0.2079 ics. The peak height velocity (PHV) was also jointly found to be at the age of
7 1129 128.39 5.92 503 128.06 5.44 –0.33 0.1677 11 to 12, with values sitting at 7.05 cm for the girls in the Moravian region and
at 6.59 cm for the girls in the 6th NAS 2001 (Table 3.5, Figure 3.12). Similarly,
8 1227 133.88 6.01 323 133.32 5.93 –0.56 0.0909 the peak height velocity in the girls of 2002 (Kopecký, 2011) was established
9 1367 138.92 6.26 197 139.02 5.69 0.09 0.8125 as being at the age of 11 to 12, with the greatest increase in height being 7.15
cm. The girls in the 6th NAS 2001 grew by 42.98 cm (35.33%) in the period that
10 1401 144.25 6.70 165 144.61 6.71 0.35 0.4966 was surveyed, while the 2015 Girls from the Moravian region grew by 42.02 cm
11 1694 149.66 7.25 174 150.26 7.44 0.60 0.2866 (34.45%).
Prokopec (1999) reports that the average girl in 1991 reached the mean
12 1676 156.84 8.25 174 157.41 8.60 0.56 0.3840
height of a 14-year-old girl (156.40 cm) in 1951 as early as at the age of 12
13 1703 163.74 8.76 180 163.75 8.38 0.01 0.9830 (156.59 cm), and at the age of 14, she was 164.56 cm tall. Boys also recorded
14 1447 171.03 8.55 175 171.30 8.47 0.27 0.6739
growth acceleration. While in 1951, a 14-year-old boy was 156.70 cm tall on
average (Fetter et al., 1963), in 1991, a boy of the same age was 169.51 cm tall
Note: N – number of subjects, M – arithmetic mean, SD – standard deviation, diff – on average (Lhotská et al., 1993).
difference between the reference group 6th NAS 2001 Boys and 2015 Boys in the
respective age category, t-test – significance level.

74 75
Table 3.5 The boys in 2001 and 2015, however, were found to have different weight
Girls’ height (cm) in 2001 and in 2015 growth dynamics (Table 3.6, Figure 3.13).
Compared to the reference values of the 6th NAS 2001 (Bláha et al., 2005),
6th NAS 2001 GIRLS 2015 GIRLS diff
2015 Boys (excepting the six- and seven-year-olds) were found to have a higher
AGE t-test
p mean weight.
(YEARS) N M SD N M SD 2001–2015
Statistically significant differences were identified in the age group of boys
6 834 121.65 5.50 251 121.97 4.37 0.31 0.2533 aged 11, 13, and 14 in the sense of higher values in our group (Table 3.6, Figure
3.13). The peak weight velocity (PWV) was established in the case of 2015 Boys
7 1101 127.13 5.67 450 126.75 5.13 0.38 0.1133
(6.93 kg) as early as at the ages of 12 to 13, while in the 6th NAS 2001 Boys
8 1241 132.82 6.06 294 132.24 6.54 0.58 0.1266 (6.39 kg), it was at the ages of 13 to 14. The weight of the reference population
9 1284 138.39 6.41 169 138.47 6.73 0.08 0.8749
of the boys of the 6th NAS 2001 grew in total by 143.06% (34.62 kg), while the
weight of the current group of 2015 Boys grew by 160.54% (38.32 kg).
10 1469 144.61 7.10 165 144.12 7.03 0.49 0.3713
11 1641 151.00 7.60 166 150.97 7.10 0.03 0.9529 Table 3.6
12 1644 157.59 7.34 180 158.02 6.90 0.43 0.4062 Boys’ weight (kg) in 2001 and in 2015
13 1578 161.95 6.62 145 161.50 5.87 0.55 0.2614
AGE 6th NAS 2001 BOYS 2015 BOYS diff t-test
14 1495 164.63 6.42 161 163.99 6.53 0.64 0.2136
(YEARS) N M SD N M SD 2001–2015 p

Note: N – number of subjects, M – arithmetic mean, SD – standard deviation, diff 6 802 24.20 4.16 159 23.87 3.47 0.33 0.2335
– difference between the reference group 6th NAS 2001 Girls and 2015 Girls in the
respective age category, t-test – significance level. 7 1130 27.03 5.06 503 27.01 5.33 0.02 0.9268
8 1227 30.36 5.61 323 31.00 6.95 0.64 0.1002
9 1367 33.55 6.97 197 34.40 7.52 0.85 0.1139
10 1403 37.47 7.75 165 38.51 9.42 1.04 0.1565
11 1495 41.34 9.01 174 42.86 9.32 1.52 0.0325*
12 1675 47.03 10.40 174 48.67 11.59 1.64 0.0635
13 1704 52.43 10.98 180 55.60 11.92 3.17 0.0005**
14 1446 58.82 10.72 175 62.19 14.09 3.37 0.0019**

Note: N – number of subjects, M – arithmetic mean, SD – standard deviation, diff –

difference between the reference group 6th NAS 2001 Boys and 2015 Boys in the
respective age category, t-test – significance level, *p<.05 and **p<.01.

* Projects:
Obesity epidemic – Common Issue: Transfer of Knowledge, Education,
Prevention. (PL.3.22/2.3.00/11.02576). Assessment of the somatic shape,
posture and functional state of the supportive locomotive systemin
children of young school age at elementary schools in the Olomouc region
(IGA_FZV_2014_015).
Figure 3.12 The prevalence of overweight and obesity and the level of motor performance
Girls’ height (cm) in 2001 and in 2015 in children in the Olomouc region (Czech Republic) and the Nitra region
(Slovakia)(IGA_FZV_2015_004).

76 77
 (PWV) occurring at the ages of 11 to 12 years (2015 Girls – 6.20 kg, 6th
NAS 2001 Girls – 5.32 kg), after which the year-on-year gains begin to fall
(Table 3.7, Figure 3.14). The absolute and relative weight gain in the reference
period was 30.99 kg (131.09%) for girls in 2001 and 32.91 kg (138.72%) for
girls in 2015.

Figure 3.13
Boys’ weight (kg) in 2001 and in 2015

A comparison of the mean values and the course of the weight growth curve
suggests that girls in the Moravian region show a slightly higher mean weight
at the ages of six to 14 years compared to the reference data of the girls of
the 6th NAS 2001 (Bláha et al., 2005). These values are not statistically sig-
nificant (Bláha et al., 2005) (Table 3.7, Figure 3.14). In both groups, there is
a trend of increasing year-on-year weight gains, with the peak weight velocity Figure 3.14
Girls’ weight (kg) in 2001 and in 2015
Table 3.7 Girls’ weight (kg) in 2001 and in 2015
The mean weight of boys and girls in the Moravian region is higher compared
AGE 6th NAS 2001 GIRLS 2015 GIRLS diff t-test with the reference data of the 6th NAS 2001. The results reported by Kopecký
(YEARS)
2001-2015 p (2016) and our interim results suggest that in the past 10 years, there has been
N M SD N M SD
an increase in the number of boys and girls in the BMI percentiles of overweight
6 835 23.64 4.10 251 23.41 3.96 0.23 0.2925 (90th percentile to 97th percentile) and obesity (over 97th percentile) in the
Moravian region.
7 1101 26.31 4.96 450 26.20 4.97 0.11 0.6388
As the above suggests, the prevalence of obesity in boys and girls is increas-
8 1241 29.48 5.64 294 29.79 7.02 0.31 0.4541 ing in the Moravian region compared to 2001, as reported by Vignerová et al.
9 1284 32.70 6.70 169 33.29 7.53 0.59 0.3103 (2006). The results above demonstrate that the height of boys and girls aged 6
to 14 in the Olomouc region coincides with the reference data of the 6th NAS
10 1469 37.33 7.94 165 37.82 9.54 0.49 0.5129 2001 (Bláha et al., 2005), as well as with the mean body height of seven-to-15-
11 1641 41.81 9.09 166 42.38 9.90 0.57 0.4587 year-old boys and girls from the Moravian region, reported by Kopecký (2011).
Since 2001, the year of the latest 6th Nationwide Anthropological Survey of
12 1644 47.13 9.13 180 48.58 10.56 1.45 0.0674 Children and Adolescents 2001 Czech Republic (Bláha et al., 2005), the height
13 1578 51.25 8.86 145 52.31 10.64 1.06 0.2311 of contemporary boys and girls in the Moravian region has not increased in
terms of the secular trend. It follows that the positive secular trend of height
14 1495 54.63 8.63 161 55.72 9.63 1.09 0.1540 has probably slowed down or stopped. The findings suggest that the genetic
growth potential has been exhausted in this respect, or, as Vignerová et al.
Note: N – number of subjects, M – arithmetic mean, SD – standard deviation, diff
– difference between the reference group 6th NAS 2001 Girls and 2015 Girls in the (2006) reports, adverse environmental factors have been slowing down or stop-
respective age category, t-test – significance level. ping physical growth, or there is an interaction of both factors.

78 79
 Different conclusions have been reached in terms of weight assessment. that was monitored was 41 cm, i.e. a 37.31% increase in boys measured 120
The results show that boys and girls aged six to 14 living in the Olomouc region years ago, and 48.22 cm in boys measured in 2015, i.e. a 39.18% increase in
have a higher weight compared to the 6th NAS 2001. However, not all age height over nine years of physical growth.
groups display statistically significant differences. Compared with the findings
of the 6th NAS 2001 (Bláha et al., 2005), the growth in height has stopped. Table 3.8 The height (cm) of boys in 1895 and 2015
In contrast, in the case of weight, there is a trend of a gradual increase in
adolescent boys and girls. This trend indicates an increase in the number of
AGE 1895 BOYS 2015 BOYS
overweight and obese individuals in the Czech population (Hainer et al., 2004; t-test
(YEARS) d
Kopecký, 2016; Kunešová et al., 2016; Marinov & Pastucha, 2012; Pařízková, Min. – Min. – p
Lisá, et al., 2007; Vignerová et al., 2001). M diff R M diff R
Max. Max.
Considering the results of nationwide anthropological surveys, it can be stat- 6 109.90 – 94–127 33 123.08 – 114–135 21 13.18 0.0000**
ed that a 14-year-old boy in 1951 weighed 46.41 kg (Fetter et al., 1963), and in
1991 57.22 kg. This weight is 1.60 kg lower compared to the mean weight of 7 115.50 5.60 99–140 41 128.06 4.98 114–156 42 12.56 0.0000**
a 14-year-old boy in 2001 (Table 3.6). The mean weight of 14-year-old girls in 8 120.50 5.00 99–145 46 133.32 5.26 115–155 40 12.82 0.0000**
1951 was 48.90 kg (Fetter et al., 1963), while in 1991 it was 54.09 kg (Lhotská et
al., 1993), which basically equals the girls’ weight (54.63 kg) in 2001 (Table 3.7). 9 125.30 4.80 102–146 44 139.02 5.70 124–153 29 13.72 0.0000**
Bláha et al. (1994) compared the findings of the nationwide anthropological sur- 10 129.40 4.10 105–150 45 144.61 5.59 127–159 32 15.21 0.0000**
veys of 1981 and 1991, concluding that in 1991, the mean height and weight of
boys and the height of girls were higher than in 1981. The weight of girls in 1991 11 133.50 4.10 114–159 45 150.26 5.65 128–170 42 16.76 0.0000**
was, however, lower in comparison with the 1981 results. Bláha argues that the 12 138.90 5.40 116–166 50 157.41 7.15 133–180 47 18.30 0.0000**
weight loss trend persists, moving into younger age groups in girls. Our results
13 144.30 5.40 117–180 63 163.75 6.34 142–185 43 19.45 0.0000**
do not confirm the above weight loss trend in the current population of girls.
Assessing the sexual dimorphism of height in girls and boys in 1895, Matieg- 14 150.90 6.60 127–180 53 171.30 7.55 143–185 42 20.40 0.0000**
ka (1927) determined that girls are shorter than boys between the ages of six
Note: M – arithmetic mean, diff – difference in the mean yearly increases, Min. –
and 10, but from the age of 11, they have a greater height compared to boys
minimal value, Max. – maximal value, R – variation range, d – difference in the means
of the same age. Matiegka (1927, p. 76) says that “Confirmed by all statistics of the groups 1895 Boys and 2015 Boys in the respective age category, t-test –
available, the fact that girls outgrow boys between the ages of 11 and 15 significance level, **p<.01.
is a sign of faster maturation (sic!).” He specifies that boys consistently have
a greater height than girls of the same age only at the age of 16.
Tables 3.8 and 3.9 show the growth in the height of boys and girls in 1895,
reported by Matiegka (1927). The year-on-year gains in height indicate that the
peak height velocity (PHW) is reached by both boys (6.60 cm) and girls (6.20
cm) at the ages of 14 to 15. After reaching the peak height velocity, boys con-
tinue to grow significantly until the age of 16 (a year-on-year gain of 6.20 cm).
Subsequently, the gains gradually decrease until the age of 20. As the mean
height of girls aged 15 to 20 years in 1895 was not described, no analysis could
be performed (Matiegka, 1927).
Table 3.8 and Figure 3.15 compare the means, year-on-year gains, and
differences in the height of the boys in 1895 and 2015. The differences are
statistically highly significant and continue to grow across all age categories
between the ages of six and 14. The biggest difference in height among boys
of the same age was found at the age of 14 years, with a present-day boy being
20.40 cm taller than a boy of the same age 120 years ago, and about 2 cm taller
than an adult man in 1895. Matiegka (1918) reported that men aged 20 to 50
had a mean height of 169.2 cm. Prokopec (1999) reported that the mean height
of boys aged 14 years increased by approximately 20 cm between 1895 and
1991. The absolute and relative gain in the period from six to 14 years of age Figure 3.15
The height (cm) of boys in 1895 and 2015

80 81
 Predicted differences in mean height were also found in the groups of girls
that were compared (Table 3.9, Figure 3.16). Contemporary girls are statistically
significantly taller across all age categories between the ages of six and 14 years.
There are also notable differences in the year-on-year gains in height. While in the
girls measured in 1895 the year-on-year gains from the age of six to 14 show an
increasing trend, with the peak height velocity at the ages of 13 and 14 (6.20 cm),
in present-day girls, a gradual acceleration of height is notable until the age of
12 years, with the highest year-on-year gain being 7.05 cm. The PHV is followed
by a marked deceleration and gradual termination of height growth in girls. The
differences in PHV between the girls from 1895 and 2015 show that in the second
decade of ontogeny, the age of PHV was lowered from the age of 14 to 15 years
in the 1895 Girls to the age of 11 to 12 years in the early 21st century, and that
puberty in girls has become shorter. Considering this age of PHV, present-day
girls are 18.52 cm taller compared to girls of the same age in 1895 (Table 3.9).
Subsequently, differences in mean height drop to 12.99 cm at the age of 14 years
as a result of a significant decrease in year-on-year gains in height in present-day
girls, whereas the year-on-year gains in the 1895 Girls increased.
Interestingly, present-day 12-year-old girls, with a mean height of 158.20 cm,
are as tall as, or taller than, adult women in 1895, whose mean height was Figure 3.16
157.30 cm (Matiegka, 1918). The height (cm) of girls in 1895 and 2015

Table 3.9 As predicted, across all age groups, the weight and corpulence index of
The height (cm) of girls in 1895 and 2015 present-day boys aged six to 14 years shows statistically significantly higher
means compared to boys of the same age in 1895 (Table 3.10, Figure 3.17). The
1895 GIRLS 2015 GIRLS difference in year-on-year weight gains and the corpulence index between the
AGE
d
t-test relevant groups of boys is worth noting. There is a marked increase in the year-
(YEARS) Min. – Min. – p on-year gains in both the parameters that were monitored in present-day six-
M diff R M diff R
Max. Max. to-14-year-old boys compared to boys of the same age at the end of the 19th
6 110.20 – 76–126 50 121.97 – 110–132 22 11.77 0.0000** century. The highest year-on-year gains, however, were established for both the
groups as being at the ages of 13 and 14. The greatest difference in weight was
7 114.10 3.90 88–132 44 126.75 4.78 114–145 31 12.65 0.0000** found, as in the case of height, to be at the age of 14 years; a present-day boy
8 118.40 4.30 88–144 56 132.24 5.49 115–152 37 13.84 0.0000** weighs 21.49 kg more than a boy of the same age in 1895 (Matiegka, 1927).
In other words, a present-day 10-to-11-year-old boy has the same weight as a
9 123.60 5.20 91–143 52 138.47 6.23 123–163 40 14.87 0.0000** 14-year-old boy in 1895. Similarly, a difference was established in the absolute
10 128.20 4.60 104–150 46 144.12 5.65 123–163 40 15.92 0.0000** and relative weight gain and the corpulence index between the ages of six and
14 years: in the case of the 1895 Boys, the weight increased by 22.10 kg (by
11 133.80 5.60 105–165 60 150.97 6.85 131–167 36 17.17 0.0000** 118.82%) and the corpulence index by 101 g/cm (by 109.30%), while in the
12 139.50 5.70 109–163 54 158.02 7.05 139–177 38 18.52 0.0000** present-day boys, the weight increased by 38.32 kg (by 160.54%), and the
corpulence index by 168.09 g/cm (by 86.84%).
13 144.80 5.30 110–166 56 161.50 3.48 144–176 32 16.60 0.0000**
14 151.00 6.20 113–173 60 163.99 2.49 149–181 32 12.99 0.0000**

Note: M – arithmetic mean, diff – difference in mean yearly increases, Min. – minimal
value, Max. – maximal value, R – variation range, d – difference in the means of the
groups 1895 Girls and 2015 Girls in the respective age category, t-test – significance
level, **p<.01.

82 83
 Table 3.10
Note: M – arithmetic mean, diff – difference in mean yearly increases, P/S – corpulence index, d – difference in the means

(YEARS)
AGE
10
13

12
14

11

6
9
of the groups 1895 Boys and 2015 Boys in the respective age category, t-test – significance level, **p<.01.

36.80

30.80
33.40

23.40

18.60
40.70

21.20
27.20

25.10

(kg)
M

The weight (kg) and corpulence index (g/cm) in boys in 1895 and in 2015
3.90

3.60
3.40

2.20

2.60
2.60

1895 BOYS
1.70
2.10

diff
(kg)
–

(g/cm)
P/S
200
223
255

240

183

169
194
270

210

(g/cm)
P/S
diff
10
13
15

15

14
17

11
6

–
55.60

34.40
48.67

42.86

23.87
38.51

31.00

27.01
62.19

(kg)
M
3.99
6.93

4.35
6.59

3.40
5.81

3.14
4.11

diff
(kg)

2015 BOYS
Figure 3.17

–
The corpulence index (g/cm) in boys in 1895 and in 2015
306.88
338.20

283.90

264.84

246.44

193.56
361.65

231.49

210.14

(g/cm)
P/S
Table 3.11 and Figure 3.18 illustrate the differences in mean weight and
the corpulence index between six-to-14-year-old girls measured in 1895 and
2015. Present-day girls across all age groups have a significantly higher mean
(g/cm)
23.45

22.98

16.58
19.06

18.40

14.95

21.35
31.32

P/S
diff weight and corpulence index compared to girls of the same age in 1895. Both
–

the groups of girls were found to have the highest weight gain at the time of
PHV, i.e. at the age of 12 years for present-day girls (6.20 kg), and at the age
1895–2015 1895–2015

of 14 years for girls in 1895 (6.40 kg). The year-on-year weight gains show
18.80

15.27

12.06
21.49

11.31

9.30

5.27
5.81
7.60

(kg)

themselves to be higher between the ages of six and 12 years in present-day

d

girls, dropping significantly at the age of 13 to 14 years, where the values are
lower compared to girls of the same age in 1895. In contrast, there is a gradual
increase in the year-on-year gains in the 1895 Girls between the ages of six and
(g/cm)

14 (Table 3.11). A similar trend is noted in the case of the corpulence index and
66.88

60.90
83.20

54.84

46.44

24.56
91.65

37.49

27.14

its year-on-year gains in the 1895 Girls and the 2015 Girls. In the period that
was monitored, from the age of six until the age of 14, the weight in the case of
the 1895 Girls grew by 26.10 kg (by 140.32%) and the corpulence index by 125
g/cm (by 73.96%), while in present-day girls, the weight increased by 32.31 kg
0.0000**

0.0000**

0.0000**
0.0000**

0.0000**

0.0000**

0.0000**

0.0000**
0.0000**

weight
t–test

(by 138.02%) and the corpulence index by 147.68 g/cm (by 77.10%).
p

On the basis of the analysis of results and the comparison of the height of
six-to-14-year-old boys and girls from 1895 and 2015, two processes of the
secular trend are identified: height has increased significantly across all age
0.0000**

0.0000**

0.0000**

0.0000**

0.0000**
0.0000**

0.0000**

0.0000**
0.0000**

t–test

groups in boys and girls, the onset of the growth spurt and peak height velocity
P/S
p

has shifted to lower age categories, maturation occurs earlier, and the adult
height is higher (Kopecký et al., 2016).
It should also be noted that the mean height and weight of present-day boys
and girls are already statistically significantly higher at the age of six compared
to the 1895 research at the beginning of Infans II. The measurements of boys

84 85
 and girls aged six years in 1895 indicate faster secular growth in Infans I (Table

Table 3.11 The weight (kg) and corpulence index (g/cm) in girls in 1895 and in 2015
Note: M – arithmetic mean, diff – difference between mean yearly increases, P/S – corpulence index, d – difference between

(YEARS)
3.8 and 3.9, Figure 3.15 and 3.16). and a consistent growth spurt in the next

AGE
13

10
12
14

11

6
the means of the groups 1895 Girls and 2015 Girls in the respective age category, t-test – significance level, **p<.01

phase of ontogeny in the Czech population in the 20th century.

38.30

33.30

30.20

20.80
22.50
24.90

18.60
44.70

27.30

(kg)
M
5.00
6.40

2.90

2.20
2.40

2.40

1.70

1895 GIRLS
3.10

diff
(kg)
–

(g/cm)
P/S
294

264

239

226

201

190

169
182
213

(g/cm)
P/S
diff
30

24

13

13

12

12
11

–
33.29
48.58

26.20
42.38
55.72

52.31

29.79

23.41
37.82

(kg)
M

2015 GIRLS
6.20

4.56

4.53

3.50

3.59
3.73
3.41

2.79

diff
(kg)
–

Figure 3.18
339.23

323.56

306.31

223.96

205.98
239.09
260.73
279.37

191.55

(g/cm)
P/S
The corpulence index (g/cm) in girls in 1895 and in 2015
(g/cm)
26.92

18.66
15.67

14.43
21.64

Conclusion
17.25

17.98
15.13

P/S
diff
–

A comparison of the results of the transverse survey of present-day boys and

girls aged six to 14 years confirmed that the physical growth in height and
1895–2015 1895–2015

weight demonstrates sexual dimorphism. Boys aged six to nine years have a
15.28

10.52
14.01
11.02

12.18

8.39

5.40

4.81
7.29

(kg)

higher mean height and weight compared to girls of the same age. The growth
spurt in girls begins as early as the age of nine years and lasts until the age of
12 years. Compared to boys, girls in this period of time have the same height
and weight or higher, which indicates a slight pubertal crossover of these
45.23

33.96
38.09

(g/cm)
59.56

23.98
53.37

22.55
67.31

47.73

parameters in favour of girls. After reaching the PHV and PWV at the age of
d

12 years, girls report more significant drops in year-on-year gains than boys.
Starting at the age of 13, the growth spurt in boys leads to a marked sexual
dimorphism in their favour, and this lasts until the end of the period under study.
0.0000**

0.0000**

0.0000**

0.0000**

0.0000**

0.0000**

0.0000**

0.0000**

0.0000**

t–test
weight

The results of the comparison of the height and weight of subjects aged six
p

to 14 years from the Moravian region suggest that the height of present-day
boys and girls corresponds to the reference values of the 6th NAS 2001. The
consistent mean height, however, indicates a deceleration or termination of the
0.0000**

0.0000**

0.0000**

0.0000**

0.0000**

0.0000**

0.0000**

0.0000**

0.0000**

positive secular trend in the height of the current population. In contrast, the
t-test
P/S

weight of both sexes tends to increase, compared to the reference data of the
p

6th NAS 2001, and the trend is more pronounced in boys from the age of 13
years. The higher mean weight of boys and girls from the Moravian region, in
all probability, reflects the rising prevalence of overweight and obesity in the
current Czech population of children.

86 87
 Comparing the findings of the 2015 transverse survey of boys and girls aged
six to 14 years with the findings of Matiegka’s survey in 1895, we find notable
differences in height and weight. Present-day boys and girls aged 11 years
have approximately the same height and weight as boys and girls aged 14
years in 1895. Furthermore, it was found that present-day boys aged 14 years
have a mean height (171.30 cm) higher than adult men in 1895 (169.20 cm),
and present-day girls aged 12 years are taller (158.02 cm) than adult women
(157.30 cm) in 1895 (Figure 3.19 and Figure 3.20).
Boy in 1895: Boy in 2015:
Height: 148.80 cm Height: 171.30 cm
Weight: 40.70 kg Weight: 62.19 kg
Figure 3.19
The difference in the height and weight of a 14-year-old boy in 1895 and in 2015
Similarly to height, statistically significant differences between the 1895
survey and the 2015 survey were established in terms of weight (as predicted)
across all the age groups of boys and girls aged six to 14 years.
By assessing weight against height, i.e. the corpulence index, it was found
that present-day boys and girls aged six to 14 years have higher values (g/cm)
compared to boys and girls of the same age in 1895. This indicates a positive
secular trend of weight gain in the current population of boys and girls. The
weight gains in grams per height in cm are nonetheless significantly higher in
present-day boys than in girls.
A comparison of the results that are presented shows that the 20th cen-
tury was the time of the greatest growth and developmental acceleration in
the development of the growth of the Czech population of boys and girls;
the period of puberty became shorter and moved to lower age categories
and the full (adult) height is now reached earlier. At the beginning of the
21st century, the positive secular trend in height concludes or abates, but
in the case of weight, the “positive” secular trend will probably continue,
with a stronger manifestation in boys/men compared to girls/women. This
“positive” secular trend is, unfortunately, not desirable in terms of body
composition.
The findings suggest that the genetic growth potential has been exhausted
in this respect, or adverse environmental factors have been slowing or stopping
physical growth, or there is an interaction of both these factors.
The comparison of the physical development of boys and girls from the
Moravian region with the reference data of the 6th NAS 2001 underlines
the importance of regional anthropological research, particularly if the tra-
dition of nationwide anthropological surveys is not restored. In the future,
large-scale regional surveys, in particular, can monitor health, socioeco-
nomic conditions, nutritional habits, lifestyle, etc. In a society which faces
constant changes in the economic, cultural, and social spheres. Regional
anthropological research can thus become an important tool for moni-
toring the health of the child and adolescent population in the future and
possibly help identify new growth and development trends in the Czech
population.

3.6.2 The secular trend in body height and weight

in the adult population in the Czech Republic
In 1794, in his draft of “statistical geography of Bohemia”, a good expert on
Czech society, Prof. J. A. Rieger, described the somatic condition of the Czech
people as follows, “In physical terms the Czechs are of medium height, not
Girl in 1895: Girl in 2015: fat but muscular, tenacious, firm and strong.” (Matiegka, 1918).
Height: 138.70 cm Height: 158.01 cm Body height has been measured since time immemorial at the time of the
Weight: 33.30 kg Weight: 48.58 kg conscription of young men into army training (Bodzsár & Susanne, 1998; Her-
manussen et al., 2013; Matiegka, 1918; Ulijaszek, Johnston, & Preece, 1998).
Figure 3.20 The acquired data provides excellent evidence of the secular trend of body
The difference in the height and weight of a 12-year-old girl in 1895 and in 2015 height in various European countries.

88 89
 In his analysis of body height Matiegka (1918) indicates that the average
height of 20-year-old recruits at the time of conscription between 1889 and
1894 was 165.7 cm. His statement that the 20-year-old young men concerned
would continue to grow (up to about 30-32 years of age), and therefore the
population of the Czech Republic must be considered rather tall or at least
above average in comparison with the general average for humans – with the
average body height of adult men being 165 cm – is noteworthy.
In his research in 1895 for the “Ethnographic Exhibition of Czechoslovakia”,
Matiegka (1918, 1927) found that the average body height for adult males of
24–50 years of age was 169.2 cm and for adult women the height was 157.3
cm, i.e. 12 cm less than men. He also stated that the men reached their great-
est weight of 72–73 kg between 40 and 50 years of age. Their average weight
was 71 kg. Subsequently, he specified that if the weight of clothes was sub-
tracted, the average weight was 69 kg for men and 65 kg for women. In that
period, Haškovec (Haškovec & Matiegka, 1895) also performed anthropometric
research on males (n=437) at the psychiatric clinic in Prague. He found that the
average height was 168.9 cm and the average weight was 60.9 kg. The average
values of body height and weight for both men and women in 1895 in Bohemia
and Moravia, i.e. in the former Austro-Hungarian Empire, which were reported
by Matiegka (1918, 1927), also form the foundation for comparative studies and
the evaluation of the secular trend of growth in the adult population for subse-
quent anthropological research in Czechoslovakia (since 1918) and later in the
Czech Republic (since 1993).
In the interwar period, not much attention was paid to monitoring the body
parameters of the adult population. The research by Knöbl (Suchý, 1972) in the
Jeseník mountains, where he measured the adult population in 21 municipal-
ities, is noteworthy. Further valuable data, which includes the measurements
of 567 athletes aged 18 to 50 years from the Sokol Sports Club, was also pre-
sented by Malý (1934).
After the Second World War, anthropological research focused on monitoring
population growth on the basis of region (Dokládal, 1953; Pavelčík, 1948) or
professional specialization, e.g. the national monitoring of the body parameters
of loggers organized and conducted by Fetter (Prokopec, 1958; Suchý, 1959).
Systematic monitoring of the somatic condition of the adult population, in
addition to monitoring children and adolescents, included regular anthropomet-
ric measurements from 1955 to 1985 at the National Spartakiad events (except
for 1970, when the Spartakiad did not take place). The Spartakiad-related
research benefited from the large concentration of exercise practitioners from
different regions of the country and made a major contribution to the study of
the body dimensions of the adult population of Czechoslovakia. In 1955 the
research at the First National Spartakiad was managed by Fetter, Titlbachová,
and Troníček, in 1960 at the Second National Spartakiad by Fetter and Hajniš,
and in 1965 by Fetter and Suchý (Fetter & Suchý, 1966). In 1975 the research
was continued by Klementa, Machová, and Menzelová (1976). This tradition
was continued by Bláha and his team of experts on the occasion of the Czech-
oslovak Spartakiad in 1980 (Bláha et al., 1982; Bláha et al., 1984) and Czecho-
slovak Spartakiad in 1985 (Bláha et al., 1986a, b).
90
In connection with measurements of the adult population, it is worthwhile to
note the research that took place between 1967 and 1974 (Seliger & Bartůněk,
1977) and the research in 1970 and 1971 (Ošancová & Hejda, 1974). The
research conducted in the International Biological Programme (IBP) proved
to be a valuable contribution to the knowledge of the Czech population. The
organizer of the research in this country was doc. V. Seliger, M.D. (Seliger &
Bartůněk, 1977). The research from 1967 to 1974 included monitoring of so-
matic development and physical fitness in the population aged 12 to 55 years.
During the research a total of 3,762 persons (2,186 men, 1,576 women) were
examined. The monitoring included 30 items of anthropometric data and skin-
fold thickness to determine the body fat percentage and physical fitness of the
population.
Ošancová and Hejda (1974) state that, in addition to children and adoles-
cents, the research involved the 18–70 age spectrum of the adult population,
with a total of 942 people (449 men, 493 women) having been measured. The
participants were subjected to a comprehensive examination which included
clinical and somatometric examination and monitoring of food consumption
and the biochemical parameters of nutritional status.
Within the field of applied anthropology, research on the adult population
involving somatometric parameters was conducted by the apparel industry
between in 1990–1991 in the Czechoslovak Federal Republic. A group of 1,000
men and 1,066 women aged 18–60 years (Šteigl, Krátoška, & Zieglerová, 1999)
was monitored. For the entire group, 42 somatometric size parameters were
measured for men and 43 size parameters for women.
In the subsequent years, the adult population in this country was not moni-
tored anthropometrically on a nationwide scale. Proper anthropometric meas-
urements of the adult population have been replaced by an indirect method us-
ing questionnaires for adults to self-report or estimate their current height and
weight. The basic physical parameters of adult population were determined
in this manner in the 5th and 6th nationwide anthropological research surveys
of children and adolescents (Czech Republic), which took place in 1991 and
2001. As part of that research the parents of the participating children were
given questionnaires to report their height and weight (Lhotská et al., 1995;
Vignerová et al., 2006). On the same principle, an indirect method was used
by the research agency STEM/MARK in 2008–2009, with the aim being to de-
termine the incidence of obesity in the adult population in the Czech Republic.
The questionnaire addressed 2,058 subjects who answered questions focused
on their current body height and weight (Matoušek et al., 2010).
In our report we focus on the evaluation of the secular trend of body height
and weight of the Czech population, drawing upon the data of representative
data sets of men and women who were measured in anthropological research.
The main objective of our research was to determine the average height and
weight for the current adult population of men aged 19 to 94 years and for
women aged 19 to 86 years in the Czech Republic, and to compare the results
obtained with reference values for the adult population acquired in this country
from 1895 to 2001 as part of representative transversal anthropological re-
search studies.
91
Methodology
Measurement of the body height and weight of the adult population of men
aged 19–94 years and women aged 19–86 years (Tables 3.12 and 3.13) was
conducted in the course of 2013–2015. A total of 3,270 subjects (915 men and
2,355 women) were examined.
The dataset consists of both full-time university students and university
students following the part-time form of study at Palacký University (Faculty of
Health Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, and Faculty of Education), as well
as men and women who were measured at several health awareness events for
the general public. The group that was researched included subjects practising
various professions and with various levels of education from across the Czech
Republic. Adults were always measured on the basis of their oral consent and
their consent to the anonymous publishing of their measured parameters.
Measuring body height and weight was performed using standardized meth-
ods of anthropometry. Body height was measured with an A-226 anthropo­
meter (Kopecký et al., 2014), body weight with the InBody 230 device (InBody
720). Body weight and height were measured without shoes (barefoot) and just
in the most necessary clothing. The measurements were carried out in a closed
space and the persons were able to undress in the required privacy. For people
who could not or did not wish for personal reasons to take off their clothes
(dresses, trousers, in the case of elderly participants because of their health
condition, etc.) their weight in the InBody 230 diagnostic device was adjusted
individually by –0.5 kg to –1.0 kg.
When the values of body height and date of birth were being entered into the
diagnostic device, the age of the person was subsequently calculated as of the
day of the measurement and the individual was classified in the corresponding
age group (Tables 3.12 and 3.13). Age categories for the comparison of sex-
ual dimorphism in both the dimensions that were monitored were determined
according to the WHO breakdown (Bláha, Susanne, & Rebato, 2007). The age
categories which were listed for reference groups in the Czechoslovak Sparta-
kiad events in 1955, 1960, 1965, 1975, 1980, and 1985 (Bláha et al., 1986a, b;
Fettter & Suchý, 1966; Klementa, Machová, & Menzelová, 1976) and in the 5th
and 6th nationwide anthropological research surveys of children and adoles-
cents in 1991 and 2001 (Lhotská et al., 1995; Vignerová et al., 2006), where the
height and weight of the adult population was monitored using questionnaires,
were respected in the group that was monitored.
From the somatic parameters which were measured for each age cate-
gory, the following were calculated: M – arithmetic mean, Me – median, SD
– standard deviation, CV – coefficient of variation, R – variation range, and
the minimum and maximum values (Mmin, Mmax) were determined. Year-to-
year differences in height and weight (diff) within the research data set and the
differences between the average values of the variables that were monitored
between groups in the corresponding age category (d) were also calculated. To
verify the normal distribution of data, the Shapiro-Wilk test for normality was
used. Average values of body height and weight in the groups of men (hereinaf-
ter only Men 2015) and women (hereinafter Women 2015) that were monitored
92
were compared using a two-tailed t-test. As the reference data sets for men
and women who were measured during the Czechoslovak Spartakiad events
(hereinafter referred to as CS or CSS) and the Nationwide Anthropological
Survey studies in 1991 and 2001 (hereinafter “NAS”) use different age groups,
the published average values for the respective age categories were used to
calculate a weighted arithmetic mean (X) (Hendl, 2004). For that reason, the
age groups in the sets Men 2015 and Women 2015 were also adjusted so as to
allow for comparison of subjects of the same age.
A one-tailed t-test was used to compare the average values for the groups
Men 2015 and Women 2015, and the reference data sets CSS and NAS, for
which weighted arithmetic means were calculated. For statistical evaluation of
the annual increments in the height and weight of men and women a one-way
analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Scheffe’s post-hoc test were used. Statistical
tests were performed at the level of significance α=0.05 (*p <.05), and α=0.01
(**p <.01) (Bláha et al., 2006). When assessing the statistical significance of
observed differences in the values of parameters, it is important to consider
that when comparing groups with high numbers of subjects even very small
differences may turn out to be significant. For these reasons it is necessary, as
stated by Bláha et al. (2006), not to overstate the results and take into consid-
eration especially the true biological significance of the observed differences.
The statistical analysis of the results was performed using STATISTICA Cz. 12.
Results
Body height is the most frequently researched somatic dimension in all anthro-
pological research. Tables 3.12 and 3.13 present the aggregate statistical char-
acteristics of the groups Men 2015 and Women 2015. The results indicate that a
man of 36 years of age is – on average – 178.58 cm tall (Me=179 cm) and weighs
80.86 kg (Me=80.83 kg) and a woman of 34 years of age is – on average – 165.99
cm tall (Me=166 cm) and weighs 65.67 kg (Me=63.75 kg) (Tables 3.12 and 3.13).
In terms of sexual dimorphism, the difference in favour of adult men when com-
pared to adult women is 12.59 cm in body height and 15.19 kg in body weight.
Table 3.12
Statistical characteristics of the group of men aged 19–94 years (N=915)
PARAMETERS M Me Mmin Mmax R SD CV
Age (years) 36.57 30.00 19.00 94.00 75.00 17.69 48.39
Body height (cm) 178.58 179.00 159.50 202.00 42.50 6.70 3.75
Body weight (kg) 80.86 80.83 49.00 132.00 83.00 12.04 14.89
Note: N – the number of subjects, M – arithmetic mean, Me – median, Mmin – minimum
values, Mmax – maximum values, R – variation range, SD – standard deviation, CV
– coefficient of variation.
93
Table 3.13 men aged 19 to 59 years are taller than women by about 12.91 to 13.72 cm.
Statistical characteristics of the group of women aged 19–86 years (N=2,355) There is a gradual decrease in the intersexual difference in the presenilis period
(12.47 cm) and senilis period (12.70 cm) (Table 3.14, Figure 3.21). The overall
results show that the average body height of people aged 19–89 years in the
PARAMETERS M Me Mmin Mmax R SD CV period that was monitored decreased by 11.05 cm for men and by 10.78 cm
for women.
Age (years) 34.26 27.00 19.00 86.00 67.00 16.00 46.70 The decrease in body height referred to above in persons aged 19–89.99
years is the result of the interplay of several factors at the individual level and
Body height (cm) 165.99 166.00 146.00 188.90 42.90 6.37 3.84 the general, secular level. At the individual level, the decrease in body height
during 70 years of life is affected by genetic factors as well as the lifestyle and
Body weight (kg) 65.67 63.75 47.60 128.50 80.90 11.62 17.69 health condition of the individual, and also involutional anatomical and physio-
logical changes in old age (increase in thoracic kyphosis, atrophy of interverte-
Note: N – the number of subjects, M – arithmetic mean, Me – median, Mmin – minimum bral discs, articular cartilage, etc.). At the secular level, the gradual decrease in
values, Mmax – maximum values, R – variation range, SD – standard deviation, body height between the adultus period and the senilis period is also affected
CV – coefficient of variation. by the year of birth of the group being monitored. The oldest age category is
about 56–60 years older and people in the group were born in the 1920s or
1930s, when men and women achieved a lower adult body height compared
Table 3.14 and Figure 3.21 show the comparison in sexual dimorphism in the with the current generation. Something that is noteworthy is the values for the
body height of men and women aged 19 to 89 years. The results also include average body height of men and women in the senilis period (75–89.99 years
the senilis age category (75–89.99 years of age) and for men also the oldest-old of age) in Table 3.14, which are identical to the average height of men aged
age group (90+), though the age groups do not meet the requirement of what is 24–50 years (169.2 cm) and women aged 24–50 years (157.3 cm) as reported
known as the biological minimum. The main reason for there being such a low by Matiegka in 1895 (1927).
number of men and women in those age categories is that people are often no
longer able to attend the above-mentioned events because of their health, trans-
port difficulties, and sometimes also a lack of interest in the measurement itself.
Table 3.14
Nevertheless, we consider it appropriate to keep those categories in the present
Comparison of body height (cm) of men and women aged 19–89 years
study because – despite the low numbers of persons measured – they illustrate
certain trends in the development of body height and weight (Tables 3.14 and
3.15, Figures 3.21 and 3.22) in the oldest period of ontogenetic development. MEN 2015 WOMEN 2015 t-test
AGE d
The first important observation is that in both genders there is a gradual (YEARS)
p
decrease in body height throughout the age period monitored, but at different N M SD diff N M SD diff
rates. The development of body height from the adultus period (19–29 years)
to the maturus II period (45–59 years) indicates the same trends in both men 19.00–29,99 441 179.85 6.46 – 1368 166.88 6.06 - 12.97 0.000**
and women. In that period the decrease in height is minor in men. In women
too no significant decrease was observed between the maturus I and maturus 30.00–44.99 151 179.60 6.92 –0.25 504 166.69 6.20 -0.19 12.43 0.000**
II periods. In the given period of 41 years, there is a decrease in body height by
45.00–59.99 203 178.93 5.17 –0.67 491 165.21 6.29 -1.48** 13.72 0.000**
0.92 cm in men and 1.67 cm in women (Table 3.14, Figure 3.21).
The second observation results from the development trend of body height 60.00–74.99 85 173.73 6.31 –5.20** 210 161.26 6.06 -3.95** 12.47 0.000**
between the maturus II (45.00 to 59.99 years of age) and presenilis periods
(60.00 to 69.99 years of age). For both genders, inflection was observed in 75.00–89.99 29 168.80 4.33 –4.93** 33 156.10 6.83 -5.16** 12.70 0.000**
the development of body height, which manifests itself in a clearer decline.
Between the ages of 60 and 74, a significant decrease in height was observed, 90.00 and
6 168.82 9.19 –0.02 – – – – – –
by 5.26 cm in men and by 3.76 cm in women (Table 3.14, Figure 3.21) when older
compared to the maturus II period. The decrease in body height for men and Note: N – the number of subjects, M – arithmetic mean, SD – standard deviation, diff
women is also significant in the subsequent senilis period (75–89 years of age). – the difference in the average values for adjacent age categories and their statistical
Sexual dimorphism is clear from the comparison of the average body height of significance (ANOVA), d – the difference in the average values between men and
men and women in the entire period that was monitored. In all age categories, women in specific age categories, t-test – level of significance, *p<.05, **p<.01.

94 95
 Table 3.15
Comparison of body weight (kg) in men and women aged 19–89 years

AGE MEN 2015 WOMEN 2015 d t-test

(YEARS) N M SD diff N M SD diff p

19.00–29,99 479 77.45 11.73 – 1368 62.67 10.15 – 14.78 0.000**

30.00–44.99 154 84.34 11.95 +6.59** 504 66.14 11.49 +3.47** 18.20 0.000**

45.00–59.99 215 85.71 9.91 +1.37 491 71.21 12.37 +5.07** 14.50 0.000**

60.00–74.99 82 82.82 12.50 –2.89 210 70.84 12.46 -0.37 11.98 0.000**

75.00–89.99 37 78.86 9.86 –3.96** 33 65.35 8.36 -5.49** 13.51 0.000**

90.00 and
6 69.62 9.49 –9.24** – – – – – –
older
Note: N – the number of subjects, M – arithmetic mean, SD – standard deviation, diff
Figure 3.21 – the difference in the average values for adjacent age categories and their statistical
Intersexual dimorphism in body height (cm) in men and women significance (ANOVA), d – the difference in average values between men and women
aged 19–89 years in specific age categories, t-test – level of significance, *p<.05, **p<.01.

Unlike body height, which exhibits a constantly downward trend for both
genders, body weight exhibits different trends for men and women aged 19–89
years (Table 3.15, Figure 3.22), with the curve of mean values being convex
for both genders. Unlike body height, it increases gradually – in men until
the maturus II period and in women also in the presenilis period. Increases in
body weight are significantly larger than those in body height, which gradually
decreases (Table 3.15, Figure 3.22). This considerably alters the proportional
changes, e.g. the weight-height ratio and the ratio of the individual components
of body composition in men and women.
In other periods the opposite trend occurs in men, i.e. the average weight
during the presenilis period decreases. In women there is a turnaround in the
curve, where there is a decrease in body weight as late as during the senilis
period (Table 3.15, Figure 3.22). In terms of sexual dimorphism, men have a
higher average weight than women in each age period monitored. The biggest
difference between genders was found during the maturus I (30-44 years) pe-
riod, in which men weigh on average 18.20 kg more than women (Table 3.15,
Figure 3.22).

Figure 3.22
Intersexual dimorphism in body weight (kg) in men and women
aged 19–89 years

96 97

One important fact follows from the results presented, that the final average
body height and weight of men and women in the total population that was
monitored affects the choice of age categories from which the average height
and weight are statistically calculated as shown in Tables 3.14 and 3.15. The
results show that the inclusion of the presenilis and senilis age groups in de-
termining the average height and weight of the population may affect the final
values of basic parameters.
Discussion
Body height and weight are the basic indicators of physical condition and are
also multifactorial signs reflecting genetic factors and the combination of living
conditions of past and present populations.
Matiegka (1918, 1927) stated that in 1895 the average body height of a man
aged 24–50 years was 169.2 cm and that of a woman 157.3 cm. Matiegka
(1927) considered the body height of men from the Czech lands (Bohemia,
Moravia, and Slovakia), relative to the overall average for humans, to be high or
at least above average at 165 cm for adult men.
Prokopec (1978) performed a division of body height in a group of men and
women aged 20–49 years from research in 1967–1971, and reported the mean
body height as being from 160–169 cm in males and 149–158 cm in females.
The development of body height is well documented during the monitoring of
the body height of conscripts. Matiegka (1927) reported that the average body
height of 20-year-old Czech conscripts was 166 cm, and was just below that of
Southern Slavs (Slovenia, Croatia). They were followed by Germans and other
European nations, with Rusyns and Poles taking the last place.
Prokopec (1971) gave an overview of the development of the body height of
people aged 18 years from 1921 to 1969. In 1921, the average body height of
conscripts was 166.4 cm. In 1928 it was 167.1 cm. In 1955 it reached 170.1 cm
and in 1969 the average body height was 174.1 cm. Prokopec (1978) then add-
ed data on the body height of conscripts with research data on the body height
of conscripts aged 18 years in Prague. He found that the average body height
in 10 districts of Prague ranged from 176 cm to 178.3 cm. Average values for
the body height of 665 conscripts measured from 2001 to 2002 were reported
by Jirkovský (1979). The results showed that the average body height of con-
scripts aged 18 to 19 years (N=430) was 179.5 cm and that of conscripts aged
20–24 years (N=225) reached 180.38 cm. From those results it is clear that the
average body height of men/conscripts aged 20 years increased by 14.38 cm
from 1895 to 2001. The data from the established system of the monitoring of
conscripts aged 18–20 years document the progress of the secular growth of
the average body height in this country.
Developmental changes in the body size of men and women from 1895 to
2015, i.e. for the past 120 years, are presented in Tables 3.16 and 3.17. Before we
proceed to the analysis of the development of body height, we should add that
when analyzing the published data, we were faced with the issue of determining
98
the age categories and average values of body height and weight of the adult
population which were acquired in the reviewed studies (Tables 3.16 and 3.17).
The reported values for height and weight for men and women who were
tested anthropometrically in 1895 (Matiegka, 1927), and in 1990–1991 (Šteigl,
Krátoška, & Zieglerová, 1999) are presented as arithmetic averages (M), just
as the authors reported them in their scientific publications. In the case of the
International Biological Research (hereinafter referred to as IBP), the Czecho­
slovak Spartakiad events in 1955, 1960, 1965 (Fetter & Suchý, 1966), 1975
(Klementa et al., 1976), 1980 (Bláha et al., 1982, 1984), and 1985 (Bláha et al.,
1986a, b), different age categories were given and data is not available about
the average height and weight in all age categories of the adult population who
were measured. For these reasons the published data was used to calculate
the weighted arithmetic means (X), and reported for the corresponding age
categories. In the case of average values for the body height and weight of men
and women, which were obtained through questionnaire surveys from subjects
themselves from the 5th NAS 1991 (Lhotská et al., 1995) and 6th NAS 2001
(Vignerová et al., 2006), the weighted arithmetic means (X) are also reported. In
the groups of men (Men 2015) and women (Women 2015) who were monitored,
arithmetic averages were always calculated relative to the respective age cate-
gories used in the reported research.
Tables 3.16 and 3.17 show that the average body height and weight for men
and women gradually rose from 1895 to 2015, even though there were periods
of developmental stagnation or decline in the secular trend of body height and
weight. Logically, the highest difference in the body height of men and women
was observed in the period from 1895 to 1955. Over that period of 60 years the
body height of men increased by 3.41 cm and that of women by 3 cm.
In the subsequent period 1955–1960 the body height of men increased,
after which there followed a period of stagnation, with the participants in the
Czechoslovak Spartakiad events in 1960 and 1965 having the same average
body height (Table 3.16).
Some decrease in body height in males (–2.09 cm) and females (–1.27 cm)
can be observed from the research results from 1990–1991 (Šteigl, Krátoška,
& Zieglerová, 1999). An explanation for the decrease in the body height of the
men and women who were measured can be found in the fact that the research
largely covered regions of central Moravia and to a limited extent also other
Czech and Slovak regions. In contrast, in our present results we used reference
data sets which were measured and acquired in interviews throughout all of the
Czech Republic.
The most recent anthropological research, conducted in 1991 (Lhotská et al.,
1995) and 2001 (Vignerová et al., 2006), in which the parents of the children who
were monitored only self-reported their height and weight (self-assessed their
height and weight), suggests a gradual stabilization and slow-down in the secular
trend of an increase in body height (Bodzsár & Susanne, 1998; Bláha, Susanne,
& Rebato, 2007). If we compare the anthropometrically measured average body
height of our sample of men and women with the results of the survey of the
6th NAS from 2001, we can assume that there is a stagnation of body height
growth in adults as a result of the subsiding of the secular trend, i.e. the trend of
99
achieving higher final values of body height or parameters, and a completion of
genetically determined body height in the interaction with environmental factors.
The secular trend shows differences in the development of body weight in
men and women from 1895 to 2015 (Tables 3.16 and 3.17).
The first interesting finding is that in the case of body weight in 1955 (Fetter
& Suchý, 1966; Klementa et al., 1976) a gain of 2.53 kg against the results from
1895 was observed in males (Matiegka, 1918), while in women the observed
body weight in 1955 was 2.87 kg lower compared to women of the same age
in 1895 (Table 3.17).
In men we see continual increases in body weight until 2015, with the ex-
ception of 1960 and 1980, when a decline was recorded in comparison with
the previous period. This finding can be explained by both the selection of
gymnasts at Spartakiad events according to the difficulty of the music used
for the exercises – as stated by Bláha et al. (1982) – as well as by the different
age categories which were included in those studies (CSS 1975: age category
19–64.99 years; CSS 1980: age category 19–34.99 years), from which weighted
arithmetic means were calculated (Table 3.16).
By contrast, in women the secular trend in body weight was not observed
in the entire reporting period (Table 3.17). As mentioned above, the women
measured in 1955 had body weight lower by 2.87 kg compared to women of
the same age in 1895. This fact can be explained by the selection of gymnasts
training for the Spartakiad event (the physical strain during regular training for
the Spartakiad performance) and probably also by the insufficient food supplies
available to the population in the war and postwar periods.
In the subsequent period from 1955 to 2015, we see that the weighted arith-
metic means (X–W) in the reported anthropological research and the arithmetic
means (M–W) in our researched group Women 2015 had lower or equal average
body weight compared to women in 1895 (Matiegka, 1927). This downsizing
trend in women’s bodies was already pointed out by Bláha et al. (1982, 1986)
and by Vignerová et al. (2006) in their research, especially in the younger age
group of women, as shown in Table 3.17. Prokopec (1999) reported that the av-
erage body weight of women aged 18 to 40 years remained virtually unchanged
from 1951 to 1991.
Another significant manifestation of the secular trend is the age at which
adult body height is achieved in men and women. According to the results of
anthropological research, from 1895 to 2015 the average body height of the
population was rising and physical growth was accelerating, i.e. certain body
height values appear in ontogenetic development earlier than was the case for
previous generations. In his evaluation of the body height of 20–year-old con-
scripts, Matiegka (1927) stated that “they will continue to grow for a few more
years, until about 30 to 32 years of age.” Prokopec (1971) stated that in the
current generation growth in men culminates at the age of 19 and in women at
the age of 17 years. Drawing upon the results of CSS 1980, Bláha et al. (1980)
reported culmination of height in males at the age of 18 and in women at the
age of 16 to 17 years. Their results were confirmed by measurements of boys/
men and girls/women in 1985 (Bláha et al., 1986a, b), in 2001 (Vignerová et al.,
2006), and in 2014 (Kopecký et al., 2014).
100
An interesting manifestation of the secular trend is the difference between
the average body height and weight for men and women. In the course of the
secular trend since 1895, when the average intersex difference in adults was
11.90 cm in body height and 6 kg in body weight, there has been a gradual
increase in the differences in these basic somatic parameters (Tables 3.16 and
3.17). It turns out that the ages referred to above – 16 to 17 years for women
and 18 years for men – play an important role in the evaluation of body height.
In 1955 (Fetter & Suchý, 1966) the average difference between men and
women was 12.31 cm and 11.40 kg, while in 1985 (Bláha et al., 1986b) it was
13.22 cm and 15.34 kg, and we have already presented the current difference
between men and women as being 12.59 cm and 15.19 kg. The results show
that in the course of the secular trend the difference in body height between an
adult man and an adult woman over the past 120 years has increased by about
0.70 to 1.32 cm, i.e. by approx. 6 per cent, while the body weight difference
has increased by more than 9 kg, i.e. by 153 per cent. The secular trend of
increasing body weight in men has also been confirmed by Vignerová et al.
(2006). According to the results of the 6th NAS 2001 (Vignerová et al., 2006), the
proportion of fathers in BMI categories above 25 (kg/m2) is substantially higher
than is the case with mothers. The secular trend presented here is related to
the increase in the percentage of men in the BMI overweight and obesity cate-
gories, which is also described in the scientific literature (Matoulek et al., 2010;
Hainer et al., 2011; Lipowicz et al., 2014).
List of Abbreviations
NAS Nationwide Anthropological Survey
CSFR Czechoslovak Federal Republic
CSS Czechoslovak Spartakiad
IBP International Biological Programme
WHO World Health Organization
5th NAS 1991 Nationwide Anthropological Survey of Children and Adoles-
cents 2001 Czech Republic
6th NAS 2001 Nationwide Anthropological Survey of Children and Adoles-
cents 2001 Czech Republic
101
Table 3.17 The secular trend of body height (cm) and weight (kg) in women from 1895 to 2015
103

WOMEN
SECULAR
1895–2001
AGE TREND
ANTHROPOLOGICAL WOMEN 1895–2001 WOMEN 2015 WOMEN 2015
CATEGORIES INCREMENTS
SURVEYS DIFFERENCE
N X-H X -W H W N M-H M-W H W
Matiegka 1895 to – 50.00 694 157.30 65.00 – – 2087 166.73** 64.42* 9.43 0.58
CS 1955 19.00–54.99 2450 160.30 62.13 3.00 –2.87 2222 166.65** 64.79** 6.35 2.66
CSS 1960 19.00–64.99 5347 161.27 62.05 0.97 –0.08 2474 166.32** 65.45** 5.05 3.40
CSS 1965 19.00–64.99 2341 162.25 63.58 0.98 1.53 2474 166.32** 65.45** 4.07 1.87
IBP 1967–1974 18.00–55.00 500 162.54 65.48 0.29 1.90 2249 166.60** 64.84** 4.06 0.63
CSS 1975 19.00–64.99 3610 163.48 61.76 0.94 –3.72 2474 166.32** 65.45** 2.84 3.69
CSS 1980 19.00–34.99 359 164.73 59.27 1.25 –2.49 1501 166.92** 62.84** 2.19 3.57
CSS 1985 19.00–54.99 1130 164.17 61.58 –0.56 2.31 2222 166.64** 64.79** 2.47 3.21
CSFR 1991 18.00–60.00 1066 162.90 65.60 –1.27 4.02 2396 166.48** 65.27 3.58 0.33
5th NAS 1991 19 and older 84564 165.08 – 2.18 – 2606 165.99** 65.30 0.91 –
6th NAS 2001 19 and older 42492 166.39 – 1.31 – 2606 165.99** 65.30 0.39 –
Note: N – the number of subjects, M – arithmetic mean, X – weighted arithmetic mean, H – body height (cm), W – body weight (kg),
*p <.05, **p <.01 – t-test – significance level.
Table 3.16 The secular trend of body height (cm) and weight (kg) in men from 1895 to 2015
SECULAR MEN 1895–2001
AGE TREND MEN 2015
ANTHROPOLOGICAL MEN 1895–2001 MEN 2015
CATEGORIES INCREMENTS DIFFERENCE
SURVEYS
N X-H X -W H W N M-H M-W H W
Matiegka 1895 to – 50.00 3160 169.20 71.00 – – 762 179.81** 80.01** 10.61 9.01
CS 1955 19.00–54.99 2732 172.61 73.53 3.41 2.53 795 179.73** 80.43** 7.12 6.90
CSS 1960 19.00–64.99 3544 173.72 72.96 1.11 –0.57 887 179.29** 80.95** 5.57 7.99
CSS 1965 19.00–64.99 1710 173.67 75.05 –0.05 2.09 887 179.29** 80.95** 5.62 5.90
IBP 1967–1974 18.00–55.00 571 174.96 76.02 1.29 0.97 806 179.65** 80.54** 4.69 4.52
CSS 1975 19.00–64.99 1640 175.43 75.43 0.47 –0.59 887 179.29** 80.95** 3.86 5.52
CSS 1980 19.00–34.99 335 176.49 73.03 1.06 –2.40 531 179.79** 77.93** 3.30 4.90
CSS 1985 19.00–54.99 873 177.39 76.92 0.90 3.89 795 179.73** 80.43** 2.34 3.51
CSFR 1991 18.00–60.00 1000 175.30 81.10 –2.09 4.18 862 179.37** 80.77 4.07 –0.33
5th NAS 1991 19 and older 82819 178.04 – 2.74 – 973 178.57* 80.72 0.53 –
6th NAS 2001 19 and older 40798 179.41 – 1.37 – 973 178.57** 80.72 –0.83 –
Note: N – the number of subjects, M – arithmetic mean, X – weighted arithmetic mean, H – body height (cm), W – body weight (kg),

102
*p <.05, **p <.01 – t-test – significance level.
Conclusion
The results of anthropological research show that sexual dimorphism in the
body height and weight of today’s men and women is present throughout adult-
hood. The average body height and weight, which was determined with the
group of present-day men aged 19–94.99 years that was monitored, is 178.58
cm and 80.86 kg and of women aged 19–86 years it is 165.99 cm and 65.67
kg. It is obvious that the overall average height and weight of the population is
reduced by subjects in the presenilis and senilis age categories and possibly
those of the oldest-old age. It is in the presenilis period that a decrease in body
height occurs among adult men and women. The decline is less significant
with body weight. If we account for this fact, we can say that the average body
height and weight in the adultus category (19–29.99 years) is 179.85 cm and
77.45 kg for men and 166.88 cm and 62.67 kg for women.
From the perspective of sexual dimorphism in body height, the difference
between men and women in the range 19–89.99 years of age varies from 12.47
to 13.72 cm and tends to fall with advancing age. In the case of differences
in body weight the differences range from 11.98 to 18.20 kg. Overall, we can
report that the gap between the average body height and weight of women and Men 1895: Men 2015:
those of men are 12.59 cm and 15.19 kg. Height: 169.20 cm Height: 179.81 cm
Weight: 71 kg Weight: 80.01 kg
Comparing the average values for adult men and women from representative
surveys in the period 1895–2015, we can confirm the secular trend in body
Figure 3.23
height, which, however, has been showing gradual stagnation or even a decline
The difference between the average body height and weight
in the increase in the average body height among the current adult population for men in the year 1895 and men in the year 2015
since 1991. In contrast, a different trend was observed in the body weight of
men and women. For women the body weight has not changed over the past
120 years and has fluctuated around 65 kg. In men the body weight increased
by 9 kg (Figures 3.23 and 3.24).

The analysis of results shows that when assessing the secular trend, it is ne­
cessary to take into account the factors that influence changes in body height
and weight among the adult population. Changes in the basic somatic parame-
ters that were monitored are attributable to factors at the level of the individual
(genetic factors, lifestyle, health, environment, socio-economic factors, involu-
tion changes) that affect individuals from adulthood onward, and at the level of
the population under study, i.e. which age categories are included in the overall
evaluation of the development of body height and weight.
The results of the development of the body height of men and women sug-
gest that there is a slowdown or decline in the increase in body height, as a
result of the exhaustion of the genetic growth potential in combination with so-
cio-economic conditions and environmental factors. It can also reasonably be Women 1895: Women 2015:
assumed that a positive trend in terms of body height might occur in the future Height: 157.30 cm Height: 166.73 cm
with the younger generation of men and women who will be included in an- Weight: 65 kg Weight: 64.42 kg
thropological research. The reported trend of either stagnation or a continued
rise in the body height and possibly also body weight can only be confirmed Figure 3.24
by further transversal anthropological research studies of the adult population. The difference between the average body height and weight
for women in the year 1895 and women in the year 2015

104 105
//
3.7 Importance of Anthropological Research
A thorough analysis of the data that is generated is preceded by the catego-
rization of dimensions (according to standard tables) and relevant calculated
indices. The categories are divided by gender, age, and ethnicity (race).
An examination report on measurements and their categorization, descrip-
tion of findings, and any potential conclusions may be drawn up for each sub-
ject or group. The conclusions are reached only after a thorough analysis of the
collected data, including its mutual correlations.
Anthropometric research is based on a set of multiple anthropometric sur-
veys, the data of which are compared in order to identify dependencies be-
tween various physical characteristics. Anthropometric research has played
a major role in the development of anthropological standards, which are crucial
in clinical anthropometry since they serve doctors and other biomedical experts
as benchmarks in the evaluation of children’s physical and motor development.
The outputs of anthropometric research include statistical charts and graphs.
The main significance of anthropological research:
• Information about the population’s physical condition and health.
• Information about the population’s nutritional status.
• Basic data for reference values.
• Allows comparison with other research (past and present).
Findings are applied in industry, medicine, ergonomic and clothing anthropolo-
gy, and numerous other fields of applied anthropology.
106
//
Summary
• The preparation and implementation of anthropological research is very
challenging and is divided into the following steps: organization of re-
search, collection of data, analysis of measurements, data interpretation
and evaluation.
• In terms of time, anthropological research can be divided into cross-sec-
tional, longitudinal, and semi-longitudinal research, while in terms of the
number of subjects, it is split into total population sampling, representative
research (selective sampling), and purposive sampling.
• Anthropological research is carried out by specialist anthropologists, the
instructed lay public, and teams of experts.
• Somatic parameters are measured with anthropometric instruments. Ba-
sic anthropometric instruments include: anthropometer, spreading caliper
(cephalometer), pelvimeter, modified thoracometer, small height rod, sliding
caliper, caliper, soft metric tape (e.g. dynamometer).
• During measurement, it is necessary to observe principles that respect the
age and sex of the subjects.
• In the Czech Republic, anthropological surveys have been conducted since
1895. National surveys, for example the nationwide anthropological surveys,
surveys organized under the Czechoslovak Spartakiads, and other exten-
sive surveys, are extremely important.
• Anthropological surveys are indispensable for the development of the an-
thropological standards of the population; they provide information about
the physical condition, health, and nutritional status of the population, ena-
ble the monitoring and comparison of varied population groups that reflect
the impact of environmental factors on the development of individuals and
the population, and, last but not least, the findings of anthropological sur-
veys are applied in medicine, industry, ergonomics, etc.
107
Glossary // Slovník // Slownik
anthropometer // antropometr // antropometr
anthropometric instruments // antropometrický instrumentář // instrumentarium
antropometryczne
anthropological research // antropologický výzkum // badania antropologiczne
anthropological standards // antropologické standardy // normy antropolog-
iczne
anthropological survey // antropologický výzkum // antropologiczne pomiary
anthropometric wall // antropometrická stěna // ściana antropometryczna
caliper // kaliper // fałdomierz
collection of data // shromažďování údajů // zbiór danych
cross-sectional – transversal research // průřezové výzkumy // badania prze-
krojowe
data interpretation and evaluation // interpretace a hodnocení dat // interpre-
tacja i ocena danych
longitudinal research // dlouhodobé výzkumy // badania longitudinalne (ciągłe)
measurement methodology // metodika měření // metodyka pomiarów
measurement record sheet // záznamní list // kwestionariusz
modified thoracometer // modifikovaný torakometr // zmodyfikowany
torakometr
nationwide survey // celostátní výzkum // pomiary ogólnokrajowe
pelvimeter // pelvimetr // miednicomierz (cyrkiel kabłąkowy duży)
physical dimensions // tělesné rozměry // wymiary fizyczne
principles of subject measurement // zásady měření probandů // reguły mier-
zenia badanego
purposive sampling // záměrný výzkum // pobieranie próbek
reference values // referenční hodnoty // wartości referencyjne
representative sample // reprezentativní vzorek // próba reprezentatywna
representative research // reprezentativní výzkum // badania reprezentatywne
secular trend // sekulární trend // trend sekularny
semi-longitudinal research // střednědobý výzkum // badania półciągłe
sliding caliper // posuvné měřítko // cyrkiel liniowy
small height rod // malý výškoměr // mały wysokościomierz
soft metric tape // pásová míra // taśma pomiarowa (antropometryczna)
somatic parameters // somatické parametry // parametry somatyczne
Spartakiad survey // spartakiádní výzkum // pomiary na spartakiadach
spreading caliper // kefalometr // cyrkiel kabłąkowy mały
standard tables // standardní tabulky // tabele standardowe
total population sampling // vyčerpávající výzkum // badania wyczerpujące
varied population groups // různé populační skupiny // różnorodne grupy ludności
weighing scale // váha // waga
108
4 BODY
composition
//
4.1 Models of Body Composition
When monitoring large population groups and individuals, it transpires that data
such as body height, weight, and other common anthropometric dimensions
fail to provide sufficient information about the body composition of the person
under study. Even if two individuals share the same values, the body mass
of one of them may have a high percentage of fat (or other tissues that are not
very metabolically active), while the body mass of the other, who is of the same
height and weight, may be largely composed of metabolically extremely active
tissues, such as muscles and parenchymal organs, which are the main compo-
nent of fat-free (lean) body mass.
From this perspective, body mass (the weight of the body) appears to be
a complex variable. Body mass does not provide sufficient information about
the weight of muscle, bone, fat tissue, and other organs. Assessing compo-
nents in relation to body mass is important from the morphological and chemi-
cal perspectives, but also in terms of the biological activity of the components,
as it provides information about the current health and nutrition of an individual.
Today’s widely-known indices, BMI (Body Mass Index) and WHR (Waist-to-
Hip Ratio), provide only general information about the body weight and consti-
tution of an individual; however, in the context of, for instance, health problems,
nutrition, or sporting activities, we need precise information about body mass
components. There are individuals who have normal or even lower fat content
in their body despite having a higher BMI: these are, for example, athletes with
high physical load exposures (e.g. athletics, ice hockey, gymnastics) or persons
in the developmental phase.
Body composition is currently viewed and often also analyzed at five
basic levels – models (Figure 4.1):
• atomic model
• molecular model
• cellular model
• tissue-organ model
• whole-body model
Body composition refers to the body’s chemical composition. Body compo-
sition analysis techniques allow scientists to study how these building blocks
function and change with age and metabolic state.
109
 Figure 4.1
Models of Body Composition (by Wang et al., 1992)
4.1.1 Atomic Model
The atomic model is based on the perspective of individual elements in the
body. A total of 98% of body mass is composed of six elements: O, C, H, N,
Ca, and P. The remaining 2% is accounted for by another 44 elements. These
findings are grounded in chemical analyses of corpses. The aforementioned
98% of the body weight made up of varied atoms and elements can currently
be reconstructed with neutron activation analysis.
4.1.2 Molecular Model
The human body is composed of more than 100,000 chemical compounds. The
compounds consist of molecules that include 11 main components (H, O, N,
C, Na, K, Cl, P, Ca, Mg, and S). The molecules differ greatly in their complexity
and biological activity (from water to deoxyribonucleic acid). The main compo-
nents of body composition monitored and analyzed in the molecular model are
(Figure 4.2):
Body mass = water + lipids + proteins + carbohydrates + bone minerals
+ soft tissue minerals
At this level, the total body water is measured with isotope dilution methods
and the skeleton minerals with two-photon absorption.
110
Figure 4.2
Main components of the molecular level of body composition
(by Wang et al., 1992)
4.1.3 Cellular Model
Another model of the composition of the human body is the combination
of molecular components into cells. The cellular level is then expressed by the
following composition of individual components:
Body mass = cells + ECF + ECS, where:
Cells = the cell can be additionally partitioned
into two components: fat and BCM
BCM (body cell mass) = muscle + connective + epithelial + nerve cells
ECF (extracellular fluid) = plasma + interstitial fluid
ECS (extracellular solids) = organic + inorganic solids
Body mass = fat cells (adipocytes) + BCM + ECF + ECS
Extracellular and plasma fluids can be measured using isotope dilution meth-
ods. ECF such as K or Na can be measured by means of neutron activation
analysis.
111
4.1.4 Tissue-Organ Model
The tissue-organ model is based on the finding that 75% of body mass is rep-
resented by three tissue systems: bone, muscle, and fat tissue.
According to this system model, body mass is defined as follows:
Body mass = adipose tissue + musculoskeletal + cutaneous + nerve
+ circulatory + respiratory + digestive + excretory + reproductive system
The tissue-organ model is quite complex. The tissue-system composition of
body mass is analyzed by means of computerized axial tomography or magnetic
resonance. Indirectly, muscle mass can be monitored by measuring the 24-hour
excretion of creatine or the content of K and Ca using neutron activation analysis.
4.1.5 Whole-Body Model
The body composition at the whole-body model level can be divided into re-
gions such as appendages, trunk, and head, and is analyzed using standardized
anthropometric measurements of somatic parameters such as: body height;
body weight; body mass index (BMI); circumferences; length and breadth di-
mensions; skinfolds, and body volume, which facilitates calculation of the body
density. The parameters that are generated and their evaluation indirectly indi-
cate the absolute amount and percentage of fat-free body mass and depot fat.
//
4.2 Methods of Assessing Body
Composition Components
Information about body composition, especially about the fat content, is es-
pecially essential in nutrition physiology and pathophysiology, as it repre-
sents an objective criterion of changes occurring in the nutritional status of the
organism. Additionally, it enables the monitoring of the relations and ratios of
body components during body weight changes. Weight changes are accompa-
nied by changes in the size and proportions of body components such as lean
body mass (FFM – fat-free mass, LBM – lean body mass, ABM – active body
mass) and fat mass (FM). Another important reason is the detailed quantitative
expression of elementary body structure components, and verification of their
interdependencies and the relations between body composition and selected
characteristics of the organism.
Body composition can be evaluated from many perspectives, for example
the perspective of the two main components – depot fat and fat-free body
mass (FFM). Other methods assess body composition in terms of tissues and
organs, the content of water, minerals, proteins, or basic elements, depending
largely on the purpose of the study. Also crucial are the required accuracy,
instrument availability, acceptability of the procedures to the subjects under
study, the need for trained personnel, funds, and other aspects.
112
Methods assessing body composition fall into two groups:
• technically demanding,
• technically undemanding.
4.2.1 Technically Demanding Methods
Densitometry (hydrodensitometry) – underwater weighing: to assess the
density of the organism, the method measures the mass volume using Archi-
medes’ principle of weighing the subject under water with simultaneous or at
least subsequent measurement of the volume of air in the lungs and airways.
By measuring the body weight under water and in the air, the method serves to
estimate the specific weight of the human body, and on the basis of this, the
fat content (Figure 4.3).
Figure 4.3
Densitometry
(hydrodensitometry)
– the underwater
weighing technique
to determine the
density of the body (by
Wilmore et al., 2008)
Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA): this
method is built on the different distribution of
low-intensity electric current in different biological
structures (Figure 4.4). It measures body compo-
sition by establishing the body’s opposition to
low-intensity and high-frequency current. Fat-free
body mass containing a high proportion of water
and electrolytes is a good conductor, while adi-
pose tissue acts as an insulator.
Dual-energy X-ray Absorptiometry (DXA):
along with hydrodensitometry, DXA is considered
the gold standard for the measurement of body
composition (Figure 4.5). It scans and measures
the differential attenuation of two X-rays as they
pass through the body. The method builds on the
different absorption of radiation of two different
Figure 4.4 Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA)
equipment
113
energies by different tissues. These measurements differentiate bone minerals
from soft tissues, dividing them into fat and fat-free mass. DXA can also esti-
mate the composition of body segments. It determines the amount of central
fat, i.e. the content of adipose tissue in the trunk, as compared to the amount
of fat in the lower extremities.
Figure 4.5
The dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) machine used
to estimate bone density and bone mineral content as well as total body
composition (fat mass and fat-free mass) (by Wilmore et al., 2008)
Total Body Electrical Conductivity (TOBEC): it calculates body fat on the ba-
sis of the measurement of body conductivity in an electromagnetic field.
Magnetic Resonance: principally, this method is used to determine intra-
-abdo­minal fat. The analysis of body composition relies on atomic nuclei with
inherent magnetic properties, which align themselves in a particular magnetic
field direction when exposed to radio waves of a defined frequency. Once the
wave radiation stops, the nuclei resume their original position and emit only
absorbed energy, which can be measured.
Ultrasound: high-frequency sound waves pass freely through homogeneous
tissues, and some of the transmitted energy is reflected from any interface be-
tween different tissues (e.g. adipose/muscle tissue). This method, nevertheless,
is not sufficiently precise.
Computed tomography (CT scan): the method assesses body composition,
but as it exposes subjects to a certain degree of radiation, it is not suitable for
analyzing the body composition of children.
Air Displacement Plethysmography (Whole-body): the method is based
on the principle of determining the body volume using a hermetically sealed
chamber filled with air (Figure 4.6). It measures small changes in the air, which
114
has a known volume, at atmospheric pressure. The body volume is calculated
by subtraction from the volume of air in the measuring box. The result is body
density. The method is used to establish body composition across all age
groups of the population.
Figure 4.6
The Bod Pod air plethysmography device uses the air displacement
technique to estimate total body volume (by Wilmore et al., 2008)
Results of comparative methods
Because of their high costs, insufficient availability in the field, and the prob-
lematic repeatability of measurements, technically demanding methods find
little practical use at present, with the exception of instruments that determine
body composition using bioelectrical impedance analysis. A major finding
from the research is that authors have failed to prove that measuring the body
composition of the same subjects with more expensive and complex methods
would be any more accurate than measurements relying on anthropometric
methods (e.g. skinfold measurement, BMI, etc.), as is evident from the compa­
rison of results obtained by other methods mentioned above.
4.2.2 Technically Undemanding Methods
Standardized anthropometry methods are non-invasive, usually quick, easy to
use and repeat in the field, and relatively inexpensive. Technically undemand-
ing methods are appropriate for field research and also available for assessing
body composition.
Anthropometric methods serve as the basis for assessing overweight and
obesity, and for determining length, breadth, and circumference, with a view
to evaluating a series of indices that detail body structure and proportionality.
115
Despite the fact that anthropometric methods are not always fully appreciated,
provided that researchers undergo adequate training and follow the procedure
exactly as directed, the methods are sufficiently informative. In addition, they are
non-invasive and generally accepted even by healthy independent individuals
who reject more complicated measurement techniques. The outputs of anthro-
pometric methods also correlate with more accurate and sophisticated meth-
ods. Furthermore, they are cost- and time-effective, proving especially useful in
long-term repeated measurements, where they yield the most valuable results.
of a false-positive diagnosis of obesity in people with highly developed muscle
mass and a robust skeleton.
The BMI of the adult population is split into various categories, on the basis
of which the weight of the individual is evaluated (Table 4.1).
Table 4.1
WHO classification of obesity (1997)

The most common anthropometric methods:

• Body mass index (BMI) CLASSIFICATION BMI OBESITY-ASSOCIATED DISEASE RISK

• Indices: WHR and WHtR

severe malnutrition < 16 low but risk of other clinical problems
• Circumferential measurements
underweight, malnutrition 16.0 – 18.4 low but risk of other clinical problems
• Skinfold measurement using caliper
• Matiegka’s fractionation of body mass normal weight 18.5 – 24.9 average, normal range
overweight (pre-obese) 25.0 – 29.9 increased
grade 1 obesity 30.0 – 34.9 moderate
4.2.2.1 Body Mass Index (BMI)
grade 2 obesity 35.0 – 39.9 severe
A mathematical indicator of the relative weight for height of a person. Following
mutual agreement, the Body Mass Index (BMI) was selected as the primary grade 3 obesity 40.0 – 44.9
very severe
characterization of somatic development in general and as an indicator of un- morbid obesity > 45.0
derweight, overweight, and obesity at any age. In the general population higher
BMI scores usually indicate more body fatness.
BMI is a simple and readily available criterion that can tell us that we are
gaining weight. It meets both theoretical and practical requirements, and there- Growth charts analyzing the BMI of children and young people aged zero to
fore is used worldwide. 18 years old – the BMI-for-age percentile charts – serve to describe BMI devel-
It assesses correct weight and provides information about nutritional status. opmental changes. In the Czech Republic, the standard criteria were compiled
The BMI (Quetelet index) measures the ratio of the body weight in kilograms to by Bláha, Vignerová, Riedlová, Kobzová, Krejčovský, and Brabec (2005). In no
the square of the body height in metres: case may the BMI be interpreted in the same way for children as it is for adults.
The BMI in children and adolescents varies significantly with age and sexual
BMI = weight (kg)/body height 2 (m). The BMI is expressed in units of kg/m2. maturation.
Children and adolescents aged zero to 18 years old are analyzed using a BMI
From the physical point of view, this indicator reflects the areal density that percentile chart designed on the basis of the results of the 5th NAS 1991 and
the weight of the human body takes in the square of the body height. the 6th NAS 2001 (note: NAS – Nationwide Anthropological Survey of Children
The BMI in both adults and children correlates with total body fat. This index and Adolescents 1991 or 2001 Czech Republic) (Charts 4.1 and 4.2). The boys’
was found to be the most closely related with morbidity and mortality of all the and girls’ charts are designed to enable accurate classification or long-term
indices used. monitoring of changes in BMI, especially in those individuals whose BMI falls
However, people vary not only in height but also in age, gender, and body into the extremes of the percentile scale – below the third percentile and above
structure – robustness. Therefore, the standard cannot consist of an exact BMI, the 97th percentile. In the case of BMI below the third percentile, it is necessary
but of a BMI range. to determine the cause of the low weight. Overweight is defined as BMI above
Especially in children and adolescents, weight assessment is feasible only the 90th percentile, and obesity as BMI above the 97th percentile.
with regard to the height and age of an individual. The BMI in adults and chil- Rapid weight gain in young children has been proved to be a risk factor for
dren is a key indicator of body composition and is sufficiently accurate in terms adult obesity.
of epidemiological studies; nevertheless, it may lead to misdiagnosis in terms

116 117
Evaluation of BMI percentiles for children and young people aged from zero to Table 4.2
18 years old (Charts 4.1 and 4.2): Evaluation of BMI percentiles for boys aged from zero to 18 years old

PERCENTILE BMI CURVES EVALUATION OF BMI PERCENTILES

Less than 3rd percentile
3rd to 10th percentile
10th to 25th percentile
25th to 75th percentile
75th to 90th percentile
90th to 97th percentile
More than 97th percentile
very low weight (thin)
low weight
reduced weight (lean)
normal weight (proportional)
increased weight (robust)
overweight
obesity

age (years)

Chart 4.1
Percentile BMI curves for boys aged from zero to 18 years old
(by Vignerová et al., 2006)

age (years)
Chart 4.2
Percentile BMI curves for girls aged from zero to 18 years old
(by Vignerová et al., 2006)

118 119
Table 4.3
Evaluation of BMI percentiles for girls aged from zero to 18 years old
PERCENTILE BMI CURVES
Less than 3rd percentile
3rd to 10th percentile
10th to 25th percentile
25th to 75th percentile
75th to 90th percentile
90th to 97th percentile
More than 97th percentile
EVALUATION OF BMI PERCENTILES
very low weight (thin)
low weight
reduced weight (lean)
normal weight (proportional)
increased weight (robust)
overweight
obesity
4.2.2.2 Circumferential Measurements
From the perspective of the risk of medical complications for subjects, it is
important to establish adipose tissue distribution (Figure 4.7). An excessive
amount of body fat can be deposited unevenly in the human body, and dis-
proportional tendencies can manifest themselves even with normal weight, let
alone overweight/obesity. Body fat distribution is an independent risk factor for
metabolic and circulatory complications.
Body composition should be assessed with indices that evaluate the struc-
ture and proportionality in relation to increased adipose tissue.
In addition to simple assessment of overweight and obesity, attention needs
to focus on fat distribution. Abdominal fat deposition – the central fat deposi-
tion, android-type obesity, or apple-shaped obesity – is known to be associat-
ed with a greater risk of hyperinsulinemia, hyperlipidemia, hypertriglyceridemia,
and hypertension (and thus ischemic heart disease and diabetes mellitus),
glucose intolerance, type 2 diabetes, and endometrial cancer, compared with
the type with predominant adipose deposits in the femoral parts and the gluteal
area – the peripheral gynoid-type obesity or pear-shaped obesity (Figure 4.7).

According to the BMI percentile, children in the 85th-90th percentile are at risk To measure central obesity, various indices have been suggested: waist-to-
of overweight. Children falling into this percentile range have to be watched hip ratio (WHR), waist-to-height ratio (WHtR), and waist circumference (WC).
closely, and besides establishing their BMI, it is recommended to determine the These indices are regarded as the most popular indices and are widely applied
weight of fat in total weight using an appropriate method (e.g. skinfold meas- in clinical settings.
urement using a caliper, BIA).
Within the group of obese children (above the 97th percentile), obesity splits
into four degrees based on the BMI standard deviations (SD BMI) by age and
sex. Degrees of obesity are divided depending on the Z-score (see Chapter 7).

Preliminary delimitation of obesity grades:

Grade 1 mild obesity: 2–2.5 SD, corresponds to 97.72 to 99.37 percentile
Grade 2 moderate obesity: 2.5–3 SD, corresponds to 99.37 to 99.86 percentile
Grade 3 severe obesity: 3–3.5 SD, corresponds to 99.86 to 99.98 percentile
Grade 4 monstrous obesity: more than 3.5 SD, corresponds to 99.98 to
100.00 percentile

The risk of transferring childhood overweight and obesity to adulthood is con-

firmed by scientific studies. Obesity in childhood strongly determines the preva-
lence of obesity in the adulthood of an individual. Experts agree that in 70-80%
of cases, overweight and obesity in prepubertal children carries over into adult-
hood, leading to multiple serious health, psychological, and social complica-
tions. Obesity in childhood is a risk factor. Overweight and obese children and
adolescents are more than 40 times more likely to develop metabolic changes, Figure 4.7
which subsequently manifest themselves in the development of cardiovascular Fat distribution: the central (android) type, or apple-shaped obesity,
diseases and type 2 diabetes mellitus (Barton, 2012; Danesh, 2016). and the peripheral (gynoid) type, or pear-shaped obesity

120 121
The indices of central obesity were calculated using the following formu- Waist-to-height ratio (WHtR)
lae, WHR and WHtR:
Calculation of indices by the formula:
Waist-to-hip (WHR)
In other words, the gynoid type faces a comparable risk at a much higher de- WHtR = waist (cm)/body height (cm)
gree of obesity.
Likewise, a very important finding is that in older people, fat distribution is a Standards: ratio 0.4 to 0.5............... standard ratio
more important determinant compared with physical fitness or age.
ratio 0.5 to 0.6............... increased health risk
The type of adipose distribution is measured roughly with the waist-to-hip
ratio (WHR). ratio more than 0.6 .............. high health risk

WHR = waist (cm)/hips (cm)

Waist-to-hip girth ratio threshold for significant health risk. The ratio be-
tween the waist and hip circumferences was the first measure used to indicate
fat distribution and has been among the most widely employed. In epidemio-
logical studies, WHR has been found to be associated with disease risk and
with mortality in both men and women.
Waist circumference (WC)
Waist circumference is a simple anthropometric indicator that best correlates
with the abdominal fat. Abdominal fat contains of intraabdominal adipose tis-
sue (visceral fat in the abdominal cavity) and the subcutaneous abdominal area
of adipose tissue (Table 4.4).

Table 4.4 Hazardous waist circumferences

Standards: less than 0.8 .............. ideal ratio
0.8 to 0.9 .............. standard ratio
0.9 to 1.0 .............. increased ratio RISK OF OBESITY-ASSOCIATED METABOLIC
AND CIRCULATORY COMPLICATIONS
more than 1.0 .............. health risk of fatty liver SEX
INCREASED RISK HIGH RISK
Standards for android-type obesity: WHR in men ............ more than 1.00
Men more than 94 cm more than 102 cm
WHR in women........ more than 0.85
Women more than 80 cm more than 88 cm

The circumferences required for the WHR are measured with a tape
measure as follows:
• waist circumference: is measured horizontally at the narrowest point
above the iliac crests, half the distance between the iliac crests and the
lower edge of the ribs.
• hip circumference (gluteal circumference M 64/1; seat circumference,
hip girth; buttock girth): measured with a tape measure in a horizontal
plane over the greatest bulge of the buttocks perpendicular to the body
axis. The tape measure sits on the body, without pressing the skin or
becoming loose. The measuring is carried out in the standing position
with heels and toes together, over underwear or thin sportswear, with
a precision of 0.5 cm.
Visceral adipose tissue is the adipose tissue within and surrounding the
thoracic (e.g. heart, liver, lungs) and abdominal (e.g. liver, kidneys, intestines)
cavities.
Subcutaneous fat is the adipose tissue beneath the skin.
Computed tomography (CT) scans and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
provide a more accurate analysis of the adipose tissue distribution, establishing
the amount of intraabdominal adipose tissue (IAT) and subcutaneous adipose
tissue (SAT) (Figure 4.8).

122 123

Figure 4.8
Distribution of intraabdominal adipose tissue
and subcutaneous adipose tissue
Remember!
Circumferential parameters often change before the weight does.
4.2.2.3 Skinfold Measurement
Body weight is a very rough and approximate value that provides no informa-
tion about the actual weight of human body components (muscles, fat, bones).
Body composition includes the concept of fat-free mass, on the basis of
which the specific weight is given by the ratio of adipose tissue and fat-free
mass (FFM – fat-free mass). Fat-free mass has a relatively constant specific
weight, and is defined as body weight minus adipose tissue (FM – fat mass).
Fat-free body mass is heterogeneous and comprises components that vary
substantially both morphologically and chemically, as well as in terms of the
components’ biological activity (high proportion of water and electrolytes). The
components include the skeleton, muscles, and the “remainder”, which com-
prises the weight of internal organs, including body cavities.
60% of fat-free mass is made up of muscle, 25% of supporting and connec-
tive tissue, and 15% of internal organs and body fluids.
124
Fat mass (FM) is relatively homogeneous and it is the absolute amount or
mass of body fat.
Fat is a class of organic compounds with limited water solubility that exists
in the body in many forms, such as triglycerides, free fatty acids, phospholip-
ids, and steroids.
The total body fat exists in two storage sites or depots – essential fat and
storage fat.
Essential fat consists of the fat in the heart, lungs, liver, spleen, kidneys,
intestines, muscles, and lipid-rich tissues of the central nervous system and
bone marrow. Normal physiological functioning requires this fat.
The sum of the body’s fat-free mass and essential fat is the lean body mass
(LBM). This is not to be confused with fat-free mass.
The storage fat depot includes fat primarily in adipose tissue. The adipose
tissue energy reserve contains approximately 83% pure fat, 2% protein, and
15% water within its supporting structures. Storage fat includes the visceral
fatty tissues and the larger adipose tissue volume deposited beneath the skin’s
surface.
Calculating body fat by measuring skinfolds (subcutaneous fat: the layer,
or compartment, of adipose tissue that lies just under the skin) is based on
two fundamental assumptions:
• The thickness of subcutaneous adipose tissue is in a constant ratio to
the total fat. Although about 50% of body fat is in the subcutaneous tis-
sue, the skinfold thickness can indicate the total body fat.
• Points selected for the measurement of skinfold thickness represent the
average thickness of the subcutaneous fat layer.
In the Czech Republic, the most common anthropometric measures of body
composition are Pařízková’s method and Matiegka’s equations, which are
based on analyzing skinfolds and other somatic parameters.
Skinfolds are measured with a caliper (type BEST II, see Chapter 8).
Skinfold thickness is measured at precisely specified locations on the right
side of the body with an accuracy of 0.5 mm. The skinfold is lifted with the
thumb and the index finger of the left hand pressing against each other: the
skin is palpated and pinched to form a double layer of skin and the subcutane-
ous connective and adipose tissues (Figure 4.9). The caliper is typically held in
with the right hand. The measuring tips are then applied about 1 cm away from
the fingers towards the fold base. The axis running through the caliper tips is
perpendicular to the axis of the lifted skinfold; the calipers are applied flatwise
relative to the surface of the body. The skinfold thickness is read on the caliper
scale (type BEST II, see Chapter 8).
125
 Skinfold landmarks on the right side of the body (Figure 4.10):

1. On the face: the skinfold runs horizontally below the temple, on a line con-
necting the tragus and nostrils, in a horizontal plane.
2. On the neck: under the chin above the hyoid bone, the skinfold runs
vertically (sagittal), and the head is slightly raised. The neck must not be
stretched.
3. On the chest I: the skinfold runs diagonally; measure over the pectoralis
major muscle, at the anterior axillary skinfold. Make sure not to include the
pectoralis major muscle.
4. Triceps skinfold: the fold runs vertically; measured on the posterior sur-
face of the arm above the triceps brachii muscle, half the distance between
Figure 4.9 the bony tip of the shoulder (acromion) and the elbow joint (olecranon pro-
Skinfold measurement method cess). The arm is relaxed, hanging by the side (Figure 4.11).
5. Subscapular skinfold (below shoulder blade) – the fold runs slightly
obliquely along the rib line; measured directly below the inferior angle of
the scapula (Figure 4.12).

Figure 4.11 Figure 4.12

Triceps skinfold Subscapular skinfold

6. Abdominal skinfold: the fold runs horizontally; it is lifted one-third of the

Figure 4.10
Skinfold measurement landmarks: 1– face, 2 – neck, 3 – chest I, 4 – triceps,
5 – subscapular, 6 – abdomen, 7 – chest II, 8 – suprailiac, 9 – patella,
10 – calf I, 11 – biceps, 12 – volar forearm, 13 – thigh, 14 – calf II
distance between the navel and the anterior superior iliac spine, i.e. closer
to the navel (Figure 4.13).
7. Chest skinfold II: the fold runs obliquely along the rib line; it is lifted at the
intersection of the 10th rib and the anterior axillary line.
8. Suprailiac skinfold: the fold runs along the iliac crest; measured at the
point of intersection of the crest and the anterior axillary line.
9. Above the patella: the skinfold is sagittal; leg slightly bent and resting on
toes, completely relaxed.

126 127
 Calculation of body fat and fat-free body mass
Body fat percentage in a sum of 10 skinfolds (skinfolds 1 to 10, Figure 4.10)
is calculated on the basis of Pařízková’s method using regression equations
(Tables 4.5 and 4.6).

Table 4.5 Regression equation calculating percentage of body fat in boys

and girls aged 9 to 16 years old on the basis of 10 measured skinfolds

SEX, AGE REGRESSION EQUATION

Boys aged 9 to 12 y = 1.180 – 0.069 × log x

Figure 4.13 Figure 4.14
Abdominal skinfold Biceps skinfold Girls aged 9 to 12 y = 1.160 – 0.061 × log x

Boys and girls aged 13 to 16 y = 1.205 – 0.780 × log x

10. On the calf I: the skinfold runs vertically along the calf, just below the Fat percentage: % fat = (4.201/y – 3.183) × 100
kneepit. Measure about 5 cm below the popliteal fossa. Leg completely
relaxed, slightly bent, resting on toes. Legend: y = density, x = sum of 10 skinfolds
11. Biceps skinfold: measured at the anterior surface of the arm above the
biceps brachii muscle, at the same level as the arm girth; the fold runs
vertically; the arm is completely relaxed, with the palm of the hand facing
forward (Figure 4.14). Table 4.6 Regression equation calculating percentage of body fat in men
and women aged 17 to 45 years old on the basis of 10 measured skinfolds
12. Volar forearm skinfold: measured on the volar (palm) aspect of the fore-
arm, where the girth is at its maximum. The arm is relaxed, hanging by the
SEX, AGE REGRESSION EQUATION
side.
13. Thigh skinfold: the fold runs vertically along the anterior surface of the Men aged 17 to 45 % fat = 28.960 × log x – 41.27
thigh, above the quadriceps femoris muscle; measured at half the distance
between the trochanterion (greater trochanter) and tibiale landmarks; the Women aged 17 to 45 % fat = 39.572 × log x – 61.25
subject stands with the feet slightly apart.
14. Calf skinfold II: measured in a seated position; the leg is resting on a pad Legend: y = density, x = sum of 10 skinfolds
so that the knee is at a right angle. The skinfold is pulled vertically on the
medial (inner) side of the calf at the point of the maximum girth.
Obesity is defined as an adipose tissue percentage of >
– 25% for men and
>
– 30% for women.
Calculation of fat-free body mass (FFM) and fat mass (FM) with the help of
the following formulae:

1. % FFM = 100 – % fat

2. kg FFM = (% FFM × body weight in kg)/100
3. kg FM = (% fat × body weight in kg)/100

128 129
Centrality index – fat distribution based on skinfold measurements
Skinfold thickness also helps to establish the hazardous fat distribution by
determining the ratio of truncal or abdominal fat to the amount of fat in the
extremities. The centrality index is used to determine the type of subcutaneous
fat distribution on the basis of measuring skinfold thickness in different parts
of the body.
Below follow the types of distribution of body fat fraction:
• Harmonious, optimal distribution of fat fraction around the trunk and
extremities.
• Centrifugal, characterized by a predominance of fat fraction around the
trunk.
• Centripetal, fat distribution prevalent in the extremities.
The fat fraction distribution is determined using the following indices:
1. Index X 1: X 1 = subscapular skinfold below shoulder blade/triceps skinfold.
2. Index X 2: Documents the ratio of fat distribution on the trunk in relation to
the extremities and the head (X 2 = skinfold chest I + subscapular + abdo-
men + suprailiac + chest II/skinfold face + chin + triceps + patella + calf I).
3. Index X 3: Monitors the ratio of skinfolds around the trunk and in the ex-
tremities regardless of the thickness of skinfold on the face and under chin
(X 3 = skin subscapular + abdomen + suprailiac/skinfold triceps + patella
+ calf I).
4. Index X 4: X 4 = ratio of patella skinfold/thigh skinfold.
Evaluation of centrality indices
If X 1, X 2, and X 3 equal 1: harmonious distribution of fat in the extremities
and trunk.
If X 1, X 2, and X 3 are less than 1: distribution of fat greater in the extremities
than around the trunk.
If X 1, X 2, and X 3 are more than 1: distribution of fat greater around the trunk
than in the extremities.
If X 4 is less than 1: prevalent fat distribution over the quadriceps femoris.
Body fat distribution is most often established with the help of the indices X 2
and X 3.
130
4.2.2.4 Matiegka’s Method
As stated earlier, body mass is a complex variable made up of two components
– fat mass and fat-free mass.
When monitoring changes in body weight caused by, for example, nutrition
and physical exercise, attention is paid to how the components regroup and
reshape, and, if relevant, to the absolute amount and percentage of the body
components or fractions (skeleton, fat, muscles, internal organs). Even if there
is no change in the body mass at the end of the period that is surveyed, it is
possible that the quality of tissue has changed dramatically. The individual may
now have less fat and more muscle or vice versa. As mentioned in Chapter
4.2.1, Technically Demanding Methods, there are a number of methods that
measure the components (DEXA, etc.); most of these are suitable for use al-
most exclusively under laboratory conditions for reasons stated earlier.
There is, nevertheless, an anthropometric
method for distinguishing the various compo-
nents of the body of a living person (fat, mus-
cle, and bone in the body or parts thereof),
which is now attracting the greatest attention
in the literature worldwide.
The first to introduce the idea of fractiona-
tion into the four components model of body
weight was the founder of Czech anthropolo-
gy, Jindřich Matiegka (Figure 4.15).
Although quite dated, Matiegka’s method is
the best option for routine practice. It operates
with anthropometric data that is very easy to
establish. In 1921 Matiegka designed an orig-
inal qualitative analysis of human body mass
based on the external body dimensions. Figure 4.15
The anthropologist Matiegka used the avail- Prof. MUDr., RNDr. Jindřich
Matiegka, h. c. (1862–1941)
able cadaver data of the period to develop
a series of equations. These equations allowed him to make an empirical estima-
tion of the four main constituent parts of body weight (muscle, skin plus subcu-
taneous fat, deep fat plus viscera, bone and residual mass or vital organ/visceral
mass) from external measurements of body form.
Matiegka divided body mass into the following components:
W = O + D + M + R
W........ body weight
O......... skeletal weight (ossa)
D......... skin plus subcutaneous adipose tissue weight (derma)
M........ skeletal muscle weight (musculli)
R......... residual mass
131
The body weight fractions are calculated following Matiegka’s equations: Circumferences are corrected by deducting the thickness of the skin and sub-
cutaneous tissue.
Skeletal weight – O:
O = o2 × L × k1 Formula for computing the radius (rx) of circumference (Crx) corrected for fat:
o = (o1 + o2 + o3 + o4)/4
rx = (Crx – 3.1416 × skinfoldx)/2 × 3.1416
o1 ... biepicondylar breadth of the humerus (cm)
Cr1 – circumference of the relaxed arm (cm)
o2 ... breadth of the wrist (cm)
o3 … biepicondylar breadth of the femur (cm) Cr2 – maximum circumference of the forearm (cm)
o4 … breadth of the ankle (cm) Cr3 – median circumference of the thigh (cm)
L … body height (cm) Cr4 – maximum circumference of the calf (cm)
k1 … 1.2 Skinfold1 – d1 … skinfold at biceps muscle (cm)
Skinfold2 – d2 ... skinfold at the volar forearm (cm)
Mass of the skin and subcutaneous adipose tissue weight – D: Skinfold3 – d3 ... skinfold at the thigh (cm)
D = d × S × k2 Skinfold4 – d4 ... skinfold at the calf II (cm)
d = ½ × (d1 + d2 + d3 + d4 + d5 + d6)/6
Residual mass – R:
d......... resulting sum of skinfolds in centimetres
d1........ skinfold at biceps muscle (cm) R = W – (O + D + M)
d2........ skinfold at the volar forearm (cm) W....... actual weight of body mass
d3........ skinfold at the thigh (cm) O........ portion of the weight of skeletal mass
d4........ skinfold at the calf II (cm) D........ portion of the weight of skin plus subcutaneous adipose tissue
d5........ skinfold at the chest II (cm)
M....... portion of the weight of muscle mass
d6........ skinfold at the abdomen (cm)
S......... body surface area by Du Bois (Fetter et al., 1967):
S = 71.84 × W 0.425 × L0.725 Body mass fractions in percentages (%):
S......... body surface area (cm2)
W........body weight (kg) O (%) = (skeletal weight in kg/body weight in kg) × 100
L.........body height (cm) D (%) = (skin plus subcutaneous adipose tissue in kg/body weight in kg) ×100
k2........0.13 M (%) = (skeletal muscle weight in kg/body weight in kg) ×100
Skinfold thickness is measured with a modified caliper (type BEST). R (%) = (residual mass in kg/body weight in kg) × 100

Skeletal muscle weight – M:

The sum of the four components equalled the body weight.
M = r2 × L × k3
r = (r1 + r2 + r3 + r4)/4
r1......... radius of the upper arm circumference when relaxed (cm)
r2......... radius of forearm circumference (cm)
r3......... radius of the median circumference of the thigh (cm)
r4......... radius of the maximum circumference of the calf (cm)
L.........body height (cm)
k3........6.5

132 133
//
Summary
• Body weight is a complex variable. Body weight does not provide sufficient
information about the weight of muscle, bone, fat tissue, and other organs.
• Determining the individual components in relation to body weight is impor-
tant not only from the morphological and chemical perspectives, but also in
terms of the components’ biological activity. It provides information about
the current health and level of nutrition.
• Currently, there are models which describe body composition on five levels:
atomic, molecular, cellular, tissue, and whole-body level.
• With respect to these models, body composition is analyzed using various
instruments and methods. These include technically demanding methods,
which are accurate but unsuitable for wide application in large groups of
subjects (densitometry, DEXA, etc.). On the other hand, anthropometric
methods are less technically demanding, affordable, and ideal for both
clini­cal-epidemiological studies and practical life.
• The following methods are suitable for assessing adequate body weight and
body composition: BMI, WHR, WHtR, circumference measurement, skinfold
measurement, and Matiegka’s method.
• Obesity or excess accumulation of body fat is a heterogeneous disorder
with a final common pathway where energy intake chronically exceeds en-
ergy expenditure and alters health risks in children, adolescents, and adults.
134
Glossary // Slovník // Slownik
adipose tissue // tuková tkáň // tkanka tłuszczowa
atomic model // atomický model // model atomowy
body cell mass (BCM) // buněčná masa // komórkowa masa ciała
body composition // tělesné složení // skład ciała
body fat mass (BFM) // tuková hmota // masa tłuszczu w ciele
body mass (BM) // tělesná hmotnost // masa ciała
cellular model // buněčný model // model komórkowy
central fat deposition // centrální typ obezity // otyłość brzuszna (otyłość cen-
tralna)
extracellular water (ECW) // extracelulární voda // woda zewnątrzkomórkowa
fat distribution // distribuce tuku // rozkład tkanki tłuszczowej
fat fraction // tuková frakce // frakcja tłuszczu
fat-free mass (FFM) // tukuprostá hmota // beztłuszczowa masa ciała
health risk // zdravotní rizika // zagrożenie zdrowia
intraabdominal adipose tissue // intraabdominální tuková tkáň // tkanka
tłuszczowa w jamie brzusznej
intracellular water (ICW) // intracelulární voda // woda wewnątrzkjomórkowa
level of nutrition // úroveň výživy // poziom odżywienia
models of body composition // modely tělesného složení // modele składu ciała
molecular model // molekulární model // model molekularny
normal weight // normální hmotnost // prawidłowa waga
obesity // obezita // otyłość
overweight // nadváha // nadwaga
peripheral fat deposition // periferní typ obezity // otyłość obwodowa (poślad-
kowo-udowa)
skinfold measurement // měření kožních řas // pomiary fałdów skórno-
tłuszczowych
subcutaneous adipose tissue // podkožní tuková tkáň // podskórna tkanka
tłuszczowa
technically demanding methods // technicky náročné metody // metody wy-
magające urządzeń technicznych
tissue-organ model // tkáňový model // model tkankowy
total body water (TBW) // celková tělesná voda // masa całkowita wody
underweight // podváha // niedowaga
underwater weighing // vážení pod vodou // ważenie pod wodą
whole-body model // celotělový model // model całego ciała
135
5 BIOTYPOLOGY Slender body type (asthenic, leptosomic, respiratory), with predominant linear
dimensions, characterized by an elongated and fragile body, long skull, and
long face; the spine is slightly curved, the chest long and flat, and the limbs
long and thin; low body fat.
Medium body type (athletic, muscular) – no significant prevalence of linear
or latitudinal proportions, with predominant muscle and high demands for
// blood flow.
Stocky body type (hyperplastic, eurysomatic, pyknic, digestive) – with pre-
5.1 Concept of Biotypology dominant latitudinal proportions. Short, plump individuals with a tendency to
put on weight (store subcutaneous fat), overweight; the trunk is short, bulky,
Biotypology is a science that classifies individuals according to their body type and all shapes are rounded; short and wide chest, long and protruding ab-
(constitution) and psychological characteristics into certain types of relatively domen, with short and thick limbs – especially legs.
identical characteristics.
In the growth period, individuals in the same age group share more or less
the same shape. Their unique form assumes its final contours in adulthood, so
in the end, there are multiple body types with different proportions and forms.
Although in the population there is a great variability of physical constitutions,
within each population there are groups of individuals who share relatively
similar characteristics or traits. These groups are referred to as types or con-
stitutions.
Constitution is characterized as a relative, permanent, and comprehensive
unit of basic physical and mental characteristics of an individual. Constitutions
are a frequently and naturally occurring combination of traits present in the
population in a certain group of people. People who share a number of the
same characteristics and are alike thus belong to the same type. Body type
is characterized by a set of morphological, physiological, and psychological
characteristics. It is based on disparate physique and on selected typical char-
acteristics and shapes of the human body.

Factors that influence the current shape and constitution of an individual:

• heredity factor is the essence of the development of the constitutional A B C
type, and is determined by genetics;
• functional type reflects external factors that partially modify the constitu-
tional type (e.g. overall way of life, occupation, nutrition, physical activity). Figure 5.1
Basic types: A – slim type, B – medium type, C – stocky type
As the functional type affects the constitutional type, the latter does not remain
fixed and constant throughout life; rather, it is a basis that is modified for each
individual by external factors (nutrition, occupation). Empirical research shows that the distinct types detailed in typological sys-
Body typing is much easier for males than for females, primarily because tems are very rare in the population, and most people belong to mixed, tran-
in women the overall body shaping is less distinct on the individual level. The sient, and vague categories. It is important to realize that innate constitutional
classification of children into constitutional types is similarly challenging. There characteristics are not constant throughout life. Instead, they are modified by
are various human body typology methods based on external characteristics lifestyle and environmental factors.
that are accepted. Some experts rely on description, others on taking body
measurements, and some adopt both the approaches. All these methods even-
tually arrive at three basic types (Figure 5.1):

136 137
// Sigaud’s body typology distinguishes the following constitutional types
(Figure 5.2):

5.2 Origin and Development of Biotypology Respiratory, characterized by marked development of those parts of the body
that help us breathe.
Even in earlier times, the fact that individuals differ in terms of their build, be-
haviour, psyche, and other traits could not go unnoticed. The founder of body Digestive, characterized by a well-developed lower third of the face and large
typology, who made the first attempt to define the types of human beings, was abdomen – parts related to nutrition; the abdomen is markedly long and pro-
the Greek physician and philosopher Hippocrates of Kos (460–370 BC). Hip- truding; there is a tendency to store fat in the abdomen.
pocrates distinguished two types, namely the habitus phthysicus (a slender Muscular, which represents the perfect male body, with a well-proportioned
long body, with prevailing vertical dimensions, thin, prone to consumption, physique, robust skeleton, and well-developed muscles.
phthisis) and the habitus apoplecticus (a short, stocky body with predominant
horizontal dimensions; chubby, prone to stroke). These two extreme types are Cerebral, which has a remarkably large head, especially the brain part, weak
used by many authors, albeit under different names. muscles, and a thin layer of fat under the skin, and is short.
In the Middle Ages, the study of the human body receded into the back-
ground, and no biotypological concept was developed.
The first concepts dealing with the typology of the human body began to
appear chiefly in connection with the development of anthropology in the 18th
and 19th centuries. As anthropology developed, much important data on the
proportions of the body as a whole and its parts was obtained using accurate
methods. The findings about the structure of the human body were gradually
used to classify and determine basic constitutional types with distinct physical
traits. This period also saw the beginning of interest in the typology of the hu-
man body and the origin of schools of typology.

5.2.1 French School of Body Typology

The French school of body typology was founded by Jean Noel Halle, who in
1877 published a paper that describes four basic types: abdominal, muscular,
thoracic (chest), and cranial.
Further developed by other French typologists, Hallé’s classification and
typological school became the foundation of the entire French school, which is
represented by Léon Rostan, Claude Sigaud, and his pupil Léon Mac-Auliffe.
Sigaud confirmed Rostan’s four types, proceeding from the assumption that
each type is determined by one dominant organ system. Sigaud and his disci-
ples (Vincent, Mac-Auliffe, Chaillou, and Ticolete) identify four types in relation
to the dominant organ system, thus laying the foundations of a new discipline
called morphological typology, or the morphological basis of constitutional
doctrine.
A B C D
Figure 5.2 Sigaud’s typology:
A – respiratory, B – digestive, C – muscular, D – cerebral
(by Fetter et al., 1967)
The typology of the human body also benefited from the work of the French
anthropologist Leonce Manouvrier (1850–1927), who tried to introduce an-
thropometry into body typology. He assessed types on the basis of his ‘indice
skelique’ or Manouvrier’s Index of the Body (skelic index), which expresses the
ratio of arm length to body length as a percentage.

138 139
We also calculated and examined the following skelic index: 5.2.2 Italian School of Body Typology
Skelic index (Manouvrier) = [(body height – sitting height) × 100]/sitting height The Italian analytical school of biotypology was founded by the anthropologist
Achille de Giovanni, who was familiar with and applied anthropometric meth-
According to this index, there are the following types (Figure 5.3). The following ods to human body typology. Giovanni distinguished three combinations that
classification, for both sexes, was established on the basis of this formula: he identified as asthenic, athletic, and pyknic types. This method was further
developed by his disciple Giacinte Viola (1870–1943).
Viola’s Italian school of biotypology is essentially anthropometric. Each in-
CATEGORY MEN AND WOMEN dividual’s constitution is a particular combination or correlation of physical
variations affecting characteristics common to all individuals.
brachyskelia up to – 84.9 Viola tried to eliminate the subjective factor in visual assessment of body
types. Viola’s typology was based on ten basic and essentially anthropometric
mesatyskelia 85.0 – 89.9 dimensions (Figure 5.4). The first five dimensions are vertical and the other

macroskelia 90.0 – and over

The macroskelic type may be defined as having relatively long legs and a
short trunk, while the brachyskelic has, on the contrary, short legs and a long
trunk. The mesatyskelic type may be defined as having legs proportional to
the trunk.

Figure 5.4
Points and measurements to determine constitutional types,
according to Viola (by Cosmas, 1960)
Points: A – vertex, B – suprasternal, C – xiphoid, D – epigastric,
Brachyskelic type Macroskelic type E – symphision or pubic, F – stylion, G – sphyrion, H – acromion.
Measures: B-C = sternum length; C-D = xipho-epigastric height;
D-E = pubo-epigastric distance; C-E = abdominal height;
Figure 5.3 B-E = suprasternal-pubic height; T. t. d. = transverse thoracic diameter;
Manouvrier’s typology – Indice Skelique T. e. d. = transverse hypochondric diameter; T. p. d. = transverse pelvic diameter;
A. p. t. d. = anteroposterior thoracic diameter;
A.p.c.d. = antero-posterior hypochondric diameter.

140 141
five horizontal. He also measured the body height, length of the trunk, and the
overall height of the abdomen. The measures were used to calculate indices.
The subject’s constitution is derived from the deviation of each index from the
norm as a percentage. Deviations are positive if above average, and negative
if below average.
Viola’s classification is based on the assumption that the human body has
two main systems:
• system of vital functions (vegetative), including all internal organs and
represented by the trunk,
• system of external relationship, made up of the nervous system and skel-
etal muscles, and expressed by limbs.
In a perfectly proportioned body the two systems are in balance. This propor-
tional balance is a prerequisite for functional balance. Viola termed this type
normosplanchnic (normotype).
Rare in nature, the normotype is an average person, whose proportions are
a mean of a great host of measurements.
Its extreme variants are as follows:
Macrosplanchnic type (macrosplanchnic brachymorphic; brachytypic) – pre-
dominance of trunk over limbs; trunk has prevalently horizontal proportions;
abdomen is larger than chest; short legs imply low body height, and markedly
developed bowels and subcutaneous fat lead to high weight. Shoulders are
fairly high, foot arch low, hands and feet wide. The face is round and hair thin,
with a tendency to baldness; external genitals are usually less developed; high
blood pressure; hyperstenic and hypertonic muscles.
Microsplanchnic type (microsplanchnic dolichomorphic; longitypic) is char-
acterized by long limbs, especially legs, and therefore tallness. The trunk is
slender with prevailing vertical proportions, the neck is long and narrow, chest
long, muscles poorly developed, and the limbs long and covered with only a
thin layer of fat. Vertical shoulders, thick hair; males have greatly developed
long genitalia, females often report sexual infantilism; atonic abdominal muscle
system, hypotonic abdominal wall.
According to Viola, the above types represent a clear antagonism between
the animal and vegetative functions. If the system is predominantly vegetative
– megalosplanchnic brachytype (short type with large bowels), it is primarily
anabolic.
If the system of external relationship is predominant – microsplanchnic
longitype (long type with small bowels) – the catabolic type, animal functions
are prevalent.
For Viola, the most important aspect of human body typology was the trunk-
limb ratio.
142
In the former case the trunk reaches considerable dimensions, while in the
latter it is the limbs. Viola’s normosplanchnic type has both the functional sys-
tems in balance.
Viola’s system of typology distinguishes a total of 18 extreme types, with the
rest classified as transitory types.
Although Viola’s biotypology is obviously anthropometric and morphological
in its orientation, he does accept the psychological correlation established
by Kretschmer, which equates the macrosplanchnic brachymorphic type of
structure with cycllothymia and, in pathological cases, with circular manic-de-
pressive psychosis. The microsplanchnic dolichomorphic type is clearly related
to schizothymia, and in pathological manifestations to schizophrenia and de-
mentia praecox.
Viola’s classification is a great contribution to the knowledge and under-
standing of constitutional types.
His selection of measurements provides the best metric description of most
of the constitutions described until now. Viola recognized the fact that the mor-
phological problem cannot be completely solved by numbers. Numbers are
precise, but they are also an inadequate symbolic image for representing form.
Viola’s classification meant a great enhancement of typology. On the basis
of his measurements and observations, he concluded that it is insufficient to
merely morphologically measure dimensions, and that comprehensive cha­
racterization of the type requires a descriptive characterization of the type.
Descriptive morphological characters are always a valuable aid.
5.2.3 German School of Body Typology
The German school of typology is represented by the psychiatrist Ernst Kret-
schmer (1888–1964). In 1921 Kretschmer published his “Körperbau und Char-
acter”, putting forward the idea of ​​a relationship between the human consti-
tution and the psyche. He proceeds from the assumption that it is possible to
diagnose psychological characteristics on the basis of physique. Kretschmer
then developed a typological system with regard to the relationship between
body constitution and the psyche. The principal idea of this system of typology
was the relationship between psychiatric diagnosis and body type.
On the basis of his studies, there are three elementary types derived from the
overall appearance and anthropometry (Figure 5.5):
The asthenic type (slender, leptosomic type) is characterized by normal body
height and limited body breadth. This type involves a large group of slender
and often sporty males.
The athletic type (medium type, mesosome) is of medium height, with strongly
developed bones, muscles, and chest.
The pyknic type (stocky type, eurysome) has horizontal dimensions which
predominate over the vertical ones. The body has a thick subcutaneous fat
layer that grows with age, especially in the abdomen.
143
 Instead of measurements, Kretschmer’s original typology was based on
mere observation, which implied a major subjective error. Kretschmer himself
later rejected the athletic type, and maintained only the two extremes: the
pyknic and the asthenic (leptosomic) types. Kretschmer analyzed these types
in great detail, showing them to be characterized by certain mental qualities,
and claiming that within a certain percentage range the types were prone to
selected psychoses.
Drawing on his own studies and observations, Kretschmer concluded that
there was a relationship between the psyche and relevant body type.
He observed a biological relationship between:
• manic depression and the pyknic type,
• schizophrenia and the asthenic and athletic types, and
• only a very low correlation between schizophrenia and the pyknic type and
between manic depression and the asthenic and athletic types.
A B C
Figure 5.5
Kretschmer’s typology: A – asthenic, B – athletic, C – pyknic
Kretschmer’s system of typology was criticized, demonstrated, and refuted,
while triggering similar research based on different grounds.
144
5.2.4 Differential Somatology
In 1953, the Swede B. Lindegard published the “differential somatology”
method. Body types are defined using factors calculated from body dimensions.
On the basis of statistical analysis, he established four basic factors:
Length factor – Lindegard suggests deriving the length factor either from the
length of the radius and tibia or from the length of the tibia only.
Robustness factor – determined by the epicondylar distances of the distal fem-
oral head, the proximal head of the tibia, and the bimalleolar breadth (ankles).
Muscle factor – determined by the dynamometric measure of strength by
pressing the right hand, pulling the arms apart, and pressing them toward each
other.
Fat factor – given by measuring the skinfold thickness at ten points located
on the body.
The parameters were localized into a body build chart. The aim was to infer
from surface measurements to the very structure of the body with regard to
functional efficiency.
Another attempt at a typology of the human body was the work of the British
endocrinologist and anthropologist James Mourilyan Tanner (1920–2010).
In 1964 and 1965 he published a paper in which he defined five factors (e.g.
the size and type of the frame, breadth of bones in the limbs, relative width of
muscles, and relative thickness of the subcutaneous fat layer) in an attempt to
characterize the body structure on the basis of the distribution and proportion of
body tissues. Tanner worked with radiographs to classify human physical types.
5.2.5 New Somatotyping Methods
The studies made in connection with Sheldon’s research were a breakthrough
in biotypology. In the 1940s, American scientists led by the physician and psy-
chologist William Herbert Sheldon (1898–1977) carried out extensive typolog-
ical research. The survey involved 4,000 students aged 16–20 years old. The
objective was to determine whether there is a genuine relationship between
physical characteristics and personality characteristics. Later, Sheldon and his
team verified the new somatotyping method on a population of 46,000 Ameri-
can males. The research findings were published in the book “The Varieties of
Human Physique” in 1940.
Sheldon aimed to find the most appropriate way to describe the human
body type, and therefore defined three components termed endomorphy, mes-
omorphy, and ectomorphy. He derived the names of these components from
the three germ layers, endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm, which give rise
to organs and tissues. Sheldon grounds his theory on the assumption that the
“preponderance of the formation and development of one embryonic layer and
tissues, or their ratio, determines the morphophenotype”, i.e. the genetically
determined physique.
145
 In “The Varieties of Human Physique” he presented a typological method
that is completely different from all previous methods. It is based on the ele-
mentary requirement to define physique in such a way that it singles out indi-
viduality. Sheldon introduces the concept of the somatotype, which he defines
as follows: “The patterning of the morphological components, as expressed by
the three numerals, is called the somatotype.”
Sheldon maintains that after adulthood is reached, the ratio of the com-
ponents remains unchanged, and the changes that take place as a result of
external factors only affect the morphophenotype, i.e. the present physique.
In his attempt to formulate human body types, Sheldon defined three com-
ponents termed the endomorphic, mesomorphic, and ectomorphic, which he
distinguished as follows (Figure 5.6):
Endomorphic component – characterized by a relatively dominant softness
in body parts. If the endomorphic component is prevalent, digestive organs
are well-developed, rather dominant, and strive to control the entire economy
of the body, which is associated with high body fat mass. Digestive organs are
originally derived from the endodermal embryonic layer (inner germ layer), or
endoderm.
Mesomorphic component – characterized by a relative predominance of mus-
cles, bones, connective tissue, and ligaments. A mesomorphic body structure
is normally heavy, dense, and angular. The skeleton and muscles prevail and
dominate; the skin is thick because of heavy subcutaneous connective tissue.
The overall body economics is relatively dominated by tissues that evolved
from the mesodermal embryonic layer (middle germ layer), or mesoderm.
Ectomorphic component – characterized by a relative predominance of li­
nearity, with little subcutaneous fat. Relative to its body mass, the ectomorph
has the largest body surface and is therefore most exposed to sensory contact
with the external environment. In relation to body mass, ectomorphs also have
the largest brain and central nervous system (CNS). The overall economy of the
body is relatively dominated by tissues derived from the ectodermal embryonic
layer (outer germ layer), or ectoderm.
On the basis of his research, William Herbert Sheldon showed that the three
components described above are found to some degree in every human being. Figure 5.6
Their presence is rated on a scale from 1 (very low presence) to 7 (maximum Sheldon’s somatotype evaluation:
presence of the component). Number 4 is the midpoint between 1 and 7. Shel- endomorph, mesomorph, ectomorph, balanced
don divided the human body into five areas, which he rated, using aspection, (by Fetter et al., 1967)
for the presence of all three (endomorphic, mesomorphic, ectomorphic) com-
ponents with 1 to 7 (e.g. an area could be assessed as Somatotype 2-4-3, i.e. He introduces the photometry method into somatotyping, which involves
having two parts of the endomorphic component, four parts of the mesomor- taking full-body photographs from three angles: exact front, profile, and dorsal
phic, and three parts of the ectomorphic component). In addition to the three pictures can be taken without any movement on the subject’s part. Enlarging
basic components, certain secondary variables were also isolated by Sheldon: the photographs and using special calipers, he then measured certain anthro-
dysplasia, gynandromorphy, hirsutism, etc. pometric measurements in the photos. From 17 measurements of diameters
Drawing on his experience, Sheldon does not recommend assessing so- (Figure 5.7), plus height and weight, 18 anthropometric indices were obtained,
matotypes during measurement, but evaluating them in special photographs on the basis of which he determined the somatotype. Sheldon identified a total
(Figure 5.6). of 88 elementary somatotypes.

146 147
 fited from the graphic representation of the placement the somatotype held in
the ‘somatograph’ (Figure 5.8).
Despite being innovative, Sheldon’s somatotype method was very com-
plicated and designed only for males. The method, however, became quite
popular and was applied widely in the somatotyping of athletes, nutrition, and
job specialization.

Figure 5.7
Showing the locations on the body at which the 17 diameters
are measured (by Cosmas, 1960)
Photographic diameters: FB1= Facial-Breadth-one;
FB2 = Facial-Breadth-two; NTt = Neck-Thickness-transverse;
Ntap = Neck-Thickness-antero-posterior; TB1 = Trunk-Breadth-one;
TB2 = Trunk-Breadth-two; TB3 = Trunk-Breadth-three;
TT1 = Trunk-Thickness-one; TT2 = Trunk-Thickness-two;
TT3 = Trunk-Thickness-three; ATU=Arm-Thickness-Upper;
ATL1=Arm-Thickness-Lower one; ATL 2=Arm-Thickness-Lower two;
LTU1=Leg-Thickness-Upper-one; LTU2=Leg-Thickness-Upper-two;
LTL1=Leg-Thickness-Lower-one; LTL 2=Leg-Thickness-Lower-two.

The somatotyping method based on visual assessment of types in photographs Figure 5.8
was quite demanding. In 1954 Sheldon published “Atlas of Men”, which de- Sheldon’s somatograph
scribes an improved method based on photoscopic rating of somatotypes. The (Berry, 1972)
method was simplified, and somatotypes were now determined using standard
photographs similar to an atlas and a somatotype distribution chart based on
the height-weight index. Scientific investigation of somatotyping greatly bene-

148 149
// Table 5.1
Heath-Carter anthropometric somatotype rating table (Carter, 2002)

5.3 The Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype

New somatotyping procedures that followed from Sheldon’s work were intro-
duced by his colleagues, R.W. Parnell, B.H. Heath, and J.E.L. Carter.
R. W. Parnell (1911–1985) replaced Sheldon’s anthroscopic method, which
used photographs in somatotyping, with anthropometry. He then summarized
his findings in “Behavior and Physique” (1958), in which he introduced a
schematic table, the forerunner of the Heath and Carter table.
Parnell’s research was further developed by B. H. Heath (1910–1998) and
J. E. L. Carter (1932). These scientists came up with a new somatotyping meth-
od based on measured anthropometric parameters. Heath and Carter thus
developed and introduced a new bio-typological method – the anthropometric
somatotype. The Heath-Carter method of anthropometric somatotyping is
recognized and widespread on a global scale.
The anthropometric somatotype represents the current morphological status
of an individual and is expressed as a three-number rating (e.g. 3-5-4), i.e. com-
ponents. The numbers are always given in the same order, and each number
represents a valuation of one of the three basic components of the body: the
first number is the endomorphic component, the second number is the meso-
morphic one, and the third number is the ectomorphic component.

The components of the anthropometric somatotype are defined as follows:

The first component – endomorphy – refers to the relative thickness and rel-
ative thinness of individuals. The number signifies the amount of subcutaneous
fat and is arranged consecutively from the lowest to the highest levels. The
endomorphic component is determined by measuring the thickness of three
skinfolds: the triceps skinfold, the skinfold below the shoulder blade (subscap-
ular), and the skinfold along the top of the iliac crest (suprailiac).
The second component – mesomorphy – refers to the relative skeletal and
muscle development in relation to body height. Evaluating the skeletal and
muscle development, it is on a continuum from the lowest to the highest levels.
Mesomorphy is considered to be lean body mass in relation to height, consist-
ing of the musculoskeletal system, soft tissue, and body fluids (the whole body
minus subcutaneous fat). The mesomorphic component is determined on the
basis of the following dimensions: body height, girth of flexed arm reduced by
the thickness of the triceps skinfold, maximum girth of calf reduced by the calf
skinfold, and the biepicondylar diameter of the distal humerus and femur.
The third component – ectomorphy – refers to the relative length of body
parts. The third component is determined on the basis of an index of height to
the cube root of weight, i.e. body height / .
Each of the components is evaluated with an accuracy of 0.1 point, and
theoretically there is no upper limit. Practically, however, endomorphic types

150 151
were found to reach a maximum of 14 points, mesomorphic ones 10 points, If the equation calculation for any component is zero or negative, the value of
and ectomorphic types nine points. This does not mean that the components 0.1 is assigned as the component rating, because by definition ratings cannot
could not be found to have higher values. be zero or negative.
In order to quantify the anthropometric somatotype, i.e. express it with three Depending on the dominant component, anthropometric somatotypes can be
numbers, each individual needs to have 10 anthropometric measurements ta­ divided into four basic groups of somatotypes and subsequently, according to
ken to identify the somatotype components. The somatotype itself is assessed the component ration, into 13 somatotype categories.
with a table of anthropometric parameters of the subject in question (Table 5.1).
Alternatively, the somatotype components are calculated using equations
based on the measured parameters. The four basic groups of somatotypes:
Central: no component differs by more than one unit from the other two.
Equation-based somatotyping Endomorph: endomorphy is dominant; mesomorphy and ectomorphy are
more than one half-unit lower.
Endomorphy calculation: Mesomorph: mesomorphy is dominant; endomorphy and ectomorphy are
more than one half-unit lower.
The equation to calculate endomorphy is:
Ectomorph: ectomorphy is dominant; endomorphy and mesomorphy are more
endomorphy = – 0.7182 + 0.1451 (X) – 0.00068 (X2) + 0.0000014 (X3) than one half-unit lower.
where X = (sum of triceps, subscapular, and supraspinale skinfolds)
multiplied by (170.18/height in cm). 13 categories of somatotypes divided according to the component ratio
(Figure 5.9) :
This is called height-corrected endomorphy and is the preferred method for
calculating endomorphy. • Central: no component differs by more than one unit from the other two.
• Balanced endomorph: endomorphy is dominant and mesomorphy and
One degree of endomorphy equals about 5% fat. ectomorphy are equal (or do not differ by more than one half-unit).
• Mesomorphic endomorph: endomorphy is dominant and mesomorphy
Mesomorphy calculation: is greater than ectomorphy.
• Mesomorph-endomorph: endomorphy and mesomorphy are equal (or
The equation to calculate mesomorphy is:
do not differ by more than one half-unit), and ectomorphy is smaller.
mesomorphy = 0.858 × humerus breadth + 0.601 × femur breadth + • Endomorphic mesomorph: mesomorphy is dominant and endomorphy
0.188 × corrected arm girth + 0.161 × corrected calf girth – height × 0.131 + 4.5. is greater than ectomorphy.
• Balanced mesomorph: mesomorphy is dominant and endomorphy and
Ectomorphy calculation: ectomorphy are equal (or do not differ by more than one half-unit).
• Ectomorphic mesomorph: mesomorphy is dominant and ectomorphy
As mentioned earlier, ectomorphy is calculated using an index of height to the is greater than endomorphy.
cube root of weight, i.e. body height / . The height and weight index is
• Mesomorph-ectomorph: mesomorphy and ectomorphy are equal (or
referred to as HWR (height-weight ratio).
do not differ by more than one half-unit), and endomorphy is smaller.
• Mesomorphic ectomorph: ectomorphy is dominant and mesomorphy is
Three different equations are used to calculate ectomorphy according to greater than endomorphy.
the height-weight ratio: • Balanced ectomorph: ectomorphy is dominant and endomorphy and
If HWR is greater than or equal to 40.75, mesomorphy are equal (or do not differ by more than one half-unit).
then ectomorphy = 0.732 × HWR – 28.58 • Endomorphic ectomorph: ectomorphy is dominant and endomorphy is
greater than mesomorphy.
If HWR is less than 40.75 but greater than 38.25,
• Endomorph-ectomorph: endomorphy and ectomorphy are equal (or do
then ectomorphy = 0.463 × HWR – 17.63
not differ by more than one half-unit), and mesomorphy is lower.
If HWR is equal to or less than 38.25, • Ectomorphic endomorph: endomorphy is dominant and ectomorphy is
then ectomorphy = 0.1 greater than mesomorphy.

152 153
 Somatotypes can be plotted in a somatograph. The somatograph is divided
into sectors with three axes that intersect at the centre of a spherical triangle
(Figure 5.9).
Somatotypes are located into the grid in the x- and y-axes with the help of
mathematical calculations that compute the x- and y-coordinates:

x = III – I
y = 2 × II – (I + III)

where: I – endomorphic component II – mesomorphic component III – ectomor-

phic component

In order to analyze the mean dispersion of the somatotypes of a sample about

the average somatotype, the somatotype dispersion distance, in three dimen-
sions, (SAD – somatotype attitudinal distance) and the distance of deviations
from the mean somatotype (SAM – somatotype attitudinal mean) are estab-
lished.
Using the SAD and the SAM provides better comparison of individual dis-
tance or the distance of mean somatotypes of samples in three-dimensional
space.

The SAD is calculated directly from the somatotype components according to

the following formula:
Figure 5.9
Somatograph: 1 – Balanced mesomorph, 2 – Ectomorphic mesomorph,
SAD1–2 = 3 – Mesomorph-ectomorph, 4 –Mesomorphic ectomorph,
5 – Balanced ectomorph, 6 – Endomorphic ectomorph,
7 – Endomorph-ectomorph, 8 – Ectomorphic endomorph,
where I1, II1, and III1 are the values ​​of the first somatotype and I2, II2, and III2 9 – Balanced endomorph, 10– Mesomorphic endomorph,
represent the values of the other somatotype. 11 – Mesomorph-endomorph, 12 – Endomorphic mesomorph, 13 – Central

The SAM index indicates the distance of deviations from the mean somatotype
The anthropometric somatotype is the result of interaction between genetic
and is calculated using the following formula:
factors and environmental factors. The somatotype can change throughout
life, with major modifications occurring primarily in adolescence. Somatotypes
1 n also vary across ethnic groups. It is reported that the mesomorphic and ecto-
SAM =
n
∑
i
=1
SADi , morphic components are 60-80% genetically conditioned, while endomorphy
is less hereditary and is most influenced by lifestyle (e.g. physical activity, diet).

where SADi is the distance of each somatotype of a sample from the mean The determination of anthropometric somatotypes, as well as of body height,
somatotype. body composition, and proportions, finds use in physical education and sports
in talent identification, prediction of motor performance, and subsequent sport
specialization of boys and girls.
There are studies that, based on the Heath-Carter anthropometric soma-
totype and its classification into motor competence categories (Chytráčková,

154 155
1990: The categories of somatotypes A, B, C, D, and E), determine the level of
motor skills of boys and girls. It should be noted that this categorization does
not yield fully objective results in terms of the level of motor skills, as it relies
only on anthropometric somatotyping without applying relevant motor tests.
A survey (Kopecký, 2011) that studied the validity of the categorization of
somatotypes A, B, C, D, and E on a representative sample, assessing the
anthropometric somatotypes and motor competences of boys and girls aged
seven to 15 years old with a heterogeneous battery of motor tests, revealed
the following facts:
1. Individuals with a similar anthropometric somatotype, falling into the same
somatotype category, with similar morphological preconditions for motor
performance, show different levels of motor competence.
2. Individuals with diverse anthropometric somatotypes, falling into various so-
matotype categories, with different morphological preconditions for motor
competence, report identical levels of motor competence.
3. If the mesomorphic component has the lowest values in the child’s somato-
type, this does not automatically imply low performance.
4. In order to diagnose motor competences, a corresponding heterogeneous
battery of motor tests needs to be used.
5. Findings suggested that the three-number anthropometric somatotype
does not provide valid information on the motor competence of a physically
inactive individual.
For these reasons, when predicting motor competences, selecting children
for sports teams, and managing their sports specialization, physical education
practice needs to take into account the fact that the Heath-Carter anthropo-
metric somatotype, which helps evaluate the current morphology and structure
of the body, provides information only about the external structure of the body
and provides only informative data about body composition. The three-number
anthropometric somatotype primarily describes the static characteristics of an
organism. It does not provide sufficient evidence of the development of motor
abilities – the internal, innate, relatively independent preconditions to physical
activity, through which they manifest themselves.
Another important issue is the biological nature of motor competences,
concerning which the anthropometric somatotype of athletic and non-athletic
children does not, and nor can it, give sufficient information to determine the
method that measures physical parameters (for example about the ratio of fast
and slow muscle fibres in skeletal muscle, the activation level and lability of the
regulatory processes in the CNS, the functional capacity of the cardiorespirato-
ry system, the plasticity of the regulatory metabolic processes, etc). It must also
be emphasized that the relationship between the anthropometric somatotype
and motor competence changes with the growth and development of each
individual throughout life and is influenced by a complex range of internal and
156
external factors. Besides genetic factors, human development is affected by
the quality and quantity of nutrition, health care, physical activity, socio-eco-
nomic conditions, and many other factors.
The long-term effects of these factors are undoubtedly also reflected in the
very biological essence of the growth and development of an organism, which
record somatic, functional, and motor changes.
Research findings confirm the need to assess motor competence with rel-
evant motor tests with respect to age and sex traits that serve as indicators
for the evaluation of the development of motor abilities and for their normative
assessment with regard to selected population groups.
//
Summary
• Biotypology is a science that studies the body type, constitution, and phys-
ical and mental characteristics of an individual.
• Constitution is characterized as a relative, permanent, and comprehensive
unit of the basic physical and mental characteristics of an individual. Body
type is influenced by hereditary factors – the constitutional type – and by
environmental factors – the functional type.
• On the basis of similar physical characteristics, the types are classified into
a group of individuals with similar morphological characteristics.
• Initially, body types were determined through observation and description of
the body build. Over time, anthropometric parameters were introduced into
the assessment of body types. The French and Italian schools of typology
were built on these principles. Another important milestone was research on
the relationship between the physical and psychological characteristics of
man. This concept is represented by the German school of typology.
• A new major concept of body typing arrived with Sheldon’s method. This
method is based on determining the somatotype, which is characterized
by a combination of three numbers expressing the somatotype compo-
nents: the representation of endomorphy, mesomorphy, and ectomorphy.
Sheldon’s method builds on the premise of which germ layer the particular
component of the somatotype develops from.
• The somatotype is defined as the patterning of the morphological compo-
nents, as expressed by three numerals.
• Sheldon’s method was adapted to another, new method based on anthro-
pometry – the anthropometric somatotype, which was introduced by Heath
and Carter.
• Following the determination of the anthropometric somatotype and the ratio
of the endomorphic, mesomorphic, and ectomorphic components, anthro-
pometric somatotypes fall into four basic groups of somatotypes (endo-
morphic, mesomorphic, ectomorphic, and central somatotype) and thirteen
categories of somatotypes.
157
Glossary // Slovník // Slownik
anthropometric somatotype // antropometrický somatotyp // somatotyp antro-
pometryczny
balanced ectomorph // vyrovnaný ektomorf // zrównoważony ektomorf
balanced endomorph // vyrovnaný endomorf // zrównoważony endomorf
balanced mesomorph // vyrovnaný mezomorf // zrównoważony mezomorf
body typing // stanovení typu // typ ciała
central somatotype // střední somatotyp // średni somatotyp
constitution // konstituce // konstytucja
ectomorphic mesomorph // ektomorfní mesomorf // ektomorficzny mezomorf
endomorphic ectomorph // endomorfní ektomorf // endomorficzny ektomorf
endomorph-ectomorph // endomorf-ektomorf // endomorf-ektomorf
endomorphic mesomorph // endomorfní mesomorf // endomorficzny mezomorf
functional type // funkční typ // typ funkcjonalny
heredity factor // faktor dědičnosti // czynnik dziedziczny
medium body type // typ střední // typ średni
mesomorph-ectomorph // mezomorf-ektomorf // mezomorf-ektomorf
mesomorphic ectomorph // mezomorfní ektomorf // mezomorficzny ektomorf
mesomorphic endomorph // mezomorfní endomorf // mezomorficzny endomorf
mesomorph-endomorph // mezomorf-endomorf // mezomorf-endomorf
SAD: somatotype attitudinal distance // disperzní vzdálenost somatotypů //
somatotypowy średni dystans
SAM: somatotype attitudinal mean // vzdálenost odchylek od průměrného so-
matotypu // odchylenia odległość od średniej somatotyp
slender body // typ štíhlý // typ smukły
somatotypic mean distance // průměrná vzdálenost somatotypu // somatoty-
powa średnia odległość
somatotype // somatotyp, typ tělesné stavby // somatotyp
stocky body type // typ rozložitý // typ krępy
typological resolution // typologické rozlišení // wyróżnione typologie
158
6 METHODS
of Monitoring
and Evaluating
Physical Growth
and Development
Two fundamental facts characterize childhood: growth and development. The
growth and development of a morphological character from an incomplete ne-
onatal form to the definitive, complete adult form is used to estimate biological
maturity. Biological age is the ratio of the age of the statistical standard to the
actual chronological age. Compared with chronological age, biological age is
of great importance.
Biological age refers to the state of ageing or to the level of somatic de-
velopment of the human body. The pace of somatic maturation, expressed
through biological age, depends on the individual processes of every person,
and may change as their chronological age advances. Biological age is de-
pendent on the sex, body type, genetics, ethnicity, and environmental factors.
The basic model for assessing growth and development is the assessment of
biological age, not chronological age. All individuals go through the same stages
of development from birth until maturity, but the development may progress at a
different rate for each individual. In given periods of time, individuals of the same
chronological age may show developmental differences of up to several years.
It may also happen that a person with a chronological age of 10 has a bone age
that matches that of a 12-year-old individual and a mental age of eight.
Determination of the child’s biological maturity receives due attention. In
physical education, sports, and clinical practice, a mere determination of
chronological age often does not suffice, as it is important to know the child’s
current state of development in relation to the specific age standard – the re­
ference values. This evaluation is referred to as the biological (developmental)
age, which does not always need to match the chronological age of the same
subject or patient.
Compared with chronological age, biological age determines the biological
maturity of the body. Biological age refers to the state of maturation or
the degree of physical development of a human organism. Biological age
defines how far the individual is from the postnatal beginning or conception,
or from his or her final shape. Biological age helps evaluate the impact of a
selected factor (e.g. nutrition, socio-economic conditions, physical activity) on
the characteristic under study and predict when the characteristic completes
its growth (in healthy subjects).
159
 Determination of biological age helps to
ascertain the stage of the physical development
of a child, and classify it under one of the three
main development zones – acceleration (accel-
erated growth), standard development (average
growth), and retardation (delayed growth).
In general, biological age is defined as
a physiological, biochemical, anatomical,
and mental process. It is a measure of devel-
opment and maturation, and an index of this
process.
Characterizing the overall growth and develop-
ment of an individual, biological age is a measure
of the formation of his or her morphological and
functional traits. In certain age periods, there may
be a major disproportion between the chrono-
logical age and the biological age, frequently
amounting to two years or more (Figures 6.1 and
6.2). In some cases, development is accelerated,
while in others it is delayed, or retarded.
Figure 6.1
Different development
trends in girls of the same
chronological age
Girl on the left: 11.5 years; body height: 142 cm;
body weight 31 kg.
Girl on the right: 11.6 years; body height:
(photo: M. Kopecký) 156 cm; body weight 58 kg.
Figure 6.2
Different development trends in boys in the 7th class of elementary school
(photo: M. Kopecký)
160
Biological age is important data for paediatricians, sports physicians, sur-
geons, orthopaedic surgeons, plastic surgeons, ergonomics, ergotherapy, and
others, as it facilitates objective assessment of the morphological, physical,
and performance maturity of young individuals.
In the past, children’s biological age was primarily assessed on the basis
of height and weight. Biological age is therefore an umbrella term for multiple
biological ages, which depend on the examination and assessment of selected
growth and developmental changes.
Categories of biological age:
1. Growth (height) age.
2. Dental age.
3. Bone (skeletal) age.
4. Developmental (sexual) age.
5. Proportional age.
//
6.1 Growth (height) Age
Growth age expresses the level of physical growth. Height age is an age de-
fined by height. Growth age is assessed using a “growth chart” that was
first designed by Kapalín and Prokopec on the basis of the Czech nationwide
anthropological survey in 1951. The growth chart that is used nowadays is a
percentile network constructed with the help of input data from the 6th Nation-
wide Anthropological Survey of Children and Adolescents 2001 Czech Repub-
lic (NAS 2001). The Slovak Republic relies on the findings of the 7th National
Survey of 2011.
This percentile network defines height zones for each individual. The as-
sessment of growth age is simple, but it is also rather unreliable because of the
great individual variability.
Height is currently almost exclusively evaluated with percentile charts based
on the findings of the 6th Nationwide Anthropological Survey of Children and
Adolescents of the Czech Republic, which took place in 2001. Designed pri-
marily for paediatricians and included in child immunization certificates, these
percentile (growth) charts describe body length (from birth until two years of
age) and body height (from two to 18 years of age) (Charts 6.1 and 6.2).
In Slovakia, professionals work with percentile charts developed on the basis
of the local 2004 Public Health Authority survey of the physical development of
children and adolescents. Percentile (growth) charts for the Slovak population
of children and adolescents describe body length (from birth until three years of
age) and body height (from three to 18 years of age) (Charts 6.3 and 6.4).
161
 In these charts, seven curves (names at the end of the curves) represent
the values of the main percentiles (the 3rd, 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, 90th, and
97th percentiles) which define percentile bands. The percentile indicates the
percentage of children in the population (3, 10, 25, 50, 75, 90, 97 percent) who
reach the respective value of the physical characteristic, including lower values.

The advantage of percentile charts is that plotting a measured or calculated

value of an individual under assessment enables instant comparison of the val-
ue with the same-age group, i.e. classification of the individual being assessed
under a specific percentile band.

Percentile of growth
A method of ranking growth status for body height, weight, BMI (see Chapter
4), etc. of an individual relative to other members of a sample or population of
people. Percentile graph body height, weight, and BMI (weight/height) ratio are
indispensable for the evaluation of individual growth.
The percentile graph of the selected empirical percentiles, body height,

Body height (cm)

weight, and BMI makes it possible to follow up the trend of this index in rela-
tion to age from birth to 18 years. It also makes it possible to evaluate whether
and how the actual body parameters correspond to the reference population.
Example: a child at the 75th percentile for height is taller than 75 percent of the
other children in the group under consideration.

Definition of percentile bands (general):

• The 3rd and 97th percentiles (chart curves at the extremes) define a band
of wider growth standard (includes 94% empirically determined values ​​of
the characteristic in individuals of a given age)
• the band between the 25th and 75th percentiles (includes 50% empirically
determined values of​​ the characteristic in individuals of a given age) is con-
sidered the narrower standard, i.e. the mean of the characteristic,
• values above the 75th percentile are high,
• values above the 90th percentile are defined as very high,

Body weight (kg)

• values below the 25th percentile are considered low,
• values below the 10th percentile are very low,
• values ​​outside the wider standard band (below the 3rd percentile and
above the 97th percentile) are considered extreme (i.e. very significantly
above or below average).
The 50th percentile (the median), a thick middle line, represents the median of
the characteristic, which is almost identical to the average of the characteristic
in the population (half of all children in the population score lower values, and
half score higher values than the median value). age (years)
Chart 6.1
The percentile bands for boys and girls are shown in Charts 6.1–6.4 and Percentile body height and body weight charts for boys
Table 6.1. (age two to 18 years) (Czech child population standards 2001.
Data based on NAS 2001).

162 163
 Body weight (kg)
Body height (cm)
Body height (cm)

age (years) age (years)

Chart 6.3
Percentile body height and body weight charts for boys
(age three to 18 years) (Slovak child population standards 2004.
Data based on Public Health Authority).

Table 6.1
Assessment of body height of boys and girls by percentile bands
Body weight (kg)

PERCENTILE BAND STATURE

above the 97th percentile

very tall
above the 90th percentile

between the 75th and 90th percentiles tall

age (years) between the 25th and 75th percentiles medium

Chart 6.2
Percentile body height and body weight charts for girls between the 3rd and 25th percentiles short
(age two to 18 years) (Czech child population standards 2001. below the 3rd percentile very short
Data based on NAS 2001).

164 165
 age (years)

1 Steady growth:
Body weight (kg)
Figure 6.3 shows the course
Body height (cm)

of the growth curve with

standard steady develop-
ment of the selected physical
characteristic.
Figure 6.3
Steady growth

age (years) age (years) age (years)

Chart 6.4
Percentile body height and body weight charts for girls
(age three to 18 years) (Slovak child population standards 2004.
Data based on Public Health Authority).

Evaluation of physical growth 2 Growth arrest:

If a child lives in conditions that permit the full exercise of its genetic potential, Figure 6.4 shows a stagnation
including adequate medical care, nutrition, and appropriate socio-economic or arrest of body growth; in
conditions, then the child’s physical growth and development are in line with its the case of height monitoring
genetic growth potential and recommended reference data. this may indicate, for example,
Regular measurements show that the growth curve of the child runs parallel a growth disorder, while in the
to the percentile curves, ideally between the 25th and 75th percentiles. case of weight measurement,
When physical growth is being monitored, individual curves may, with re- for example within a reducing
spect to the reference curves, develop as follows: diet, this trend is acceptable.
Figure 6.4
Stagnation or arrest of physical growth

166 167
 age (years)
3 Accelerated growth:
any significant increase in the
height, weight, or BMI which
may occur in adolescence
should be considered a warn-
ing sign (Figure 6.5).
Figure 6.5
Accelerated physical growth
If an individual growth curve ranges outside the 25th and 75th percentiles, it
is necessary to consider the height and physique of the child’s parents. If the
curve runs within the extreme percentile bands, evaluation varies depending on
which physical characteristic is concerned.
When assessing body height, attention needs to be paid chiefly to high
values above the 90th and 97th percentiles, and to low values below the 10th
percentile and especially below the 3rd percentile. Such values ​​may indicate
growth disorders. Timely referral to a specialist may be crucial for successful
treatment.
Anthropometric surveys and percentile charts serve the following purposes:
• the monitoring of the growth of individuals and the population using percen-
tile charts is one of the basic means of monitoring the health and nutritional
status of individuals and the population;
• charts as part of the child’s certificate of immunization;
• the monitoring of adequate body growth and development of body para­
meters from birth to adulthood;
• comparison of the physical measurements of an individual or group and the
reference values ​​of the whole child population;
168
• the monitoring of an individual and entering his/her measures in charts may
detect and identify in a timely manner selected health complications and
deviations in the child’s growth and development compared to the reference
values of
​​ the population standard, e.g. identification of a serious illness prior
to its clinical outbreak or of the psychological problems of a child;
• the monitoring of the effectiveness of treatment in the case of growth disor-
ders and serious illnesses;
• the diagnosis of eating disorders, overweight, and obesity, and the mon-
itoring of the effectiveness of preventive measures and weight loss pro-
grammes;
• the monitoring of the impact of external factors (sports, excessive physical
and psychological load, inappropriate environment, etc.) on the physical
growth and development of an individual.
//
6.2 Dental Age
Dental maturation has most often been viewed in terms of the time or age of
eruption of the deciduous (baby) and permanent teeth. Dental age is dental
development that complies with the standards for a specific age period. In the
Czech Republic, this concept was first introduced by Jan Matiegka, who se-
lected tooth eruptions (teething) as the evaluation criterion.
Dental age is calculated on the basis of the development of the primary
(baby) teeth and permanent dentition, compared with the standards of a
certain age (Figures 6.6 and 6.7). This method is imprecise; because of the
demonstrated disproportion with bone age it has low validity. It is used only for
an approximate evaluation.
Accurate dental age is determined using the method of Komínek et al. (1980)
for children aged 10 to 15 years old. From the very beginning – development of
the dental follicle – until the completion of the formation of the root, tooth devel-
opment is monitored with X-rays, and is characterized by seven stages. On the
basis of the statistical evaluation of a representative sample of the Czech pop-
ulation, Komínek et al. (1980) identified developmental stages for each tooth in
each year, expressing the values ​​with diagrams and tables. The diagrams are
designed to allow for direct comparison with a radiograph of the subject.
Another method, which is more suitable and is non-invasive, is the dental
degree method. It involves counting erupting teeth or assessing the eruption of
a group of teeth. The appropriate number of teeth present at a given chronolog-
ical age is then used as an index of maturity for deciduous teeth or permanent
dentition. This method is not demanding in terms of diagnosis, and nor does it
require X-ray examination.
169
Each tooth is evaluated according to the following criteria: The permanent dentition contains 32 teeth that erupt between the age of six
and adulthood (Figure 6.7).
1. tooth not yet visible in the oral cavity;
2. tooth is entering the mouth, but has not reached the occlusal plane yet;
3. tooth has reached the occlusal plane;
4. tooth missing.

Humans have two dentitions, or sets of teeth: deciduous and permanent

(Figures 6.5 and 6.6).

The deciduous teeth are also called primary teeth, milk teeth, or baby teeth.
The deciduous teeth begin to erupt at about six months of age, and one pair of
teeth appears about each month thereafter, with very wide inter-individual vari-
ation. Usually the 20 deciduous teeth are complete at 2.5 years (Figure 6.6). All
the deciduous teeth are lost – generally between the ages of six and 12 years
– and replaced by the permanent (secondary) teeth (Figure 6.7).

Figure 6.7
Development of permanent (secondary) dentition

Figure 6.6
Development of deciduous (primary) dentition

170 171
//
6.3 Bone age, skeletal age,
and skeletal maturation
A measure of biological maturation (as distinguished from chronological age)
based on stages of formation of the bones. Referring to the maturation of the
skeleton, bone age is determined by the degree of ossification of the bone
structure. It is a measure of age which registers how bones have advanced to
maturity, not in terms of size, but their shape, and the position of one bone in
comparison with another.
Bone age – skeletal maturation is the most valid method of assessing the in-
dividual’s biological ageing. When the chronological age is not known, assess-
ment of the skeletal age is helpful. Its determination is the basis for determining
the biological age of the child for the following reasons:
• the changes that occur in the bones of maturing individuals are essentially
quite similar. The variable is the time at which these changes occur;
• each ossification centre undergoes a number of morphological stages, the
assessment of which serves as the basis for determining the maturity level;
• all the bone maturation centres are easy to identify on a radiograph.
Figure 6.8
Bone age: X-ray image: a child aged 2.5, 4, and 9 years old
172
The maturity standards of bones and epiphyseal centres are typically based on
the maturity of a limited number of points of ossification, most often evaluated
on the skeleton of the hand (Figure 6.8), whose anatomy makes it the most
informative for this purpose.
Bone age characterizes the degree of secondary ossification of various
parts of the child’s skeleton from birth until the end of adolescence. In terms of
sexual dimorphism the skeleton of boys and girls undergoes identical stages
of development, albeit at a significantly different pace. When the progress of
bone ossification is being assessed, attention is paid to the size and number
of ossification centres and to the closure of the epiphyseal plates. The assess-
ment relies on the X-ray of the right hand or the left hand, including the distal
antebrachial epiphyses. Although the ossification of hand bones provides ac-
curate information only about a part of the skeleton, it does give an idea of the
whole and about the progress of the ossification of all the types of bones in the
limbs. This assessment is one of the most accurate and widespread diagnos-
tic methods. Unfortunately, it is invasive because of its use of X-ray radiation,
which greatly limits its use.
//
6.4 Developmental age, sexual age,
or sexual maturation
Development or sexual age estimates sexual maturity on the basis of various
scales. It is determined in relation to the development of secondary sex
characteristics. Secondary sex characteristics develop as a result of changes
in the levels of male and female sex hormones in school-age children and ado­
lescents. Sexual age relates to bone age much better than to calendar age.
Discrepancies between pubertal age and bone age are used when diagnosing
precocious or delayed development of sexual maturation.
In boys, assessment focuses on the development of the penis, pubic hair,
and underarm hair. In girls, we monitor the development of breasts and pubic
hair, and the menarcheal age. This data is compared with various types of
scales.
The most widespread is the Tanner Scale of 1962 and 1963 (Figures 6.9
– 6.11), which evaluates axillary and pubic hair growth, mammary gland de-
velopment in girls and boys, and the development of the penis and scrotum in
boys. Tanner standardized the evaluation of the growth stages of the external
genitalia and pubic hair. The scale includes five stages. It starts with the pread-
olescent stage 1 and ends with the adult stage 5 (Figures 6.9 – 6.11). The as-
sessment of pubertal stages can of course be performed by direct observation
(photographs are recommended).
173
Stages of male genital development Stages of development of pubic hair
The stages of development are to be scored as follows (Figure 6.9): The stages of development are to be scored as follows (Figure 6.10-A, B):

Stage 1. Pre-adolescent. The vellus over the pubes is not further developed
Stage 1. Pre-adolescent. Volume of testes smaller than 4 ml. Testes, scrotum,
than that over the abdominal wall, i.e. no pubic hair.
and penis are of the same size and proportions as in early childhood.
Stage 2. Sparse growth of long, slightly pigmented downy hair, straight or only
Stage 2. Enlargement of scrotum and testes. The skin of the scrotum reddens,
slightly curled, appearing chiefly at the base of the penis or along the labia.
and changes in texture. Little or no enlargement of the penis at this stage.
Visible only close up.
Stage 3. Enlargement of the penis, which occurs at first mainly in terms of
Stage 3. Considerably darker, coarser, and more curled. The hair spreads
length. Further growth of testes and scrotum.
sparsely over the junction of the pubes. Visible from a distance.
Stage 4. Increased size of penis with growth in breadth, and development
Stage 4. The hair now resembles that of an adult in type, but the area covered
of glans. Further enlargement of testes and scrotum; increased darkening of
scrotal skin. by it is still considerably smaller than in the adult. No spread to the medial sur-
face of the thighs.
Stage 5. Genitalia adult in size and shape. No further enlargement takes place
after stage 5 is reached. Stage 5. Adult in quantity and type with distribution of the horizontal (or clas-
sically feminine) pattern. Spread to the medial surface of the thighs but not up
the linea alba or elsewhere above the base of the inverse triangle.

In about 80% of men and 10% of women the pubic hair spreads further.

Figure 6.10-A
Figure 6.9
Standards for rating pubic hair in boys (Tanner, 1963)
Standards for rating of genital maturity in boys: stages 1 to 5 (Tanner, 1962)

174 175
 Figure 6.10-B
Standards for rating pubic hair in girls (Tanner, 1963)

Stages of breast development

The stages of development are to be scored as follows (Figure 6.11):

Stage 1. Pre-adolescent. Evolution of papilla only.

Stage 2. Breast bud stage. Elevation of breast and papilla as small mound.
Enlargement of areolar diameter.
Stage 3. Further enlargement and elevation of breast and areola, with no se­
paration of their contours.
Stage 4. Projection of areola and papilla to form a secondary mound above the
level of the breast.
Stage 5. Mature stage. Projection of papilla only, as a result of recession of the
areola to the general contour of the breast.

The stage 4 development of the areolar mound does not occur in 20% of girls;
in probably about a quarter it is absent, and in a further quarter relatively slight.

Figure 6.11
Standards for rating breast development during adolescence: stages 1 to 5
(Tanner, 1962)

176 177
// Proportional age evaluates the biological age of an individual on the basis of
changes in the following proportions: head – trunk – extremity (Figure 6.13).

6.5 Proportional Age

– Biological Proportional Age
Proportional age evaluates a morphological characteristic – body propor­
tionality – that undergoes a change in the growth period from birth to adult-
hood: each developmental stage has a corresponding ratio of body parts
(Figure 6.12 and 6.14). Assessment of proportionality thus provides valuable
information about the progress of growth, proving a valid tool in the determina-
tion of biological age and maturity.

Figure 6.13
Growth of proportions in males from birth into adulthood (Stratz, 1921)

An excellent tool to describe the different growth dynamics of long bones, the
torso, and the head is the Philippine Measure (Figure 6.14).

Figure 6.12 Figure 6.14

Body proportions of a newborn and of an adult Philippine measure

178 179
The Philippine Measure is a historical criterion of child maturity which used
to identify the right time for children to commence school attendance. The
method serves to evaluate the child’s physical maturity and readiness for
school, establishing whether the child’s body has undergone the required
change. The Philippine Measure compares the arm length to the size of the
head (at this stage the head grows slowly, while the limb grows fast) (Figure
6.14). The child tries to reach the left (right) earlobe with the right (left) hand.
If the child touches its earlobe with the hand, the child’s body has changed.
The Philippine Measure is a preliminary tool and it needs to be complement-
ed with other aspects. It is related to the change in the body proportionality
that occurs around the age of six – the transition from the period of the first
corpulence to the period of the first lankiness.
Proportional age may be determined on the basis of various indices.
One common index is the comprehensive character of body structure – the KC
index, termed the ‘comprehensive sign of the body build’ (Wutscherk, 1974),
which assesses the level of development or maturity. The comprehensive cha­
racter of body structure (KC) is determined through measuring eight anthropo-
metric dimensions, and the final index is calculated as the ratio of the character
of the extremities (KA) and the character of the trunk (KB). The KC describes
the law of the physical development process and typological differences that
condition the adult body.
A simplified procedure, based on the comprehensive character of body
structure, is the development index of body structure, termed the ‘index of
body build development’ or KEI index (Brauer, 1982). It is determined accord-
ing to the following anthropometric parameters:
• body height (cm),
• body weight (kg),
• biacromial breadth (cm),
• bispinal breadth (cm),
• forearm circumference in boys (cm),
• median circumference of the thigh/mid-thigh girth in girls (cm).
180
For the methodology of measuring the above parameters, see Chapter 2, An-
thropometry.
To determine the KEI index, it is necessary to calculate Rohrer’s Index, and
on the basis of that, to correct the double forearm circumference in boys and
mid-thigh girth in girls, establish the mean breadth and correct forearm circum-
ference in boys and mid-thigh girth in girls on the basis of Rohrer’s Index, and
calculate the KEI Index for boys and girls.
Determination of the KEI index:
1. Calculation of Rohrer’s Index (Corpulence Index):
RI = weight (kg) × 105/height3 (cm)
2. Calculation of mean breadth: (biacromial breadth + bispinal breadth)/2
3. Girth correction according to Rohrer’s Index: the mid-thigh girth in girls
and the double forearm circumference in boys are corrected on the basis
of Brauer’s table (Table 6.2). The relevant value of Rohrer’s Index (RI) in
the table is compared with the corrected double forearm circumference in
boys or mid-thigh girth in girls. The value in the table is added or subtracted
from the circumference measurement. When determining the correction
of double forearm circumference according to Rohrer’s Index, first multi-
ply the forearm circumference by two, and only then make the correction.
4. KEI calculation:
Calculation of KEI for boys:
KEI = mean breadth × corrected double forearm circumference/10 × body height (cm)
Calculation of KEI for girls:
KEI = mean breadth × corrected mid-thigh girth/10 × body height (cm)
181
Table 6.2 The circumference correction by Brauer (1982)

BOYS GIRLS BOYS GIRLS BOYS GIRLS BOYS GIRLS

ROHRER’S ROHRER’S ROHRER’S ROHRER’S
DOUBLE FOREARM MID-THIGH DOUBLE FOREARM MID-THIGH DOUBLE FOREARM MID-THIGH DOUBLE FOREARM MID-THIGH
INDEX INDEX INDEX INDEX
CIRCUMFERENCE GIRTH CIRCUMFERENCE GIRTH CIRCUMFERENCE GIRTH CIRCUMFERENCE GIRTH

0.90 +3.7 +5.1 1.48 – 5.6 – 3.6 1.21 – 1.3 +0.4 1.79 – 10.6 – 8.2
0.91 +3.5 +4.9 1.49 – 5.8 – 3.7 1.22 – 1.5 +0.3 1.80 – 10.7 – 8.4
0.92 +3.4 +4.8 1.50 – 5.9 – 3.9 1.23 – 1.6 +0.1 1.81 – 10.9 – 8.5
0.93 +3.2 +4.6 1.51 – 6.1 – 4.0 1.24 – 1.8 0.0 1.82 – 11.1 – 8.7
0.94 +3.1 +4.5 1.52 – 6.3 – 4.2 1.25 – 1.9 – 0.1 1.83 – 11.2 – 8.8
0.95 +2.9 +4.3 1.53 – 6.4 – 4.3 1.26 – 2.1 – 0.3 1.84 – 11.4 – 9.0
0.96 +2.7 +4.2 1.54 – 6.6 – 4.5 1.27 – 2.3 – 0.4 1.85 – 11.5 – 9.1
0.97 +2.6 +4.0 1.55 – 6.7 – 4.6 1.28 – 2.4 – 0.6 1.86 – 11.7 – 9.2
0.98 +2.4 +3.9 1.56 – 6.9 – 4.8 1.29 – 2.6 – 0.7 1.87 – 11.8 – 9.4
0.99 +2.3 +3.7 1.57 – 7.1 – 4.9 1.30 – 2.7 – 0.9 1.88 – 12.0 – 9.6
1.00 +2.1 +3.6 1.58 – 7.2 – 5.1 1.31 – 2.9 – 1.0 1.89 – 12.2 – 9.7
1.01 +1.9 +3.4 1.59 – 7.4 – 5.2 1.32 – 3.1 – 1.2 1.90 – 12.3 – 9.9
1.02 +1.8 +3.3 1.60 – 7.5 – 5.4 1.33 – 3.2 – 1.3 1.91 – 12.5 – 10.0
1.03 +1.6 +3.1 1.61 – 7.7 – 5.5 1.34 – 3.4 – 1.5 1.92 – 12.6 – 10.2
1.04 +1.5 +3.0 1.62 – 7.8 – 5.7 1.35 – 3.5 – 1.6 1.93 – 12.8 – 10.3
1.05 +1.3 +2.8 1.63 – 8.0 – 5.8 1.36 – 3.7 – 1.8 1.94 – 13.0 – 10.5
1.06 +3.7 +2.7 1.64 – 8.2 – 6.0 1.37 – 3.8 – 1.9 1.95 – 13.1 – 10.6
1.07 +1.0 +2.5 1.65 – 8.3 – 6.1 1.38 – 4.0 – 2.1 1.96 – 13.3 – 10.8
1.08 +0.8 +2.4 1.66 – 8.5 – 6.3 1.39 – 4.2 – 2.2 1.97 – 13.5 – 10.9
1.09 +0.6 +2.2 1.67 – 8.6 – 6.4 1.40 – 4.3 – 2.4 1.98 – 13.6 – 11.0
1.10 +0.5 +2.1 1.68 – 8.8 – 6.6 1.41 – 4.5 – 2.5 1.99 – 13.8 – 11.1
1.11 +0.3 +1.9 1.69 – 9.0 – 6.7 1.42 – 4.6 – 2.7 2.00 – 13.9 – 11.2
1.12 +0.2 +1.8 1.70 – 9.1 – 6.9 1.43 – 4.8 – 2.8 2.01 – 14.1 – 11.4
1.13 0.0 +1.6 1.71 – 9.3 – 7.0 1.44 – 5.0 – 3.0 2.02 – 14.3 – 11.5
1.14 – 0.2 +1.5 1.72 – 9.5 – 7.2 1.45 – 5.1 – 3.1 2.03 – 14.4 – 11.7
1.15 – 0.3 +1.3 1.73 – 9.6 – 7.3 1.46 – 5.3 – 3.3 2.04 – 14.6 – 11.8
1.16 – 0.5 +1.2 1.74 – 9.8 – 7.5 1.47 – 5.5 – 3.4 2.05 – 14.7 – 12.0
1.17 – 0.6 +1.0 1.75 – 9.9 – 7.6
1.18 – 0.8 +0.9 1.76 – 10.1 – 7.8 Note: Bauer’s circumference correction
A plus value is added to the measured circumference.
1.19 – 1.0 +0.7 1.77 – 10.3 – 7.9
A minus value is subtracted from the measured circumference.
1.20 – 1.1 +0.6 1.78 – 10.4 – 8.1 If the value is zero, the circumference measure remains as it is.

182 183
Table 6.3 Table 6.4
Physique Development Index for boys – Normative KEI of Czech boys Physique Development Index for girls – Normative KEI of Czech girls

AGE M SD DIFFERENCE ± 12 MONTHS AGE M SD DIFFERENCE ± 12 MONTHS

3.00–3.99 0.46 0.05 –0.50 3.00–3.99 0.43 0.05 –0.05

4.00–4.99 0.50 0.05 0.43–0.53 4.00–4.99 0.47 0.05 0.46–0.56

5.00–5.99 0.56 0.05 0.47–0.59 5.00–5.99 0.53 0.05 0.50–0.59

6.00–6.99 0.59 0.06 0.53–0.62 6.00–6.99 0.59 0.06 0.56–0.61

7.00–7.99 0.61 0.06 0.59–0.65 7.00–7.99 0.62 0.06 0.59–0.64

8.00–8.99 0.64 0.07 0.62–0.69 8.00–8.99 0.65 0.06 0.61–0.66

9.00–9.99 0.66 0.07 0.65–0.72 9.00–9.99 0.69 0.06 0.64–0.69

10.00–10.99 0.69 0.06 0.69–0.77 10.00–10.99 0.72 0.07 0.66–0.71

11.00–11.99 0.71 0.06 0.72–0.80 11.00–11.99 0.77 0.07 0.69–0.74

12.00–12.99 0.74 0.06 0.77–0.84 12.00–12.99 0.80 0.07 0.71–0.78

13.00–13.99 0.78 0.07 0.80–0.87 13.00–13.99 0.84 0.08 0.74–0.84

14.00–14.99 0.84 0.07 0.84–0.90 14.00–14.99 0.87 0.07 0.78–0.86

15.00–15.99 0.86 0.06 0.87–0.91 15.00–15.99 0.90 0.07 0.84–0.89

16.00–16.99 0.89 0.06 0.90–0.91 16.00–16.99 0.91 0.08 0.86–0.90

17.00–17.99 0.90 0.07 0.91–0.92 17.00–17.99 0.91 0.07 0.89–0.90

18.00–18.99 0.90 0.07 0.92– 18.00–18.99 0.92 0.07 0.90–

Note: M – mean; SD – standard deviation Note: M – mean; SD – standard deviation

The ±12-month range is used in the table-based evaluation of biological age: While the method cannot fully replace other methods of biological age assess-
ment, it is a valid tool in general paediatric exams, screenings of developmental
• accelerated development: (+) difference > + 12 months (KEI is higher than disorders, and longitudinal studies of child maturation in the broadest paediat-
the average and the corresponding difference), ric practice.
• normal (average) development: (0) difference ± 12 months (KEI equals the
average or the corresponding difference),
In conclusion, we recommend assessing biological maturity with the help
• retarded development: (–) difference > – 12 months (KEI is lower than the
of multiple methods to identify and objectively assess the maturity of the
average or the corresponding difference). individual under study.
The significance of proportional biological age lies in the fact that it is a rela-
tively simple method which is based on metric characteristics, is non-invasive,
valid, and allows biological age to be determined in children aged three to 18
years old (Tables 6.3 and 6.4).

184 185
// Table 6.5 Table of Decimal Years

6.6 Chronological Age MONTH

Anthropological surveys assessing the physical condition and development of DAYS JAN. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY. JUN. JUL. AUG. SEP. OCT. NOV. DEC.
an individual or group of individuals within the local population (e.g. the Czech, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Slovak, and Polish populations) or various geographical areas (Europe, Asia,
1 000 085 162 247 329 414 496 581 666 748 833 915
America, etc.) require the use of standardized and unified anthropometric meth-
ods and anthropometric instruments. One of the key steps of the subsequent 2 003 088 164 249 332 416 499 584 668 751 836 918
analysis of the measured anthropometric data is precise determination of the 3 005 090 167 252 334 419 501 586 671 753 838 921
chronological (calendar) age of the subject and his/her age group classification. 4 008 093 170 255 337 422 504 589 674 756 841 923
As noted earlier in Chapter 6, humans have two different ages – chronolog-
5 011 096 173 258 340 425 507 592 677 759 844 926
ical and biological.
Chronological-calendar age is measured from birth to a given date. Biolo­ 6 014 099 175 260 342 427 510 595 679 762 847 929
gical age determines an individual’s development on the basis of an age norm. 7 016 101 178 263 345 430 512 597 682 764 849 932
The difference between biological and calendar age is two to three years on 8 019 104 181 266 348 433 515 600 685 767 852 934
average.
9 022 107 184 268 351 436 518 603 688 770 855 937
The construction of reference standards is grounded in the accurate de-
termination of age categories and the associated measured physical, motor, 10 025 110 186 271 353 438 521 605 690 773 858 940
physiological, and other parameters. 11 027 112 189 274 356 441 523 608 693 775 860 942
Physical anthropologists follow the recommendations of the International 12 030 115 192 277 359 444 526 611 696 778 863 945
Biological Programme (IBP) to ensure unified determination of the accurate
13 033 118 195 279 362 447 529 614 699 781 866 948
chronological age of the subjects (Weiner & Lourie, 1969).
The subject’s chronological age is calculated in accordance with the IBP 14 036 121 197 282 364 449 532 616 701 784 868 951
from birth to the date of measurement and is given in decimal years. 15 038 123 200 285 367 452 534 619 704 786 871 953
The calculation of the subject’s age and his/her classification in the appropri- 16 041 126 203 288 370 455 537 622 707 789 874 956
ate age range are carried out with the help of a decimal table (Table 6.5). 17 044 129 205 290 373 458 540 625 710 792 877 959
Table of Decimal Years: the months of the year are arrayed at the top of the 18 047 132 208 293 375 460 542 627 712 795 879 962
table, and the days of the month in the left-hand column (Table 6.5). 19 049 134 211 296 378 463 545 630 715 797 882 964

The dates of the examination and birth should be recorded in Decimal Years 20 052 137 214 299 381 466 548 633 718 800 885 967
(see Table 6.5). 21 055 140 216 301 384 468 551 636 721 803 888 970
22 058 142 219 304 386 471 553 638 723 805 890 973
Dates of examinations should be recorded in Decimal Years:
23 060 145 222 307 389 474 556 641 726 808 893 975
For example, to look up the Decimal Year of, say, 17th July, 2018, first find the 24 063 148 225 310 392 477 559 644 729 811 896 978
figure 17 in the left-hand column and then move along that row to the figure
25 066 151 227 313 395 479 562 647 731 814 899 981
given under the July heading, which is 540. On the recording sheet 17th July,
2018 will be written 18/540, the year being recorded before the day and month. 26 068 153 230 315 397 482 564 649 734 816 901 984
27 071 156 233 318 400 485 567 652 737 819 904 986
Dates of birth should be recorded in Decimal Years:
28 074 159 236 321 403 488 570 655 740 822 907 989
For example, to look up the Decimal Year of, say, 1st May, 2008, first find the 29 077 159 238 323 405 490 573 658 742 825 910 992
figure 1 in the left-hand column and then move along that row to the figure
30 079 – 241 326 408 493 575 660 745 827 912 995
given under the May heading, which is 329. On the recording sheet 1st May,
2008 will be written 08/329, the year being recorded before the day and month. 31 082 – 244 – 411 – 578 663 – 830 – 997

186 187
On the recording sheet the Birth Date is filled in below the Examination Date, so
that age may be obtained by subtraction of one from the other.
The calculation of the subject’s age is:
Examination date 17th July, 2018............... 18/540
Birth date 1st May, 2008............................. 08/329
Age (by substraction) is thus....................... 10/211
On the recording sheet Age is rounded off to four figures, in this case 10.21.
Chronological age should be recorded as occurately as possible.
Subjects are divided into age groups using two methods:
a) the classification which divides subjects into± 0.5-year age groups, e.g. a
10-year-old boy: age interval 9.51-10.50 years.
b) the WHO classification, where age group categorization is based on chro­
nological age with a one-year interval, e.g. a 10-year-old boy: age interval
10.00-10.99 years.
Accurate determination of the decimal age, together with age-group categori-
zation based on age intervals, allows the comparison of anthropometric para­
meters detected in an individual or group of subjects with other anthropological
surveys, whether past, present, or carried out in different countries.
//
Summary
• Development: progression of changes from undifferentiated or immature
state to a highly organized, specialized, or mature state.
• Growth: quantitative increase in size or mass.
• Maturation and maturity: the process (maturation) and the state (maturity) of
reaching functional capacity in terms of biological, behavioural, and cogni-
tive capacities.
• Growth references and population standards are statistical summaries
of anthropometry, conditioned on age and sex. References describe how
child­ren grow.
188
• Biological age refers to the state of maturation or to the level of somatic
development of the human body. The tempo at which the biological age of
an individual proceeds can differ from their progress in terms of calendar
age; it depends on sex, type of body shape, genetics, ethnicity, and envi-
ronmental factors.
• Biological age is defined as a physiological, biochemical, anatomical, and
mental process. It is a measure of development and maturation, and an
index of this process.
• The determination of biological age helps to ascertain the stage of the
phy­sical development of a child and classify it under one of the three main
development zones – acceleration (accelerated growth), standard deve­
lopment (average growth), and retardation (delayed growth).
• The five most commonly used indicators of biological maturity status:
growth (height) age, dental age, bone (skeletal) age, developmental (sexual)
age, and proportional age.
• Growth (height) age: growth age expresses the level of physical growth.
Height age is an age defined by height.
• Dental age: dental maturation in terms of the time or age of eruption of the
deciduous (baby) and permanent teeth. Dental age is dental development
that complies with the standards for a specific age period.
• Bone (skeletal) age: a measure of biological maturation (as distinguished
from chronological age) based on the stages of the formation of the bones.
Referring to the maturation of the skeleton, bone age is determined by the
degree of ossification of the bone structure. The bone maturation is identi-
fied in a radiograph.
• Developmental (sexual) age: estimates sexual maturity. It is determined in
relation to the development of secondary sex characteristics: breast deve­
lopment and menarche in girls, genital development (of the penis and testes)
in boys, and pubic hair in both sexes.
• Proportional age evaluates a morphological characteristic – body propor-
tionality – that undergoes a change in the growth period from birth to adult-
hood: each developmental stage has a corresponding ratio of body parts.
• Secondary sexual characteristics are physical traits associated with the
onset of sexual maturation, including the development of facial hair and
muscularity in boys and the development of the breast and adult fat distri-
bution in girls.
• Sexual dimorphism is differences between the sexes in physical appear-
ance, behavioural performance, and physical characteristics.
• The chronological age defines a child’s age according to their birthday.
189
Glossary // Slovník // Slownik
7 THE EVALUATION
of Development
acceleration // akcelerace // akceleracja
accelerated development // zrychlený vývoj // przyspieszony rozwój
accelerated growth // zrychlený růst // przyspieszony wzrost
biological age // biologický věk // wiek biologiczny
body proportionality // proporcionalita těla // proporcje ciała and Proportionality
bone (skelal) age // kostní (skeletální) věk // wiek kostny (szkieletowy)
breast development // vývoj prsů // rozwój piersi Using Z-score
Standardization
child maturation // dospívání dítěte // dojrzewanie dziecka
chronological age // chronologický (kalendářní) věk // wiek chronologiczny
(kalendarzowy)
deciduous teeth // dočasná dentice (chrup) // zęby mleczne  
degree of ossification // stupeň kostnatění (osifikace) // stopień kostnienia and Perkal’s
natural indices
(osyfikacja)
dental age // zubní věk // wiek zębowy
determination of biological age // určení biologického věku // określanie wieku
biologicznego
development // vývoj // rozwój  
development (sexual) age // vývojový (sexuální) věk // wiek wtórnych cech
płciowych
genital maturity // zralost genitálií // dojrzewanie genitaliów
growth // růst // rozwój
//
growth arrest // zastavený růst // zahamowanie wzrostu
7.1 Z-score
growth curve // růstová křivka // krzywa wzrastania Anthropometric parameters can be evaluated in absolute and relative values
growth (height) age // růstový (výškový) věk // wiek rozwojowy wysokości ciała and compared with the corresponding standard using the Z-score standardiza-
growth references // růstové normy, standardy // normy rozwojowe   tion method (also referred to as a standard score or normal score).
maturation // zrání // dojrzewanie The method facilitates accurate evaluation of body growth, development,
mental age // mentální věk // wiek umysłowy proportionality, and monitoring of physical condition and the changes that the
normal (average) development // normální (průměrný) vývoj // normalny (średni) human body and its parts undergo during development. A Z-score is used to
rozwój compare characteristics and express proportionality in relation to the popula-
percentile bands // percentilová pásma // kanały centylowe tion.
percentile (growth) charts // percentilové (růstové) grafy // wykresy centylowe A Z-score is used to compare any number of traits without eliminating their
percentile network // percentilová síť // siatka centylowa individual character, irrespective of age groups, and only considering the di-
permanent teeth // trvalá dentice (chrup) // zęby stałe chotomy of gender. This is due to the fact that, instead of centimetres or kilo-
Philippine measure // Filipínská míra // test filipiński grams, the unit of the Z-score is the ratio of standard deviations of a character-
istic at a relevant age.
proportional age // proporcionální věk // wiek proporcji ciała
pubic hair // pubické ochlupení // owłosienie łonowe A Z-score is applicable in the comparison of subjects from various age or
ethnic groups or groups from diverse social, economic, or geographic back-
retardation // retardace // retardacja
grounds.
retarded development // zpomalený vývoj // rozwój opóźniony
A Z-score also serves to compare group means relative to the group whose
secondary sexual characteristics // sekundární pohlavní znaky // drugorzędowe
mean values are the reference standard for the given population.
cechy płciowe
sexual maturation // sexuální (pohlavní) zrání // rozwój płciowy The standardization of readings involves
​​ determining their position relative to
standard development // normální vývoj // prawidłowy rozwój   the mean (M) in the units of the standard deviation (SD) of a relevant age group
of the reference population.
steady growth // stabilní růst // stabilny rozwój

190 191
 Standardization is calculated from readings and from the means and stand- The calculated Z-scores of the traits of an individual or a group serve to
ard deviations of the reference population groups. build a body structure morphogram (Figure 7.1), on the basis of which the
The formula for calculating the standard score is given below: mutual disproportionality of the given traits is established. The morphogram
is designed if there is a need for a clear picture of the position of the values​​
Z-score = (X – M)/SD measured in relation to the reference population.
X – the measurement of a relevant characteristic in an individual or the popu-
lation mean
M – the mean of a monitored characteristic of the reference population
SD – standard deviation of the reference population

The Z-score indicates by how many standard deviations the value in ques-
tion differs from the reference standard. It shows how far from the mean the
monitored group or individual is.
The advantage of this method is that the Z-score helps compare one cha­
racteristic with another (proportionality) or the values of a single characteristic
at different ages (growth and development).

Evaluation of Z-score:
• if the Z-score is positive, the relevant characteristic is above the mean. If the
Z-score is negative, the relevant characteristic is below the mean;
Figure 7.1
• if the Z-score equals one, the characteristic is one standard deviation away
from the mean; Body structure morphogram
• if the Z-score equals zero, it is the mean of the reference population.

A positive Z-score indicates the characteristic is above the mean, while a If an individual is compared with reference standards, a statistically sig-
negative Z-score indicates a characteristic below the mean. Classification of nificant deviation from the norm (5% significance level), and thus probably
the development of a characteristic depending on the standard deviation range: a pathological value, is any value that deviates from the mean by more than
± 2 standard deviations. If the Z-score of the whole group of subjects is calcu-
lated, the differences between the groups are evaluated using relevant statisti-
• standard deviation of ± 0.75 – average cal methods (e.g. t-test).
• standard deviation from 0.75 to 1.5 – above average
• standard deviation greater than 1.5 – highly above average
• standard deviation from –0.75 to –1.5 – below average
• standard deviation greater than –1.5 – highly below average
• values ​​within ± 2 standard deviations are considered to be within the ac-
ceptable physiological variability of a given characteristic
• values ​greater than ± 2 standard deviations are considered potentially
pathological, and values greater
​​ than ± 3 standard deviations are extreme;
they objectively diagnose disproportionality or pathology of the charac­
teristic

192 193
//
7.2 Perkal’s natural indices
To conduct a more detailed assessment of the proportionality or dimension
groups of an individual, we recommend using Perkal’s natural indices.
Such an assessment follows these steps:
1. Z-scores are calculated for selected traits and their sum is divided by the
number of traits that are measured;
2. the mean Z-score of an individual is generated. It is advisable to calculate
the standard deviation for the mean Z-score of selected traits of an individ-
ual;
3. the mean Z-score is subtracted from each Z-score, while respecting its pos-
itive or negative value.
As is evident from the steps above, the value of each characteristic is stand-
ardized twice, first in relation to the reference population, and subsequently in
relation to an individual.
Comparison shows which traits are disproportionate: those that differ by
more than 1.13.
The number of traits selected does not affect the result.
The formula for calculating Perkal’s natural indices is given below:
I = ( i1 + i2 + i3+ …+ iz ) / z
I = mean Z-score
i1 = Z-score of the first characteristic
i2 = Z-score of the second characteristic
i3 = Z-score of the last characteristic
z = number of selected traits
P1 = natural index of the first characteristic, P1 = i1 – I
P2 = natural index of the second characteristic, P2 = i2 – I
Quick assessment of the proportionality or disproportionality of body segments
relies on the indices described in Chapter 2, Anthropometry.
When interpreting data, it is necessary to indicate the method used.
194
//
Summary
• Anthropometric parameters can be evaluated in absolute and relative values
and compared with the corresponding standard using the Z-score stand-
ardization method.
• The Z-score facilitates accurate evaluation of body growth, development,
proportionality, and monitoring of physical condition and the changes that
the human body and its parts undergo during development.
• The Z-score indicates by how many standard deviations the value in ques-
tion differs from the reference standard.
• The formula for calculating the standard score is: Z-score = (X – M)/SD
• The calculated Z-scores of the traits of an individual or a group serve to
build a body structure morphogram, on the basis of which the mutual dis-
proportionality of the given traits is established.
• To conduct a more detailed assessment of the proportionality or dimension
groups of an individual, we recommend using Perkal’s natural indices.
Glossary // Slovník // Slownik
absolute values // absolutní hodnoty // absolutne wartości
arithmetic means of the assessed traits // linie aritmetických průměrů
hodnocených znaků // średnie arytmetyczne ocenianych cech
body structure morphogram // grafický profil tělesné stavby // morfogram
budowy ciała
disproportionate traits // disproporcionální znaky // nieproporcjonalne cechy
distribution // rozdělení, rozložení, distribuce // dystrybucja, rozkład
formula for calculating // vzorec pro výpočet // formuła (wzór) do obliczeń
mean (M) // průměrná hodnota // średnia
number of traits // počet znaků // liczba cech
pathological value // patologická hodnota // patologiczna wartość
Perkal’s natural indices // přirozené Perkalovy indexy // wskaźniki Perkala
population // populace // populacja
population parameter // populační parameter // cechy (parametry) populacji
quick assessment // rychlé zhodnocení // szybka ocena
reference standard // referenční hodnoty // wartość referencyjna
relative values // relativní hodnoty // wartości względne
sample // výběr // próbka
sample statistics // populační parametr // próba statystyczna
selected traits // vybrané vlastnosti // wybrane cechy
standard deviations (SD) // směrodatná odchylka // odchylenie standardowe  
standardization methods // metody standardizace // metody standaryzacji
195
8 ANTHROPOMETRIC Technical data of the instrument:
Measuring range: 50–2133 mm, instrument weight: 1.2 kg, max folded length:

measuring tools 2,170 mm

1. 2.

High-quality anthropometric instruments, together with thorough knowledge 3.

and precise observance of the standardized measurement method, prior spe-
cialized training, sufficient experience, and the use of established measurement
procedures, play an essential role in the acquisition of objective data that is
needed for the evaluation of the variability of the human body and physical
condition of an individual.
The human body is measured with anthropometric measuring tools. Basic
components include the anthropometer, personal scale, spreading caliper,
4.
pelvimeter, sliding caliper, soft metric tape, and caliper. These are accurate,
standardized instruments designed to measure the height, length, breadth, and
perimeter dimensions and determine the skinfold thickness.
This chapter introduces anthropometric equipment developed or modified Figure 8.1
by TRYSTOM specialists and anthropologists from the Department of Special-
A-226 Anthropometer: 1– stabilizer, 2 – level, 3 – needle with sleeve,
ized Subjects and Practical Skills, Faculty of Health Sciences, Palacky Univer- 4 – instrument
sity in Olomouc, Czech Republic.
Anthropometric measuring tools manufactured by TRYSTOM have very
good ergonomics and first-rate production quality which ensures accurate
measurements of body parameters and a long service life of individual tools.
Anthropometer Stabilizer
One of the basic prerequisites for
determining the exact vertical di-

// mension of the body is that the

anthropometer is in the upright po-
sition. This requirement may be
8.1 A-226 Anthropometer difficult to meet, especially when
measuring small dimensions. There-
Technical description (characteristics of the instrument): fore, the anthropometer is supplied
Designed to measure only the vertical dimensions of the human body (Figure with an “anthropometer stabilizer”,
8.1), the instrument consists of three aluminium square profiles and a dou- a square plate made of durable plas-
ble-sided measuring system with a reading scale from 50 to 2133 mm. The tic (140 mm × 140 mm), complete
long axis of the instrument is equipped with a telescopic round sleeve with a with a sleeve to attach the base of
double-sided groove that features a dimension reading index. The sleeve is the anthropometer (Figure 8.2).
equipped with a sliding needle, whose tip is applied to the appropriate anthro-
pometric point. The needle also features a millimetre scale (ranging from 30 to
380 mm) designed to read smaller dimensions. In order to ensure the anthro-
pometer is perpendicular, the instrument may include a spirit level. Figure 8.2
A-226 Anthropometer: detail of
a stabilizer and measuring needle

196 197
//
8. 2 K-211 Spreading caliper
Technical description (characteristics of the instrument):
The instrument is a combination of the “classic” spreading caliper and the
“classic” pelvimeter, fitted with sliding arms and rounded ends and covering
the range from 0 to 430 mm (Figure 8.3). The instrument may therefore be
used to measure not only the dimensions of the head, but also selected body
breadth or depth dimensions in children up to the age of about 15 (e.g. biac-
romial breadth, biiliocristal breadth, bispinal breadth, bitrochanteric breadth,
transverse breadth of the chest, biepicondylar breadth of the humerus, or
biepicondylar breadth of the femur; see Chapter 2). Made of light stainless ma-
terials (with a weight of 182 g), this highly practical instrument, whose arms are
connected with a steel joint (Figure 8.3), to improve the balance of the gauge,
contains a removable magnifier for easier reading of the scale. The magnifier is
fitted onto the instrument slantwise, in the viewing direction (Figure 8.3).
Technical data of the instrument:
Measuring range: 0–430 mm, instrument weight: 182 g
Figure 8.3
K-211 Spreading caliper: general view, magnifier, and steel joint
198
//
8.3 P-216 Pelvimeter
Technical description (characteristics of the instrument):
The instrument is a classic pelvimeter, with a range from 0 to 500 mm, fitted
with sliding arms and rounded ends (Figure 8.4).
It is predominantly used for measuring the breadth and depth dimensions of
the adult population (see Chapter 2).
Made of light stainless materials (with a weight of 215 g), this instrument,
whose arms are connected with a steel joint (Figure 8.4) to enhance the balance
of the gauge, contains a removable magnifier for better readability of the scale.
The magnifier is fitted on the instrument slantwise, in the viewing direction
(Figure 8.4).
Technical data of the instrument:
Measuring range: 0–500 mm, instrument weight: 215 g
Figure 8.4
P-216 Pelvimeter: general view, magnifier, and steel joint
199
// //
8.4 T-520 Modified thoracometer 8.5 V-372 Small height rod

Technical description (characteristics of the instrument): Technical description (characteristics of the instrument):
A modification of Hrdlička’s “classic” thoracometer, the instrument primarily The instrument consists of a stand-alone height scale (20 to 106 mm), along
serves for easy determination of the length of the foot (Figure 8.5). The device which the head with a reading slot and a retractable tip move (Figure 8.7).
consists of an aluminium rod with a square section fitted with a millimetre scale Because of the scope of its scale, the instrument is primarily designed to
on both sides (0–400 mm). The rod carries 100-mm-long shoulders made of determine selected vertical dimensions of the lower extremity (e.g. sphyrion
hard plastic. The breadth of the arms (30 mm) greatly facilitates the localization height) (see Chapter 2).
of the pternion and the acropodion.
A groove in the sliding arm enables the values to be read from both sides of
the instrument (to determine the length of both feet, simply turn the instrument
over) (Figure 8.6). When the length of the foot is being measured, the subject
stands with his/her feet slightly apart, with his/her weight distributed evenly on
both legs. The axis of the instrument is parallel to the inner edge of the foot; the
bent toes need to be pressed against the floor.

Technical data of the instrument:

Technical data of the instrument:
Measuring range: 20–106 mm, instrument weight: 220 g
Measuring range: 0–400 mm, instrument weight: 260 g

Figure 8.5
T-520 Modified thoracometer: application in measuring the length of the foot

Figure 8.6 Figure 8.7

T-520 Modified thoracometer V-372 Small height rod

200 201
//
8.6 M-222 Sliding caliper
Technical description (characteristics of the instrument):
A sliding caliper (Figure 8.8) featuring a double-sided measuring scale from
0 to 230 mm and two measuring arms (with rounded and sharp ends). The
slot of the sliding section (containing an arresting bolt) features a highlighted
index that provides the measured value. Made from stainless steel with a matte
finish, the instrument is designed to determine selected dimensions of the head
(e.g. morphological facial height, see Chapter 2), nasal height and breadth, the
distance between the inner/outer corners of the eye, lower jaw height, mouth
breadth, physiognomical ear length, etc.), hand breadth, foot breadth, etc. The
rounded ends serve for measurements carried out on live bodies, while the
sharp ends are used for determining the dimensions of skeletal material.
Technical data of the instrument:
Measuring range: 0–230 mm, instrument weight: 193 g
Figure 8.8
M-222 Sliding caliper
202
//
8.7 Best II K-501 Caliper
Technical description (characteristics of the instrument):
The modified BEST II K-501 Caliper is designed for standard measuring of skin-
fold thickness (Figure 8.9). The instrument has two arms, of which one is fixed to
a scale calibrated from 0 to 80 mm (note: the measuring range can be expanded
to 120 mm upon request). The base of this arm features a circular opening for
the index or middle finger. The other (sliding) arm with a slot for measurement of
the skinfold thickness has a base with a larger circular opening for the thumb.
Both the arms are fitted with measuring circular tips 3 mm in diameter.
The spring-loaded measuring tip on the sliding arm meets the pressure re-
quirements of 2 N. The thickness of the skinfold held between the measuring
tips is measured when the index at the end of the sliding arm aligns exactly
with the index on the body of the measuring tip (Figure 8.9). The equipment is
supplied together with calibration weights that control the correct pressure in
the tip of the instrument (Figure 8.9).
Technical data of the instrument:
Measuring range: 0–80 mm (0–120 mm), instrument weight: 273 g, measuring
tip diameter: 3 mm, nominal compressive strength of the tips: 2 N, caliper di-
mensions: 142 × 116 ×10 mm
Figure 8.9
Best II K-501 Caliper
203
// //
8.8 Soft metric tape 8.9 Anthropometry kit

Technical description (characteristics of the instrument):
In measuring girth dimensions, the tape measure (see Chapter 2) needs to
follow the girth accurately, i.e. adhere to the body and at the same time not
compress the soft tissue. Girth dimensions (Figure 8.10) are determined with
the help of a 1500-mm measuring tape. It is recommended to add an extension
loop (e.g. made from a length of thin string) to the tape measure to facilitate the
reading of the dimension. The tape measure should undergo regular review for
accuracy.
The shape and functioning of the kit are designed for the safe storage and
transport of anthropometric measuring tools (Figure 8.11). The upper layer is
made of waterproof fabric that is highly resistant to mechanical damage and
requires minimal maintenance. The side walls are reinforced to ensure shape
retention and impact resistance in the event of a fall, keeping the measuring
tools safe from damage.
The soft padded interior is divided into compartments that contain elastic
bands to hold the instruments securely in place (Figure 8.12).

Technical data of the instrument: List of instruments and equipment that the kit is designed for:
Measuring range: 1–1500 mm, instrument width: 18 mm
1. A-226 Anthropometer
2. K-211 Spreading caliper
3. P-216 Pelvimeter
4. T-520 Modified thoracometer
5. V-372 Small height rod
6. M- 222 Sliding caliper
7. BEST II K-501 Caliper
8. Soft metric tape
9. Writing pad and data sheet (notepad) pocket
10. Pen pocket
11. Disinfectant pocket
12. Pocket for the “Instructions for Use of Anthropometry Measurement Tools”
13. Spare pocket

Figure 8.10
Soft metric tape

204 205
 Glossary // Slovník // Slownik
accurate instruments // přesné přístroje // standaryzowane przyrządy
anthropometry kit // brašna s antropometrickým instrumentářem
// zestaw antropometryczny
anthropometric measuring tools // antropometrické měřící přístroje
// antropometryczne przyrządy pomiarowe
disinfectant pocket // kapsa pro dezinfekční prostředky // torebka na środki
dezynfekcyjne
essential role // zásadní role // zasadnicza rola
established measurement procedures // zavedené postupy měření
// określone procedury mierzenia
first-rate production quality // prvotřídní jakost // najwyższa jakość
individual tools // jednotlivé nástroje // poszczególne narzędzia
light stainless materials // lehké nerezové materiály // lekkie nierdzewne
materiały
list of instruments // seznam přístrojů // lista narzędzi
measuring range // rozsah měření // zasięg mierzenia
Figure 8.11 mechanical damage // mechanické poškození // mechaniczne uszkodzenie
Anthropometry kit modified thoracometer // modifikovaný torakometr // zmodyfikowany
torakometr
pen pocket // kapsa pro psací potřeby // kieszeń na długopis
perimeter dimensions // obvodové rozměry // pomiary obwodów
perpendicular // kolmý // prostopadły
pocket for the “Instructions for Use of Anthropometry Measurement Tools”
// kapsa pro „Návod pro použití antropometrického instrumentáře“
// kieszeń na „Instrukcję użytkowania przyrządów antropometrycznych”
skinfold thickness // tloušťka kožní řasy // grubość fałdu skórno-tłuszczowego
sliding arms // posuvná ramena // przesuwane ramię
sliding caliper // posuvné měřítko // cyrkiel liniowy
small height rod // malý výškoměr // mały wysokościomierz
soft metric tape // pásová míra // taśma pomiarowa
spare pocket // náhradní kapsa // kieszeń zapasowa
spirit level // vodováha // poziomica
square plate // čtvercová deska // kwadratowa podstawa
sufficient experience // dostatečné zkušenosti // wystarczające
doświadczenie
technical description // technický popis // opis techniczny
vertical dimensions // vertikální rozměr // pomiary wysokościowe
writing pad and data sheet (notepad) pocket // kapsa pro psací podložku
Figure 8.12 a záznamové listy (poznámkový blok) // kieszeń na podkładkę do pisania
Anthropometry kit: bag with secured anthropometric measuring tools i notatnik

206 207
9 REFERENCES
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Annex 1 Annex 2
List of tables List of Charts
Table 3.1 A measurement record sheet (example) Chart 4.1 Percentile BMI curves for boys aged from zero to 18 years old (by Vi-
Table 3.2 Boys’ and girls’ height (cm) gnerová et al., 2006)
Table 3.3 Boys’ and girls’ weight (kg) Chart 4.2 Percentile BMI curves for girls aged from zero to 18 years old (by Vi-
Table 3.4 Boys’ height (cm) in 2001 and in 2015 gnerová et al., 2006)
Table 3.5 Girls’ height (cm) in 2001 and in 2015 Chart 6.1 Percentile body height and body weight charts for boys (age two to
Table 3.6 Boys’ weight (kg) in 2001 and in 2015 18 years) (Czech child population standards 2001. Data based on NAS 2001)
Table 3.7 Girls’ weight (kg) in 2001 and in 2015 Chart 6.2 Percentile body height and body weight charts for girls (age two to
Table 3.8 The height (cm) of boys in 1895 and in 2015 18 years) (Czech child population standards 2001. Data based on NAS 2001)
Table 3.9 The height (cm) of girls in 1895 and in 2015 Chart 6.3 Percentile body height and body weight charts for boys (age three
Table 3.10 The weight (kg) and corpulence index (g/cm) in boys in 1895 and in to 18 years) (Slovak child population standards 2004. Data based on Public
2015 Health Authority)
Table 3.11 The weight (kg) and corpulence index (g/cm) in girls in 1895 and in Chart 6.4 Percentile body height and body weight charts for girls (age three to
2015 18 years) (Slovak child population standards 2004. Data based on Public
Table 3.12 Statistical characteristics of the group of men aged 19–94 years Health Authority)
(N = 915)
Table 3.13 Statistical characteristics of the group of women aged 19–86 years
(N = 2,355)
Table 3.14 Comparison of body height (cm) of men and women aged 19–89 years
Table 3.15 Comparison of body weight (kg) in men and women aged 19–89 years
Table 3.16 The secular trend of body height (cm) and weight (kg) in men from
1895 to 2015
Table 3.17 The secular trend of body height (cm) and weight (kg) in women from
1895 to 2015
Table 4.1 WHO classification of obesity (1997)
Table 4.2 Evaluation of BMI percentiles for boys aged from zero to 18 years old
Table 4.3 Evaluation of BMI percentiles for girls from zero to 18 years old
Table 4.4 Hazardous waist circumferences
Table 4.5 Regression equation calculating percentage of body fat in boys and
girls aged 9 to 16 years old on the basis of 10 measured skinfolds
Table 4.6 Regression equation calculating percentage of body fat in men and
women aged 17 to 45 years old on the basis of 10 measured skinfolds
Table 5.1 Heath-Carter anthropometric somatotype rating table (Carter, 2002)
Table 6.1 Assessment of body height of boys and girls by percentile bands
Table 6.2 The circumference correction by Brauer (1982)
Table 6.3 Physique Development Index for boys – Normative KEI of Czech boys
Table 6.4 Physique Development Index for girls – Normative KEI of Czech girls
Table 6.5 Table of Decimal Years

220 221
Annex 3 Figure 3.12 Girls’ height (cm) in 2001 and in 2015
Figure 3.13 Boys’ weight (kg) in 2001 and in 2015
Figure 3.14 Girls’ weight (kg) in 2001 and in 2015
Figure 3.15 The height (cm) of boys in 1895 and in 2015
List of figures Figure 3.16 The height (cm) of girls in 1895 and in 2015
Figure 1.1 Jan Evangelista Purkyně (1787–1869) Figure 3.17 The corpulence index (g/cm) in boys in 1895 and in 2015
Figure 1.2 Franz Boas (1858–1942) Figure 3.18 The corpulence index (g/cm) in girls in 1895 and in 2015
Figure 1.3 Main fields of anthropology Figure 3.19 The difference in the height and weight of a 14-year-old boy in 1895
Figure 1.4 Anatomical drawings by Leonardo da Vinci (1489) and in 2015
Figure 1.5 Title Page of Tyson’s Orang-Outang (1699) (Kosmas, 1960) Figure 3.20 The difference in the height and weight of a 12-year-old girl in 1895
and in 2015
Figure 1.6 Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707–1788)
Figure 3.21 Intersexual dimorphism in body height (cm) in men and women aged
Figure 1.7 Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752–1840)
19–89 years
Figure 1.8 Charles Robert Darwin (1809–1882)
Figure 3.22 Intersexual dimorphism in body weight (kg) in men and women aged
Figure 1.9 Pierre Paul Broca (1824–1880) 19–89 years
Figure 2.1 Anthropometric landmarks of the head Figure 3.23 The difference between the average body height and weight for men in
Figure 2.2 Head length the year 1895 and men in the year 2015
Figure 2.3 Head breadth Figure 3.24 The difference between the average body height and weight for
Figure 2.4 Face breadth women in the year 1895 and women in the year 2015
Figure 2.5 Morphological height of the face Figure 4.1 Models of Body Composition (by Wang et al., 1992)
Figure 2.6 Anthropometric landmarks of the trunk and extremities Figure 4.2 Main components of the molecular level of body composition (by Wang
Figure 2.7 Basic position of the subject being measured when measuring body et al., 1992)
height and other vertical dimensions Figure 4.3 Densitometry (hydrodensitometry) – the underwater weighing technique
Figure 2.8 Height of acromiale point to determine the density of the body (by Wilmore et al., 2008)
Figure 2.9 Height of dactylion point Figure 4.4 Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA) equipment
Figure 2.10 Height of anterior superior iliospinale point Figure 4.5 The dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) machine used to estimate
Figure 2.11 Biacromial breadth bone density and bone mineral content as well as total body composition (fat
Figure 2.12 Anteroposterior chest diameter mass and fat-free mass) (by Wilmore et al., 2008)
Figure 2.13 Biiliocristal breadth Figure 4.6 The Bod Pod air plethysmography device uses the air displacement
Figure 2.14 Humerus breadth technique to estimate total body volume (by Wilmore et al., 2008)
Figure 2.15 Chest circumference in the normal position Figure 4.7 Fat distribution: the central (android) type, or apple-shaped obesity, and
Figure 2.16 Arm circumference relaxed the peripheral (gynoid) type, or pear-shaped obesity
Figure 2.17 Gluteal circumference Figure 4.8 Distribution of intraabdominal adipose tissue and subcutaneous adi-
Figure 3.1 Anthropometric wall and A-226 Anthropometer pose tissue
Figure 3.2 Small height rod Figure 4.9 Skinfold measurement method
Figure 3.3 Spreading caliper Figure 4.10 Skinfold measurement landmarks
Figure 3.4 Pelvimeter Figure 4.11 Triceps skinfold
Figure 3.5 Modified thoracometer Figure 4.12 Subscapular skinfold
Figure 3.6 Sliding caliper Figure 4.13 Abdominal skinfold
Figure 3.7 Caliper Figure 4.14 Biceps skinfold
Figure 3.8 Soft metric tape Figure 4.15 Prof. MUDr. Jindřich Matiegka, RNDr., h. c. (1862–1941)
Figure 3.9 Intersexual dimorphism in height (cm) of boys and girls Figure 5.1 Basic types: A – slim type, B – medium type, C – stocky type
Figure 3.10 Intersexual dimorphism in weight (kg) of boys and girls Figure 5.2 Sigaud’s typology: A – respiratory, B – digestive, C – muscular, D – ce­
rebral (by Fetter et al., 1967)
Figure 3.11 Boys’ height (cm) in 2001 and in 2015

222 223
Figure 5.3 Manouvrier’s typology – Indice Skelique
Figure 5.4 Points and measurements to determine constitutional types, according
to Viola (by Cosmas, 1960)
Figure 5.5 Kretschmer’s typology: A – asthenic, B – athletic, C – pyknic
Figure 5.6 Sheldon’s somatotype evaluation: endomorph, mesomorph, ecto-
morph, balanced (by Fetter et al., 1967)
Figure 5.7 Showing the locations on the body at which the 17 diameters are
measu­red (by Cosmas, 1960)
Figure 5.8 Sheldon’s somatograph (Berry, 1972)
Figure 5.9 Somatograph
Figure 6.1 Different development trends in girls of the same chronological age
(photo: M. Kopecký)
Figure 6.2 Different development trends in boys in the 7th class of elementary
school (photo: M. Kopecký)
Figure 6.3 Steady growth
Figure 6.4 Stagnation or arrest of physical growth
Figure 6.5 Accelerated physical growth
Figure 6.6 Development of deciduous (primary) dentition
Figure 6.7 Development of permanent (secondary) dentition
Figure 6.8 Bone age: X-ray image: a child aged 2.5, 4, and 9 years old
Figure 6.9 Standards for rating maturity of genitalia in boys: stages 1 to 5 (Tanner,
1962)
Figure 6.10-A Standards for rating pubic hair in boys (Tanner, 1963)
Figure 6.10-B Standards for rating pubic hair girls (Tanner, 1963)
Figure 6.11 Standards for rating breast development during adolescence: stages
1 to 5 (Tanner, 1962)
Figure 6.12 Body proportions of a newborn and of an adult
Figure 6.13 Growth of proportions in males from birth into adulthood (Stratz, 1921)
Figure 6.14 Philippine measure
Figure 7.1 Body structure morphogram
Figure 8.1 A-226 Anthropometer: 1 – stabilizer, 2 – level, 3 – needle with sleeve,
4 – instrument
Figure 8.2 A-226 Anthropometer: detail of a stabilizer and measuring needle
Figure 8.3 K-211 Spreading caliper: general view, magnifier, and steel joint
Figure 8.4 P-216 Pelvimeter: general view, magnifier, and steel joint
Figure 8.5 T-520 Modified thoracometer: application in measuring the length of
the foot
Figure 8.6 T-520 Modified thoracometer
Figure 8.7 V-372 Small height rod
Figure 8.8 M-222 Sliding caliper
Figure 8.9 Best II K-501 Caliper
Figure 8.10 Soft metric tape
Figure 8.11 Anthropometry kit
Figure 8.12 Anthropometry kit: bag with secured anthropometric measuring tools

224
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Manual
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