746 - Design, Deployment and Maintenance Optical Cables Transmission Lines PDF

D2/B2
Technical Brochure
Design, deployment and maintenance

of optical cables associated to
overhead HV transmission lines
Reference: 746
November 2018
S. KWIK ALLAN, Convenor ES B. BULFIN, Secretary IE
M. NAYLOR, Section Coordinator GB C. DIMNIK, Section Coordinator CA
K. KICZKAJŁO, Section Coordinator PL K. DE VRIES, Section Coordinator SE
J. DARNÉ MONAR ES T. SCHEHADE CA
D. KHOMARLOU CA R. FERNANDEZ AU
L. RASMUSSEN DK S. LÁZARO ALONSO ES
P. BENNETT UK T. LECOMTE FR
C. WINTER DE
Copyright © 2018
“All rights to this Technical Brochure are retained by CIGRE. It is strictly prohibited to reproduce or provide this publication in any
form or by any means to any third party. Only CIGRE Collective Members companies are allowed to store their copy on their
internal intranet or other company network provided access is restricted to their own employees. No part of this publication may
be reproduced or utilized without permission from CIGRE”.
Disclaimer notice
“CIGRE gives no warranty or assurance about the contents of this publication, nor does it accept any responsibility, as to the
accuracy or exhaustiveness of the information. All implied warranties and conditions are excluded to the maximum extent permitted
by law”.
ISBN : 978-2-85873-448-1
Design, deployment and maintenance of optical cables associated to overhead HV transmission lines
Executive summary
Objective
This Technical Brochure is aimed to produce practical guidelines according to the experience of different
power utilities in the design and deployment of high voltage line optical cables and their further
maintenance, with examples and best practice cases.
The document, which is focused on Optical Ground Wires (OPGW) and on Optical Phase Conductors
(OPPC), is the result of a Joint Working Group which combines the two areas of knowledge involved in
optical cables associated to overhead transmission lines:
Information systems and Telecommunication (D2)
Overhead lines (B2)
Value
This document provides in a clear way to experts and non-experts a complete and updated view of both
OPGW and OPPC cables’ practical knowledge and lifecycle.
Main topics
The main topics covered in the document (Technology Overview, Design, Deployment & Commissioning,
Maintenance and Survey) are summarized as follows:
Technology Overview
Various types of fibre optic cable have been developed over the last 30 years in order to meet the needs
of utilities. These include metallic cables such as OPGW (Optical Ground Wire), OPPC (Optical Phase
Conductor) and MASS (Metallic Aerial Self Supporting). In addition there are dielectric cables such as
ADSS (All Dielectric Self Supporting), wrap and other optically attached cables.
OPGW and OPPC of various constructions serve as a direct replacements for the conductor or ground
wire, with the addition of fibres contained within tubes or other guides.
An overview of the technology behind fibre optic transmission is also included as well as a comparison
of the various types fibre optic cable solutions deployed by different utilities.
Design
The document illustrates how the need for an OPGW/OPPC cable is initiated and processed. An OPGW
or OPPC project is initiated by a need, and becomes a joint planning effort between the utility different
departments and areas of expertise. The Design chapter also shapes an example of the project workflow
for an OPGW or an OPPC from both, the utility and the supplier’s perspective.
An overview of the configuration for existing cables designs and their updates is also presented in the
document. The designs can be varied as the expectations can depend on local or particular country
adaptations. In general, optical, electrical, mechanical and environmental design characteristics must
be considered in order to satisfy the necessary requirements for functionality and reliability.
In order to verify that the cable is able to meet the functional and reliability requirements, industry
standards are introduced. They establish minimum criteria that must be met for an OPGW cable design
to be qualified and accepted for use. The standards may cover various stages within an OPGW project,
for example Type Testing, Routine, Factory Acceptance Testing or Commission Testing.
Other involved parties necessities, such as fibre costumers may also be considered in this design phase.
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Deployment & Commissioning

The document covers various stages of the deployment part of the project, including preparatory works,
permits/approvals, construction works and commissioning works.
Generic installation techniques and supervision requirements are also described.
Special attention is put on the fact that OPGW/OPPC are optical cables which have specific installation
requirements which may differ from standard ground wires or conductors.
Maintenance
The maintenance chapter describes where the technology stands today. The maintenance process is
divided into; Preventive/Routine Maintenance, Corrective Maintenance, Emergency repair and Predictive
Maintenance. Lessons learned are also presented.
The document highlights the importance of the handover from project to maintenance process. It is
also addressing the impacts of the total cost over the lifespan.
Network Monitoring is essential for maintenance and the principle for Remote Monitoring Systems along
with other methods to monitor the status of the optical network are described.
A process for Telecommunications Restoring in an event of the need for an emergency repair is
described along with different methods to restore fibre communication.
The chapter also provides three maintenance case studies.
Survey
The document also includes the feedback of a survey which was sent out to gather information around
the world in order to learn how different companies from different countries design, deploy and maintain
OPGW/OPPC technologies.
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Contents
Executive summary .................................................................................................. 3
1. Introduction and background ....................................................................... 13

1.1 Motivating factors .................................................................................................................................... 13
1.2 Objectives ................................................................................................................................................ 14
1.3 Scope of the document ........................................................................................................................... 14
1.4 CIGRE previous publications on the topic ............................................................................................ 15
1.4.1 The 1980’s ......................................................................................................................................... 15
1.4.2 The 1990’s ......................................................................................................................................... 15
1.4.3 The 2000’s ......................................................................................................................................... 16
1.5 Survey....................................................................................................................................................... 17
1.5.1 Worldwide feedback .......................................................................................................................... 17
1.5.2 Profile of participants ......................................................................................................................... 18
1.5.3 Highlights of survey ........................................................................................................................... 18
2. Technology overview .................................................................................... 19

2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 19
2.2 History of OPGW...................................................................................................................................... 20
2.3 Overhead fibre optic cables .................................................................................................................... 21
2.3.1 Cable designs .................................................................................................................................... 21
2.4 Cable structures ...................................................................................................................................... 23
2.4.1 OPGW cable design ......................................................................................................................... 23
2.4.2 OPPC cable design ........................................................................................................................... 27
2.4.3 General design considerations .......................................................................................................... 29
2.5 Hardware / accessories design features ............................................................................................... 30
2.5.1 Tension fittings .................................................................................................................................. 32
2.5.2 Suspension fittings ............................................................................................................................. 33
2.5.3 Grounding clamps.............................................................................................................................. 34
2.5.4 Bolted clamps .................................................................................................................................... 34
2.5.5 Vibration protection ............................................................................................................................ 35
2.5.6 Marker fittings .................................................................................................................................... 35
2.5.7 Repair rods ........................................................................................................................................ 36
2.5.8 Splice boxes ...................................................................................................................................... 36
2.5.9 Hardware/accessories specific to oppc .............................................................................................. 37
2.6 Fibre optics technology .......................................................................................................................... 39
2.6.1 Attenuation ........................................................................................................................................ 39
2.6.1.1 Intrinsic losses ................................................................................................................................... 39
2.6.1.2 Bend losses ....................................................................................................................................... 40
2.6.2 Dispersion .......................................................................................................................................... 41
2.6.2.1 Modal dispersion................................................................................................................................ 41
2.6.2.2 Waveguide dispersion ....................................................................................................................... 41
2.6.2.3 Chromatic dispersion ......................................................................................................................... 41
2.6.2.4 Polarization mode dispersion (PMD) ................................................................................................. 43
2.6.3 Nonlinear effects ................................................................................................................................ 43
2.6.4 Fibre life time and proof test .............................................................................................................. 44
2.7 Types of fibre ........................................................................................................................................... 46
2.7.1 Single mode fibres ............................................................................................................................. 46
2.7.1.1 ITU-T G.652A and G.652B ................................................................................................................ 46
2.7.1.2 ITU-T G.652C and G.652D ................................................................................................................ 46
2.7.2 ITU-T G.653 dispersion shifted fibre .................................................................................................. 47
2.7.3 ITU-T G.654 cut-off shifted fibre ........................................................................................................ 47
2.7.4 ITU-T G.655 non-zero dispersion shifted fibre ................................................................................... 47
2.7.5 ITU-T G.656 low slope dispersion non-zero dispersion shifted fibre .................................................. 47
2.7.6 ITU-T G.657A compliant bend insensitive fibre.................................................................................. 47
5
2.7.7 ITU-T G.657B bend insensitive fibre .................................................................................................. 48

2.7.8 Other fibre standardising bodies ....................................................................................................... 48
2.8 Fibre optic terminations .......................................................................................................................... 48
2.8.1 Single mode fusion splicing ............................................................................................................... 48
2.8.2 Single mode connectors .................................................................................................................... 50
2.9 Use of fibres ............................................................................................................................................. 53
2.9.1 General use ...................................................................................................................................... 53
2.9.2 Maximum range ................................................................................................................................. 53
2.9.3 Fibre sensing over opgw / oppc ......................................................................................................... 54
3. Design............................................................................................................. 57
3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 57
3.2 Project considerations ............................................................................................................................ 58
3.3 Project workflow: purchaser or utility ................................................................................................... 59
3.4 Project workflow: supplier ...................................................................................................................... 61
3.5 Cable system design considerations..................................................................................................... 63
3.5.1 Optical design features ...................................................................................................................... 64
3.5.2 Electrical design considerations......................................................................................................... 64
3.5.3 Mechanical design considerations ..................................................................................................... 65
3.5.4 OPGW/OPPC reel dimensions and length considerations ................................................................ 65
3.5.5 Environmental design considerations ................................................................................................ 67
3.6 Standards and country adaptations....................................................................................................... 67
3.7 Type tests ................................................................................................................................................. 69
3.7.1 Cable type tests ................................................................................................................................. 69
3.7.2 Hardware/accessory type tests .......................................................................................................... 75
3.8 Splicing and interface with third parties................................................................................................ 78
4. Deployment & commissioning ..................................................................... 81

4.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 81
4.2 Installation phases .................................................................................................................................. 81
4.2.1 Preparatory work ............................................................................................................................... 81
4.2.2 Deployment........................................................................................................................................ 82
4.2.3 Final works......................................................................................................................................... 88
4.3 Installation techniques ............................................................................................................................ 89
4.3.1 Installation method............................................................................................................................. 89
4.3.2 Protection .......................................................................................................................................... 92
4.4 Supervision of installation ...................................................................................................................... 95
4.4.1 Stakeholder’s control and third party supervision .............................................................................. 95
4.4.2 Installer – internal audition ................................................................................................................. 95
4.5 Commisioning .......................................................................................................................................... 96
5. Maintenance ................................................................................................... 99
5.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 99
5.2 Handover to maintenance process ........................................................................................................ 99
5.3 Maintenance process ............................................................................................................................ 100
5.3.1 Preventive/ routine maintenance ..................................................................................................... 100
5.3.2 Corrective maintenance ................................................................................................................... 101
5.3.3 Emergency repair ............................................................................................................................ 101
5.3.4 Predictive maintenance ................................................................................................................... 102
5.4 Maintenance – common faults ............................................................................................................. 102
5.4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 102
5.4.2 Lightning strikes ............................................................................................................................... 102
5.4.2.1 Incident – direct lightning strikes ...................................................................................................... 102
5.4.2.2 Correction ........................................................................................................................................ 103
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5.4.3 Grounding issues ............................................................................................................................. 103

5.4.3.1 Incident – poor grounding practise................................................................................................... 103
5.4.3.2 Correction ........................................................................................................................................ 104
5.4.4 Ice and wind..................................................................................................................................... 105
5.4.4.1 Incident – ice and wind damage from galloping and falling ice. ....................................................... 105
5.4.4.2 Correction ........................................................................................................................................ 106
5.4.5 Aeolian vibrations ............................................................................................................................ 106
5.4.6 Damages caused by opgw accessories and installation .................................................................. 106
5.5 Hardware and splice boxes maintenance issues................................................................................ 108
5.5.1 Fibre creep ...................................................................................................................................... 108
5.5.2 Fibre pistoning ................................................................................................................................. 109
5.5.3 Water ingress - damage .................................................................................................................. 110
5.6 Monitoring supervision ......................................................................................................................... 111
5.6.1 Monitoring solutions ......................................................................................................................... 111
5.6.1.1 Remote monitoring systems ............................................................................................................ 111
5.6.1.2 Regular control measurements ........................................................................................................ 111
5.6.1.3 Utilising the optical transmission system ......................................................................................... 111
5.6.2 Automatic remote monitoring of optical cables ................................................................................ 112
5.6.3 Regular control measurements ........................................................................................................ 113
5.7 Telecommunications restoring ............................................................................................................ 113
5.8 Emergency repair – spare parts ........................................................................................................... 116
5.8.1 Storage ............................................................................................................................................ 116
5.8.2 Materials in storage ......................................................................................................................... 116
5.8.2.1 OPGW/OPPC .................................................................................................................................. 117
5.8.2.2 Fittings ............................................................................................................................................. 117
5.8.2.3 Clamps ............................................................................................................................................ 117
5.8.2.4 Splice boxes .................................................................................................................................... 117
5.8.2.5 Special tools .................................................................................................................................... 117
5.8.2.6 Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 117
5.9 Failure and root cause analysis ........................................................................................................... 118
5.10 Case studies .......................................................................................................................................... 118
5.10.1 Example from canada - OPGW ....................................................................................................... 118
5.10.2 Example from sweden - OPGW ....................................................................................................... 120
5.10.3 Example from ireland - OPPC.......................................................................................................... 121
6. Conclusion ................................................................................................... 125
APPENDIX a. Definitions, abreviations and symbols ........................................ 127

A.1. General terms ........................................................................................................................................ 127
A.2. Specific terms ........................................................................................................................................ 127
APPENDIX B. Links and references .................................................................... 129
APPENDIX C. Survey results ............................................................................... 131

C.1. General information & state of art ........................................................................................................ 132
C.2. Design & project .................................................................................................................................... 138
C.3. Deployment, instalation and commissioning ...................................................................................... 145
C.4. Maintenance ........................................................................................................................................... 158
C.5. Survey 2 .................................................................................................................................................. 164
APPENDIX D. Non-linear effects in fibre optics ................................................. 167
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8
Figures and Illustrations

Figure 1.1 Scope of the document .............................................................................................. 14
Figure 1.2: Survey Participation .................................................................................................. 17
Figure 1.3: Profile of participants ................................................................................................ 18
Figure 2.1: Number of utilities plotted by cable optic type and quantity installed ............................. 19
Figure 2.2 OPGW Patent ............................................................................................................ 20
Figure 2.3 Example of OPGW [B20] ........................................................................................... 21
Figure 2.4 Example of OPPC [B20] ............................................................................................. 21
Figure 2.5 Example of MASS [B20]............................................................................................. 21
Figure 2.6 Example of ADSS [B20] .............................................................................................. 21
Figure 2.7 Wrapped cables [B20] ................................................................................................ 22
Figure 2.8 Lashed cable installation and cable cross section [B29][B37] ......................................... 22
Figure 2.9: OPGW Design: Aluminium Pipe [B20] ......................................................................... 23
Figure 2.10: OPGW Design: Stainless Steel Tube [B20] ................................................................. 24
Figure 2.11 Stainless Steel Design: Stranded Tube [B20] .............................................................. 25
Figure 2.12 Stainless Steel Design: Central Tube [B20] ................................................................ 25
Figure 2.13: OPGW Design: Slotted Core and Spacer Tube [B20][B37] .......................................... 26
Figure 2.14 Tension Fitting / Dead-end Hardware [B19] ............................................................... 32
Figure 2.15 Suspension Fitting [B19] ........................................................................................... 33
Figure 2.16 Grounding Clamp [B20] ............................................................................................ 34
Figure 2.17 Bolted Clamp: Example of a Downlead Clamp courtesy of Prysmian Group Brochure [B18]
............................................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 2.18 Stockbridge Dampers [B20] ...................................................................................... 35
Figure 2.19 Marker Balls [B26] ................................................................................................... 35
Figure 2.20: Repair Rods Before and After Installation [B21] ........................................................ 36
Figure 2.21: Splice/Joint Box & Excess OPGW Loop Storage [B26] [B30] ....................................... 37
Figure 2.22: Joint Boxes for OPPC [B20]..................................................................................... 37
Figure 2.23: Tension Fitting for OPPC [B21]................................................................................ 38
Figure 2.24: Suspension Fitting for OPPC [B21]........................................................................... 38
Figure 2.25: Propagation inside the optical fibre [B35] ................................................................. 39
Figure 2.26: Generic losses [B27] ............................................................................................. 40
Figure 2.27 Bending losses in function of wavelength [B29] .......................................................... 40
Figure 2.28 Refractive Index [B27] ............................................................................................. 42
Figure 2.29: Chromatic Dispersion for various types of fibres [B35] ............................................... 43
Figure 2.30: Polarisation Mode Dispersion [B28] .......................................................................... 43
Figure 2.31 Failure Probability of Fibre [B34] ............................................................................... 45
Figure 2.32 Available Spectrum [B35] ......................................................................................... 46
Figure 2.33 Effect of Modal Field Mismatch [B29] ......................................................................... 49
Figure 2.34 Flat and Angled Polishing [B35] ................................................................................. 50
Figure 2.35 Polishing Termination Types ..................................................................................... 51
Figure 2.36 Main connectors used by survey responders ............................................................... 51
Figure 2.37 Fibre Optics range in function of signalling speed [B35]............................................... 54
Figure 3.1 Decision Tree for OPGW vs. OPPC Cable ..................................................................... 57
Figure 3.2 Project Workflow for an OPGW: Utility (for Illustrative Purposes Only) ........................... 60
Figure 3.3 Project Workflow for an OPGW: Supplier (for Illustrative Purposes Only) ....................... 62
Figure 3.4 Most Commonly Used Reference Standards ................................................................. 69
Figure 3.5 Splicing and Interfacing Between Utility and Third Parties (Illustrative Purposes Only) .... 79
Figure 3.6 Splicing and Interfacing Between Utility and Third Parties (Illustrative Purposes Only) .... 79
Figure 4.1 Puller and Tensioner placement [B26] ......................................................................... 83
Figure 4.2 The tensioner [B38] ................................................................................................... 83
Figure 4.3 Running grounding system [B12] ................................................................................ 84
Figure 4.4 Scaffolding installed to complete OPPC Jointing in Donegal, Ireland ............................... 86
Figure 4.5 OPPC Preparation ...................................................................................................... 87
Figure 4.6 Completed straight through OPPC Canister Joint ........................................................... 88
Figure 4.7 Stringing process – OPGW [B26] ................................................................................. 90
Figure 4.8 Stringing process – OPPC [B26] ................................................................................. 90
Figure 4.9 Location of tensioner and puller [B26] ......................................................................... 91
9
Figure 4.10 Protection by cradle blocks method [B16] .................................................................. 93

Figure 4.11 Protection by cradle blocks method [B25] .................................................................. 93
Figure 4.12 Parallel arrangement – sketch [B25] and [B26] ........................................................... 94
Figure 4.13 Parallel arrangement – photo [B25] ........................................................................... 94
Figure 4.14 Diagonal arrangement [B25] and [B26]...................................................................... 94
Figure 4.15 Example of a check list ............................................................................................. 96
Figure 5.1 Fault with broken strands of OPGW [B31] .................................................................. 103
Figure 5.2 Overhead Ground Wire after lightning strike [B31]...................................................... 103
Figure 5.3 Areas were grounding can be a problem [B31] ........................................................... 104
Figure 5.4 Same tower were grounding can be a problem [B31] .................................................. 104
Figure 5.5 Same type of tower and fitting with shunt for better grounding [B31] .......................... 105
Figure 5.6 Overhead Ground Wire with snow accretion [B41] ...................................................... 105
Figure 5.7 Stockbridge damper damaged by galloping [B31] ....................................................... 105
Figure 5.8 Air flow spoiler installed on OPGW to reduce galloping [B31] ....................................... 106
Figure 5.9 Marker ball .............................................................................................................. 107
Figure 5.10 Cable car picture [B31] ........................................................................................... 107
Figure 5.11 Splice box before recoiling (top) and after recoiling (bottom) [B32] ........................... 109
Figure 5.12 Splice box were tubes are bent due to pistoning [B30] .............................................. 109
Figure 5.13 The same splice box after the tubes are rerouted to avoid bends [B30] ...................... 110
Figure 5.14 Schematic example of Automatic remote monitoring system for optical cables............. 112
Figure 5.15 Example of a NOC emergency procedure ................................................................. 114
Figure 5.16 Picture of wrap installation [B20] ............................................................................. 115
Figure 5.17 Splice box with ice [B30] ........................................................................................ 118
Figure 5.18 Temporary repairs followed by full replacement of OPGW [B30] ................................. 119
Figure 5.19 Broken Aluminium Core as a result of improper installation practices [B30] ................. 119
Figure 5.20 Improper grounding creating fibre breaks [B32] ....................................................... 120
Figure 5.21 Fibre Fault on OPPC Insulator Stack [B33]................................................................ 121
Figure 5.22 Temporary repair using PTG [B33] .......................................................................... 122
Tables
Table 2.1 Accessories Design Characteristics ................................................................................ 30
Table 2.2 Accessories used throughout OPGW Lifecycle ................................................................ 31
Table 2.3 Equivalence table ........................................................................................................ 48
Table 2.4 MFD of different types of SM Fibres [B36] ..................................................................... 50
Table 2.5 Optical single-mode Connectors [B36] .......................................................................... 52
Table 3.1 Cable Design Characteristics ....................................................................................... 63
Table 3.2 Sample Reel Length Schedule – Steel Reel (for Illustrative Purposes Only) ....................... 66
Table 3.3 Top Three Reference Standards Used for OPGW ........................................................... 68
Table 3.4 Examples of Type Tests for Cables .............................................................................. 70
Table 3.5 Required Type Tests - Survey Results ........................................................................... 72
Table 3.6 Sample Comparison of Procedure & Acceptance Criteria Between International Standards 73
Table 3.7: Simplified Analysis of “Similar Design” ......................................................................... 75
Table 3.8 Examples of Type Tests for Accessories/Hardware – Tension Clamps / Dead-end Clamps . 76
Table 3.9 Examples of Type Tests for Accessories/Hardware – Suspension Clamps ........................ 77
Table 3.10 Examples of Type Tests for Accessories/Hardware – Bolted & Miscellaneous Clamps ...... 77
Table 4.1 Diameter of stringing blocks ........................................................................................ 84
App Table A.1 Definition of general terms used in this TB ........................................................... 127
App Table A.2 Definition of technical terms used in this TB ......................................................... 127
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Equations
Equation 2.1 ............................................................................................................................. 40
Equation 2.2 ............................................................................................................................. 42
Equation 2.3 ............................................................................................................................. 43
Equation 2.4 ............................................................................................................................. 43
Equation 2.5 ............................................................................................................................. 49
Equation 3.1 Ovality Calculation................................................................................................. 78
Equation 4.1 ............................................................................................................................. 88
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1. Introduction and background

Optical cables associated to overhead lines (OHL) have become the main medium to support the
telecommunications needs of High Voltage (HV) power utilities (Operation, Protections, Installation,
Maintenance etc.).
The aim of this Technical Brochure (TB) is to produce practical guidelines based on the experience of
different power utilities in the design and the deployment of high voltage line optical cables and their
further maintenance, with examples and best practice cases. It is not intended to be a normative
document nor exhaustive in the presented approaches.
This TB focuses on Optical Ground Wires (OPGW) as well as on Optical Phase Conductors (OPPC). They
are both telecommunication cables (as they include fibre optics) and OHL electric cables (ground wires
and conductors respectively).
Due to this dual functionality, the TB has been produced by a joint working group (JWG) with subject
matter experts (SME) in both the telecommunication and the OHL fields. The members of this JWG have
various backgrounds and experience: This TB has been written by representatives from utilities,
laboratories and universities, installation companies and manufacturers from different parts of the world,
enabling diverse points of view on all topics.
The work was organized into several sections, each of which was coordinated by the most suitable SME
in the group. A Technical Manager for a fibre optic cable supplier was allocated the technology overview
section. A senior lines and cable testing engineer coordinated the design section. An expert in
transmission line installations coordinated the deployment and commissioning section. The fibre optic
technical lead for a Transmission System Operator (TSO) in Europe coordinated the maintenance
section.
This TB is divided into six main chapters:
Chapter 1 is an introduction to the document.
Chapter 2 is an overview of the technology of the optical cables associated to overhead
transmission lines. This chapter includes some historical notes and a general description of
all the different elements involved (cables, accessories, fibres, etc.).
Chapter 3 covers the design stage. In this chapter the project considerations, the main
cable parameters as well as the main tests that prove that the cable is designed as
described.
Chapter 4 covers the deployment and installation of the cables and its further
commissioning.
Chapter 5 describes the maintenance issues (including some case studies).
Chapter 6 contains the conclusions of the document.
1.1 Motivating factors

Other CIGRE documents in the past have covered directly or indirectly this topic (Section 1.4 provides
an overview of these documents). This TB covers the whole cycle of life of the cable as it combines in
the same document for the first time the technology overview, design, project, deployment,
commissioning and maintenance stages.
In addition, this TB presents an updated point of view of this topic, as no other OPGW-specific CIGRE
document has been published in the last decade. New technologies, mostly Ethernet-based, are
appearing in the power industry such as Substation Automation Systems (which implies an increasing
amount of information to be communicated), Smart Grids, Smart Metering, or optical-based monitoring
sensing systems among others. This confirms the need to have a strong and reliable fibre optic network,
which will be predominantly based on optical cables associated to OHL, to serve this increasing amount
of information which needs to be communicated.
Although OPGW can be considered as a mature technology, this document serves to give an overview
to users who are either new to the subject or only specialized in a specific area and want to find
information in new areas.
13
Additionally this document attempts to describe best practices that may lead to improve processes and
in general to anyone who is interested in this specific OHL cables technology.
1.2 Objectives
This JWG has focused on the following objectives:
Produce Practical Guidelines for;
o The design, project, deployment, commissioning and maintenance of Optical
Ground Wires (OPGW) and Optical Phase Conductors (OPPC).
Develop The Lifecycle of OPGW and OPPC technologies.
Gather OPGW/OPPC experience from different utilities/companies around the world.
o Distribute a survey to obtain information and feedback on the technologies.
Increase the theoretical and practical knowledge of OPGW/OPPC cables and their associated
optical fibres.
Update CIGRE information
o Update the existing CIGRE information on the topic.
Introduce New Fibre Applications
o Fibre optic based sensors.
This TB is aimed to be a guide, including examples and best practices from different experts around the
world. Its intention is to be as general and inclusive as possible, it must not be read as a normative
standard and its information must not be assumed as the unique solution.
1.3 Scope of the document

The scope of this TB is to define the whole lifecycle of both OPGW and OPPC, from the design stages
to the maintenance stages once the cable has been installed.
From a technical point of view, the document will cover the optical link between substations. As shown
on Figure 1.1, the scope includes the overhead fibre optics (FO) cable (i.e. OPGW or OPPC), the splice
boxes throughout the line and the termination / transition box in the substation boundaries. These
network elements are specific to OPGW and OPPC. A brief description of the most used connectors is
included as well, as they are the interface to the optical network.
By contrast, this document does not cover the underground FO cables (which generally continue the
link between the termination / transition box to the substation building) nor the Optical Distribution
Frames (ODF). These network elements are very common in the telecommunications industry and they
are not specifically designed for OPGW or OPPC. Any other element beyond the optical connectors such
as jumpers, telecom equipment, are also not under the scope of this TB.
c
Figure 1.1 Scope of the document
14
1.4 CIGRE previous publications on the topic

Over the past 30 years different CIGRE working groups have been exploring the evolution and
importance of technologies related to fibre optics to respond to the requirement and services that have
been needed in each different stage of the Electrical Power Utilities (EPU). Optical fibre is one of the
major building blocks in the telecommunication infrastructure.
1.4.1 The 1980’s

In 1985, a working group developed a Guide on planning power system telecommunication [B1] to
coordinate information on the variety of services required for power system telecommunication
networks. It focussed on the typical properties of the various possible methods available in order to
determine the most suitable choice and thus to facilitate the planning of future networks with special
attention to some of the most important factors of system design.
At the end of the 80's, a working group was formed to produce a planning guide to assist EPUs in setting
up their own digital telecommunications networks, Guide for planning of power utility digital
telecommunications networks [B2]. At that moment in time, digital techniques had almost completely
replaced analogue techniques in the public telecommunications networks. This development was
becoming the predominant technique in EPU networks due to the many advantages offered by digital
networks. The use of fibre optic as a transmission medium was already well proven and it was
anticipated that its use in many new areas would increase significantly.
1.4.2 The 1990’s

At the beginning of the 1990's fibre optic cables were commonly used in public telecommunication
systems due to the advancement of digital technology in general and the specific advantages of fibre
optics which provided large communications capacity. At that time, typical power applications did not
require high bandwidth capacity and there was very little economic pressure to introduce optical fibre
in this field. Nonetheless due to the almost complete absence from any electromagnetic interference
problems it was a very attractive feature for EPU applications.
Although the basic technology was well established, its application to power systems had shown specific
problem areas. The most critical aspect was the installation of optical cables on overhead power lines.
It had become a necessity for EPU to install overhead optical fibres due to the lack of underground duct
routes, right-of-way issues and cost considerations.
It was therefore decided to establish a specific working group, “Fibre Optic Systems” (WG 35-04) with
the objective to collect and to report on such systems in order to give the necessary information for
user and manufacturers about the high security and reliability requirements in power systems
(Evaluation of the questionnaire – Fibre optic for power utilities communications [B3]). A questionnaire
was carried out which covered a very wide field from technical questions to operational questions or
general introduction strategies.
In the 1990’s, another guide was issued to provide information required for an EPU in the technology
to plan and define optical telecommunications systems, Optical fibre planning guide for power utilities
[B4]. The views expressed in this document were provided by leading experts in the field of fibre optics
technology, representing EPUs and manufacturers. The wealth of experience brought together by these
major contributors provided a good reference point for others to follow. Optical fibre technology has
advanced significantly since this publication. There could be more recent developments beyond those
explored at this time.
Every new project or business seeks to obtain financial benefits by minimizing risks. Depending on when
these risks appear, they can be catastrophic. Obeying internationally agreed standards provides
confidence that the project will be profitable and reliable.
At the end of the 1990's, optical fibre technology was widely established throughout EPUs for their
telecommunications requirements. EPUs were faced with not only providing an efficient
telecommunication network to support their own business but were increasingly seeking additional
external business opportunities. A private owned optical fibre network might quickly become a suitable
asset for building a profitable external telecommunications business. A new CIGRE technical brochure
15
set out some considerations and experiences for maximizing business opportunities by the use of a
telecommunications network using optical fibres, New opportunities for optical fibre technology in power
utilities [B5].
1.4.3 The 2000’s

All EPUs operate in different environments and with a unique set of circumstances. Each EPU must
derive its own specific list of media solutions based on key criteria which aligns with the companies
requirements. EPUs must use all of the information available to determine which of the many options
available is the most suitable for them. Having determined their preferred technological solution, the
utility must then choose, from the range of options and which supplier to use. This will take into account
the chosen manufacturer’s ability to meet international standards and/or their own requirement
specification, through examination of both cables and associated fittings and an assessment of the level
of testing carried out by the supplier to ensure the quality of their product/solution.
The use of overhead power line routes by EPUs to develop telecommunications services had become
common throughout the world. The almost unlimited available telecommunications transmission
capacity of the optical fibre technology was able to satisfy the real time protection and control
requirement of an EPU, leaving spare capacity that could be leased, or sold fully or partially.
For all telecommunications customers the most important issue is the quality of telecommunications
service (including the reliability and availability). The continuity of the optical fibre backbone network
(i.e. with no failures) played and plays a vital role in supporting this aim. Therefore, careful attention
needs to be given to the maintenance and repair process. Under these circumstances, the utility must
establish a maintenance system to retain control of all assets for the maintenance and repair of the
optical cabling. At the same time it is under an obligation to ensure the availability of the optical fibre
network.
In 2000, (TB 133) Preventive and corrective maintenance for optical cables and overhead power lines
[B6], looked at each type of overhead optical cable system commonly employed on overhead power
lines. It analysed their possible modes of failure and proposed a range of preventive and corrective
procedures for each family type.
In 2001, (TB 132) Optical fibre cable selection for electricity utilities [B7], provided an assessment of
the range of available optical fibre cable solutions, rather than design. It examined the key issues which
could have influenced the EPUs decisions. It proposed a method of evaluating the options to identify a
solution which most closely matches the utility's critical needs, with measurements against time, cost
and quality targets.
In connection with the rapidly growing needs for communications like high-speed access network and
the underlying Photonic Network, it was necessary to observe the future trend in the backbone network
and the access network, and to identify the problems that need to be solved.
In 2004, All-optical backbone technology [B8], outlines optical backbone technologies such as
multiplexing methodology, amplifier technology, fibre technology, maintenance technology and
measurement technology, to determine the economic and efficiency benefits of an all optical backbone
network.
Another 2004 CIGRE TB, New optical access technology [B9], outlines optical technologies for access
network, including the access methods, cable technology, installations technology and maintenance
technology, required to determine the economic and efficiency benefits of an all optical network for
access networks.
EPUs are increasingly dependent upon the existence of fast, secure and reliable communications
services. These services interconnect the participants, platforms and devices constituting the technical,
commercial, and corporate processes of the utility across different sites. The communication services
are provisioned, managed and maintained in different ways depending upon different quality
constraints, cost and regulatory imperatives and company policy considerations. The services can be
integrated together into a common network or provided through completely separate networks. The
associated telecommunication organization of the utility varies correspondingly among EPUs.
In 2011, Telecommunications service provisioning and delivery in the electrical power utility [B10], was
focused on providing a new look into the delivery of communications services associated with
16
operational applications of the EPUs. This included quality requirements, architectural aspects, related
organizational, management and management issues across different types of companies.
1.5 Survey
One of the major goals of this TB is to gather information around the world in order to learn how
different companies from different countries design, deploy and maintain OPGW/OPPC technologies.
For this reason, a survey was compiled and distributed throughout CIGRE.
The survey consisted of more than 60 questions and a second questionnaire containing five additional
questions was distributed at a later date.
Questions were divided into four main sections, which have a direct correspondence with the chapters
of the TB:
1. Technology Overview (11 questions from the first survey + 5 questions from the second
survey, all linked to chapters 1 and 2 of this TB).
2. Design (13 questions directly related to chapter 3 of this TB).
3. Deployment and Commissioning (21 questions linked with chapter 4).
4. Maintenance (16 questions which correspond to chapter 5).
The most significant results of the survey are utilised throughout the TB. The full set of results are
contained in APPENDIX C.
1.5.1 Worldwide feedback

The survey has aroused great interest and we have received feedback from all the different continents,
as you can see in the following figures. The participation has been stronger in Europe and in Asia.
3% 2%
24%
37%
34%
Africa America Asia Europe Oceania
Figure 1.2: Survey Participation
Making a deeper analysis of the participation of the different countries, we can observe in Figure 1.2
that the number of answers from the different countries has not been uniform. For example, we have
received nine answers from Japan, whereas we have received one answer of different countries like
South Africa or France.
This fact needed to be taken into account when analysing the information and the results have been
weighted according to the grade of participation
17
1.5.2 Profile of participants
Figure 1.3: Profile of participants
A total of 87% of the answers are from people working at utilities. Whereas around 8% of the answers
are from contractors. The survey questions were not utility biased, they were designed in a format that
suited both utilities and contractors.
1.5.3 Highlights of survey

The main highlight results extracted from the survey are shown below. This data is the foundation for
the TB and will be extrapolated further throughout the TB.
40% of responders installed their first OPGW in the 1980s (or earlier) and 45% in the
1990’s. The majority (or 77%) have cables installed for more than 20 years.
80% of responders plan to install new OPGW lines in next five years.
83% of the responder use FO cables as a sensor for DTS or other monitoring systems.
Almost half of the responders use FO for commercial services of which 64% lease dark fibre
cores and/or telecommunications services on their FO cables.
Both, Telecommunication Department and HV Line Department collaborate side by side
during the whole OPGW/OPPPC process (Design, Deployment and Maintenance).
During the cable design, the areas of most knowledge of OPGW/OPPC specialists are the
optical area, followed by electrical, mechanical and structural.
During the installation phase, the areas of most knowledge of OPGW/OPPC deployment
specialists are electrical, optical and mechanical.
The three main construction characteristics of OPGW are: Central aluminium, central tube
and central stainless.
The main demarcation points between different optical networks are Optical Distribution
Frames (42%) and Splice Boxes (37%)
Deployment, installation and commissioning are the areas where most activities are
outsourced externally. Approximately 40% of deployment and installation is outsourced and
supervised internally. 83% of the commissioning tests are completed by an external source.
The maintenance section gathered the most interest from the survey, almost 50% of the
respondents, followed by Design & Project (24%), Deployment & Commissioning (15%)
and Global state of the art (11%).
61% of the responders perform corrective or reactive maintenance instead of preventative
maintenance.
The maintenance activities were completed by external contractors in half of the
responder’s companies. The remaining companies rely on their own internal experts to
perform these activities.
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2. Technology overview
2.1 Introduction
Various types of fibre optic cable have been developed over the last 30 years in order to meet the needs
of utilities. These include metallic cables such as OPGW (Optical Ground Wire), OPPC (Optical Phase
Conductor) and MASS (Metallic Aerial Self Supporting). In addition there are dielectric cables such as
ADSS (All Dielectric Self Supporting), wrap and other optically attached cables.
OPGW and OPPC serve as a direct replacements for the conductor or ground wire, with the addition of
fibres contained within tubes or other guides. Various different constructions of cable have been
developed and details of these are given within this section.
ADSS, All-Dielectric Self-Supporting, is an additional cable that is added to the structure alongside the
existing conductors. Wrapped and lashed cables are attached to the existing conductor. The mechanical
strength to support the optical cable is provided by the conductor to which it is attached.
An overview of each of these options is given within this chapter along with greater detail for
OPGW/OPPC and their associated fittings and splice boxes. An overview of the technology behind fibre
optic transmission is also given at the end of the chapter.
A comparison of the various types fibre optic cable solutions deployed by different utilities is provided
in Figure 2.1: . This graph plots the quantity of different types of fibre optic cables distributed by
different utilities on their own network. According to the results of the survey, 30% companies have
more than 5000 km of OPGW installed on their network. 77% of the OPGW installed on networks is over
20 years old and 80% of companies plan to install OPGW in the next five years. These figures emphasis
the continued popularity of OPGW technology and the solutions it can provide for EPUs.
Figure 2.1: Number of utilities plotted by cable optic type and quantity installed
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2.2 History of opgw

Low attenuation optical fibre was first developed in the 1970’s and towards the end of the decade it
started to be deployed in underground telecommunication cables. In 1977 BICC (British Insulated Cable
Co.) filed a patent for the use of optical fibre within a stranded aluminium alloy wire cable for use on
overhead power lines. The patent covered various methods for protecting the fibre including the use of
an aluminium pipe. BICC itself did not sell the product widely, but the patent led other manufacturers
of OPGW to seek licences from them for many years.
Figure 2.2 OPGW Patent
In the early 80’s in North America there were several cases of conductor manufacturers joining forces
with fibre optic cable manufacturers to develop OPGW. Notable examples are Ericsson with Reynolds
Metals, Phillips Cable Canada (a BICC subsidiary) with Fitel (Furukawa Electric Japan), Sumitomo with
Alcan, Kaiser Aluminium & Chemical Corporation with Siecor (Siemens – Corning) and Alcoa with
Fujikura. In Europe, apart from BICC, other large cable manufactures took on the development of OPGW
included Pirelli (now Prysmian) and AEG.
The earliest designs of OPGW used aluminium pipe protecting tight buffered fibres, before the
introduction of gel filled buffer tube (loose tube) designs. In the mid 1980’s the first alternative to
aluminium pipe designs were introduced to the market. These so called “second generation” designs
were based on tight buffer or loose buffer tubes being placed into helically twisted aluminium slotted
core for protection. The earliest recorded OPGW installation among respondents to the survey was in
1980. The choice of designs on the market did not change further until the introduction of stainless
steel tube technology in the 1990’s facilitated the use of OPGW for higher fibre count requirements and
resulting designs were more compact cable structures.
The first recorded installation of OPPC is widely held to be a short installation carried out using BICC
cable on the Isle of Man in 1994 on the 33kV lines of the Manx Electricity Authority. The first large scale
use of optical insulators was in 1996 when FOCAS Inc. supplied IXC Communications, Austin, Texas
several hundred miles of OPGW which was insulated in sections by the use of 40kV optical insulators.
20
2.3 Overhead fibre optic cables

2.3.1 Cable Designs
Aerial fibre optic cables can be classified into two general categories; Self-Supporting cables and
Attached cables. Self-Supporting cables replace or are in addition to the existing cables on the overhead
network. Attached cables are wrapped, lashed or clipped to a host cable on the overhead network.
2.3.1.1 Self-Supporting Cables

The available types of self-supporting cables are:
OPGW (OPtical Ground Wire) - A dual function cable which

provides the lightning and short circuit protection of a
standard ground wire and contains optic fibres for
telecommunications purposes.
Figure 2.3 Example of OPGW [B20]
OPPC (OPtical Phase Conductor) – A dual function cable

which replaces an existing current carrying conductor and
contains optical fibres for telecommunications purposes. For
access to the fibre an optical insulator is used to transition
the fibre from phase potential to ground potential. They are
mainly manufactured using stainless steel tubes.
Figure 2.4 Example of OPPC [B20]
MASS (Metal Armoured Self Supporting) - A separate

metallic cable which is added to the overhead network
containing optical fibres for telecommunications purposes.
Very similar to OPGW style cables, but smaller and lighter
with a very small electrical and mechanical operating
window.
Figure 2.5 Example of MASS [B20]
ADSS (All Dielectric Self Supporting) – A separate self-

supporting non-metallic cable which is added to the
overhead network containing optical fibres for
telecommunications purposes. It is also available in single
jacket designs for shorter spans and more limited fibre
counts.
Figure 2.6 Example of ADSS [B20]
21
2.3.1.2 Attached Cables

Attached cables are generically referred to as OPAC (OPtical Attached Cable).The most common types
of attached cables are:
Wrapped Cable –A cable which is helically installed with specialised machinery onto an existing ground
wire or phase conductor and containing optical fibres for telecommunications purposes. When installed
on the phase conductor, the cable is passed through an optical insulator to transition from phase potential
to ground potential for access purposes.
Figure 2.7 Wrapped cables [B20]
Lashed Cable – A cable which is longitudinally installed onto an existing ground wire and then held in
place by one or two wires or tapes wound helically over the lash cable and the ground wire bundle, or
clipped at regular intervals to the ground wire. An example of lashed cable installation is shown in Figure
2.8 below. Note: This product is no longer available for HV Transmission lines.
Lash cable cross section
Figure 2.8 Lashed cable installation and cable cross section

[B29][B37]
22
2.4 Cable structures

2.4.1 OPGW Cable Design
Several versions of OPGW have been developed over the years. Depending on the EPUs specifications,
any of these design families may be suited for the application. There will be engineering trade-offs
associated with any of these different OPGW designs. The key specification parameters which may
guide the product selection are:
Fibre Count,
Structural Load Considerations,
Fault Current Requirements,
Installation and Preparation Practices,
Lightning Protection
Environmental Factors (Corrosion, Pollution, Wind & Ice Load)
Sag, Tension and Clearance Limitations.
There are many stakeholders within an EPU when specifying OPGW. Transmission, Telecommunications
& Protection, Standards and Procurement professionals are all important to the standardization process
and should discuss how the utility will incorporate the use of OPGW into their electrical and fibre optic
network.
The three main constructive characteristics of OPGW which are currently deployed on utility networks
are Central aluminium tube, Stranded Stainless Tube and Central Stainless Tube.
The most common types of OPGW available on the market and their key features are as follows:
2.4.1.1 Aluminium Pipe Designs

This construction consists of a large central aluminium pipe containing optical fibres. The aluminium
pipe is considered to be waterproof, and depending on the wall thickness serves to provide crush
protection to the optical fibres and its cross-section contributes to the conductivity of the cable for fault
current rating. Note that the good electrical behaviour of the aluminium pipe may increase the cable’s
fault current capability
Figure 2.9: OPGW Design: Aluminium Pipe [B20]
The optical fibres in the core are typically in one or more Polybutylene Terephthalate (PBT) buffer tubes
i.e. a “loose tube” construction.
The main benefit of the standard loose tube design is that the fibre management is very similar to a
standard underground fibre optic cable, with one or more PBT (Polybutylene terephthalate) buffer tubes
each containing from 6 to 48 fibres. Typical fibre counts for this design are 12 to 144 fibres. The main
23
disadvantage of this design is that the large cross-section of the aluminium pipe and fibre optic core
can lead to a significant diameter increase when compared to the ground wire it is replacing. For new
construction projects, the structures can be designed to accommodate a slightly larger OPGW.
Additionally, as the optical core is in the centre of the cable, the cable may only need one single layer
of aluminium and aluminium clad steel wires. For these so called “single layer” designs that may not be
torsionally balanced, they may need to be installed with Anti-Rotational Devices (ARD) to avoid excessive
rotation of the OPGW during installation. It is recommended to refer to supplier’s specified installation
instructions for best installation practices related to their design.
General Benefits of Aluminium Pipe Designs:

In general, a robust design that provides good mechanical protection for the fibres.
Fibres contained in dielectric tubes resulting in easy fibre identification.
Earlier tight buffer design have proved to be highly robust with many kilometre still in
service.
General Drawbacks of Aluminium Pipe Designs:
Single layer designs generally require an ARD during installation.
Aluminium pipe can result in a large diameter
2.4.1.2 Stainless Steel Tube Designs

In this construction of OPGW the optical fibres are placed in a stainless steel tube within the aluminium
and aluminium clad steel wires in the cable.
The stainless steel tube is formed from a flat strip of steel which formed into a tube and laser welded.
As the tube forms the optical fibres and gel are pumped into it.
There are two (2) types of OPGW using Stainless Steel Tubes: Stranded and Central Tube designs.
Stranded Tube – Stainless Steel Aluminium-covered Stainless Steel Central Tube

Figure 2.10: OPGW Design: Stainless Steel Tube [B20]
In a Stranded Tube design, the most common position for the stainless steel tube is in the first stranded
layer of the cable. In this position the helical path of the tube provides improved optical performance
under tensile loading. Additionally it is covered by a second layer of wires which offer protection against
lightning strikes and forms a protective cage under compressive forces.
24
Figure 2.11 Stainless Steel Design: Stranded Tube [B20]
The alternating layers of wires in the OPGW create a more torsionally balanced cable which will reduce
the tendency to rotate during installation and may therefore normally be installed without ARDs. It is
still recommended to refer to supplier’s specified installation instructions for best installation practices
related to their design.
For higher fibre counts more than one stainless steel tube can be used. In this way higher fibre counts
of up to 432 fibres are achievable.
In a Central Tube design, the stainless steel tube can either be protected by a single or dual layer of
wires, or by an aluminium pipe in addition to a layer of wire stranding. In these Central Tube designs,
up to 96 fibres can be packaged into a very small, dense and lightweight package.
Figure 2.12 Stainless Steel Design: Central Tube [B20]
If a single layer of wires is employed, an ARD may be needed during the installation of these cable
designs. Again, refer to supplier’s specified installation instructions for best installation practices related
to their design.
General Benefits of Stainless Steel Tube Designs:
In general, a more compact design when retrofitting a conventional ground wire.
High fibre density: Allows for higher fibre counts in a small cross sectional area.
May not require Anti Rotational Device:
o In a multi-layer design, the layers of wire are helically stranded in opposite
directions, so when a tensile force is applied – the associated torque of each layer
“cancels” each other out – so the cable will not spin when being installed.
o A perfect cancellation is quasi impossible, rotational torque depends on type of
wire, size, number and radius from centre.
25
o An even number of layers can present some cancellation effects to be treated on a

case-by-case design. In single layer wire designs, ARDs may be recommended by
the manufacturer in order to reduce or prevent twist during installation.
General Drawbacks of Stainless Steel Tube Designs:

Splice preparation is craft sensitive: If a splice contractor is only accustomed to splicing
underground style cables with plastic buffer tubes, then there will be a learning curve to
prepare a stainless steel tube to ensure a clean break, and fibres are centred in the tube.
o It is imperative that the correct cutting tool is used when preparing the stainless
steel tube.
Furcation: A transition tubing is needed because a stainless steel tube cannot be routed in
a slack loop in a splice enclosure. This is an additional step which is not needed with plastic
buffer tube designs.
Fibre Identification: In plastic buffer tube OPGW designs, sets of 12 fibres are grouped in
a coloured tube. In a stainless steel tube, there might be as many as 96 fibres in a tube,
separated in groups of 12 with string binders or hash marks. As the fibre count increases,
the time to separate these fibres in a stainless steel tube will increase.
Higher risk of galvanic corrosion.
2.4.1.3 Slotted Core and Spacer Tube Designs

This construction of OPGW has an optical core made from a solid channel of aluminium that has slots
in it to allow for the insertion of buffer tubes. Designs with two, three or four slots were developed each
of which could take a buffer tube of up to 48 fibres, allowing for higher fibre count designs. During
manufacture the aluminium channel is twisted into a helix at the same time the tubes are inserted.
Aluminium tape or a welded aluminium tube then covers the slotted core to provide UV (Ultra-Violet)
protection of the buffer tubes. One or more layers of wires are then applied over the core.
Slotted Core Spacer Tube

Figure 2.13: OPGW Design: Slotted Core and Spacer Tube [B20][B37]
The design is characterised by its extreme crush resistance and easy fibre management. For single layer
designs the cable requires the use of ARDs during installation.
Customer’s specifications have evolved over time, and customers have transitioned to other types of
OPGW style cables depending on their fibre count or splice preparation requirements. Due to a limited
baseload of customers, the design type was discontinued and is no longer commercially available.
Similar product evolution occurs in different areas of technology all of the time.
Other, unique OPGW design families, such as the spiral spacer OPGW, have been discontinued as well.
General Benefits of Slotted Core and Spacer Tube Designs:
26
Good mechanical protection to crush

No galvanic corrosion
High fault current rating
General Drawbacks of Slotted Core and Spacer Tube Designs:
Fibres are not protected from the environment in an encased metallic tube (this is the
FOCAS design where the core is only wrapped with an aluminium foil).
These designs often become single layer designs because of the large central component.
o This results in increased torsional effects during installation
o They will require an ARD to install.
2.4.2 OPPC Cable Design

OPPC are phase conductors which contain optical fibre cables, it substitutes the phase conductor when
optical fibre communication is required. OPPC is an option in retrofit on lines that are not equipped with
ground wires or if for any reason OPGW, or any other fibre cable, is not suitable for the line: for example,
structures are not strong enough to support an extra cable.
OPPC presents many challenges for EPUs. It should be considered as a last resort application. It can
be considered when one or more of the following situations exist:
No other overhead fibre cable is practical,

There are no ground wires present on the line,
The structural peaks are absent or can’t support the larger OPGW,
Spans are too long to deploy an ADSS or other solutions safely,
Ground clearance or space potentials don’t allow installation of ADSS under the phase,
Ground clearance are too low for MASS (Metal Armed Self Supporting),
Lack of a strong conductor or ground wire to support a WRAP cable solution.
The OPPC must correspond to the same parameters of its equivalent ACSR (Aluminium Conductor Steel
Reinforced), AACSR (Aluminium Alloy Conductor Steel Reinforced), AAAC (All Aluminium Alloy
Conductor) or ACS (Aluminium Clad Steel). It must not exceed the sag and tension behaviour of each
of these respective phase conductors when exposed to the environmental conditions. It shall also
provide the strain margin to accommodate these conditions ensuring strain is not introduced into the
fibre.
Some of the challenges posed by OPPC installations can be attributed to the following characteristics:
Aluminium content of OPPC cable is generally higher than conventional phase conductor in
order to compensate for lower thermal limit (lower than conventional phase conductor) as
well as presence of a steel tube -containing the optical unit - replacing original Al wires.
Steel content of OPPC cable is higher as opposed to conventional phase conductor in order
to control elongation.
Higher Aluminium and steel content of OPPC cables lead to larger diameter and heavier
weight which in turn requires stronger structures (or reinforcement in case of retrofit).
The conventional phase conductor and OPPC have different impedances which may lead to
electrical phase unbalance in three phase system.
OPPC diameter is larger in size compared to OPGW, therefore the drum length will be
shorter. This leads to more splices (and splice losses) and more deadends.
There will be a need to have structures that can support deadend loads.
Greater complexity of insulation and handling of metallic tube will result in higher costs in
installations.
Jointing of drum ends and fibre splicing must be completed at a height. This increases the
risks to the safety of the installers. It also increases the risks of damaging the OPPC.
When OPPC cables are installed at high voltage level there are some differences in construction and
methods of installations, as described below.
27
OPPC is a technology which has been used in medium and high voltage lines up to 225 kV.
From a construction point of view, it is important that an OPPC closely matches the standard conductor
with regard to DC resistance. As high voltage (HV) lines normally use three phase systems it is essential
that this system is in balance. Generally diameter and weight of OPPC is closely matched with
conventional conductors so no tower reinforcement is necessary.
Due to the fact that the OPPC is energised at the system voltage, an extra consideration must be made
where jointing of the fibres is made or where the fibres are separated from the electrical network; i.e.
at the ends of the system.
The following additional components are required for an OPPC system to overcome these issues:
Joint boxes for optical connection of the fibres that can be mounted at the system voltage. It
should be noted that these joint boxes can be either;
Suspended from the tower by an insulator.

Suspended from the OPPC conductor.
In either case, the joint closure will be at the system voltage and cannot be accessed without
the line being de-energized.
Alternatively, the fibres can be separated from the OPPC and transferred to ground potential
through a suitable electrical insulator. Various configurations of insulator can be designed. The
transition between the OPPC and the insulator is usually made within a joint closure of one of
the types listed above. Typically the fibre pass through the core of the insulator and the space
between the fibres and the insulator is filled with oil or gel. The insulator may replace an existing
suspension or tension insulator in the system or it may be an additional insulator used purely
for the transition of the fibres. In either case it must be designed to meet both the electoral
and mechanical loads placed upon it. Various configuration have been designed and used.
General Benefits of OPPC Designs:

Installation can be made on lines with no ground wires without adding an additional cable.
General Drawbacks of OPPC Designs:

Combined energized conductor and optical system requires a method to separate the fibres
from the high voltage system, insulator.
An electrical outage is required for any maintenance or remedial work.
Rework of installation and maintenance tends to be more difficult and costly as compared
to OPGW.
OPPC cable may not match the existing conductors electrically.
All OPPC jointing must be completed at a height.
Upgrading OPPC in the future can cause considerable complications and additional costs to
a project.
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2.4.3 General Design Considerations

OPGW/OPPC designs for extreme temperature range and high fault current applications must consider
the difference in coefficient of linear expansion between aluminium and steel.
Additional design considerations are outlined below.
2.4.3.1 Grease and Corrosion
Depending on the environmental factor at the installation site corrosion on the OPGW/OPPC may be a
significant factor. Locations that are coastal or highly polluted generally require an OPGW/OPPC that is
resistant to corrosion. Corrosion resistance can be improved by the selection of materials in the cable.
Dissimilar metals should not be adjacent next to one another. In some environments grease can be
used to further protect the cable but it’s method of application be suitable for the environment. Grease
on the external surface of the OPGW/OPPC can cause pollutants to stick that cause further corrosion.
2.4.3.2 Type of Wire
Primarily aluminium, aluminium alloy and ACS wires are used in OPGW/OPPCs. However, galvanised
steel wires may also be used. Material selection is based on meeting the strength and electrical
requirements for the OPGW/OPPC. ACS wires provide greater strength and aluminium and aluminium
alloy wires provide better electrical properties.
2.4.3.3 Fibre Tubing
Within the OPGW/OPPC the fibres are housed in buffer tubes. These tubes serve as the primary
protection for the fibres. The diameter of the buffer tube will increase in size depending on the number
of fibres. Typical fibre counts are 12 to 48 fibres per tube. The maximum number of fibres in a stainless
steel tube is currently 96. The fibres are distinguished from each other either by ring marking or by
using coloured yarns to bundle the fibres into groups of 12.
Stainless steel tubes also require more specialised tools to access the fibre. The tube is cut using a
specialised tube cutter which is specifically calibrated to suit the tube dimensions. Once the tube has
been cut, the fibres need to be protected from the cut edge of the tube. For fibre counts above 12, the
fibres are typically routed via furcation kits and transportation tube into the splice trays.
2.4.3.4 Loose Buffer Tube vs. Tight Buffer Tube
In the majority of cases loose buffer tubes are now used. The survey results revealed that 62% of all
OPGW designs were of loose buffer tube design. In this construction the fibre is laid loosely within the
buffer tube. The buffer tube is further filled with a gel that the fibres are able to float within such that
the fibre are free from the mechanical stresses applied to the cable.
In older OPGW designs, tight buffer tubes were used. In this arrangement the tube is sealed onto the
fibre. Although this resulting in a smaller tube for the same fibre count, the stresses placed on the cable
are transmitted to the fibres resulting in varying attenuation within the fibre as the OPGW flexes and
stretches.
2.4.3.5 Anti-Rotation Devices
ARDs, (Anti-Rotation Devices) are used to prevent the cable rotating during installation. OPGW/OPPCs
that containing only a single layer of wires are particularly prone to this effect. The used of the ARD
and the type of ARD required shall be defined by the OPGW/OPPC manufacturer.
29
2.5 Hardware / accessories design features

Accessories or hardware for fibre optic cables represent an important part of the line design. Although
hardware/accessories may represent a small part of a project budget, it is critical that the
hardware/accessories are compatible with the OPGW, so as not to affect the long term mechanical,
electrical or optical performance of the cable.
According to the survey, the majority (90%) consider the design of the hardware and procedures from
the point of view of the fitting compatibility at the beginning of the design process.
Table 2.1 Accessories Design Characteristics
No. Design Characteristic Category

1 Hardware/Accessories construction (e.g. length of PFR rods, Mechanical
armour rods, diameter of individual wires, mass, lay direction, etc.)
2 Tensile requirements (e.g. to support OPGW specific RTS) Mechanical
3 Slip resistance Mechanical
4 Crush forces Mechanical
5 Corrosion resistance Environmental
6 Vibration considerations Mechanical /
Environmental
For the purposes of this TB, hardware/accessories are considered fittings that are permanently in direct
contact with the cable:
Tension Fitting.
Suspension Fitting.
Earthing Fittings.
Bolted Clamps.
E.g. Downlead clamps used to fasten the OPGW to structure members on its path down
to the splice box.
Vibration Protection Fittings.
Vibration Dampers.
Marker Fittings.
e. g. Aircraft warning markers, birdflight diverters.
Repair Rods.
Repair damaged OPGW. Rods are capable of restoring the electrical conductivity and
mechanical strength of OPGW.
Splice Boxes.
Hardware/accessories needed to connect tension and suspension fittings with the attachment points at
the supports, e. g. links, shackles, turnbuckles, may be part of the OPGW package. These fittings are
no different to links for conventional ground wires.
In any case, the interface with the supporting structures should be clearly defined. Among other
information this may be:
Diameter of holes of attachment plates,
(select size of connecting bolts)
Thickness of attachment plates,
(select width of clevis-type links)
Orientation of attachment plates,
(along or across line direction, horizontal or vertical, to decide if straight or twisted links
are needed)
The mechanical requirements for tension and suspension fittings with regard to strength follow the
same rules as that which apply for conventional ground wires. They are governed by line parameters,
e.g. ruling span, weight span, wind span, and climatic conditions (design wind and ice loads). Design
30
needs to take into account safety factors required by the applicable design or safety code. Special load
cases may need to be considered (e.g. differential loads on suspension clamps due to uneven icing, or
similar).
Regarding electrical requirements, short-time fault currents for which the OPGW is designed need to be
taken into consideration for tension and suspension fittings as well as for the connecting links. Grounding
connections between OPGW and structure members may be used to shunt suspension and tension
fittings to prevent them from taking the full short-time current. Usually these grounding connections
should have at least the same short-time current rating as the OPGW. When dedicated grounding
connections are used the downlead clamps can be expected to take only a minor share of short-time
currents so that they can be designed only for their mechanical purpose, i.e. secure fastening of the
OPGW to tower members.
Further to mechanical and electrical requirements, compatibility with the OPGW so as to warrant the
mechanical integrity and the optical performance of the telecommunication module is paramount.
In order to ensure hardware/accessory compatibility, the following considerations should be made:

Fit of hardware/accessories to the OPGW design
o OPGW outer diameter
o Number of layers
o Individual wire diameter
Lay direction and in some cases lay length
Material compatibility to ensure corrosion resistance
Length of factory-formed helical rods to support line design tensions
For the hardware, lay direction, length of wraps (determined by tension) and the span max
tension become important elements. Span length and tension are important considerations for
vibration characteristics and mitigation strategies.
Most important: Outside diameter of the cable and the tension (RTS). Also: weight of
attachment hardware/accessory vs peak capability or whether an adaptor plate is required.
There are many cases, such as splice locations and angle structures, where one needs to dead-
end an OPGW cable to a suspension tower. The tension and unbalanced load on tower becomes
important and therefore a study is required to analyse whether a tower can handle tension and
build adaptors. Often these are analysed in an overhead line design program.
Impact toughness (e.g. Charpy standard) for cold weather temperature extremes
Table 2.2 Accessories used throughout OPGW Lifecycle
Application Examples
Installation of OPGW Kellem grips, anti-rotation device (ARD)
Installation of OPGW in Live Line
Cradle block
Conditions
Tension fittings, suspension fittings,
Permanent Installation of OPGW
downlead clamps
Long Term Performance Damper
Associated Hardware Splice box
31
2.5.1 Tension Fittings

Dead-ends made of pre-formed helical rods (PFR) mounted over a protective layer of PFR armour rods
are mostly used as tension fittings. Cone type clamps and bolted clamps have successfully been used
as well. OPGWs made up of stranded wires necessarily develop a torque as ordinary ground wires do
when they are tensioned.
PFR dead ends need to counterbalance the torque of the OPGW in order to avoid unravelling. In general
this is the case when PFR rods of the deadend have the same lay direction as the outer wire layer of
the OPGW. The protective PFR rods usually have opposite lay direction.
OPGW for long span applications with very high tensile load may need a second PFR dead-end mounted
over the first PFR dead-end. Such assemblies have successfully been tested for loads in the order of
600kN without impairing the optical performance of the OPGW.
Figure 2.14 Tension Fitting / Dead-end Hardware [B19]
32
2.5.2 Suspension Fittings

The most common design of suspension clamp is the helically attached elastomer suspension (HAES)
unit which uses PFR rods mounted with an elastomer lining over the OPGW.
A clamp housing grips the PFR rods and takes the loads perpendicular to the OPGW (from weight and
wind span) and longitudinal loads (due to differential tension). Bolted suspension clamps have
successfully been used as well.
The characteristic difference of HAES clamps compared to bolted clamps is that apart from the loads
due to weight and wind span no extra clamping force is exerted on the OPGW.
HAES units may be installed over a protective layer of helical factory-formed armour rods. On one hand
this increases the bending stiffness so that the radius of curvature of the OPGW that results from the
turning angle at the suspension point is larger, on the other hand larger differential tensile loads can be
handled by the suspension clamp without slip of the OPGW.
Figure 2.15 Suspension Fitting [B19]
33
2.5.3 Grounding Clamps

Grounding clamp are used to ground OPGW to the tower by attaching to the tower grounding wire.
Specific requirements vary from one utility to another. The grounding clamp is used in conjunction with
a bonding wire to provide a path to ground from the OPGW cable to the tower.
It is necessary to ensure that the grounding clamp used will not cause damage to the OPGW that could
result in point attenuation increases. These can be caused by the fitting crushing the optical unit
containing fibres.
Figure 2.16 Grounding Clamp [B20]
2.5.4 Bolted Clamps

Bolted clamps may include grounding clamps, downlead clamps, damper clamps, clamps of warning
markers, etc. Clamp grooves should be closely fitted to the OPGW's diameter such as to avoid any
crushing that might lead to a deformation of the optical unit and impair the optical performance.
Bolt tightening torques should be controlled within tight limits to avoid excessive clamping forces.
Dampers and warning markers may be installed over armour rods to protect the OPGW from excessive
contact pressure exerted by bolted clamps.
Figure 2.17 Bolted Clamp: Example of a Downlead Clamp courtesy of Prysmian Group Brochure [B18]
34
2.5.5 Vibration Protection

Vibration dampers, such as Stockbridge or Spiral dampers, may be used to absorb the cable vibrations.
The number of dampers can change and is directly determined by the installation parameters, the
environmental conditions, the distance between towers and the type of cable.
A vibration study determines the number of dampers to be used and where they must be placed.
Figure 2.18 Stockbridge Dampers [B20]
2.5.6 Marker Fittings

Marker fittings, such as marker balls, flags, are usually used to highlight visibility of the line. They are
used near road crossing, river crossing, in close proximity to airports and other case specific areas.
Figure 2.19 Marker Balls [B26]
35
2.5.7 Repair Rods

Repair rods are used to repair damaged OPGW. Repair rods are capable of restoring the electrical
conductivity and mechanical strength of OPGW.
Figure 2.20: Repair Rods Before and After Installation [B21]
2.5.8 Splice Boxes

Splice or Joint Boxes for OPGW allow splicing of fibre optic drum ends to each other, forming a
continuous optical path from substation to substation. Splice boxes provide mechanical protection from
many types of risks (i.e. weather or vandalism) and come in rugged and bullet-proof versions.
Splice boxes are often equipped with two or three sealed ports for cable entrance and are weather-
sealed using a combination of chemical compounds and/or engineered rubber seals.
Their sizes should be large enough to accommodate the number of fibres being spliced without crowding
inside and meeting their minimum bending radius of fibre and tube. Splice boxes can be easily installed
on towers despite their weight (can be 20 kg).
Specific care should be taken to earth the splice box properly so that it has a continuous grounding
path.
The mounting location on the tower must take into account the OPGW specific bending radius and has
security implications; it must be high enough (along with the service loop) to prevent public
access. Clamping system for splicing boxes must be suitable for the type of the towers (lattice, tube).
For all of solutions an entrances of the OPGW should be from the bottom to avoid water ingress. Figure
2.21 below shows the mounting of an OPGW splice box mounted on the side of a tower.
The preparation of the OPGW for splicing and the splicing activity itself is completed at ground level.
This results in a requirement for excess lengths of OPGW at the tower. A suitable storage solution is
required for the excess OPGW when the fibre jointing is complete. Figure 2.21 illustrates an example of
a storage solution used to store the excess slack loops of OPGW on the tower.
Fibre management within the splice box is dependent on the diameter of the stainless steel tube which
will increase in size depending on the number of fibres. Typical fibre counts are 12 to 48 fibres per tube.
The maximum number of fibres per tube is currently 96 fibres.
The small size of the optical unit typically enables a close match to the ground wire specified for the
line, however the fibre management is more specialised as the stainless steel tube must be cut with a
specialist tool. The exposed fibre must be protected from the edge of the stainless steel tube and for
fibre counts above 12, the fibres are typically routed via furcation kits and transportation tube into the
splice trays.
Issues may arise from improper installation and grounding of splice boxes therefore it is imperative to
follow manufacturer guidelines.
36
Figure 2.21: Splice/Joint Box & Excess OPGW Loop Storage [B26] [B30]
2.5.9 Hardware/Accessories Specific to OPPC

Two common types of OPPC insulator units used in OPPC systems are suspension and fixed insulator
units. Suspension unit are used in a jumper arrangement either on a tower square cross-arm or pointed
cross-arm. Figure 2.22 shows examples of OPPC Joint Boxes.
Fixed units are used either on a strain pole-set location where the unit will be vertically inverted and
fixed to the underside of the cross-arm or used on a tower platform or end mast arrangement. It is
important to ensure during the design stage that a fully assembled OPPC Insulator unit, with its
associated hardware and protective fittings, adheres to the tower clearance requirements for the
transmission network in which they will be installed.
Figure 2.22: Joint Boxes for OPPC [B20]
37
The insulator units can be either ‘assembled on-site’ or ‘pre-assembled’ by the manufacture. Installation
of the insulator unit is generally conducted at height. This imposes an increased risk factor on the
installation integrity and health and safety of the installation technicians.
The pre-assembled units have fibre optic cables embedded in the unit. The sealant material used to
protect the fibre optic cables should be of such material that it will not degrade over time and will
function under normal operational conditions of the OPPC system. There are two splice boxes located
at the top and bottom of the insulator unit. These splice boxes are fitted with splice cassettes for splicing
of OPPC via the already embedded fibre optic cables. This type of arrangement reduces the risk of fibre
damage when conducting a termination. The unit can also be electrically tested by the supplier before
installation.
The ‘assembled on-site’ insulator unit requires the fibres to be stripped back from the optical fibre cable
tail and ‘threaded’ through the unit and then spliced. The installer then pumps the insulator unit with a
sealant material. This task is completed at a height which further increases the risk of faults occurring
during this type of assembly.
A bypass arrangement is required for the insulator unit to ensure that there is no increase in resistance
in the electrical connection.
The design of the arcing horns and the position/location on the insulator units shall ensure that the
insulators unit (including optical fibres), associated hardware fittings, joint box, and phase conductor
are adequately protected in the event of surges.
Other specific accessories for OPPC are;
Tension assembly (tension towers, dead-end towers and line gate at power station) i.e. shackle,
ball eye, insulator, socket eye, thimble, helical dead-end, protection rod.
Figure 2.23: Tension Fitting for OPPC [B21]
Suspension assembly (suspension towers) i.e. twisted double eye, HAES.
Figure 2.24: Suspension Fitting for OPPC [B21]
38
2.6 Fibre optics technology

Fibre optics are a dielectric media, which propagate optical signals, pulses or a continuous wave, with
high efficiency, with high bandwidth and low attenuation.
The optical fibre is a concentric multilayer wire made with a silica core surrounded by other layers with
different refractive index. The light source propagates applying the total refraction principle, see Figure
2.25.
Figure 2.25: Propagation inside the optical fibre [B35]
Single-mode fibres are primarily used in OPGW cables, because multi-mode fibres are typically limited
to around 5-6 km (depending on the transmitter and receiver) and OPGW cables tend to have longer
deployments.
Single-mode fibres with core diameter around 9 μm only allow a single path for optical propagation
whereas multi-mode fibres with core diameter of 50 μm or higher allows the propagation of the light
following several trajectories inside the core.
2.6.1 Attenuation
Signal attenuation is one of the major distance limiting factors in long haul optical communication
systems. The main causes of signal power loss are absorption of light by the impurities of the fibre
material and scattering of light by non-uniformities of the fibre.
2.6.1.1 Intrinsic Losses
Intrinsic losses are uniform over the length of a fibre. The additional losses, for example, irregularities
of the core/cladding interface or chemical impurities may not be smoothly distributed.
Figure 2.26 shows the propagation losses of silica fibres in function of the transmission wavelength.
Recent developments situate the lower losses threshold in ≈ 0.16 dB/km around 1550 nm. Either side
of this value, the attenuation increases resulting in greater losses at 1310 nm and 1625nm. If the fibre
contains hydroxyl (OH) ions, additional peaks at 1390 nm and 1240 nm are found in the loss spectrum.
39
Figure 2.26: Generic losses [B27]
The signal power ܲ, at ‫ ܮ‬kilometres of the transmitter end and with launched power ܲை in a fibre with
an attenuation coefficient of ߙ in dB/km can be calculated by the following expression:
ఈ௅
ܲ ൌ ܲை ൉ ͳͲሺିଵ଴ሻ
Equation 2.1
2.6.1.2 Bend Losses

Bend losses are propagation losses which arise from excess bending of the fibre. Typically, such losses
are negligibly under normal conditions, but steeply increase once a certain critical bend radius is
reached. That critical radius is rather small, a few millimetres, for fibres with small effective mode area
or high numerical aperture. However, for single mode fibres with large effective mode areas, having a
very low numerical aperture, the critical radius can be much larger, often tens of millimetres. These
fibres types are more sensitive to bending.
Bend losses become more noticeable at higher wavelengths. For example, bend losses are more visible
at 1550nm wavelength when compared to 1310nm wavelength.
1625nm wavelength is also used to inspect bending losses (micro bending) on the fibre by means of
analysing the variation between this wavelength and others (i.e.1550nm).
The wavelength dependence is often strongly oscillatory due to interference with light reflected at the
cladding/coating boundary, and/or at the outer coating surface. The increasing bend losses at longer
wavelengths often limit the usable wavelength range of a single-mode fibre. Figure 2.27 illustrates
the measured bending losses at two wavelengths in a G.652D compatible fibre.
Figure 2.27 Bending losses in function of wavelength [B29]
The deformations in the core-cladding interface caused by induced pressure over the fibre also produces
loses by micro-bending of the fibre. This is caused due to the use of inappropriate fittings which stresses
the optical fibres inside the cable. It is also caused by the use of inappropriate filling gel inside the loose
tubes.
40
2.6.2 Dispersion
Dispersion causes broadening of light pulses as they travel through the optical fibre. Modal dispersion,
chromatic dispersion and polarization mode dispersion are the main forms of dispersion which need
carefully consideration in an optical communications system design.
2.6.2.1 Modal Dispersion

Modal dispersion is a dispersion phenomenon, which is determinant in multi mode fibres. In single mode
fibres, its effect is negligible.
2.6.2.2 Waveguide Dispersion
Waveguide dispersion results from the propagation constant of the mode, Group Velocity, which is
function of the a/ʎ, where a is the core radius and ʎ is the light vacuum wavelength.
Waveguide dispersion becomes noticeable in single mode fibres at wavelengths above 1270nm.
Fibre cut-off wavelength, measured in laboratory condition, is the minimum wavelength than the fibre
can propagate in single mode. At wavelengths lower than the Cut-Off, the fibre starts to propagate
other parasitic modes and finally becomes a multimode propagation.
When the fibre is placed in arrangement inside a cable, a more real use case, the measured cut-off
wavelength is slightly higher than the measured for a standalone fibre. This is due to the multiple bends
of the fibre inside the cable, and in fact, may be considered a quality factor of the cable.
For single mode fibres, cut-off wavelengths starts around 1250 nm for fibres with small core diameter
like G.652 types but for long range fibres with largest core diameter, G.654 or G.655the cut-off
wavelength can be around 1430 nm.
2.6.2.3 Chromatic Dispersion

Chromatic dispersion is a pulse broadening phenomenon due to the dependence of the refractive index
of the fibre with the wavelength of the light, see Figure 2.28 below.
Because the travelling speed of the light inside the fibre depends of the refractive index and on the
wavelength, diverse wavelengths will propagate at different speeds arriving at the optical detector at
different times.
Composing those wavelengths to reconstitute the original optical pulse will not be exact because of the
different time of arrival of each wavelength. This results in a broadening of the received pulse. As the
pulses are broaden, they trend to overlap making it difficult for the receiver to separate the pulses.
41
Figure 2.28 Refractive Index [B27]
Chromatic Dispersion Coefficient

As a standard in the industry to combine the effect of the Waveguide and Chromatic dispersion in a
single unit is named the Chromatic Dispersion Coefficientሺ‫ܦ‬ሻ.
The amount of pulse broadening, δC (in picoseconds), due to chromatic dispersion can be estimated by
the equation:
ߜ‫ ܥ‬ൌ ‫ܹܤݔܮݔܦ‬
Equation 2.2
Where, ‫ ܦ‬is the chromatic dispersion coefficient, which is specific for the transmission fibre and
wavelength, ‫ ܮ‬is the transmission distance, ‫ ܹܤ‬is the spectral width of the transmission signal in
nanometres.
All fibre manufacturers publish the values of ‫ ܦ‬at several wavelengths, i.e. 1300nm, 1400nm, 1550nm,
etc. Assuming that the real value of ‫ ܦ‬is constant near the central wavelengths and ‫ ܹܤ‬is much smaller
than ‫ ܦ‬the previous equation estimates the broadening with enough precision.
The diverse possibilities of combining the effects of the Waveguide and Chromatic dispersions have
generated a certain number of fibre types which are standardized by the Regulatory Bodies such as
ITU-T, IEC and TIA.
42
Figure 2.29: Chromatic Dispersion for various types of fibres [B35]
2.6.2.4 Polarization mode dispersion (PMD)

Polarization mode dispersion occurs when light waves with different polarization planes propagate at
different velocities in an optical fibre, see Figure 2.30 below. This can be observed in single mode fibres
and has considerable affects in data transmission speeds higher than 2.5 GBit/s and on long-distance
communication systems.
Figure 2.30: Polarisation Mode Dispersion [B28]
Unlike other forms of dispersion, PMD is completely stochastic and methods of compensation can be
complex and costly. Currently most high-speed transmission systems are based on Continuous Wave
Modulation Transmission Systems, the PMD apparently has no effect on the actual transmission rates
of this technology.
The amount of pulse spreading related to the difference in speeds of modes is known as Differential
Group Delay (DGD) and is measured in picoseconds.
Pulse broadening due to PMD is given by the following equation:
ߜ௉ெ ൌ ‫ܦ‬௉ெ ‫ݔ‬ξ‫ܮ‬
Equation 2.3
In which ߜ௉ெ represents the broadening time in picoseconds, ‫ܦ‬௉ெ is the PMD coefficient and ‫ ܮ‬is the
length of the line.
The maximum available bandwidth ‫ݓܤ‬, can be calculated considering:
ͳ
‫ ݓܤ‬ൌ ‫ߜݔ‬௉ெ
ͶͲ
Equation 2.4
2.6.3 Nonlinear Effects

Nonlinearities present in silica glass fibres are harmful and it is hard to estimate their effects that limit
system performance. These effects need to be carefully considered when designing a communications
link with optical amplifiers since nonlinearity effects increase proportionally with the launch power of
the signal.
The major part of the nonlinear effects in silica fibre may be considered as elastic collisions or a diverse
aspect of the Kerr effect.
43
The Kerr effect is explained in terms of refractive index variations. Essentially, the refractive index of
the silica is not a constant. Chromatic dispersion appears because the refractive index is wavelength
dependent. In addition, the refractive index is a function of the instantaneous power travelling in the
fibre and function of the electric field inside the fibre. This last effect is the principle of the modern high
voltage meters.
From the electromagnetic propagation, we know that in a media different to that of a vacuum, the wave
௖
travelling speed is ቀ ቁ.
ఌೝ
௖
In optical terms, the speed of an optical wave travelling inside a certain media is ቀ ቁ.
ୖୣ୤୰ୟୡ୲୧୴ୣ୍୬ୢୣ୶
If the refractive index varies with the instantaneous power is easy to imagine that a certain degree of
wave distortion will appear.
The aspects of the Kerr distortion and the Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS) arises when the launched
power into the fibre approaches its saturation point.
Those phenomena are discussed in more detail in APPENDIX D.
2.6.4 Fibre Life Time and Proof Test

Optical fibres have no theoretical lifetime. There is no physical-chemical reaction to test in order to
predict an eventual failure mechanism and corresponding failure reaction rate.
In practice, optical fibre cables have been in commercial use for more than 30 years and there is no
general evidence to suggest they will not continue to perform for many more years. Numerous technical
papers show optical cables, recovered from the field, still meet the optical characteristics for which were
designed.
Corning Inc. reports that the trial cables installed in late 70’s and early 80’s are still in use with unaltered
optical characteristics.
The tensile strength of telecommunication grade optical fibre is much higher than steel or other common
materials. Telecommunications grade optical fibre is routinely strength tested (also known as Proof Test)
to, at least, 0.69 GPa (100,000 psi) during manufacturing. In reality, this test cannot stresses the fibre
because its break point is 7 to 10 times higher than this routine test. In addition, fibre coating materials
and cable design have developed over the years to minimize the fibre strength in the field.
Glass is a brittle material but telecommunication grade optical fibres with their protective coatings and
assembled in a cable, cannot be considered brittle material.
From the standard theory for the crack growth in the fibres, also known as the Stress Corrosion Cracking,
a calculation can be used to determine the probability of failure of the fibre.
In order to simplify the theory, we will consider only the transversal cracks neglecting the longitudinal
ones which contribution are not significant. Models to calculate the failure probability basically considers
that the failure probability is a function of the ratio between the actual strength and the break point
strength and the elapsed time see Figure 2.31 below.
The tensile strength of the fibres inside a loose tube in the OPGW cables is only a small fraction of the
break tensile strength, its contribution can be considered as a constant value and the failure rate
becomes a function only of time.
44
Figure 2.31 Failure Probability of Fibre [B34]
45
2.7 Types of fibre

The usable bandwidth for optical transmission in single mode silica optical fibres covers a range from
1250nm to 1640nm which is in the near infrared band. Short wavelengths entering in the visible range
requires low core diameter to maintain single mode transmission and, in the opposite side, longest
wavelengths require higher core diameter.
Figure 2.32 Available Spectrum [B35]
The ITU-T have divided this bandwidth in sub-bands and Channelized (CWDM, Coarse Wavelength
Division Multiplexer). After the year 2000, the process to manufacture the fibre improves and the water
absorption peak at 1390 nm becomes negligible allowing the full bandwidth transmission and
superseding the transmission window concept.
Considering its intrinsic properties, ITU-T classifies the fibres in several recommendations included in
the G series (see Figure 2.32).
2.7.1 Single mode Fibres

The most commonly used single mode fibre in the world is ITU-T G.652 type. It is designed to have
minimum dispersion around 1310nm, which is the main transmission window for single mode fibres.
Conventional single mode fibres can be used at 1550nm with, in some cases, the use of dispersion
compensation modules.
Several types of G.652 compliant types of fibres are produced by the industry. There are also other
types of single mode fibres available that have unique characteristics which are suitable for different
applications and requirements.
2.7.1.1 ITU-T G.652A and G.652B
G.652A is the first single-mode fibres that ITU-T classified. G.652B fibres are also known as conventional
type single mode fibres. The major difference is in attenuation at both 1310nm and 1550nm and PMD.
G652B fibres have a PMD as low as 0.2 ps/sqrt.km whereas for G.652A fibres have a PMD of 0.5
ps/sqrt.km. Attenuation is low for G.652B fibres.
These types of single mode fibre are no longer manufactured and are superseded by the corresponding
G.652C and G.652D types.
2.7.1.2 ITU-T G.652C and G.652D
G.652C and G.652D types are improvements of the respective A and B types. Both types have very low
water absorption peak in the 1390 nm region.
46
There is a significant difference in PMD value between the two types. PMD for G.652C fibre is 0.5 ps/˿
km, whereas for G.652D fibres it is less than or equal to 0.2 ps/˿km.
To avoid mismatching of pairs and reducing attenuation losses between the different types of fibres and
interlinking old optical networks with new, G.652C match with G.652A and G.652D match with G.652B.
2.7.2 ITU-T G.653 Dispersion Shifted Fibre
These fibres are designed to utilize the low attenuation window of 1550nm by minimizing the dispersion
value in the 1550nm area. At the time the purpose of this design was beneficial, but it generated
considerable non-linear effects near to the zero dispersion point limiting its application to a single
wavelength operation.
These types of fibres are no longer available on the market.
2.7.3 ITU-T G.654 Cut-off Shifted Fibre
This fibre is also known as low attenuation fibre. Some manufacturers achieve extremely low attenuation
at 1550nm for this type of fibre.
Mainly used in applications which demand low attenuation like those in submarine cables and terrestrial
ultra-long haul optical networks.
Low attenuation at 1550nm region, 0.15–0.16 dB/km, makes this fibre suitable for very long spans
without repeaters. This low attenuation is achieved using a largest effective core area of 11–12 μm, in
single mode fibres. In addition, this large effective area allows for the use of more launch power without
increasing the nonlinear effects.
The amount of chromatic dispersion in this type of fibre is very large and should be compensated.
2.7.4 ITU-T G.655 Non-zero Dispersion Shifted Fibre
The G.655 compliant family of fibres are an evolution of the G.652 pursuing a better performance in
the 1450nm to 1600nm region. These are wide band transmission supporting fibres which can be
manufactured with positive or negative Dispersion Coefficient (D). This allows the possibility to chain
reels with +D and –D self-compensating the chromatic dispersion.
ITU-T specifies G.655 variants from A to E. Models A and B are obsolete. C, D and E variants offers low
dispersion coefficient, wide bandwidth suitable for DWDM. The allowed variation of the chromatic
dispersion and PMD parameters are stricter in E subtype allowing for a better calculation of the link
parameters.
2.7.5 ITU-T G.656 Low Slope Dispersion Non-Zero Dispersion shifted fibre
This is another type non-zero dispersion shifted fibre, which has a low dispersion slope. This guarantees
the DWDM performance in wide wavelength range.
The second order and nonlinear distortions are considerable high compared with the G.655 fibres. In
consequence, the deployment of the G.656 type of fibres should be considered carefully in long span
lines.
2.7.6 ITU-T G.657A Compliant Bend Insensitive fibre
G.657 fibres are the new comers in the market and are very popular in the Fibre To The Home (FTTH)
market. As the name indicates, the bend insensitive fibres are suitable for applications where multiple
bends will be present.
Insensitivity to bends makes them suitable for installation at home and office environment. G.657A is
specifically designed to be compatible with G.652 D fibres. Nevertheless, splicing interconnectivity with
the whole existing range of G.652 fibres is possible for the G.657A fibres.
As they are back compatible with G.652D fibre it is a very attractive alternative for OPGW and OPPC
installation. It has the potential to reduce the probability of micro bends occurring and allow for easier
management of the fibre in the splice boxes.
47
2.7.7 ITU-T G.657B Bend Insensitive fibre

Unlike G.657A, G.657B fibres are not splice-compatible with conventional single-mode fibres. The
difference between 657A and B fibres is in the bending radius. G.657B can be bend at 7.5mm radius
and less without noticeable attenuation increase.
Note
Normally the manufacturers supersede the normalized characteristics. Some fibre models may comply
several standards at the same time.
This becomes important in long lines, more than 100km, in which, for engineering calculation, the
use of the values guaranteed by the manufacturer is recommended instead of the standardized values
2.7.8 Other Fibre Standardising Bodies

Other standardising bodies have classified the fibre using their own naming system. Table 2.3 below
gives provides an equivalence table for reference.
Table 2.3 Equivalence table
Description IEC 60793-2 SMF Type ITU -T Spec TIA Spec

Standard single mode
B1.1 G.652 TIA 492CAAA / OS1
Fibre
Cut-off Shifted Fibre B1.2 G.654
Low Water Peak Fibre B1.3 G.652 TIA 492CAAB / OS2
Dispersion Shifted Fibre B2 G.653
Non-Zero Dispersion
B4 G.655 TIA-492E000 / TIA-
Shifted Fibre
492EA00
Bend-Insensitive Fibre G.657
2.8 Fibre optic terminations

2.8.1 Single Mode Fusion Splicing
Fusion splicing machines are used to precisely align two fibre ends together and then fuse them together
using an electric arc. This produces a continuous connection between the fibres enabling very low loss
light transmission. Highly experienced and well-trained technicians can splice fibres with attenuation
losses lower than 0.05dB using fusion core splicing machines. Fusion splicers must be properly
maintained and receive regular calibration to achieve a high quality splice.
It is worth noting that during splicing of OPPC, which is completed at a height, the need for wind
protection around the splicing machine is recommended.
Multicore splicing machines used to splice many fibre cores in a single step are also available. Due to
the alignment principle of the machine which is based on the cladding alignment it introduces increased
attenuation losses and requires a special fibre disposition.
The most popular splicing machines uses the core alignment principle and proceed fibre by fibre.
48
A key component of performing a high quality splice is the ability to make a very precise and sharp
cutting of the core glass at the point of splice. Care should be taken to use reliable and a well-maintained
cleaver (blade cutters) for this purpose.
Planning the development of a Fibre Network is necessary to pay attention to the uniformity of the
different fibre types. Splicing single mode with multi mode fibres is not possible. Different types of single
more fibres have splicing incompatibility and this may increase the splicing attenuation losses up to
unacceptable levels.
The main parameter to be considered is the Modal Field Diameter (MFD), which is a wavelength (廗)
dependent parameter and lower than the physical core diameter.
Splicing fibres with different MFD adds an extra attenuation (ܽ) given by the expression:
‫ͳܦܨܯ‬
ܽ ൌ ʹͲ ൉ ‫݃݋ܮ‬ሺ ሻ
‫ʹܦܨܯ‬
Equation 2.5
Or in graphical mode
Figure 2.33 Effect of Modal Field Mismatch [B29]
An increase in attenuation at a splice will also increase the reflectance levels. This increase in reflectance
may affect the signal quality received by the transmitter and/or it may damage the transmitter.
49
Table 2.4 MFD of different types of SM Fibres [B36]
2.8.2 Single Mode Connectors

Terminating single mode fibre with connectors allows the possibility to make non-permanent
connections between different fibres. The connecting losses are much higher than fusion splice therefore
the number of connectors used must be minimized in long range optical paths.
Single mode fibres have a very small core diameter, 9 μm, which requires high precision work. The most
practical solution is to splice the fibre onto a factory connectorized pig-tail.
The connectors for single mode fibres can be classified mainly according two criteria:
Polishing Type
Ferrule Diameter
The industry have defined two basic types; Flat and Angled polishing.
The principle of both types is illustrated in Figure 2.34 below.
GAP GAP
LOSSES LOSSES
Figure 2.34 Flat and Angled Polishing [B35]
Flat types includes Flat, PC and UPC which are position insensitive. The Angled termination, APC, sends
the reflected power outside the fibre minimizing the reflected power in the fibre. Their reflectance values
are indicated in Figure 2.35.
50
Figure 2.35 Polishing Termination Types
The degree of polishing is colour coded on the connector body. For single mode fibres the most common
are PC polishing with a blue connector body and APC with a green connector body.
There is a variety of single mode optical connectors on the market, the most popular can be divided in
two groups:
x Heavy Duty Connectors with a ferrule diameter of 2.5 mm that are ST, FC, SC and others.
x High Density Connectors with a ferrule diameter of 1.25 mm such are LC, MU and others.
According to the survey, the main connectors used by EPUs are the following:
Main connectors used by survey responders

E2000 7
APC/SC 4
SC 16
FC 12
LC 11
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Figure 2.36 Main connectors used by survey responders
51
The main characteristics of these connector plus additional connectors are summarised below in Table
2.5:
Table 2.5 Optical single-mode Connectors [B36]
Type Ferral Polish Standard Attenuation Figure Comments
Size. Type
FC 2.5mm PC APC IEC 61754-13 0.15dB Popular in distribution panels
TIA-568.A 0.45dB Requires space for screw /
unscrew
Position dependent
Suitable for long term
connections
SC 2.5 mm PC APC IEC 61754-4 0.15dB Push-Pull squared socket
TIA 604-3 0.25dB Suitable for high density panels
0.45dB Plastic case
Popular in distribution panels
LC 1.25 PC APC IEC 61754-20 0.15dB Standardized for SFP modules

mm 0.25dB Half size of SC
0.45dB High density applications
E-2000 2.5 mm PC APC IEC 61754-15 0.15dB Spring loaded shutter

0.20dB Protected from scratches and
0.45dB dust
Suitable for High Power
applications
MU 1.25 PC APC IEC 61754-6 0.25dB Miniature version of SC
mm 0.45dB Suitable for very high density
panels
Popular in Japan
MT-RJ Special PC APC IEC 61754-18 0.20dB Dual fibre in a RJ-34 sized
0.45dB socket
Access Point in office
environment
Male and Female Plugs &
Sockets
NOTES:
Connectors are manufactured normally in two or three degrees of quality.

Respective attenuations are indicated in the table.
Connectors designed in millimetres will match with sockets designed in millimetres. Mixing
plugs and sockets designed in millimetres and inches will produce an extra attenuation of 0.4
– 0.6dB.
Contact pressure in all of those connectors are spring loaded. That means if the contact face
is dirty or with dust particles, the connector will connect but with an unacceptable
attenuation. Connectors and sockets must be carefully cleaned before insertion.
52
2.9 Use of fibres

2.9.1 General Use
EPUs power transmission right of way is a tremendous asset. It can be used not only to transmit
electricity but also to transmit data via optical communication within their fibre network and broader
fibre optic network. EPUs can leverage their fibre network for both internal use and external revenue
streams when partnering with a broadband service provider or other external party in need of a cost
effective and reliable communication pathway. Almost the half of the responder to the survey use fibre
optic for commercial services, 64% lease dark fibre and/or telecommunications services on their fibre
optic cables.
In some cases an EPUs may only be chartered to provide electricity and the use of their fibre network
is strictly for internal operation in support of a utility’s SCADA and Teleprotection networks. Land use
easements may also limit their optical network to be used for internal purposes only.
Joint venture agreements with an external partner may pose other challenges, such as excessive
penalties for unplanned downtime, which may hamper their fibre network’s profitability or
disproportionately consume a utility’s technical resources.
Other utilities have formed partnerships with external partners to generate additional revenue or offset
construction and operating costs of a fibre network. In these types of joint venture agreements, a clear
delineation of each party’s responsibilities and expectations should be lined out, whether an external
party is leasing dark fibre or utilizing DWDM on existing fibres.
Fibre swaps, leases (per fibre and per km), and wave division multiplexing are all popular methods to
monetize their existing network.
An emerging trend in some global markets is the utility offering broadband services to their retail
customers in a fibre to the home offering. Using their existing power and optical infrastructure, a power
utility may be well positioned to provide this service, especially in rural areas where traditional internet
service providers may not choose to invest.
2.9.2 Maximum Range

The maximum range achievable for a fibre optics in communications depends of multiple factors such
are the launched power, the fibre losses, dispersion, bitrate and other nonlinear effects, the thermal
noise and the receiver sensitivity.
The diverse types of fibre with different attenuation and dispersion characteristics makes the task more
complicate for translating the optical characteristics in terms of distance.
Transmitters and receivers, evolve continuously but there is some physical limits which cannot be
reached in the near future. Quantum electronics and the development of new types of fibre non-
completely based on the silica core may open the door to an increase in the optical range and capacity
of the fibre.
53
POWER POWER
[Watt] [dBm]
1W +30
+20
+10
Optical emitters power range
1mW 0
-10
-20
1μW -30
-40
-50
1nW Undetectable -60

Signal
100pW -70
1M 10M 100M 1G 10G 100G

Bit Rate [bit/s]
Figure 2.37 Fibre Optics range in function of signalling speed [B35]
Figure 2.37 represents the available range, in dB, of a fibre optics link. In this figure the blue area
represents the transmission power of the diverse emitters available on the market. This area reflects
the performance of the actual emitters and the next comers. There are some physical constrains which
limits the launched power to the fibre.
The red line represents the limit of the sensitivity of the receivers. This line is a composite function of
the minimum photon power which is able to change the state of an electron and, consequently be
detected and the thermal noise, detector and fibre, which masks the real received signal. The actual
receivers, discarding for unpractical the cryogenic ones, are close to this limit.
2.9.3 Fibre Sensing Over OPGW / OPPC

Fibre optics, in overhead lines, are commonly used for telecommunications purposes. Overhead fibre
(OPGW, OPPC, ADSS or Wrapped fibre) performance as communication medium (both for line
protections and as commercial products) and means of lightning protection are of utmost importance.
Besides this principal use, the fibres can also be used as sensors by utilising the fibre nonlinearities
(described in Section 2.6.3) in a smart way. Therefore, different physical parameters such as
Temperature, Strain or Vibrations can be sensed along the line.
These sensing systems usually consist of an active device installed in the substation or in
regeneration/amplification sites, and the fibre optics, which is the sensor. These fibres can be the
existing telecommunication fibres or specific fibres deployed for this purpose.
The fact that OPGW and OPPC are, respectively, ground wires and conductors with in-built fibres now
means that these cables have embedded sensors and they can be monitored with no need of extra
equipment along the line.
These sensors can be divided into distributed or local depending on how the parameters are detected.
54
With distributed sensors, these parameters are measured along the line and often plotted with a trace.
Typical distributed sensors are DTS (Distributed Temperature Sensing) which are generally based on
Raman scattering or DSTS (Distributed Strain and Temperature Sensing) which are based on Brillouin
scattering.
Raman-based DTS is more suited towards temperature monitoring and are limited in range. In DSTS
systems, however, analysis of the Brillouin frequency shift versus the optical pulse return time provides
insight into the physical properties such as temperature and strain changes at any location on the fibre.
The ability to monitor the strain or temperature change (absolute or relative) experienced by individual
fibres over the entire length of the cable (up to 70 km) - down to 1 m spatial resolution - provides
valuable information on the dynamic response of the cable to environmental factors.
Consequently, the use of Brillouin or Raman- based DTS or DSTS on aerially-installed fibre cable would
allow such cables to serve as long (many kilometres), highly sensitive, strain and temperature gauges
with accurate spatial resolution.
Vibrations can also be detected in a distributed way by using Acoustic Monitoring Systems.
Temperature and strain can also be measured locally with Bragg fibres. In this scenario special fibre
sections have to be spliced in the specific spots to be measured and the fibre is often used as a
communication medium to backhaul sensor measurements.
Monitoring the condition of the line for temperature and straining changes using such systems is very
common throughout EPUs. The survey results demonstrated that 83% utilised the fibre optic cable as
a sensor using a DTS or another system. 80% of these systems were using Brillouin DTS technology.
55
56
3. Design
3.1 Introduction
The design workflow of an OPGW or OPPC line involves various stages and several stakeholders. One
of the first stages is to determine whether to deploy OPGW or OPPC for the fibre optic link. Figure 3.1
illustrates a typical decision tree.
Once the type of cable is selected, the project begins. Project stages may include design, procurement,
testing, installation, deployment and commissioning, and maintenance. Stakeholders may include the
manufacturer or supplier, purchaser (e.g. utility, contractor), or installer.
The following section on design outlines the high level project considerations. The approach to this
workflow, from the purchaser or utility’s point of view, followed by the supplier’s point of view is
explored.
After the project workflow, cable system design considerations, including optical, electrical, mechanical
and environmental considerations, are discussed. The industry’s attempt to regulate these
considerations, through standards, country adaptations and Type Testing is investigated.
Finally, the chapter looks at splicing and interfacing with third parties.
Figure 3.1 represents a typical decision tree to determine whether to deploy OPGW or OPPC for the
fibre optic link. This decision tree is for illustration purposes only, and does not represent all available
options.
Figure 3.1 Decision Tree for OPGW vs. OPPC Cable
57
3.2 Project considerations

Typically a project is initiated by a need formulated and a joint planning effort between the utility Asset
Department, the Lines Department and the Telecommunications Department. Telecommunications may
be looking for a fibre link on a new line on the network or a retrofit on an existing line; or taking
advantage of the economics of a scheduled new or retrofit line to add a telecommunication capability
for future use.
The project will be allocated a budget, will look after licensing/permits with authorities and will
coordinate between designs, procurement, installation, commissioning and acceptance by operations
and maintenance stakeholders.
A typical scheme of role and responsibility resembles that of a power line project with the addition of
the telecommunication activities, namely:
Project: External coordination for crossing, license and permits; scheduling of activity; budget
monitoring; seek outage schedule from operation if applicable; risk assessment; quality control.
Telecommunication Design: Fibre count, type and characteristics; splice identification and
location for maintenance; location of optical amplifier if applicable; documenting as-built
documents.
Lines Design: Choice of application (OPGW/OPPC/ADSS/MASS); mechanical and electrical

characteristics of the cable; layout and sag-and-tensions; accessories and terminations at
structure; implementations of standards and local technical regulations; issue of material
specifications for procurement; documenting as-built documents.
Procurement: Prepare commercial package including technical specs to solicit bids for supply of
cable.
Construction: Planning; installation method; safety set-ups; location of pulling equipment;

outage management if applicable; requires external contracting for splicing if applicable;
commissioning; reporting compliance or deviations for as-built documentation.
This sequence of activities is partially illustrated in the “Project Workflow – Utility Point of View” shown
in Section 3.3 below.
The project closure will document in-service completion, as-built condition and acceptance by
stakeholders.
58
3.3 Project workflow: purchaser or utility

The project workflow for an OPGW or an OPPC will be shaped by the standardized approach or protocol
of the individual purchaser, utility or contractor, as it relates to the objective of the project.
It is important to establish whether a completely new transmission line with new optical fibre cables is
being built, or an existing line is being refurbished/re-conductored. The pricing (€/km) formula would
be different for these two cases. In some instances only the ground wire is refurbished and replaced
with new optical fibre cable. This is often the lowest cost and fastest implementation as conductors are
not changed and only towers which exhibit deterioration – and those requiring
adjustments/reinforcement at the peak – are considered.
The design of OPGW/OPPC to retrofit in the refurbishment of an existing transmission line is more
challenging because the insertion of the optical tube will inevitably increase the OPGW/OPPC size over
the conventional ground wire it is replacing. In some situations, meeting design parameters – electrical,
mechanical, or dimensional – will have to be prioritized and the mitigation addressed somewhere else
such as supporting structure reinforcement.
The design of overhead cables in general, and OPGW/OPPC in particular, is often a coordinated effort
among the various teams within a utility. Both, Telecommunication Department and HV Line
Department collaborate in the OPGW/OPPPC design side by side in the majority of companies.
A sample of a complete workflow for an OPGW from a utility’s point of view, from design to installation
to commissioning, is shown in Figure 3.2.
The illustrative workflow demonstrates the coordination between the various teams and stakeholders
including Asset Management, Telecoms, Lines, Installation Contractor, Network Operations and the
OPGW Supplier.
Figure 3.2 represents a typical workflow for an OPGW for illustration purposes only, and does not
represent the workflow for all utilities.
59
Figure 3.2 Project Workflow for an OPGW: Utility (for Illustrative Purposes Only)
60
3.4 Project workflow: supplier

The project workflow from a supplier’s perspective begins with each new project. With a request for
quotation (RFQ) for an OPGW or an OPPC, the supplier will first assess whether they can offer an
economical solution within its manufacturing capabilities by using an existing design, a repeat design,
or whether they must engineer a new design. This decision will be based on the original specifications
provided in the RFQ: the supplier must assess the installation, operational and environmental
requirements of the given project. A sample of a complete workflow for an OPGW from a supplier’s
point of view, is shown in Figure 3.3.
Figure 3.3 represents a typical workflow for an OPGW for illustration purposes only, and does not
represent the workflow for all suppliers.
The supplier must first review the design requirements outlined in the RFQ. Highlights from this review
process are described below. The relative importance of each requirement may shift from project to
project. Typically the number of fibres is the most critical consideration as it will determine the size and
number of optical units, followed by the mechanical and electrical requirements, which will dictate the
steel and aluminium combination for the design. Special situations will also shape the design process
(e.g. high corrosive environments with only aluminium surface contact or greasing; high lightning
intensity will shape the minimum wire size on the outer layer). A detailed review of each design
consideration is described in Section 2.4.
1. Operational considerations must be reviewed to determine the requirements for the project.
The following list outlines the highlights from the illustrative workflow shown in Figure 3.3.
a. Optical: Refer to Sections 2.6 and 2.7 for details on fibre optics technology and types
of fibre, respectively.
i. Type of fibre (e.g. as per ITU-T G series, IEC 60793)
ii. Optical parameters (e.g. attenuation, dispersion)
iii. Fibre configuration (e.g. tubes, fibre colour, fibre bundles)
iv. Number of fibres
b. Mechanical performance:
i. Minimum breaking strength
ii. Sag restrictions
c. Electrical performance:
i. Short circuit current capacity
2. Environmental:
a. High corrosion sites
b. Lightning arc intensity
3. Installation:
a. Maximum manufacturable length
b. Reel dimensions
Each supplier will typically validate its conceptual design through Type Testing, before launching the
product in the market.
61
Figure 3.3 Project Workflow for an OPGW: Supplier (for Illustrative Purposes Only)
62
3.5 Cable system design considerations

Since their market introduction in the 1980s, individual OPGW suppliers developed their own conceptual
design of the cable. This led to the creation of different configurations of the cable. The only common
factor amongst them was to meet the specific installation and operation performance stipulated by the
utility or purchaser. The designs can be varied as the expectations can depend on local or particular
country adaptations.
Mechanical, electrical and optical features of a single cable must be considered together according to
expectations and necessary requirements. Only this way functionality and reliability can be achieved on
the highest level through many years of operational use.
The following cable design characteristics may be considered during the workflow, of both utilities and
in response, by suppliers. These design characteristics are grouped into Optical, Electrical, Mechanical
and Environmental, and further discussed in the sections below.
The following table represents the most popular characteristics obtained from the survey and is not
considered an exhaustive list and is not in order of importance.
Table 3.1 Cable Design Characteristics
Item Design Characteristic Category

1 Number and type of fibres Optical
Optical parameters
2 Optical
(e.g. Attenuation, dispersion of fibre)
3 DC Resistance Electrical
4 Fault current capacity (I2t) Electrical
5 Lightning resistance Electrical
6 Current carrying capacity (OPPC) / Ampacity Electrical
Cable construction
7 Mechanical
(e.g. cross-section, diameter, weight, lay direction, etc.)
Sag and tension requirements
8 Mechanical
(e.g. stress-strain and creep characteristics)
Rated Tensile Strength (RTS) and additional tension requirements
9 Mechanical
(e.g. MDL, MRDT, UTS, etc.)
10 Modulus of Elasticity Mechanical
11 Coefficient of Linear Expansion Mechanical
12 Vibration performance (Aeolian vibration, galloping, etc.) Mechanical
Fibre reliability Mechanical /
13
(e.g. Strain Margin, Proof Test, etc.) Optical
Minimum bending radius (e.g. during installation or in- Mechanical /
14
service/installed) Optical
15 Allowable temperature range for storage, installation and operation Environmental
Corrosion resistance (e.g. for installation in high corrosion or pollution
16 Environmental
sites)
Note:
1. Acronyms defined in APPENDIX A.
63
3.5.1 Optical Design Features

When designing optical features and requirements, the process must consider:
Fibre count
Fibre performance specification (e.g. attenuation, dispersion at required wavelengths)
Fibre overlength
The following optical characteristics are considered, and typically specified by the Telecommunications
department:
Type of fibres (e.g. ITU G.652, G.654, G.655, etc.)
Number of fibres
Optical budget plan considerations: Operational and test wavelengths, acceptable dB/km
losses, acceptable chromatic dispersion
For detailed information on fibre optics technology and types of fibre, refer to Sections 2.6 and 2.7.
3.5.2 Electrical Design Considerations

Electrical design features typically address the required continuous current (for OPPC) and the fault
current performance also known as the short circuit rating.
Electrical features will be chosen and designed based on the specific environmental and operating
conditions of the line. When designing electrical features, they must consider:
Line voltages – present and future requirements (for OPPC only)
Electrical characteristics – permanent and emergency load currents (for OPPC) and future short
circuit ratings and number of ground wires.
Electrical resistance – for line losses on OPPC, and or short current split between OPGW and
Overhead Ground Wire (OHGW). Generally the calculations for electrical resistance are similar
for both OPGW and OPPC, but the operational target and impact of the system design is
different.
Electrical isolation if required – may be required when lines are in proximity of gas pipelines or
other sensitive interference with radio frequency broadcasts.
Line grounding analysis.
OPGW and OPPC are designed to keep the thermal effects generated by short circuit current or lightning;
or continuous current (respectively) within permissible limits that will not permanently damage any of
the cable electrical or communication performance.
Typical performance parameters:
The short circuit duration: e.g. 0.5 seconds (depends on auto reclosing set up)
Cable Initial Temperature at short circuit: e.g. 20°C
Cable Final Temperature at short circuit: e.g. 200°C
An OPPC will have a limitation dictated by the continuous withstand of the optical unit to temperature
and will require low electrical resistance to reduce transmission losses. The electrical resistance of the
OPPC must match the existing conductor for a balanced system to be achieved. Diameter of the OPPC
would have a secondary impact with respect to transverse load on structures in retrofit deployment.
However, increasing the OPPC diameter may impact ice and wind loading, and must be considered.
While an OPPC design remains the same along the line, an OPGW on long lines can have a lower short
circuit requirement in the major midsection and a larger short circuit requirement only adjacent to
stations (where short circuit injected is higher) triggering different sizes on the same line.
Where required, OPGW and OPPC will have to withstand thermal effects associated with lightning. The
severity of lightning impact is a function of the isokeraunic level and the grounding system. The
OPGW/OPPC withstand depends on strength of optical unit, exposure and size/type of material.
In general the electrical requirements of the line, the OPGW/OPPC cable electrical design are addressed
by the right combination of the metallic wires: shape, dimension, material used, etc.
64
3.5.3 Mechanical Design Considerations

Mechanical design features typically address sag and tension through diameter, unit weight, breaking
load, coefficient of linear expansion and modulus of elasticity. The global market provides many types
of optical cables. Their mechanical features are based on country standards as well as adapted
worldwide standards (general). To see common practice in that matter please find results in the Survey
(included in APPENDIX C).
Mechanical features will be chosen and designed based on the specific installation and environmental
conditions where the line will be installed. When designing mechanical features, the process must
consider:
Environmental factors: temperature, wind, icing extremes, corrosion
Lightning regions: determines mechanical characteristics of the cable
Maximum span lengths
Link specific design considerations such as splice location
Ground wire replacement with OPGW
Sag and tension design based on environmental factors
Cable selection: OPGW vs. OPPC
In order to satisfy the mechanical requirements of the line, the OPGW/OPPC cable mechanical design
features come from:
Fibre optic module location: central, non-central, etc.
Metallic wires: shape, dimension, material used (i.e. alloy, clad steel, ratio alloy to steel, etc.)
3.5.4 OPGW/OPPC Reel Dimensions and Length Considerations

There are a number of parameters to consider when installing OPGW cables. Approximately 70% of
respondents to the survey indicated that there is a maximum drum length. Of those that responded,
drum lengths from two kilometres up to ten kilometres were reported. The following may be considered
limiting factors when determining the OPGW reel dimension and maximum drum length.
3.5.4.1 Manufacturing Constraints
From a manufacturing point of view, the length of a drum is hardly limited by fibre length or optical
tube. It is mainly limited by the capacity of the wire processing reels of the stranders. This capacity is
inversely proportional with the OPGW diameter and the individual wire diameters (i.e. the larger the
OPGW diameter and individual wire diameter, the shorter the reel length). In special situations such as
multilayer OPPC or large size river-crossing OPGW, weight of the cable length can be a limiting factor
in terms of equipment and floor weight handling capacities.
In addition, maximum reel length is governed by manufacturing limitation such as continuous available
raw material such as sheet before forming steel tube or processing equipment such as pay-off steel
sheet. No standard allows transverse welding of steel sheet or aluminium clad steel (ACS) wire (repair
welding of aluminium alloy (AA) wire is allowed).
3.5.4.2 Installation/Constructions Constraints
Maximum length can also be governed by handling equipment such: maximum weight and size of the
drum with cable at both take-up reel of puller at installation. This may be more pronounced in OPPC.
The maximum cable length (for the size of OPGW) is chosen which will allow optimal positioning of
puller and tensioner sites. The puller (and tensioner), itself, have physical limitations as it can accept
reels smaller than a maximum dimension and weight. In some instances, use of wooden reels (as
opposed to steel reels) may not be recommended if the wooden reels may not be able to withstand the
pressures and collapse. Further use of a bull wheel tensioner isolates the cable reel from the installation
tension and is good practice for transmission line type installations.
Line engineers consider the maximum length of reels possible for the size of the OPGW and for the type
of puller/tensioner used in order to minimize expenses associated with installation and removal of puller
and tensioner sites. Intermediate locations are often used as both pull and tension sites.
65
The drawback in using the maximum length of reels is limited access locations should there be an issue
with a fibre span or possibly an entire reel. Testing of reels prior to installation becomes more important
in this case; with some utilities testing all reels prior to installation. OPGW spans are allowed to stay in
traveller for short duration according to supplier specification, thus additional lines crew (or aerial
resources) are required to tension and clip the cables in at every tower with suspension and dead-ends
as required.
Within the maximum length limitation, the following factors are considered when defining the cut length:
i) No in-span splice box or splicing
ii) Preferably terminating on an anchor structure
iii) Identifying pulling site from an installation planning point of view
iv) Accessibility of splicing location from an installation and a maintenance point of view
v) Location of repeaters: access and power supply
3.5.4.3 Design Constraints
From a purchaser’s perspective, OPGW/OPPC cables are ordered by users in defined cut lengths for
several reasons:
i) In-span splicing is not practical and normally forbidden by utilities.
ii) Diverse section lengths dictated on a project-by project basis.
iii) To manage the cost of OPGW/OPPC cables, want to minimize scrap (left-over from
hypothetical standard length on reel).
From an economical point of view, manufacturers prefer a range of lengths so they can concatenate
and optimize manufacturing of short and long lengths of raw material by assigning a mix-and-match of
inventory with the aim of minimizing the scrap.
3.5.4.4 Illustrative Example
Maximum reel lengths prescribed for a particular puller/tensioner weight and dimension limitation are
shown in Table 3.2 below. This table is meant to be informative and should not be used for actual
installations. Suppliers can provide information for their particular installation.
Table 3.2 Sample Reel Length Schedule – Steel Reel (for Illustrative Purposes Only)
Example #1 – Lengths shown are for illustrative purposes only

Cable Design: 19#8 Equivalent
Outer Diameter: 19 mm
Mass: 1,250 kg/km
Cable Length Dimensions After Net Weight Drum Gross Weight
(m) Lagging (m) (kg) Weight (kg) (kg)
3,600 1.80 x 1.80 x 1.27 4,500 450 4,950
4,300 1.90 x 1.90 x 1.27 5,375 470 5,845
Example #2 – Lengths shown are for illustrative purposes only
Cable design: 3/8" Equivalent
OD: 11.1 mm
Mass: 404 kg/km
Cable Length Dimensions After Net Weight Drum Gross Weight
(m) Lagging (m) (kg) Weight (kg) (kg)
7,500 1.65 x 1.65 x 1.17 3,030 350 3,380
Table 3.2 represents sample reel length schedule for illustration purposes only, and is not meant to
be a prescriptive example.
66
3.5.5 Environmental Design Considerations

Environmental design features typically address the storage and installation conditions. In addition,
need to consider operational factors such as high and low temperature extreme and corrosion
resistance; selection of materials coating in grease. When designing environmental features, must
consider:
Exposure to temperature extremes during transportation and storage of reels
High corrosion areas (e.g. coastal areas with high salinity, industrial areas with high pollution,
etc.)
Lightning arc density map
Maximum and minimum operational temperatures
In order to satisfy the environmental requirements, the OPGW cable environmental design features
come from:
Fibre optic module location: central, non-central, etc.
Metallic wires: shape, dimension, material used i.e. alloy, clad steel, ratio alloy to steel, etc.
For example: an OPGW to be installed in a highly corrosive area, with severe lightning arc strikes may
recommend only aluminium-to-aluminium contact (e.g. no stainless steel tube adjacent to aluminium
alloy wires) with larger diameter wires to withstand the lightning arc strikes.
As an engineered product, the design of OPGW and OPPC may require compromise. For example,
typically higher fibre count and high short circuit capacity requirements will supersede lightning
requirements: high fibre counts are a must; and short circuit conditions have a higher probability of
occurrence.
3.6 Standards and country adaptations

Industry standards establish minimum criteria that must be met for an OPGW/OPPC cable design to be
qualified and accepted for use. The standards may cover various stages within an OPGW/OPPC project,
for example Type Testing, Routine, Factory Acceptance Testing or Commission Testing.
Type Testing: Generally used to verify the suitability of an OPGW/OPPC design to withstand various
simulated mechanical, electrical and environmental stresses. Type Test standards define specific set-
up and procedural details, and establish minimum performance criteria. Acceptance criteria are fixed,
and in this way, cable designs may be compared to an equivalent baseline.
Manufacturers also perform internal Type Tests when developing new construction or evaluating
compatibility of various materials such as ink, coating, compound, etc.
Routine Tests: Conducted as a quality control of incoming material and manufacturing processes. Some
tests and their sampling rate are specified in standards such as ASTM, IEC, or by the manufacturer as
a proactive practice of quality control.
Factory Acceptance or Quality Assurance Tests: Additional tests conducted during manufacturing on
milestone of production manufacture to catch flaws early or on completely finished product. These
tests are described in the “Inspection and Test Plan” (ITP) and are associated with status as “Review”,
“Hold” and “Report” requiring specific interventions. Typically, prior to enter into contract, a buyer will
request from the supplier his ITP for agreement. Buyer may limit himself to get final report or to “Hold”
for decision or witnessing tests on individual lot of manufacturing and/or shipping. The buyer may later
exercise his right to witness, to depute a third party inspector or to waive the necessity of physical
presence to witness.
According to the survey, 90% of the companies require Factory Acceptance Test (FAT) and of which
almost half do not inspect 100% of the reels.
Commission Testing, or Site Acceptance Testing: Generally used to verify that the optical characteristics
of the fibre in the delivered product meet the order requirements. In addition, Commission Testing may
be used to ensure that the optical fibres have not been damaged during shipment or installation. Each
utility may have different testing requirements at different stages of the procurement process for
Commission Testing. Acceptance criteria may be based on industry standards, or may be defined by
67
an individual utility based on specialized performance requirements. For additional information on

commissioning, refer to Section 4.5.
The three most common standards identified in the survey are shown in Table 3.3.
Individual countries may adapt these international industry standards, in whole or in part. Specialized
conditions relevant to local authorities may be added to address local technical challenges. For example:
Canadian Standards Association (CSA) are based on international standards such as IEC or
ASTM, with “Canadian Deviations” added to address cold weather applications.
Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) are based on international standards such as IEC, but some
of the items that are not specified in the international standards are added into the standards
of JIS.
Table 3.3 Top Three Reference Standards Used for OPGW
Industry Standard Standard Standard Name

Number
IEEE Institute of Electrical IEEE 1138 Standard for Testing and Performance for Optical
and Electronics Ground Wire (OPGW) for Use on Electric Utility
Engineers Power Lines
IEC International IEC 60794-1-2 Optical fibre cables - Part 1-2: Generic specification
Electrotechnical - Cross reference table for optical cable test
Commission procedures (See Note below)
ITU-T International ITU-T G.652 Series G: Transmission systems and media, digital
Telecommunication systems and networks. Transmission media
ITU-T G.654
Union - characteristics – Optical fibre cables –
Telecommunications ITU-T G.655 Characteristics of a single-mode optical fibre and
cable
ITU-T G.656
NOTE:
IEC 60794-1-2:2013 applies to optical fibre cables for use with telecommunication equipment and devices
employing similar techniques, and to cables having a combination of both optical fibres and electrical
conductors. The second edition of IEC 60794-1-2:2003 is separated into five (5) parts:
IEC 60794-1-2 Cross reference table,
IEC 60794-1-20 General and definitions,
IEC 60794-1-21 Mechanical tests,
IEC 60794-1-22 Environmental tests,
IEC 60794-1-23 Cable elements tests and
IEC 60794-1-24 Electrical tests.
68
Other ASTM
7% 8%
TIA/EIA ASTM
10% IEEE IEEE
23%
IEC
ITU
ITU
26% TIA/EIA
Other
IEC
26%
Figure 3.4 Most Commonly Used Reference Standards
A utility may develop their own internal specification for the design, procurement and testing of OPGW
cables. These internal specifications may reference internationally published guidelines or standards.
Guidelines offer generic details and identify parameters that must be agreed upon, and are not
prescriptive. Standards typically offer specific details, and prescribe values and acceptance criteria.
3.7 Type tests

Tests conducted to validate the performance of a designed cable or hardware/accessory in a simulated
environment of storage, installation and operation. Performing Type Tests is not mandatory for all
organizations. Type Tests may be required depending on the level of confidence in a supplier and their
design.
3.7.1 Cable Type Tests

A “Type Test Program” includes a series of tests used to validate the design of an OPGW/OPPC. By
establishing standardized protocol, any given OPGW/OPPC design may be qualified for use as it must
meets industry accepted performance requirements. There are several industry standards that prescribe
a list of tests on the OPGW/OPPC cable, in order to qualify an OPGW/OPPC for use.
Performing these tests may be considered:
i) Mandatory: required in order for OPGW/OPPC cable to comply with the standard.
ii) Conditional: may or may not be applicable depending on the OPGW/OPPC cable design,
location of installation, etc. A conditional test is not required for the OPGW/OPPC cable to
comply with this standard unless agreed upon between supplier and user. An example
would be a salt spray corrosion test that may or not be required depending on the
environmental conditions where the OPGW/OPPC will be installed.
There are two international leading series of type tests for cables: IEEE and IEC. Local entities adopt them
as is or add/waive tests specific to their application.
Table 3.4 highlights these two industry standards. Upon successful completion of these Type Tests,
the cable is qualified and considered suitable for use in the intended application. IEEE 1138-2009
categorizes the tests as “mandatory” (M) or “conditional” (C). IEC 60794-4-10 lists the mandatory tests
for OPGW.
According to the survey, for the overall tests, international and own company standards are the more
accepted ones. Only 15% do not require Type Test for OPGW/OPPC cables.
69
Table 3.4 Examples of Type Tests for Cables

IEEE 1138-
IEC 60794-4-
2009
10:2014
Standard for
Family
Test on Optical Testing and
specification
No. Complete Test Intent / Objective Measurements Performance
– OPGW
Cable Required? for OPGW for
along
Use on Electric
electrical
Utility Power
power lines
Lines
1 Creep Test Determine long-term tensile No 6.4.1.1 (C) 8.3.7
creep characteristics of
cable.
2 Stress-Strain Determine stress-strain No 6.4.1.2 (M) 8.3.3
Test characteristics and the final
modulus of elasticity (MOE)
of cable.
3 Strain Margin Determine cable tension and Yes 6.4.1.3 (M) 8.3.2
/ Tensile strain at which the optical
Performance fibres start to elongate.
4 Ultimate Verify that the actual No 6.4.1.4 (M) 8.3.4
Tensile / (ultimate) tensile strength
Breaking of the cable meets or
Strength exceeds the supplier’s rated
tensile strength (RTS).
5 DC Verify that the actual DC No 6.4.1.5 (M) *
Resistance resistance of the cable does
not exceed the DC
resistance stated by the
supplier.
6 Sheave Test Subject cable to a simulated Yes 6.4.2.1 (M) 8.3.5
action of being pulled over a
number of sheaves during
installation.
7 Crush Test Subject cable to simulated Yes 6.4.2.2 (C) *
crushing or clamping forces
that could occur during
installation or maintenance.
8 Bend Test Subject cable to a bending Yes 6.4.2.3 (M) *
action similar to what might
be experienced during
installation.
9 Twist / Subject cable to a simulated Yes 6.4.2.4 (M) *
Torsion Test action of being pulled during
installation.
10 Aeolian Subject cable and hardware Yes 6.4.3.1 (M) 8.3.6
Vibration to Aeolian vibrations which
Test can fatigue metal
components of the cable
and/or hardware at
attachment locations.
11 Galloping Subject cable and hardware Yes 6.4.3.2 (C) 8.3.8
Test to galloping motions.
Fatigue or other damage
can occur on the
components of the cable,
hardware, and/or to the
structure.
12 Short-Circuit Subject cable to short-circuit Yes 6.4.3.3 (M) 8.3.11
Test conditions that represent
field conditions. Damage
70
can be inflicted to the cable

strands through birdcaging,
loss of tensile strength, or
melting or softening of non-
metallic components
because of excessively high
temperatures.
13 Lightning Arc Subject cable to lightning Yes 6.4.3.4 (M) 8.3.12
Test conditions that represent
field conditions.
14 Water Determine if the quantity of No 6.4.3.5 (C) 8.3.10
Ingress fluid blocking compound in
is sufficient and uniformly
distributed to inhibit water
from migrating through the
optical unit.
15 Seepage of Determine if the fluid- No 6.4.3.6 (C) *
Flooding blocking compound in
Compound the OPGW cable is
vulnerable to flowing at
elevated temperatures.
16 Temperature Subject cable to extreme Yes 6.4.3.7 (M) 8.3.9
Cycling Test temperatures as may be
experienced in the field.
17 Salt Spray Determine the effects of a No 6.4.3.8 (C) *
Corrosion controlled salt atmosphere
on the cable.
* Test not included in list of Type Tests. C = Conditional Test M = Mandatory Test
71
The responders of the survey require the following tests:

Table 3.5 Required Type Tests - Survey Results
Chromatic Dispersion 6 20
OTDR 2 28
Bleeding & Evaporation 5 16
Kink on Tubing 5 15
Kink on Complete Cable 9 13
Abrasion 6 14
Repeated Bending 9 16
Fiber Cut-off 5 24
Cable Cut-off Wavelength 8 18
Salt Spray 11 16
Temperature Cycle 3 27
Seepage of Flooding 12 13
Water Ingress 6 26
Lightning 6 25
Short Circuit 4 28
Galloping 1314
Aeolian 6 26
Twist 5 27
Bend 6 24
Impact 11 16
Crush 5 25
Sheave 4 28
DC Resistance 4 27
Ultimat Tensile 4 29
Strain Margin 5 25
Stress-Strain/Fiber-Strain 2 31
Tensile/Stress-Strain 3 30
Creep Test 5 28
Dimensions 0 31
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
No Yes
Typically a supplier will submit a Test Report, detailing the results of a Type Test Program. These test
reports will reference various industry standards or guidelines.
It should be noted that there are differences between international standards when it comes to
procedure and/or acceptance criteria. These differences are a result of the diverse background of the
individuals making up the committees who maintain the standards. The unique experiences of the
members will shape the industry standards.
A simple comparison of some differences between four tests is shown in Table 3.6. Although not all
the differences would be considered significant, it is good practice for the purchaser to be familiar with
these differences in order to qualify an OPGW best suited for their particular application. It should also
be noted that Table 3.6 is a snapshot of high level differences; please refer to the individual standard
for the complete test details and acceptance criteria.
72
Table 3.6 Sample Comparison of Procedure & Acceptance Criteria Between International Standards
Test IEEE 1138-2009 IEC 60794-4-10
Lightning After simulated lightning arc strike, After simulated lightning arc strike,
Arc Test OPGW remaining strength is measured OPGW remaining strength is calculated
(cable tensioned to failure). (based on unbroken wires).
Residual strength (measured) Residual strength (calculated)
> 75% RTS > 75% RTS
Optical acceptance: permanent increase Optical acceptance: permanent or
in optical attenuation < 0.05 dB/fibre at temporary increase in optical attenuation
nominally 1550 nm for SMF < 0.2 dB or 0.2 dB/km of test fibre at
nominally 1550 nm wavelength for SMF
Five short-circuit pulses applied
Maximum temperature measured inside Three short-circuit pulses applied
optical unit < 180oC, higher temperatures
may be allowed if agreed upon between
manufacturer and end user. Maximum temperature measured inside
optical unit < 200oC
Maximum temperature of any metallic
Short component < manufacturer’s specified
Circuit Test value. Standard notes: due to potential Maximum temperature of any metallic
loss of tensile strength of cable when component : not specified
temperatures > 220oC, a tensile strength
test is recommended to verify it meets
the RTS after the Short Circuit Test. Optical acceptance: permanent increase
Optical acceptance: permanent increase in optical attenuation < 0.2 dB at
in optical attenuation < 0.05 dB/fibre at nominally 1550 nm wavelength for SMF
nominally 1550 nm for SMF
Sheave Number of Cycles = 15 Number of Cycles = 20
Test
Test Angle = 30o ± 2o Test Angle = 45o ± 15o
Maximum Ovality = 10% Maximum Ovality = 20%
Optical acceptance: permanent increase Optical acceptance: permanent or
in optical attenuation < 0.1 dB/test fibre temporary increase in optical attenuation
km at nominally 1550 nm for SMF < 0.2 dB or 0.2 dB/km of test fibre at
nominally 1550 nm wavelength for SMF
Aeolian Minimum 100 Million Cycles Minimum 10 Million Cycles
Vibration
Maximum Ovality = not specified Maximum Ovality = 20%
Test
Optical acceptance: permanent or Optical acceptance: permanent or
temporary increase in optical attenuation temporary increase in optical attenuation
< 0.2 dB/test fibre km at nominally 1550 < 0.2 dB or 0.2 dB/km of test fibre at
nm for SMF nominally 1550 nm wavelength for SMF
As demonstrated in Table 3.6, the optical performance acceptance criteria may differ between various
international standards. It is important to note whether the criteria are based on a temporary and/or
permanent change; and whether the signal is being monitored on as per fibre or per test fibre kilometre
basis.
Temporary changes are typically specified for tests simulating “in-service” conditions; whereas
permanent changes are typically specified for all tests. All of this information should be clarified between
73
the manufacturer and purchaser at the time of contract, and clearly described in the Type Test Report.
Although the standards define minimum optical performance requirements based on standardized test
protocol, an individual purchaser may have more stringent or specialized requirements for their system.
Because Type Tests are not necessarily designed to simulate the “exact” application, specialized test
protocol or acceptance criteria may be warranted to ensure a suitable OPGW/OPPC design for a
purchaser’s application.
The IEC 60794-1 Generic Specification series for Optical Fibre Cables lists other tests that would be
considered “conditional” for OPGW/OPPC – these may be added to a Type Test Program at the discretion
of the purchaser. There are many other tests that may be added to a Type Test Program, such as
individual wire tests, fibre tests, etc. Again, these tests may be required to qualify a given OPGW/OPPC
at the discretion of the purchaser, depending on the specific application.
Generic industry guidelines do not specify detailed test procedures or acceptance criteria. In these
cases, the guideline may point to another “detail specification”. When a generic specification is called
out, it is good practice to compare to international standards that prescribe set-up and procedure, and
acceptance criteria. For example: IEC 60794-4-10 does not include a Crush Test as part of an
OPGW/OPPC Type Test Program. However, a supplier may complete this test in accordance with
Method E3 of IEC 60794-1-21:2015 Optical fibre cables – Part 1-21: Generic specification – Basic optical
cable test procedures – Mechanical test methods. Because IEC 60794-1-21 is a generic specification,
the specific details of the test set-up, procedure and acceptance criteria, should be agreed upon between
the supplier and the purchaser.
In some cases, a supplier may supply a cable for a new project, using an OPGW/OPPC that underwent
a Type Test Program for a previous project. In this scenario, tests may be waived if in the opinion of
the purchaser, the OPGW/OPPC are of “similar design” and therefore may not require a full Type Test
Program. There is no strict definition of “similar design”, and some engineering judgement may be
required. Typically the definition of similar design should be agreed upon between the supplier and the
purchaser. Almost two thirds of survey respondents do not accept type test reports on a cable of similar
design.
There is no widely accepted definition of similar design. Typically it is understood that any changes that
may affect the performance characteristics would mean that two OPGW designs are not similar.
When deciding whether two designs are similar, there are two high level approaches:
A purchaser may mandate that retesting is required with any changes to cable design or
manufacturing process (e.g. manufacturing plant, manufacturing process, etc.).
A purchaser may perform an analysis of the differences to determine whether two designs
qualify as similar. If the designs are found to be relatively similar, it is possible that only
one or two Type Tests may be warranted, in order to provide confidence that the differences
will not affect the performance. A simplified analysis of this process is included in Table
3.7. This example is not intended to be an exhaustive analysis, but is meant for illustrative
purposes.
74
Table 3.7: Simplified Analysis of “Similar Design”
Identify the Differences Qualify How the Changes Consider Whether Changes
May Affect Performance Can be Verified
Lighter design, with smaller Smaller ACS wires with thinner Salt Spray Corrosion Test
diameter ACS and AA wires aluminium cladding may have
lower corrosion resistance
Smaller AA wires may reduce Short Circuit Test
short circuit capability
Smaller ACS & AA wires may Lightning Arc Test
increase susceptibility to
lightning arc damage
Different manufacturing Welding process may affect Sheave Test
process for aluminium tube bending resistance as OPGW
installed
The concept of “similar design” may also be important when it comes to hardware compatibility. Refer
to Sections 2.5 and 3.7.2 for discussion on hardware compatibility.
3.7.2 Hardware/Accessory Type Tests

Fitting technology for fibre optic cables is mature and recommendations should be sought from fittings
manufacturers for the particular application. Nevertheless, the performance of the system "fibre optic
cable plus fittings" needs to be proven by proper testing. Similar to cables, a “Type Test Program” may
include a series of tests used to validate the design of hardware/accessories to be used to install an
OPGW cable. By establishing standardized protocol, any given hardware/accessories may be qualified
for use on a given OPGW design or size range, as it must meet industry accepted performance
requirements. The hardware may be qualified:
As a “System”: System testing is typically conducted to demonstrate hardware/accessories
and OPGW compatibility. Testing as a “system” may provide confidence that the
hardware/accessories will not negatively affect the performance of the OPGW cable.
In “Isolation”: Testing hardware/accessories in isolation may be warranted when a supplier
is looking to qualify hardware/accessories for a given diameter range of cables.
There are several industry standards that prescribe a list of tests on hardware/accessories: IEEE and
IEC. IEEE 1591.1 “Standard for Testing and Performance of Hardware for Optical Ground Wire (OPGW)”
specifically deals with hardware/accessories designed to be used on fibre optic cables. In comparison,
IEC 61284 “Overhead lines – Requirements and tests for fittings” is not specifically written for fibre optic
cables, however the same requirements and tests for fittings for ground wires and phase conductors
may apply for hardware/accessories for fibre optic cables.
In addition, compatibility of fittings with the fibre optic cable has to be proven. Several of the tests
listed in IEEE 1591.1 would be considered “system” or “compatibility tests”, because they are designed
to test the “OPGW system”, which consists of the fibre optic cable and the associated
hardware/accessories for the particular application.
Highlight these two industry standards. Not all of the tests listed in these standards are considered
mandatory, and typically the final list of Type Tests should be agreed upon between the purchaser and
supplier.
75
Table 3.8 Examples of Type Tests for Accessories/Hardware – Tension Clamps / Dead-end Clamps
IEEE 1591.1-
2012 IEC 61284-
Standard for 2009
Test on Testing and Overhead
No. Hardware/ Test Intent / Objective Performance of lines –
Accessories Hardware for Requirements
Optical and tests for
Ground Wire fittings
(OPGW)
Mechanical
Verify the manufacturer’s strength
1 Damage and * 11.5.2
rating of the hardware.
Failure Load Test
Magnetic Losses Ascertain the magnetic losses of the
2 * 12
Test hardware.
Simulate performance under sagging
3 Tensile Test 5.5.2.1.1 11.5.1
tensile load conditions.
Subject cable and hardware to Aeolian
Aeolian Vibration vibrations that can fatigue metal
4 5.5.2.3.2 *
Test components of the cable and/or
hardware at attachment locations.
Fault currents due to system short

circuits in field conditions are simulated
5 Fault Current to determine the reaction of the 5.5.2.3.3 *
hardware under forces of high current
electrical surges.
Verify that the OPGW cable is not

6 Crush Test exposed to excess damage from crush 5.5.2.2.1 *
upon initial installation of hardware.
Subject cable and hardware to
galloping motions. Fatigue or other
7 Galloping Test damage can occur on the components 5.5.2.3.4 *
of the cable, hardware, and/or to the
structure.
Subject the hardware to an accelerated
8 Corrosion Test salt fog corrosion test that may be 5.5.2.3.5 *
experienced in the field.
* Test not included in the standard.
76
Table 3.9 Examples of Type Tests for Accessories/Hardware – Suspension Clamps

IEEE 1591.1-
2012 IEC 61284-
Standard for 2009
(OPGW)
Mechanical
Damage and Verify the supplier’s strength rating of
9 5.5.3.1.1 11.4.1
Failure Load Test / the hardware.
Vertical Load Test
Subject suspension hardware to an

Slip Test /
imbalance in tensile loading on either
10 Unbalanced Load 5.5.3.3.2 11.4.2 or 11.4.3
side of the suspension hardware to
Test
ensure performance requirements.
Subject suspension hardware to

increasing tensile loads at the
Turning Angle or
11 maximum recommended line angle of 5.5.3.1.2 *
Line Angle Test
the suspension hardware to ensure
performance requirements.
Aeolian Vibration
12 As above 5.5.3.3.3 *
Test
13 Fault Current Test As above 5.5.3.3.4 *
14 Galloping Test As above 5.5.3.3.5 *
15 Corrosion Test As above 5.5.3.3.6 *
16 Crush Test As above 5.5.2.2.1 *
Table 3.10 Examples of Type Tests for Accessories/Hardware – Bolted & Miscellaneous Clamps
IEEE 1591.1-
2012 IEC 61284-
Standard for 2009
(OPGW)
Verify that the cable is not damaged
Clamp Bolt
17 when hardware torqued to supplier’s 5.5.4 11.4.5 or 11.5.4
Tightening Test
recommended value.
Corona and RIV: Determine RIV and
corona performance of fittings. Test
Corona and RIV,
does not address permissible RI limits
Damper Fatigue,
18 or specified corona extinction voltages 5.5.4 to 5.5.7 14
Crush, Corrosion,
or gradients which are set by
etc.
regulations or utility practice.
Others: As above
77
Acceptance criteria for the above tests may include mechanical performance and/or optical performance
requirements.
For example, after the “Clamp Bolt Tightening Test” or “Turning Angle Test”, the fibre optic cable is
dismantled and the cable and optical unit are inspected for ovalization. The ovality of the cable or
optical unit(s) shall be calculated after the test using the following calculation:
Equation 3.1 Ovality Calculation

݀௠௔௫ െ ݀௠௜௡
ܱ‫ ݕݐ݈݅ܽݒ‬ൌ ൬ ൰ ൈ ͳͲͲΨ
݀௠௔௫ ൅ ݀௠௜௡
Where: dmax = maximum measured diameter of the cable or optical unit

dmin = minimum measured diameter of the cable or optical unit
Ovality shall be less than the admissible ovality specified by the cable manufacturer.
3.8 Splicing and interface with third parties

Interfacing with third parties is typically governed by an individual utility’s policies. 72% of survey
respondents interface with third parties. Typical schematics demonstrating sample splicing and interface
layouts are shown in Figure 3.5 and Figure 3.6. A dedicated fibre cable is placed in underground ducts
and brought from the splice tower to a cabinet or pedestal which sits on a concrete pad. This cabinet
is called “Designated Access Panel” (DAP). DAP cabinet sits at the edge of the utility company’s
property line and is the demarcation point between utility and the customer.
The fibre cable coming into DAP is routed through a single splice box which is located on the utility side
of the cabinet. They are brought into the splice box, but not broken.
When fibres are leased to the commercial arm of the company, the part of the utility that leases fibres
to external companies, these fibres are spliced at the tower.
When the commercial arm of the utility wants to connect a customer, the customer splice box is installed
in the customer side of DAP. A small jumper cable connects the fibres on the utility side to that
customer’s splice box. The individual fibre strands sold are broken and spliced on the utility side.
Typically, each DAP may serve up to three, typical examples of customers would be from the
Telecommunication Industry, other EPUs and other local utilities. According to the survey, 62% have a
Service Level Agreement (SLA) with these third parties.
The survey also indicated that Optical Distribution Frames (ODF) is the principal demarcation between
two optical network (42%), followed by splice boxes (37%). It is important that a demarcation point is
provided and that it is clear indicated to all third parties.
Figure 3.5 and Figure 3.6 represent typical layouts for splicing and interfacing between utilities and
third parties for illustration purposes only, and do not represent the layout for all utilities.
78
OPGW
Typical
Splice Tower
West Indoor East Indoor

Relay Building Relay Building
Splice Box Splice Box
Customer Interface
Cabinet
Splice Enclosures 12 Fiber

Station Fence Stub
Station Cable
Communications —
FPPA —
or Relay —
Room —
— Customer
— Utility Company
— Side
Utility — — Side Looped
—
Company Side — — Cable
— —
Looped at the —
Cabinet — — Concrete Pedestal
— —
Fiber Cable enters—
Communication — Utility Company Fiber Customer
Room from West Cables enter Cabinet via Fibers Enter
Splice Tower Buried Duct Cabinet
Fiber Cable enters
Communication Room from
East Splice Tower Duct inside trench
Figure 3.5 Splicing and Interfacing Between Utility and Third Parties (Illustrative Purposes Only)
Fiber Fiber
Cable Cable
Customer Interface
Cabinet
12 Fiber Stub
Cable
Splice Box Splice Enclosure
Utility Company Side Customer Side
Splice Tower
Utility Company Cable Customer Fibers enter

Cabinet
Cables enter Cabinet via
Buried Duct Concrete Pedestal
Figure 3.6 Splicing and Interfacing Between Utility and Third Parties (Illustrative Purposes Only)
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4. Deployment & commissioning

4.1 Introduction
This section covers in detail, the deployment and commissioning processes for OPGW/OPPC installations
including designing works, technical documentation, installation phases/techniques, and supervision
requirements and commissioning.
4.2 Installation phases

Before construction work can begin, some additional items must be completed.
These are:
HV Line Inspections
Inspection checks on the general condition of the towers, all conductor wires and all
fittings for phase conductors and ground wire(s).
A general view of the construction process can be made following the inspection.
Crucial Analysis
Once all the above information is collated then an in-depth analysis must be completed
including the tower strength, short circuit calculation for the preliminary design.
Design Documentation
The key document required for on-site works is the technical design documentation
also called project documentation. It must contain all necessary information to complete
the entire construction process.
All preventive work plans and assumption must be taken under consideration at this
point of the process (i.e. compensation for the fibre optic cable creep, etc.).
Crew Training
All crew members must be fully trained for the tasks they are required to implement.
The installation process can be divided into three main categories:
Preparatory Work
Deployment
Commissioning
Each category consist of multiple stages to be completed. These stages require specialist departments
working side by side to achieve a single goal. The complexity and scale of the project will determine the
resources required. All works must confirm to local Health and Safety Legislation.
4.2.1 Preparatory Work

The TB does not describe the detailed project management delivery methodology, the site safety,
environmental and other legal matters that are unique to an organisation, and/or the region of
operations.
Generally, before construction works can start a situation awareness study of the OPGW/OPPC route is
required.
This includes:
Type of access required (terrain).
Existing crossings recognition (telecommunication lines, other power lines, roads/highways,
buildings).
Access roads and traffic permits.
Identification of archaeological sites.
Identification of endangered species (includes endangered trees and vegetation).
Environmental permits.
Pads for puller and tensioner.
Vegetation management.
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All necessary works can be done by the EPUs internal resources or their own approved contractors or a
third party Customer in co-operation with an appointed contractor. Permission to commence work must
be received in writing by the appropriate authorizes before works can begin.
Once approval has been obtained, the work place must first be made safe. All working crews must be
briefed in relation to the work-place environment and site specific training must be implemented.
Usually this place of work is the part of power line, where an OPGW/OPPC is going to be deployed, and
it is called a section. The section length can vary (see Section 3.5.4) and depends on engineering
documentation. As a result of that all crossings must be secured and safe access/egress to the working
area must be arranged.
4.2.2 Deployment
Once all the preparation works have been completed and all local safety guidelines have been adhered
to the deployment of the OPGW/OPPC section on the new built line or an existing line as its
refurbishment can commence.
Deployment can be performed during power line outage or using in a technique called “in the vicinity
of live parts” if live line installation work is required. For further details regarding this installation
techniques please see Section 4.3.
Deployment performance operates at its optimum when special consideration is provided to the
requirements described below:
4.2.2.1 Installation Equipment
The specialized equipment and tools must be located appropriately on sites. The puller at one end and
the tensioner together with the reel stand at the other end must be located in a suitable location.
The distance between the fore mentioned machines and the first tower (both ends) is usually three
times as much as the tower height on which the end-blocks are suspended (Figure 4.7 and Figure 4.8).
Typical ratio 3:1 (distance to the tower: tower height) is useful guideline for the crew working on-site
and it comes from the strength calculations completed in the past. This calculation must comply with
the tower series it is been installed on as there are different types of towers installed by EPUs throughout
their network. Installation practice in this matter can vary among EPUs as the towers strength also can
be different.
A ratio of 2:1, is also used but must be proven by calculation. Natural terrain or technique (in the vicinity
of live parts) sometimes does not practically allow for the distance mentioned above and therefore the
lower ratio is the only option. In such cases additional mechanical calculation of the towers strength is
required. Additional design considerations are also required as construction equipment must be clear of
vegetation, arrangements for access/egress and placement of ground mats and grounding rods of
appropriate size.
The tensioner and the puller must be placed aligned with the power line axis (the conductors) although,
for the most cases, the deviation angle max. 30q is still acceptable (Figure 4.1)
In addition to grounding system, a tarp is used and gravel of appropriate granularity is placed on the
ground, so that accidental oil leaks are contained. All equipment is placed on the ground must be
installed in a mechanically and electrically safe and secure manner. The gravel pads are removed after
completion of OPGW pull and vegetation is allowed to recover.
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Figure 4.1 Puller and Tensioner placement [B26]
The Puller
The puller must be equipped with a tension control system and an automatic disconnection in case of
over tension on the cable. Normal practice is to check the puller according to the accuracy of tension
measurement.
The Tensioner
According to Manufacturer’s Manuals [B23] a typical requirement for the tensioner is to have a bull-
wheel sheave with a diameter more than 70 times the cable diameter or 1200mm, whichever is smaller.
Some manuals provides requirements with a small difference in the diameter. It is always recommended
to follow the specific manufacturer's manual.
The wheels must be in such condition that they do not have any burrs or cavities which may damage
the cable. The running-grooves must be adapted in size to the cable diameter. For best performance
they can be coated with neoprene or similar material.
Tensioning should be readily controllable and capable of maintaining constant and even operation.
To prevent the OPGW/OPPC from birdcaging the correct orientation for entry and exit of the cable must
be respected. For right hand lay (Z), the cable must enter the brake on the left and exit on the right
(Figure 4.2). For left hand lay (S), the cable must enter on the right and exit on the left.
Figure 4.2 The tensioner [B38]
The Reel Stand

The reel stand must be equipped with a suitable break to prevent the reel from turning after stringing
has stopped. Common practice is to place the reel stand not less than 5 meters behind the tensioner.
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The Stringing Blocks (also known as Pulleys)

Regardless of which technique is used, in general a new OPGW/OPPC cable is pulled in by a pilot rope
or an existing wire. This work can be done with the assistance of the stringing block on each tower.
This involves lining the rope or wire on the blocks and pulling in the new OPGW/OPPC along the section.
The diameter of the blocks depends on their location.
Standard practice shows the diameter can be divided into:
Table 4.1 Diameter of stringing blocks
Location Φ [mm]
The first and the last tower when deflection angle ≤ 120q ≥ 800
(the beginning and the end of line section)
Tension towers ≥ 600
Suspension towers ≥ 450
In case of where angles are greater than 45q, a special arrangement must be applied. This arrangement
is called a dual-block system and it is used to increase the bending radius during the installation of the
OPGW/OPPC.
The Running Ground

When the OPGW/OPPC cable is pulled in at the power line located close and in parallel to the next HV
line, then a running grounding system is a must (Figure 4.3). The same requirement is expected when
the technique “in the vicinity of live parts “is implemented.
Figure 4.3 Running grounding system [B12]
Stringing speed
The speed of stringing at the beginning is around 5m/min till the OPGW/OPPC cable reach the first
tower. Once it passes the first tower, the speed can be raised up to 30m/min. The maximum speed of
stringing can vary, depending on the topology of the power lines, angles and the types of the towers,
but should be no more than 40m/min. Some of the manufacture manuals allow an increase of speed
up to 60m/min. This must be approved by the manufacturer on a case by case basis.
Bending Radius
The minimum permissible bending radius is 20 times the cable diameter unless other described in the
manufacturer’s manual.
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According to the survey, the minimum radius of the drums and pulleys is cable dependent and the
companies usually follow the cable manufacturer recommendations.
Anti-Rotation Devices
When installing a single layer OPGW/OPPC cable, it must be performed with use an Anti-Rotation
Devices (ARD) (anti-torque system). It is necessary to compensate for the inherent effect of torque of
the OPGW/OPPC cable. [B24] The weight of the ARD placed at the pulling head of OPGW/OPPC
cable, has to be high enough to prevent OPGW/OPPC cable rotation. Installation of such a device
on a single layer OPGW/OPPC is normally mandatory in manufacturer's manuals.
The minimum values recommended for each counterweight are as follows:
spans ≤300 m Æ 12 kg
spans 300 m - 700 m Æ 15 kg
spans >700 m Æ 20 kg
Cable Fittings and Accessories

After completion of the cable stringing based on the above requirements, the sag of the cable must be
adjusted. Technical documentation takes into account clearances to the ground, crossings and sag
coordination.
The cable fittings and accessories are used to maintain sag adjusted and mount the OPGW/OPPC on
the tower. Dampers are used to protect the cable against vibrations and they are recommended to be
installed immediately once the sag is adjusted and tension clamps are used together with suspension
clamps.
Following the completion of these phases, the fibre optic cables are spliced together. Down-lead clamps
are used to protect and secure the OPGW to the tower on a path to the splicing box.
Usually the splicing box together with some extra OPGW cable is located at height above the climbing
guard on the tower (OPPC has no extra cable next to the splicing box). An extra length of OPGW is
required to allow for splicing in a suitable safe environment at ground level.
Once OPGW/OPPC sag adjusted and wire clamped by fittings, all tools can be removed from the towers.
All machinery, the tensioner and the puller together with the reel stand can also be removed from site.
4.2.2.2 OPGW/OPPC Preparation for Splicing

OPGW/OPPC are a specialised power line conductor containing optical fibre cores. Because the fibre
cores are integral to the conductor, special consideration must be given to the splicing of the fibre cores
due to the inherently limited opportunity for re-work or remedial splicing following installation or line
energisation.
OPGW/OPPC is supplied and installed in Engineered Lengths with the jointing locations pre-determined
at tension tower structures. The placement of the joint module (Termination Stack or In-Line type) on
the tension tower structure is determined by the structure type, jumper profile, etc.
The requirement to strictly observe the manufacturer’s instructions for stripping and prepping into the
joint closure is paramount for optical and electrical reliability in service.
Extreme care must be taken when stripping out the fibre cores as no ‘slack’ can be made available in
the conductor for rework in the event of core breakage.
The prepping and splicing of OPPC requires that the operation is successfully completed in a single
attempt. Unlike OPGW no excess slack is available for re-work. It is vitally important therefore that every
care is taken to ensure that each operation is ‘Right First Time’.
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It is strongly recommended that the prepping and splicing of OPPC is undertaken from a fixed platform
structure so as to best guarantee completion of the work. This is not always possible due time and cost
constraints and therefore the task must be completed using a portable hoist. The use of a portable hoist
increases the risk of a failed installation and might not be practical due to access issues. The picture
below in Figure 4.4 shows the erection of scaffolding at an OPPC joint location in a bog area, the
materials were delivered via helicopter due to access restrictions. This is not a standard procedure.
Figure 4.4 Scaffolding installed to complete OPPC Jointing in Donegal, Ireland
Splicing Operator Prerequisites - Training & Qualification

x Splicing must only be undertaken by appropriately qualified personnel having the requisite skills
and training. They must also receive from the manufacture specific OPPC/OPGW Fibre Training.
x 57% of the companies surveyed have specialists for the fibre optic splicing tasks. If the company
subcontracts the FO splicing, 65% require the contractors to pass a specific training course.
x 77% of the companies surveyed have instruments and adequate tools in order to do a precise
optical fibre splicing as well as measurement tasks.
Post Delivery/Pre-Installation Prerequisites - Drum Testing

OPGW/OPPC drums should be optically tested for manufacturing faults/transportation damage in the
fibre cores at the point of delivery/collection from the supplier.
Each fibre core on the drum must be examined using an OTDR at wavelength 1550nm to determine full
continuity over the drum length. The drum battens should not be removed. Testing should be completed
via the exposed tail end. Discrepancies are to be verified and immediately notified to the relevant parties
prior to stringing.
Fibre Splicing Prerequisites - Weather and Environmental Conditions

OPGW/OPPC splicing must take place in dry, low humidity conditions. Moisture ingress in the joint will
reduce operating lifetime and may be detrimental to the in-service performance of the fibres. Suitable
measures must be taken to keep moisture (mist, rain etc.) out of the splicing area during set-up
preparations.
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Wind and gusting can cause difficulty in keeping cores secure and undamaged during the splicing
operation and may also ‘blow’ the fusion arc leading to failed or out of limits splices. Again, suitable
measures must be taken to protectively orient or shelter the splicing area during set-up preparations.
Figure 4.5 OPPC Preparation
Preparation and Splicing of OPGW/OPPC Fibres

The following is a recommended procedure for preparation and splicing of OPGW/OPPC fibre.
OPPC Jumper must be profiled by the Linesman. It is marked for stripping by the OPPC fibre
technician and the Linesman. Note: This stage is only applicable for OPPC.
Prepare splicing equipment and work area.
As per manufacturer specifications, strip conductor to the predetermined mark to reveal the
transport tube.
Note: Extreme caution is required during following stages to prevent damage to the fibre cores.
Cut the transportation/transition tube using the manufacturer’s bespoke cutter tool. Remove
the tube to reveal fibre cores.
Securely tie off/clamp the conductor prior to splicing the fibre cores.
Prepare the splice closure as per manufacturer’s instructions.
Clean, strip, cleave and fusion-splice fibre cores. Protect and store fibre cores correctly in
raceway tray.
All fibre cores in the conductor are to be spliced through end-to-end, except where otherwise
specified by a “Breakout Joint Schedule”. No fibre core is to be left ‘Stumped’ in any aerial
joint. Open circuit cores or Faulty/Out of Limits splicing is not acceptable. Random/Cross
splicing is not acceptable.
Splicing must achieve the companies specified standards set out below.
Seal the closure entry points as per the manufacturer’s instructions. Assemble the closure
and seal to specified torque settings and fix to line/structure. The Linesman must check
Electrical & Mechanical compliances of OPPC connections. Note: This stage is only applicable
for OPPC.
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Figure 4.6 Completed straight through OPPC Canister Joint
Perform bi-directional OTDR tests from remote bare ends at both 1310nm and 1550nm
wavelengths on all fibre cores.
Verify OTDR results following completion of splicing, sealing of the joint closure and prior to
the team dismounting from the splicing position at the structure.
Any re-splicing or re-dressing must be undertaken immediately and re-tested in situ.
Splice losses must be equal to or better than 0.05dB average per splice. Average is to be
calculated as:
‫ݏݏ݋ܮ݀݁ݎݑݏܽ݁ܯ݈ܽݑݐܿܣ‬ሺ‫ܤ݋ݐܣ‬ሻ ൅ ‫ݏݏ݋ܮ݀݁ݎݑݏܽ݁ܯ݈ܽݑݐܿܣ‬ሺ‫ܣ݋ݐܤ‬ሻ
൬ ൰
ʹ
Equation 4.1
Test results and calculated averages at both 1310nm and 1550nm for each fibre core must be
recorded.
It is recommended that a digital photo record is taken of each joint module and sub-assemblies
to clearly demonstrating compliance with manufacturer’s instructions. Figure 4.6 shows
completed straight through OPPC canister joint.
Quality Control and Acceptance for Service

The foregoing Pre-Commissioning results and records should be submitted to the relevant Certified Fibre
Optic Characterisation Engineer for quality analysis.
Submissions are required both for individual joints and for the entire optical link.
All cores must be spliced through to give full end to end connectivity within the limits specified. No
deviations are acceptable.
All non-compliances must be corrected to specification prior to handover of the link

4.2.3 Final Works
All security protection used to secure crossings can be removed.
The tensioner and puller site can be removed. All tools and equipment used for works can be removed.
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If there are no issue, the permit to work can be closed.
4.3 Installation techniques

All installation methods must take into consideration the practical and physical constraints associated to
each project site. It must also consider whether the installation involves a new transmission line with
new OPGW/OPPC, or an existing line is being refurbished, re-conductored or been upgraded.
4.3.1 Installation Method

Common installation methods currently in use are:
Tension Stringing Method

Power Line De-energized (Electrical Outage required)
Existing power lines to be refurbished by OPGW/OPPC.
Energized Power Line
Existing power lines under special requirements, to be refurbished only by OPGW.
Pilot-Rope Method
Power line De-energized
Existing power lines to be refurbished by OPGW/OPPC
In case of installation on an existing power line, the tension stringing method is the most effective.
The work can be done only when required conditions are met. A specific value can vary depending on
country (according to local Health & Safety Legislation) and can be described as:
Storm and lightning - Not closer than e.g. 10km.
Wind - Not stronger than e.g. 10m/s.
NO rain, snow, hail, drizzle, hoarfrost.
NO ice on the tower construction, wires.
NO temperature below e.g. -10 ºC.
No temperature more e.g. 40 ºC.
4.3.1.1 Tension Stringing Method

Power Line De-energized
This method involves, using the existing conductor to pull in the new OPGW/OPPC. Each OPGW section
is usually longer than phase (OPPC) section (tension tower to tension tower) so there is a need to link
existing wires using mesh-sock-joints (also called Pull-off Net or Kellem Mesh grip).
On each tower there is a pulley block mounted, with the proper diameter, this allows the OPGW section
to be laid down on the mentioned blocks [B14]. The ground wire, which is being replaced, is used as
the pulling wire for the OPGW. For OPPC the same method can be implemented.
It is necessary to verify before, if the existing phase or ground wire is in a good condition. The condition
of the existing phase or ground wire will determine the stringing force applied during replacement
execution. A concern comes as after many years of service corrosion of the phase or ground wire can
occur and cause a weakness to the conductor. Damage can also occur to the ground wire due to
lightening damage.
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Using the tensioner and the puller, the existing ground wire is kept under tension. In this way, during
the stringing process, the ground wire is kept far away from contacting the phase conductors (Figure
4.7). The tension in the ground wire also allows to pass over energized circuits, railways or major road
crossings without contacting them. Nevertheless, all crossing must be secured against uncontrolled fall
down.
The tensioner and the puller shall have the ability to regulate tension on the wire and pulling speed
during wire installation. Furthermore these devices shall have a hydraulic brake, which automatically
stops the puller and tensioner when the tension set point is exceeded or if the wire breaks.
Figure 4.7 Stringing process – OPGW [B26]
As mentioned above, in case of OPPC installation, the stringing method above is also possible. This
method for OPPC can be straightforward when replacing an existing OPPC (Figure 4.8) as there is no
need to link all wires to create a section as this already exists.
Figure 4.8 Stringing process – OPPC [B26]
Energised Power Line

In this method, the existing power line is under special condition and can be refurbished only by OPGW.
The special condition is determined by a set-up of auto reclosing.
As a rule, tension stringing method doesn’t differ so much to this method. Using the existing ground
wire to pull in OPGW all sections are created in the same way.
There are some additional circumstances we have to take into consideration which makes this method
more complex.
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First of all, tension level must be under control constantly and with very accurate value. This is to
maintain the required clearance distance between the ground wire and phase conductors. Accurate
values must come from the necessary calculations.
Secondly, the proper location of the tensioner with reel winder and the puller (Figure 4.9.) and aspects
such us equipotential stand, distance to the first and last tower, in line with the power line, etc.
Special arrangements must be provided to prevent against potential failure i.e. brake the wire. Another
concern, but not the last, is the requirement for special equipment (clothes, tools, etc.) and work
procedures during worktime.
Figure 4.9 Location of tensioner and puller [B26]
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4.3.1.2 Pilot-Rope Method

This method is very similar to the previously described method.
The main difference is that there is no existing wire. Due to this a new wire, also called pilot-rope, must
be deployed. Anti-twisting steel braided ropes or synthetic fibre ropes are usually used to complete this
task.
Once these pre-ropes are deployed, they are used as the pulling rope for the OPGW or OPPC.
4.3.2 Protection
In spans with crossings (i.e. rail road, public road, electrical power line, telecommunication line), when
replacing an existing wire there is a need to provide extra protection against uncontrolled falling down.
There are many protection methods currently in use, a few of these methods are described below:
4.3.2.1 Protective Barrier

This method is the oldest and is use mostly during the new power line building or existing line
refurbishment. It is a very effective method when all conductors are been changed.
This type of protection can be expensive and time consuming. Also the scaffolding system, used as a
barrier between the conductors and the object (road, rail, etc.) must be erected and kept under control
by suitably qualified person as per local Health and Safety Legislation.
4.3.2.2 Cradle Blocks Method

Along the existing ground wire (between towers – Figure 4.10 and Figure 4.11) the new dielectric rope
has to be spread-out. This is done by a motorized tug (remotely controlled). Together with the new
rope the cradle blocks are also installed. The distance between them is chosen to get shallow sag. The
last and the first block has to be installed with a distance to the tower which will give full cradle
movement.
The weight of portable tug, cradle blocks and rope must be taken into consideration as they increase
sag of the existing ground wire. It is acceptable on condition that the distance to the phase conductor
is not less than the accepted value. The distance to the phase conductor has to be observed and
controlled at all times during ground wire replacement.
All of installation crew members who participate in this process of replacement must have the
appropriate communication equipment (i.e. radio etc.).
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Figure 4.10 Protection by cradle blocks method [B16]
Figure 4.11 Protection by cradle blocks method [B25]
4.3.2.3 Transverse type of protection

In addition to the methods mentioned before, other method of protection are also used. The key feature
of this method is to use the rope stretched between phase conductors, which plays the role as a barrier
between the ground wire and the ground or crossings. It can be executed in parallel or diagonal
arrangement.
Parallel Arrangement
To place the rope as a barrier between phases, the system of ropes and hanging carriages is used. To
deploy the whole system accurately a remote controlled robot is in use, see Figure 4.13. The process
starts from the first tower to the second in the span where additional security needs to be implemented.
Once replacement of the ground wire is completed with the new OPGW the whole process starts again
in reverse direction.
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Figure 4.12 Parallel arrangement – sketch [B25] and [B26]
Figure 4.13 Parallel arrangement – photo [B25]
Diagonal Arrangement
In comparison to parallel, the only difference is the configuration of the link protective rope between the
phases see Figure 4.14.

Figure 4.14 Diagonal arrangement [B25] and [B26]
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4.4 Supervision of installation

Supervision is usually performed on a few levels. It is good practice to carry out supervision throughout
all stages of the deployment process.
Supervision process can be controlled by either of the following:
Stakeholder’s Control
Third Party Supervision
Installer – Internal Audition
4.4.1 Stakeholder’s Control and Third Party Supervision

General practice can vary among countries and depends on local features. Stakeholder’s supervision
become a minority nowadays mainly for financial reason. Third party supervision is another viable
option. According to the survey, 95% of the companies supervise the mounting and installation tasks
of the OPGW/OPPC. According to the survey, this supervision is provided by the utilities employees in
57% of cases.
Stakeholder’s and third party supervision, check to ensure the installation works is consistent with the
design documentation. Supervisors must access to the site at any time, provided that adequate notice
period is provided to the person in charge of the work.
Depending on the local standards, the quantity of checks varies. Usually, a percentage comes from local
national standards, industry standard or other accepted standards.
The most frequent check are:
Sag checking – at 1 or 2 spans per a OPGW/OPPC section using survey techniques. This is
done during installation by the independent surveyor (according to installation sag/tension
table) to ensure that deployment and sagging has been performed correctly.
Sometimes additional sag checking after 2-3 months of installation is completed. The value
of sag must be compared to maintenance sag/tension table.
Dampers location and quantity – 10% to 100% of total quantity.
Splice box and an extra stock localization – 100% of total quantity.
Fibre infrastructure at the substation and in telecommunication room– 100%. In case of
underground route a fibre-cable must be installed as per local specifications. As-built route
map must be prepared.
The angle of wire bend – all angles must be no less than described in manufacturer’s
instructions for particular type of the OPGW/OPPC.
An extra check, but not always necessary, can include checking the refurbished earthling
system on each tower station. Resistance measurements and their results must be
confirmed and recorded in writing.
4.4.2 Installer – Internal Audition

To ensure consistence of the auditing process a checklist document should be provided to the
supervisor. It must cover all aspects including internal tools audit, equipment and all necessary materials
for OPGW/OPPC.
Tools and equipment checking have their own procedure for calibration and acceptance. Nevertheless,
a validation of all tools and equipment has to be checked and must be under control during the
OPGW/OPPC installation.
The preparation of all materials and machinery on site must be controlled first. Further details in relation
to materials’ acceptance please see Section 4.2.
All materials must be stored in a suitable area, as per manufactures recommendation to kept them in
clean and good condition to avoid potential damage
A short material check-list must be completed before installation of single section. An example is given
in Figure 4.15.
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Figure 4.15 Example of a check list
4.5 Commisioning
Pre-Commissioning
During the deployment stages the installer must pay attention particular attention to the following:
Proper location of the tensioner with the reel of OPGW/OPPC as well as the puller location.
Tension force used while replacement and final installation (max approved tension force
not to be exceeded).
Sag checking – at 1 or 2 spans per a OPGW/OPPC section using survey techniques. This is
done during installation by the independent surveyor (according to installation sag/tension
table) to be sure that deployment and sagging has been performed correctly.
Dampers position and quantity – 100% of total quantity.
Splice box and an extra stock location – 100% of total quantity.
Fibre infrastructure at the substation and in telecommunication room– 100%. In case of
underground route a fibre-cable must be installed as per local specifications. As-built route
map must be prepared.
The size/diameter of the puller, the tensioner and the blocks.
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All necessary measurements and details must be documented. These records are required to prepare
commissioning papers and for future record. In the event of fault they will be required during the
investigation process.
All documentation of completed works must to be provided and recorded in writing and usually in digital
version as well.
Commissioning
Commissioning process starts with:
Physical check of 100% of works.
As-built documentation – must take into consideration all changes of original design
documentation and implemented into the project. Including all acceptance documentation.
Measurement protocols –this can consist of:
OTDR and attenuation. Optional PMD and CD.
Sag and tension value.
Dampers localization and quantity.
Resistance of earthing system on each tower (an option),
All of tests must be completed and approved by the associated engineer before acceptance.
According to the survey the main commissioning tests which are completed after installation process
are: OTDR, power meters, attenuation profile, PMD and CD and these are done contractor in 83% of
cases.
The process of checking for commissioning documentation can be gradual. It can be commence during
the installation process or can start just after the completion of installation stage.
The following items must be completed before the final commissioning:
Physical check of works – depends on standards and practice but usually 10-100%,
As-built documentation – 100%,
Measurement protocols – 100%;
In case of some defects a notice to eliminate them must be issued. The Contractor/Installer is obligated
to fix all of these defects in the shortest possible time. Once all defects are rectified the commissioning
process starts again.
After successful checking and completion all documentation the final commissioning results can be
accepted and officially signed off by the relevant parties.
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5. Maintenance
5.1 Introduction
Telecommunications systems are essential elements of modern electrical grid management network
infrastructure. Fibre is the carrier of modern telecommunication networks. Critical power system
protection and control as well as commercial traffic is carried on the fibre optic networks built/owned
or in some instances leased/operated by utilities. Fibre breaks can result in loss of protection and control
channels and forced outages on multiple high voltage lines thereby compromising power system
reliability. The high reliability requirements associated with this traffic combined with geographic
diversity of the network highlight the need for well-defined maintenance practices.
The fibre network needs to be supervised to avoid disturbances and unplanned outages. There must
also be an organization to do predictive and corrective maintenance as well as prepared plans for
emergency repair.
Many electric utility owners with fibre networks lease their fibres to telecom operators. This places an
additional set of demands on the network owner. Commercial telecom operators usually have systems
with higher bandwidths and low tolerances for outages. They often require planned outages to take
place at nights and/or at weekends to avoid disturbing their customers. This does not correlate well to
normal, safe work procedures in place at most electrical grids. Further the higher bandwidths required
might cause the telecom operator to demand a higher optical quality than the utility owner needs for
their own network. It should be understood that at all times within a utility, the needs of the grid
electrical network and associated protections are given much higher priority than the telecom network.
A challenge with OPGW and OPPC maintenance is that the technology is relatively new and there is little
experience documenting lifetime limitations. Survey responders raised the highest levels of interest in
the maintenance section compared to all other sections of the TB.
Even though the first OPGW installations are from the seventies the technology has developed over the
years and to date standard methods have not been in service time long enough to validate lifetime
expectancy. The OPGW cannot be expected to have a longer life time than a standard Overhead Ground
Wire placed in the same environment. Problems seen so far from the results of the survey can be related
to errors in design, manufacturing, installation or external impact. The majority maintenance work on
OPGW attempts to correct errors produced at different stages in the design/installation process.
There are ongoing technical studies presented to validate lifetime performance against design targets.
This is an exhaustive undertake because of the various OPGW construction (loose buffer tube vs tight
buffer tube, spacer vs metallic tube, central vs stranded tube, fibre congestion and sensitivity etc.). It
is also difficult to determine whether or not the OPGW has experienced the expected operational and
environmental conditions.
The OPGW/OPPC network is deployed on the EPUs overhead infrastructure and most repairs will be
done between towers or between splice boxes. These repairs will need to be coordinated with power
system operators and require an outage on the power network. As a result, the MTTR (Mean Time To
Repair) will be longer compared to MTTR for underground cables. On the other hand, MTBF (Mean Time
Between Failures) is also significantly longer, allowing for a more reliable overall system. These factors
must be taken in consideration when negotiating SLAs (Service Level Agreements) with third party
customers as well as when giving SLAs to internal functions within the utility.
For OPGW/OPPC maintenance there has to be a clear division of responsibilities and an understanding
within the EPUs departments, mainly for line maintenance and telecommunications maintenance. 56%
of respondents to the survey state that OPGW/OPPC maintenance is carried out by the HV Line
Department. There should also be an agreement on the threshold values at which maintenance of the
asset will be triggered. The threshold value depends - among other things - on the nature of the
anomaly, age of the asset, remaining lifespan and availability of outages. For example, an asset with
five to ten years remaining until end of lifespan may be maintained to function during the remaining
lifespan rather than adapting to as new maintenance standard.
5.2 Handover to maintenance process
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It is imperative that the maintenance department is involved in the design phase of a project. This
ensures maintenance friendly installations e.g. more unified installations which among other things
reduce the number of items needed in stock, number of routines and need for education.
The total cost over the lifespan of an asset could be lower if maintenance is taken into consideration at
the design phase. A slightly higher installation cost could lead to significantly lower costs for
maintenance, therefore giving a lower total lifecycle cost.
The official handover to maintenance should follow the commissioning of the assets at the end of the
project. In this scheme, maintenance group accepts the delivery and takes over the responsibility for
the asset from the project.
There should be a handover meeting with a pre-set agenda and protocol where the specific parts for
the built asset are reviewed. The handover should include a formal document detailing the maintenance
responsibilities, where maintenance accepts the delivery and then takes over responsibility of the asset.
The handover document must include references to as built documentation, type tests, FAT, vibration
studies, warranties, maintenance plans, stock lists, etc.
5.3 Maintenance process

Maintenance on OPGW/OPPC could be divided into optical and line maintenance.
Tools and equipment needed for line maintenance on OPGW and OPPC is the same as for standard
power line maintenance.
Optical crew should have a tool box consisting of at least items:
Equipment and tools for cleaning connectors and fibres when measuring or splicing.
Long range OTDR.
Power meter and light source.
Fibre microscope.
Specialist tools; tube cutters to suit the various OPPW/OPPC types on the network.
Fusion splicer.
Basic tools for splicing, fibre cleaver and stripper etc.
Basic hand tools to open splice boxes and ODF as well as removing ODFs from cabinet.
Spare parts, pigtails, sleeves etc.
Vehicles and/or tent for splicing.
All crew must be trained and experienced in fibre optic splicing and in the preparation of OPGW/OPPC.
In the case of OPGW, it is convenient if crew members also have training in tower climbing. This allows
them to work independently and to remove splice boxes down from towers and check fittings instead
of being forced to bring in the line department every time there is a small deviation in optical
measurements.
5.3.1 Preventive/ Routine Maintenance

Preventive maintenance consists of controls and inspections to ensure that the line is in its appropriate
condition. In order to do this all documentation must be correct and up to date.
If minor errors are found during an inspection they should be corrected before they cause severe
problems. This can be completed as planned routine task instead of emergency repairs which can be
much more expensive to accomplish, this is particularly the case for OPPC. To complete any
maintenance work on any part of OPPC requires an electrical outage. Planning a suitable electrical
outage can take a considerable length of time therefore preventive maintenance is recommended for
OPPC.
Optical inspection controls are measurements as in Section 5.6.2 and/or 5.6.3, which when
complemented with visual inspections provide additional data for sections of the installations often not
covered by line maintenance crews.
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The inspections of OPGW and OPPC should be part of line maintenance inspections. These should be
integrated in the overall power line inspection procedures. Specific instructions on how to inspect
OPGW/OPPC should be given to line maintenance crews.
A program of Detailed Helicopter Inspection (DHI) which combines power line and OPGW or OPPC
inspection would reveal issues as broken strands on OPGW/OPPC or issues with attachment
hardware/accessories. DHI programs are expensive, but provide valuable design and operations data.
Additional information can be given when using infrared, heat-sensing cameras as well as standard
video and still image cameras mounted on Gyro-stabilized platforms underneath the helicopter providing
clear, high-resolution, recordings which are downloaded after every run. An operator controls the
camera for best views.
The use of drones - with much lower operating costs – to conduct DHI programs are being investigated
by EPRI and a number of EPUs. The development of this technology is continuously improving. The
stability of the drone images, their ability to gather the same amount of data with various camera
systems are issues being addressed. National laws may limit the use of drones.
5.3.2 Corrective Maintenance

Corrective maintenance refers to plans to correct deficiencies found during inspections (e.g. issues found
in optical measurements see Section 5.6.2 and 5.6.3), or after a failure event.
Most corrections on OPGW consist of recoiling fibres in splice boxes due to fibres creeping in to splice
boxes, see Section 5.5.1. Performing this task on OPPC is a difficult task which requires an electrical
outage on the line. Preventative maintenance on OPPC is recommended, corrective maintenance should
be avoided.
Another common task is loosening/resetting clamps.
61% of those surveyed only complete corrective or reactive maintenance and not preventative
maintenance.
5.3.3 Emergency repair

Emergency repair is when the unforeseen has happened. What you cannot prevent but can prepare for.
Experience shows that having a dedicated, rotating and on-call line crew, competent on both lines and
fibre optic work can save time. This crew is dispatched and directed by NOC (Network Operation Centre)
personnel upon detection of failure and their primary objective is to:
Assess the situation on the ground.
Minimize risk to the general public and repair crews.
Develop a safe work plan to restore the power system and telecom as quickly as possible.
o May not be possible if damage is too severe or weather doesn’t permit.
Minimize further damage to the power system.
Locate material for the restoration effort.
Execute restoration work with temporary emergency cable/splices.
Document and store the material recovered at site for future analysis.
Restoration crew must have access to specialized vehicles (possibly helicopter) and a clean fibre optic
splice trailer with power generator for autonomous operation. They must also have access to emergency
restoration supplies, selected for particular sizes of cables used. When large geographical distances are
involved, kits of restoration material are placed in safe, strategic locations and there may be dedicated
crews for each geographic region. Supplies are inventoried on a regular basis and are replenished after
each usage or when new cable types are introduced in the area.
Experience shows that a competent engineer should be the overall coordinator of restoration and
recovery (similar to project manager in a project) activities. This person orchestrates tasks to different
work groups from early detection of the problem to the failure analysis and final recommendation which
leads to a permanent repair.
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The process of failure investigation often involves several groups within a utility corporation which can
prove to be challenging. There are several competing considerations such as minimizing further damage,
speedy restoration of power system, resource/crew planning and expedited material procurement. The
most important factor shall be public and crew safety.
5.3.4 Predictive Maintenance

The use of remote fibre testing or periodic OTDR of same fibres allows historical comparison of the
performance of the fibres within the OPGW/OPPC. Addition of other techniques such as periodic
DTS/DSTS (Distributed Strain and Temperature Sensing) testing provides historical trending of the
deterioration of the OPGW/OPPC itself.
Preventative maintenance methodology used for conductors will be applicable to OPPC. In addition,
the DTS/DSTS techniques which utilize the integrated fibre optic in OPPC cable, provides additional
capabilities. It allows identification of anomalies and areas of higher temperature and strain. DTS/DSTS
in this context is similar to the technology applied to underground cables. The use of single mode fibre
on OPGW/OPPC allows for higher resolution and a longer optical reach.
The use of DSTS technology, (Brillouin Scattering) to measure fibre strain might be a way to forecast
problems. The technology is still new and applications are still under development. See Section 2.9.3
for a more detailed overview of DTS and DSTS technology.
From a mechanical point of view, maintenance on OPPC hardware as insulators can be predicted in the
same way as conventional hardware.
5.4 Maintenance – common faults

5.4.1 Introduction
OPGW and OPPC are subject to environmental conditions such as wind, ice, salt, pollution, sun, heat
and lightning. In addition, they have their own unique challenges to deal with. OPGW is designed to act
as long lightning rods and as such get hit by high energy lightning strikes on a regular basis. OPPC is
designed to work as conductors with embedded fibres and can be subject to single phase or three-
phase line-to-line or line-to-ground short circuits.
The survey results returned a number of both common and unique faults to both OPGW and OPPC
installations.
5.4.2 Lightning Strikes

5.4.2.1 Incident – Direct Lightning Strikes
Lightning strikes on OPGW (especially positive strikes) can produce high currents and cause strands to
break or partial melt and after some months of movement in the wind break. The ends of broken strands
are sometimes causes of earth faults, as strands wrap off the wire and hit underlying phase conductors.
Lightning currents hitting an OPGW (or any ground wire) are expected to dissipate for the most part at
the adjoining towers. If this does not happen, for whatever reason, the current travels down the wire
until a defect, stress-point, or otherwise weak location is found where the lightning current can connect
to earth.
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Figure 5.1 Fault with broken strands of OPGW [B31]
Figure 5.2 Overhead Ground Wire after lightning strike [B31]
5.4.2.2 Correction
The standard solution to broken strands is to repair with repair rods as seen in Section 2.5.7. The repair
rods should have the same lay direction as the original cable for maximum effectiveness. For example,
if the OPGW with broken strand is left-lay, the armour rods used for repair should also have left-lay.
Breaking of the OPGW strands usually don’t affect the fibre strands in the central core, but can in rare
cases affect fibres in a stranded stainless steel tube cable. For some central tube designs, the use of
repair rods is not recommended.
If an excessive number of the cables strands are broken, repair using armour rods may not restore
cable strength to an acceptable percentage of Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS).
Replacement of the damaged section is then necessary. If only a few spans are changed, additional
splice boxes must be installed. The overall system optical budget must be taken into consideration
when adding new splice boxes.
5.4.3 Grounding Issues

For additional information on grounding material see Section 2.5.3.
5.4.3.1 Incident – Poor Grounding Practise
In practice, it is likely that the resistance to earth in the tower is much greater than expected. The cause
is typically found in poor grounding or poor connection between OPGW and tower.
Figure 5.4 below, indicates the critical points for grounding.
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Figure 5.3 Areas were grounding can be a problem [B31]
Figure 5.4 Same tower were grounding can be a problem [B31]
5.4.3.2 Correction
To avoid grounding issues in the future a proper shunt should be installed. This bonds the OPGW directly
to the tower as seen in Figure 5.6 below.
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Figure 5.5 Same type of tower and fitting with shunt for better grounding [B31]
5.4.4 Ice and Wind

5.4.4.1 Incident – Ice and Wind damage from galloping and falling ice.
Galloping is the oscillation of OPGW/OPPC due to wind action on an ice or wet snow accretion. The
change in shape of the cable from round to an aerofoil shape (tear drop shape) makes the conductor
lift up and slowly rotate. This results in a change from uplift to downlift which in turn makes the
conductor gallop.
Figure 5.6 Overhead Ground Wire with snow accretion [B41]
Galloping is oscillations up to 3Hz with amplitudes up to 10 meters. The damages caused by galloping
can be considerable on hardware and OPGW/OPPC. The stockbridge dampers in Figure 5.7 below were
damaged due to galloping.
Figure 5.7 Stockbridge damper damaged by galloping [B31]
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5.4.4.2 Correction
Galloping on OPGW/OPPC can be suppressed by modifying the aerodynamics along the OPGW/OPPC
with alternating profiles. One solution is to install air flow spoilers (see Figure 5.8) in 25% of the span
length, in two groups around the quarter and three quarter points in the spans.
Figure 5.8 Air flow spoiler installed on OPGW to reduce galloping [B31]
5.4.5 Aeolian Vibrations

Aeolian vibration are low amplitude high frequency vibrations that can occur at low wind speeds (1-7
m/sec). The vibration is generated from vortex shedding which occurs when the laminar wind affects
the OPGW/OPPC.
Aeolian vibration is the major cause of fatigue failure of conductor strands and optical tubes, dampers,
suspension clamps, or other devices installed on the OPGW/OPPC. Adequate control, of the vibration,
can be achieved if the correct amounts of dampers are installed at the correct places on the
OPGW/OPPC.
OPGW have typically small diameters which results in higher vibration frequencies up to 150Hz with
amplitudes up to 7.5mm. The susceptibility of Aeolian vibration increases when sagging the OPGW at
higher tensions than recommended. Sagging at tensions lower than recommended reduces the
probability of Aeolian vibration but increases the susceptibility to galloping. Therefore the proper choice
of sag tensions is important at the original design stage. The design engineer must follow the
recommendations outlined by the manufacturer.
A vibration study is recommended to be carried out in the design phase in cooperation with the hardware
and damper supplier.
Aeolian vibrations on OPGW/OPPC are typically damped with stockbridge dampers or spiral vibration
dampers.
Failures caused by aeolian vibration are usually OPGW/OPPC strand fatigue.
5.4.6 Damages Caused by OPGW Accessories and Installation

Accessories mounted on OPGW can e.g. be bird diverters in areas with large bird migration and marker
ball near aircraft crossings and airports. See Section 2.5.6 for more details on this subject.
Special attention must be paid to reduce the increased forces and bending stresses on the OPGW when
accessories are attached.
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The increased impact comes from wind induced vibration and ice loads on the accessories. It is possible
to re-enforce the OPGW locally with armour rods in the clamping area. However, this will increase the
weight and surface area of the material.
Figure 5.9 Marker ball
Temporary loads and stress are induced on OPGW/OPPC when a cable car is used in the assembly of
bird diverters and marker balls or when servicing OPPC splice boxes and/or insulators.
The increased influence comes from the cable cars wheel diameter in combination with the weight of
the unit. This results in bending stress which could be critical to the OPGW/OPPC.
OPGW/OPPC manufacturer must be contacted to verify if the specific OPGW/OPPC can handle a cable
car.
Figure 5.10 Cable car picture [B31]
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5.5 Hardware and splice boxes maintenance issues

5.5.1 Fibre Creep
A well-known problem on overhead fibre networks is fibre creep. Fibre creep is when fibres are creeping
out of the cable into the splice box. The increased length of the fibres in the splice tray will, over time
cause the fibres to bend and, as the bend increases so does attenuation.
The high losses encountered may result in an interruption in the fibre link if not corrected in time. The
repair however can be relatively easy. The splice box has to be taken down, opened and the fibres must
be recoiled in the splice cassettes. The biggest issue can be in taking down the splice box which may
be installed in such a way making it impossible to take the box down without an electrical outage.
The recoiling of the fibres should be easy if the initial coiling was done correctly. All fibres in a tube or
cassette should be spliced and then coiled down into the cassette as one package, then they can be
uncoiled as a package. If the fibres are spliced and coiled down into the splice cassette individually it
will be much more complicated to unwind them. In this case each individual fibre must be taken out of
the cassette separately, this increases the risk of affect the other fibres in the same cassette. This is a
task that can be done on live fibres with a very low risk for interruption on the optical link.
There are many different theories as to what causes the fibres to creep, among them are gravity,
temperature variations, excess over length of the fibres. This is pure speculations and only mentioned
here due to lack of a definitive answer.
Experience gives that it usually takes some years before the creeping starts and then it continues.
Figure 5.11 below shows splice box for a 24 core fibre OPGW were fibres has creeped a substantial
length which caused microbends on the fibre resulting in interruptions in optical link. The adjacent
shows the same splice box after recoiling the fibres.
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Figure 5.11 Splice box before recoiling (top) and after recoiling (bottom) [B32]
5.5.2 Fibre Pistoning

The opposite of fibre creep could also be true when the fibres or tubes within an OPGW/OPPC get pulled
back into the cable. This happens when the strength member or Kevlar inside the cable is not secured
at the splice box and over time fibre strands or entire tubes get pulled back into the cable, causing
unacceptable macrobend losses inside the splice box.
This condition is sometimes called pistoning as fibres get pulled back (and sometimes pushed) into the
cable. In the example below, Figure 5.12, the fibres are pulled into the cable, causing almost 90degree
bends on the outside corners.
Figure 5.12 Splice box were tubes are bent due to pistoning [B30]
A temporary resolution is to allow fibre bundles to have room to move freely inside the splice box. The
permanent resolution however, may be harder to achieve. It involves re-terminating the cables inside
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the splice box, this time with the strength member (or Kevlar) tied off. In extreme cases, the strength
member is too far inside the cable and replacement of several spans may be necessary.
Figure 5.13 below shows the same splice box after the tubes are rerouted to avoid excess bends.
Figure 5.13 The same splice box after the tubes are rerouted to avoid bends [B30]
5.5.3 Water Ingress - Damage

Care should be taken to prevent water or moisture of any type entering the splice box. Water in splice
boxes can cause numerous problems. Fibres inside the splice box have their primary protection removed
for splicing and as such are unprotected against water/moisture.
Water ingress inside the splice box increases the risk of an irreversible increase in attenuation when
water diffuses into the silica glass through the process of Hydrogen (OH) absorption. The lifetime of the
fibre strand is significantly reduced when water molecules move into micro cracks in the fibres and
enlarges them. The most dramatic effects are seen in combination with a cold climate when the water
freezes and expands causing micro bends, lateral pressure or even fibre breakage.
On a long term basis, water can affect the acrylate protecting the fibres, making them very fragile and
susceptible to breakage.
A properly installed, sealed splice box of good quality with an appropriate ingress protection rating to
suit the installation environment is essential. A moisture free splice box is achievable. There are reported
cases where a splice box is entered for the first time after twenty years and there is no hint of moisture.
Splice box manufacturers have devised different methods to keep water and moisture out. Pure silicone
sealants and seals as well as specially designed seals allowing pressurization of the splice box are ways
of combating moisture ingress.
However, there are known problem areas. A common problem is improper sealing of the cable itself as
it enters the splice box. It must be sealed as per manufacture instructions to ensure that a proper
water-tight seal is achieved between all strands. The sealant material used must match the specifications
that were recommendation of the manufacturer. It should contain substantial amounts of pure silicon
to prevent the seal from drying out or make the rubber seal (if in use) crack over time. Cables are
commonly installed in such way that they enter the splice box at the bottom of the splice box.
Cuts in the cable or tubes can cause the cable itself to leak and allow water/moisture to enter the cable
or splice box, as seen on the Canadian example (section 5.10.1). This can happen when OPGW cables
of aluminium/stainless steel central tube or even stranded stainless steel tube cable designs experience
tears or micro-holes due to bending or lateral stress on the cable. This would allow water/moisture
ingress into the cable and possibly even enter the splice box via the tube.
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5.6 Monitoring supervision

To ensure a safe and proper function of the fibre system it must be monitored at all times. There are
numerous monitoring solutions available each with their own benefits and drawbacks.
Factors that affect the most suitable monitoring method can be:
Fibre utilization.
Geographical location of the lines and sites.
Degree of mesh complexity within the network.
Availability of optical monitoring feature on the transmission equipment.
Three basic monitoring methods are listed below:
Remote Monitoring System.
Regular Control Measurements
Using the optical transmission system as an indicator.
In general, the best monitoring systems can be a combination of the three methods discussed above.
It has become more common for customers to dictate the requirement for continuous monitoring of the
leased fibre loss/continuity using a remote fibre monitoring system. These provisions are often stipulated
in SLAs when they are negotiated between utilities leasing their fibres to third parties.
5.6.1 Monitoring Solutions

5.6.1.1 Remote Monitoring Systems
A Remote Monitoring Systems is a network of remote controlled OTDRs placed strategically in the
network. In the event of any disturbance it can give an exact location to the point of interest. The
systems are very sensitive and can compare real time measurements with stored traces. Usually a
reference is taken when the system is set up. Warning levels can be set to give an alarm in the event
of degradation.
Drawbacks are the investment for a system which is significant and the fact that most remote monitoring
systems do not supervise all of the fibres in a supervised cable. Normally a set of fibres are chosen to
supervise. Depending on construction of the cable, at least one fibre in each tube should be supervised.
The survey results indicated that 55% of the responders have an Automatic Remote Monitoring System
to remotely check their optical cables.
A detailed description of remote fibre monitoring system is given in Section 5.6.2.
5.6.1.2 Regular Control Measurements
The attenuation and dispersion (if applicable) of unused fibres in a cable should be measured at regular
intervals on a regular basis. Depending on the number of unused fibres in the cable this can give a
better view of the status of the optical cable. The resulting report can be used for predictive
maintenance.
The drawbacks of this method are that in between the measurements there is no information. This
solution can be costly depending on where the sites/lines are located.
A detailed description of regular control measurements is given in Section 5.6.3.
5.6.1.3 Utilising the Optical Transmission System
Most modern telecom transmission systems have the capability of reading optical levels and to set
alarms when incoming signal changes. The only information obtained is a change in optical levels or
loss of signal. Usually this feature comes incorporated into the system.
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5.6.2 Automatic Remote Monitoring of Optical Cables

A Remote Fibre monitoring system is composed of a central data server, usually with web GUI (Graphical
User Interfaces) clients and a number of Remote Optical Test Units (ROTU) that are placed in strategic
locations throughout the geographical fibre network.
While the server is the central repository of all data and measurement, the ROTU units are connected
to unused fibres or to live fibres via couplers and using maintenance wavelength of 1625nm at each
site.
ROTUs either automatically perform OTDR or can be directed to do so remotely, thus checking on the
health of the fibre network.
A problem on the network can be detected by the system automatically or manually triggering a test.
If there are fibre degradations, precise OTDR measurements in the ROTU identify them before they can
cause network faults.
OTDR traces are also constantly compared against stored references to determine any degradation on
the fibre, thus providing both a preventative maintenance tool and a near real-time snapshot of the
health of the overall network.
Remote Monitor Site: 1 Remote Monitor Site: n

FPPA FPPA FPPA FPPA FPPA FPPA FPPA FPPA
(Cable 1) (Cable 2) (Cable *
3) * (Cable
* n) (Cable 1) (Cable 2) (Cable *
3) * (Cable
* n)
ROTU ROTU
Private Corporate
WAN Network
Remote
Clients
Internet
ROTU:Remote Optical Test Unit

FPPA: Fiber Patch Panel Firewall
Fiber Monitoring NOC Client

Test Server Workstations
Fiber Central
DataBase
Network Operating Centre (NOC) – Central Site
Figure 5.14 Schematic example of Automatic remote monitoring system for optical cables
In the event of fibre break or higher than expected losses, automatic alarming will allow NOC operators
to isolate fault location and direct crews quickly – this is often a time-consuming first step in any
restoration. MTTR is therefore reduced significantly.
Fibre monitoring system also acts as a central, archival repository of fibre records and measurement
results, a valuable tool in asset management planning (identify asset demographics), engineering
(design parameters and records), operations (preventative and on-going/routine maintenance) and in
any dynamic/historical failure analysis.
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In summary, a Remote Fibre Monitoring System has the following overall advantages:
Auto Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) Geographical fault location for reduced MTTR;
Powerful remote real-time surveillance tool for the health and performance of fibre network
over time and over various atmospheric conditions, thus providing end of life indicators.
Predictive capability for fibre cable and related assembly failures – thus leading to planned
proactive repairs before they become forced outages.
Faster, less expensive and more efficient test & measurement tool that replaces preventive
maintenance, and the need for aerial cable helicopter inspections.
A marketable value-added service for commercial customers resulting in added revenue.
Immediate access to a central fibre optic information and trend data depository.
Immediate access to the most current and up-to-date test records.
Quick response by staff with limited training possible.
Centralized and up-to-date access to spare fibre cable and material records.
Two CIGRE documents which provide more in-depth details on automatic remote monitoring systems
for optical cables are:
D2_112_ Optical Network monitoring system of “Red Eléctrica de España”, 2012 [B39].
D2-01 A07 Optical Cable Management System for 500kV HVAC Networks, 2011 [B40].
5.6.3 Regular Control Measurements

Regular control measurements are done in specified intervals, e.g. every five years. The measurement
is done from all sites connected to the asset. Optical loss and return loss are often measured as part of
these tests.
Given the demand for higher bit rates, it is possible on some occasions that Chromatic Dispersion (CD)
or Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD) measurements will be required. Optical loss measurement is
done with OTDR and all non-occupied fibres are measured bi-directionally. More specialized equipment
(CD/PMD analyser as well CD/PMD light source) are required for dispersion measurements. These
measurements are carried out as troubleshooting methods looking for errors in optical performance.
The basis for measurement is
Splice Plan
Previous Measurements Results
If any defects are found, comparison with previous measurements should be made to see if defects
have changed in their characteristics or if they are stable.
Any defects should then be corrected and a new measurement should be made to ensure that there
are no remaining issues. This then serve as a reference measurement for future control measurements.
An advantage of conducting regular control measurements is that errors can be found and corrected
before they cause optical outages. Intervals of control measurements must be adjusted to conditions
of the asset as well as their surrounding environment.
5.7 Telecommunications restoring

There are a number of steps involved in emergency restoration of telecommunications (fibre)
infrastructure. The foremost among these steps is isolation of the problem and identification of the
type of equipment involved.
There are a number of questions to ask before a full emergency repair commences:
Is it the equipment or fibre?
Is the traffic running, are there available fibres to reroute to?
If fibre, is the fault a utility owned fibre or third party leased fibres leased?
How urgent is it? What are the agreed SLAs.
Below is an example of a process flow chart for a telecommunications NOC from point of fault detection
to the handover to an emergency repair/restoration team.
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1 3 4 5
NOC 2nd Line Feedback to
Fault reported to Emergency repair
Troubleshooting customer
NOC team
Rerouting Contract issues
YES YES Emergency YES

Trafic? Trafic?
repair?
Permanent
PERM
or temporary.
NO NO
NO TEMP
Utilty owned Utilty owned YES

YES/NOT SURE
fibre? fibre?
NO 7
Considerations of
NO cost for temporary
repair
2
External
Netowner
External 8 6
Netowner Maintenace dep. Permanent repair
9
Closure of case
Figure 5.15 Example of a NOC emergency procedure
In the event that optical communication needs to be restored quickly, a key factor is the establishment
of the exact coordinates where the fault is.
Once the location (map coordinates) is established, there must be established procedures for the type
of cables involved as follows:
Wrap cable.
ADSS.
Duct cable.
OPGW, ready for emergency installation.
Cooperation between electrical and telecommunications NOC is essential in an emergency
repair/restoration situation.
The situation of an emergency fault with no possibilities for an electrical outage is complicated but easier
to handle if prepared.
For OPGW if the splice boxes are accessible a temporary connection can be made between splice boxes,
either by wrap cable, ADSS, tactical cable or other sufficiently hardened temporary fibre cables laid on
the ground.
Quite often with a short outage and some planning a permanent solution can be made relatively quick.
This reduces the overall workload and avoids first making a temporary solution and later a permanent
one.
For OPPC there are no methods for live line restoration.
114
Wrap Fibre Installation

Wrap fibre can be installed on top of an existing OPGW but the work with the permanent repair will be
more complicated if there is a wrap cable on top of the OPGW. If it’s possible, installation on a parallel
ground wire is preferable. Then the OPGW can be replaced and there will only be a short interruption
in the optical link when splicing to a permanent solution.
Wrap is installed with special machines, which requires special training. To use wrap as an emergency
repair method, access to machine and qualified personal is necessary.
In some scenarios wrap can be installed on live lines. There has to be enough space/distances to phase
conductors to climb the towers and bring equipment up and down to the ground wire as well as sufficient
distance between ground and phase conductors for the machine.
Figure 5.16 Picture of wrap installation [B20]
Temporary Cable
Another method is to install a temporary cable between two splice boxes. The cable could be overhead
(ADSS), a cable directly laid on the ground or a combination of both. The cable must be all-dielectric
and hardened so as not to get damaged easily. Problems with cables directly laid on the ground are
crossing roads, railways and rivers etc.
Prepared drums with cables in ducts or a stronger cable for installation without ducts are also a feasible
repair option. The IEC 60794-3-70:2016: “Outdoor cables for rapid/ multiple deployment” standard
could be used for specifying temporary ruggedized fibre cable for an emergency restoration kit.
A temporary ruggedized fibre cable should be capable of being deployed on the ground, on temporary
towers or tree canopies to restore services. The cable must have high crush resistance so that it is not
damaged when impacted by vehicles when crossing roads etc. The jacket must be made of tough
material and have chemical resistance according to the environment where it is installed. Cable
manufacturers produce a ruggedized, small diameter cable of small fibre count (sometimes called
restoration cable or tactical cable) specifically designed for this purpose.
115
ADSS could also be used, ADSS is a cable type for overhead installations which should be tensioned to
a high torsion strength provided by the manufacture. ADSS can be mounted in towers and poles etc. In
extreme situations, the ruggedized fibre cable or ADSS can be dropped and installed from a helicopter
flying slowly at low altitude. Even if not intended ADSS cable, (which has rigid jacket and good crush
resistance), can be placed on the ground (or preferably in ducts) to act as a temporary cable. Temporary
cables could be recovered for reuse but the cost for recovering might be higher than ordering new
material.
Emergency Repair of OPGW/OPPC

OPGW can be installed on live line as described in Section 4.3.1.1 Tension Stringing Method but this
type of work will probably need a long preparation time which might not be suitable for emergency
repairs.
Ensuring safety of the workers operating in the vicinity of the high voltage lines should be the first
concern in any live line installation. This makes this method less suitable for emergency repairs.
5.8 Emergency repair – spare parts

A proper spare part supply could significantly reduce MTTR. For each cable route, there should be
dedicated spare parts to minimize disturbances under an emergency repair. This means that the specific
type of material required to repair each route should be available in stock at all times.
The size and location of the networks gives the number and locations of depots needed.
In the spare parts supply there should be:
OPGW/OPPC, cables according to what’s in the network
Fittings, to handle the different types of cables and towers
Clamps to lead cable to splice box (part of fittings?).
Splice boxes and splicing hardware
Special tools needed for the repair
5.8.1 Storage
Material in the spare parts supply may never be needed. Nevertheless, when they are required they
must work without disturbances. The storage area as well as the material must therefore be chosen
with this in consideration. The material has to be packed in such a way that it is not affected by the
climate conditions of the storage.
According to the survey pull just 50% have their own stock in stores of those who do have it, 60% have
special storage requirement.
Cable drums are of importance. If wooden drums are stored in non-ideal conditions the wood can rot
and the drum can be very hard to manage, it might collapse during handling or stringing. To avoid this
steel drums are preferred instead of wooden drums for long time storage of OPGW/OPPC.
Any cables stored should be capped at both ends.
5.8.2 Materials in storage

Given delivery times for OPGW/OPPC and their associated accessories, a minimum of material to handle
at least two faults should be in the supply chain. In this way, if materials are used for one repair there
is still material available to complete another repair. This is important as the lead time for small orders
of materials to replenish stock levels can be a number of weeks.
116
5.8.2.1 OPGW/OPPC
The variety of types of OPGW/OPPC needed in stock depends on the number of different types of
OPGW/OPPC installed in the network.
Replacing a cable with a cable of the exact same type is straight forward exchange and should not give
any additional problems. If the cable is replaced with a new one with other physical data, new
calculations must be carried out where the suspension and tensile forces in the towers are calculated.
Towers might need additional support, sag must be calculated to ensure proper distance to other phase
conductors and different type of fittings might be needed.
If the installed OPGW/OPPCs are no longer in production there has to be a substitute in the storage.
Calculations of sag and tension and engineering of fittings to attach the preferred design to the towers
can be done in advance. The number of cables needed in storage would decrease and fewer
constructions/designs could be used to fill the needs of supplies for the whole network. Additional
disturbances in the event of an emergency repair when not replacing an exact same cable type could
also be avoided.
The longest installed length should serve as a minimum length for drums in storage. However if there
is a huge variety of installed lengths in the network it could be beneficial to have different lengths in
storage. E.g. longest installed length is 5.5km, but many installed lengths are around 3.3km. Then it
could be useful to have both 6km drums and 4km drums. The 6km drum to handle the longest lengths
in the network and the 4km drum would be easier to handle in an emergency situation. If the terrain is
problematic it might be difficult to handle large drum lengths of OPGW/OPPC due to their size and
weight. Transportation for stringing equipment for these drums is also a consideration when selecting
a suitable drum size.
5.8.2.2 Fittings
Since the fitting usually consists of a number of different parts the easiest way to handle the fittings is
by set packing. The sets should be packed so that for each type of tower there should be a complete
set for a given cable type. If there are variations for example in the interface connection to the tower,
parts for all combinations should be included in the sets.
5.8.2.3 Clamps
There should be clamps to secure the cable to the tower when lead down from the top of the tower to
the splice box. The clamps could be considered as part of fittings.
5.8.2.4 Splice Boxes
Splice boxes with splicing hardware and accessories for one splice should be stored as a kit. This should
include, splice box, splice cassettes, sleeves, and materials required to attach the splice box securely to
the tower and the cable.
5.8.2.5 Special Tools
Any special tools required which are recommended by the OPGW/OPPC manufacture should be stored,
maintained and ready to use for emergency repairs.
5.8.2.6 Summary
A full inventory of all materials installed on the network is essential to completing repair work in as an
efficient means as possible. It is preferred if the whole network is built with the same type of
OPGW/OPPC and all of the towers are similar, but this is rarely the case in the real world. New varieties
come with developments of the technology over time. It is important to adapt to these changes.
117
5.9 Failure and root cause analysis

Once the temporary restoration is carried out and services are back or re-routed, the process of
identifying possible causes, compiling permanent repair options, securing required funding and outage
planning begins. This leads to an execution plan which is set into motion. The timeline of activities is
dependent on the nature and extent of failure and can range from hours to several months.
Failure analysis is carried out using recovered material, either at a reputable laboratory or at
manufacturer’s plant can happen before, in parallel, or after the permanent repair. This process is not
always conducted and depends on the extent and type of failure.
Care should be taken to document and preserve the condition of the recovered material so that
meaningful results can be obtained from laboratory tests.
Laboratory test concentrates on finding the root cause and may involve such steps as visual inspection,
standard or specialized OTDR, dissection of cable or assembly, chemical analysis, electron scanning
microscope, placement in environmental chamber or actual simulation using test spans and different
tension settings, all depending on the type of tests prescribed.
A new technique called Distributed Strain and Temperature Sensing (DSTS), Section 2.9.3 uses Brillouin
scattering and may be used to measure strain on the cable, for example when the central tube on
OPGW is deformed to the extent that free movement of fibres within the tube is affected. More research
into practicality of DSTS as an analysis tool is required to validate the accuracy of such testing methods.
Failures and root cause analysis technical report should be used in the process of establishing a
permanent repair, however, in practice laboratory testing is treated as an R&D activity. Results of such
test can take long time to complete and the permanent repair may be required earlier.
5.10 Case studies

5.10.1 Example from Canada - OPGW
An example of an OPGW failure is the case of high optical losses on a SONET link which appeared after
16:00 hours on a cold (below -10 ̊ C) winter afternoons and persisted throughout the night.
Temperatures dropped further to -20 ̊ C and then increase during the day.
High attenuation alarms were received by the NOC two nights in a row in a similar fashion. The problem
was isolated to one area on the OPGW link and one particular splice box.
The response crew completed an inspected and found water (turned into ice) in the splice box, see
Figure 5.17 below. They used an OTDR to locate higher losses on the fibre 20 meters from the splice
box.
Figure 5.17 Splice box with ice [B30]
In order to restore service, response crew installed insulation and attached a heating wire to the OPGW.
The heating wire was connected to an electric generator. The external heating wire warmed the first
118
10 meters of OPGW from splice box (in the access loop). The attenuation losses were reduced and the
link was restored on a temporary basis.
Figure 5.18 Temporary repairs followed by full replacement of OPGW [B30]
Within less than a week, a permanent fix was planned, high voltage power and communications outage
permits were secured through the NOC.
Two mid span cuts were made and four spans of OPGW were replaced with new OPGW in such a way
as to remove the affected splice box.
The fibre section from tower deadend facing East of the splice box and from splice box to deadend
assembly facing West were sent to manufacturer.
Testing and final dissection showed that the central core of the cable was crushed in one location
allowing water ingress into the core, see Figure 5.19 below.
Figure 5.19 Broken Aluminium Core as a result of improper installation practices [B30]
Another cut on the Aluminium core was caused by ice pressure. Dissection of the sample and detailed
site photographs taken earlier that summer showed that the original crushed core and subsequent tear
was the result of improper installation of a temporary ground stirrup clamp which was actually left on
119
the cable. A demonstration showed how this improper installation could deform and cut a tear in the
core. A failure analysis report was produced.
The above example is a case where a permanent fix (replacement of four spans) had to be carried out
before a failure analysis was complete. In this case, the temporary fix with an electrical wire heater
required a gasoline generator on 24/7 basis with crews on standby to fuel the generator every 6 hours.
A patrol of the line (90km) showed the same grounding stirrup still installed on the cable in several
other locations which were then removed during a maintenance plan.
5.10.2 Example from Sweden - OPGW

The construction of a new substation to the grid required a connection to an existing power line which
already had an OPGW installed. Before commissioning the chosen fibre pair were measured using an
OTDR. One of the chosen fibres was broken which instigated an inspection on all fibres in the cable.
High attenuation in splice boxes was found and at one splice box several fibres seemed to be broken.
Fibre creeping was suspected and all splice boxes where attenuation was found were inspected. In the
splice boxes it was evident that the attenuation was a result of fibres creeping into the splice boxes. All
fibres in all affected splice boxes were recoiled.
A new OTDR measurement was completed and all of the additional attenuation in splice boxes were
removed except at one location. There was broken fibres 20 meters from the splice box which indicated
that the fault was located on within the tower location.
Line crews inspected the OPGW on the tower and identified a small glow were the cable is fixed to the
tower, see Figure 5.20.
Figure 5.20 Improper grounding creating fibre breaks [B32]
It was concluded that the reason for this fault was due to the incorrect installation of grounding clamps
for the OPGW.
During the original installation of the this power line, two ground wires were installed. Both ground
wires where connected to ground with clamps and shunts at each tower.
When one of the ground wires was subsequently replaced with OPGW for some reason no shunts were
installed on the OPGW.
Differences in potential caused induced power/current to flow through the fitting, this induced heat,
causing the fibres to break in the fitting.
120
First task involved the installation of a shunt on the tower and all other towers to prevent any more
fibres from breaking. An further inspection in all towers was conducted to verify that no other defects
were present.
Finally the damaged OPGW section was replaced. In this case there were available fibres on the route
and the work could be carried out with no impact to the network.
5.10.3 Example from Ireland - OPPC

During strong wind conditions and high energy demands, Tele-protection signals were lost on an OPPC
link on ESB Networks, Ireland Transmission Network. The fault was rapidly attributed to loss of fibre
connectivity however the substitution of alternate fibres on the patch panel could not recover
connectivity. An OTDR inspection revealed a total break of all fibre cores at approximately 100 meters
distant from the patch panel, locating the fault at the End Mast on the OPPC Termination Unit.
Visual inspection from the ground confirmed obvious fibre cable damage at the ‘Earth’ (top) end of the
OPPC Fibre Termination Unit. Closer inspection was not possible as the line was still energised. Further
inspections corroborated the observation of a physical break in the fibre cable at the Termination Unit
fibre cable entry point, see
Figure 5.21.
Figure 5.21 Fibre Fault on OPPC Insulator Stack [B33]
During the inspection of the Termination Unit and connecting fibre cable, it was noted that the unit had
been mounted incorrectly, such that insufficient mechanical support was provided to the unit by the
attached dropper arrangement, see
Figure 5.21. This promoted a pivoting motion of the Termination Unit leading to attrition of the fibre
cable at its union with the unit.
It was concluded that the incorrect rotation mounting of the Termination Unit and the associated
arrangement of the dropper conductor led directly to the fibre failure through in-service pivoting of the
unit causing attrition of the lead-in fibre cable.
Repair and Restoration

To effect repair, the following action are required:
OPPC Termination Unit must be detached from the end mast
121
Strip out existing lead-in fibre cable

Cut, prep and re-dress fibre cable and re-splice all fibres to OPPC fibre cores.
Re-install Termination Unit in correct alignment
Re-fit dropper and groove clamps in correct orientation.
8-12 hours minimum duration anticipated
Factors Affecting OPPC Fibre Repair Work

OPPC splicing must take place in dry, low humidity conditions. Moisture ingress in the joint closure will
reduce operating lifetime and may be detrimental to the in-service performance of the fibres.
Suitable measures must be taken to keep moisture (mist, rain etc.) out of the splicing area during set-
up preparations. Wind and gusting can cause difficulty in keeping cores secure and undamaged during
the splicing operation and may also ‘blow’ the fusion arc leading to failed or out of limits splices. Again,
suitable measures must be taken to protectively orient or shelter the splicing area during set-up
preparations. Splicing must not take place if these measures cannot be applied within any relevant
safety constraints.
Temporary Repair
Due to the adverse weather conditions experienced at the time of the fault there was an increased risk
of damaging the OPPC fibre cores during re-orientation of the Termination Unit. This damage cannot
be rectified without conductor re-stringing adjustment. To complete an effective repair in a safe and
suitable environment, at the time, would require the installation of scaffolding. This would significantly
increase the line/voltage outage time to complete the repair. This increased repair time was not feasible
due to high energy demands on the network.
The level of risk required to restore the system to its original state was deemed too high. An additional
solution was required as a temporary measure.
A short term solution was implement with the use of an existing widely used technology, Phase To
Ground (PTG), see Figure 5.22.
Figure 5.22 Temporary repair using PTG [B33]
This solution was completed in short period of time (hours). The phase to ground was connected into
the additional port on the ‘live’ side of the OPPC termination unit. Splicing was completed in a mobile
122
elevated working platform. All critical services were restored and the system operated with no issues
for a period of 6 months until a full repair on the Termination Unit was completed.
123
12
6. Conclusion
This TB is a thorough overview on OPGW encompassing its project management, its designs, its testing,
its installations and its maintenance since its creation in the early 1980s. As a whole, the industry has
coincided into common project approaches, into a general rally around metallic tube with a high count
of fibres of new generations of improved telecommunications transmission performance, into standard
construction practices and into mitigative actions in maintenance.
The full scope is validated from the analysis of the survey included in the TB.
Nevertheless, the subject is not exhausted and has seen continuous lessons learned and new ventures
in topics such as OPPC, DTS and DSTS. One further topic of recent interest because of product 30-year
history of deployment is the assessment of its reliability and if the actual performance meets the design
predictions. This latest topic remains the complex subject of future studies because of the variety of
the conceptual configurations that were deployed.
125
126
APPENDIX A. Definitions, abreviations and symbols

A.1. General terms
App Table A.1 Definition of general terms used in this TB
Acronym Phrase
JWG Joint Working Group
SC Study Committee
SME Subject Matter Expert
TB Technical Brochure
WG Working Group
A.2. Specific terms
App Table A.2 Definition of technical terms used in this TB
Acronym Phrase
AA Aluminium Alloy
ACS Aluminium Clad Steel
AACSR All-Aluminium Conductor Steel-Reinforced
ACSR Aluminium Conductor Steel-Reinforced
ARD Anti-Rotation Device
CWDM Coarse Wavelength Division Multiplexer
DAP Designated Access Panel
DC Direct Current
FFH Factory Formed Helical Rods
FO Fibre Optic
HAES Helically Attached Elastomer Suspension
HV High Voltage
ITP Inspection and Test Plan
MASS Metallic Aerial Self-Supporting
MDL Maximum Design Load
MFD Mode Field Diameter
MRDT Maximum Rated Design Tension
NOC Network Operation Centre
NZDSF Non-Zero Dispersion Shifted Fibre
OHL Overhead Line
OPAC Optical Attached Cable
OPGW Optical Ground Wire
OPPC Optical Phase Conductor
OTDR Optical Time Domain Reflectometer
Plastic Buffer Tube or
PBT
Polybutylene Terephthalate
PFR Preformed Helical Rods
PMD Polarization Mode Dispersion
PTG Phase To Ground
RFQ Request for Quotation
RTS Rated Tensile Strength
SBS Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
SMF / SM single-mode Fibre
SRS Stimulated Raman Scattering
TIA Telecommunications Industry Association
127
Acronym Phrase
TSO Transmission System Operator
UTS Ultimate Tensile Strength
128
APPENDIX B. Links and references

[B1] Technical Brochure 16 (1985) Guide on planning power system telecommunication,
SC35, www.e-cigre.org
[B2] Technical Brochure 37 (1989) Guide for planning of power utility digital
telecommunications networks, WG35-02, www.e-cigre.org
[B3] Technical Brochure 58 (1991) Evaluation of the questionnaire – Fibre optic for power
utilities communications, WG35-04, www.e-cigre.org
[B4] Technical Brochure 45 (1995) Optical fibre planning guide for power utilities, WG35-
04, www.e-cigre.org
[B5] Technical Brochure 106 (1997) New opportunities for optical fibre technology in
power utilities, WG35-04, www.e-cigre.org
[B6] Technical Brochure 133 (2000) Preventive and corrective maintenance for optical
cables and overhead power lines, WG35-04, www.e-cigre.org
[B7] Technical Brochure 132 (2001) Optical fibre cable selection for electricity utilities,
WG35-04, www.e-cigre.org
[B8] Technical Brochure 241 (2004) All-optical backbone technology, WGD2-15, www.e-
cigre.org
[B9] Technical Brochure 245 (2004) New optical access technology, WGD2.15, www.e-
cigre.org
[B10] Technical Brochure 461 (2011) Telecommunications service provisioning and delivery
in the electrical power utility, WGD2-26, www.e-cigre.org
[B11] Technical Report TR 61328 – 2nd Edition 03.2003
[B12] TESMEC – OPGW Re-conductoring on Live Line – Poland, 01.2008
[B13] RIBE Newsletter 2003
[B14] Replacement of conventional ground wires with OPGW on 400kV overhead power
transmission line, installation under live-line conditions - Polish expertise. – ICOLIM
2011 – B.Dudek, L.Rogiński, K. Mikolajczyk
[B15] Technical Project - Exchange of shield wire between Laforsen and Bäsna 400 kV AC
– K. Kiczkajlo
[B16] IEC/TR 62263: 2005 Live Working – Guidelines for the installation and maintenance
of optical fibre cables on overhead power lines, 2005.
[B17] RIBE – Damper location sketch
[B18] Prysmian Group Brochure – Outside Plant
[B19] RIBE – Electrical Fittings – Installation Instructions
[B20] AFL Global
[B21] RIBE – Electrical Fittings – Newsletter
[B22] AFL – Aerial Fibre Optic Cable – Newsletter
[B23] Guidelines for installation of self-supporting optical aerial cables (OPGW, OPPC,
MASS) with steel tube(s)
[B24] Prysmian - Installation procedure for OPGW fibre optic cables
[B25] TE.M.A. S.r.l. - Equipment for stringing and laying conductors
[B26] ELTEL Networks Energetyka S.A.
[B27] Courtesy of Halina Abramczyk. Technical University of Lodz.
129
[B28] Courtesy of FOSCO Connect Inc.

[B29] Courtesy of Corning Inc.
[B30] Courtesy of Hydro One Networks Inc.
[B31] Courtesy of Energinet
[B32] Courtesy of Svenska Kraftnät
[B33] Courtesy of ESB Networks
[B34] Inference of the Optical Fiber Lifetime for Mechanical Reliability. Oramu Aso, Toshio
Matsufuji, Takuya Ishikawa, Masateru Tedakuma, Soichino Otosu, Takeshi Yagi,
Masato Oku. Furukawa Review. 2012
[B35] Courtesy of Pullnet Technology
[B36] The Fibre Optic Association, Inc (FOA)
[B37] Courtesy of Prysmian.
[B38] IEEE 524, IEEE Guide for the Installation of Overhead Transmission Line Conductors.
[B39] Paper D2_112 (2012). Optical Network monitoring system of “Red Eléctrica de
España”, SCD2.
[B40] Paper D2-01-A07 (2011). Optical Cable Management System for 500kV HVAC
Networks, SCD2.
[B41] Task force B2.11.06 (2005). State of the art of conductor galloping, a complementary
document to “Transmission line reference book – Wind-induced conductor motion.
Chapter 4: Conductor galloping”, based on EPRI Research project 792, SCB2.
130
APPENDIX C. Survey results

This survey has been carried out in order to gather information around the world and learn how different
companies from different countries deal with OPGW and OPPC technologies.
The survey consisted of a first set of more than 60 questions and a second questionnaire including five
extra questions.
The whole set of questions were divided into four main sections, which have a direct correspondence
with the sections of the TB:
1. General information & State of the art (11 questions from the first survey + 5 questions
from the second survey, all of them linked to chapters 1 and 2 of the TB).
2. Design (13 questions directly related to chapter 3 of this document).
3. Deployment and Commissioning (21 questions linked with chapter 4).
4. Maintenance (16 questions which correspond to chapter 5).
The results of the survey are plotted throughout this appendix with different graphs. The different
sections in this appendix follow the same structure as in the survey questionnaires.
The following considerations must be taken into account:
- Many assumptions have been made in order to summarize all the open text answers. For
example:
o In question #1.3, the answers have been grouped into four different groups but open
answers, like “to 22 up to 500kV”, have been considered in each of the different groups
made. This way the final graphic expresses the results in a more realistic way.
o In question #2.2, a second graphs has been made to show better the different ‘yes’
answers studding the “Other Collaboration” text box.
o In questions #3.18, a summary of some of the received answers has been made in
order to show the main ideas of the different responses.
- Not all the respondents have answered all the questions, so some percentages are relative only
to those who answered affirmatively or who answered something.
- “Unanswered” questions were omitted.
131
C.1. General information & state of art

[Q0]. PARTICIPATION
PARTICIPATION (Continental)
3%2%
24%
37%
34%
Africa America Asia Europe Oceania
Participation (per countries)

USA 2
Turkey 1
Thailand 1
Sweden 1
Spain 4
South Africa 1
Russia 1
Romania 1
Poland 1
Japan 9
Israel 1
Ireland 1
Germany 3
France 1
England & Wales 1
Denmark 1
Chile 1
Canada 4
Australia 1
Argentina 2
0 2 4 6 8 10
132
[Q1.1]. Responder’s profile
[Q1.2]. Number of km of Optical Cables Utility Has
Number of utilities plotted by cable optic type and

quantity installed
20
17 17
15
11 11
10
10 9
6
5 5 5
5 4 4
3
2 2 2
1 1
0 0 0
0
OPGW OPPC ADSS Wrapped Lashed Other FOC Underground
Cable Cables
0 - 500 km 500 km - 5000 km ≥ 5000 km
[Q1.3]. Voltage of HV Lines (kV)
Voltage of OPGW HV Lines (kV)
30% 29%
19%
22%
22 ≥ X < 132 132 ≥ X < 220 220 ≥ X < 400 400 ≥ X < 765
133
Voltage of OPPC HV Lines (kV)
27%
37%
36%
22>= X <110 110>= x <220 220>=
[Q1.5]. When did you install first OPGW?
When did you install first OPGW?

20
18
16 18
14 16
12
10
8
6
4
2 4
2
0
In the 1980s (or earlier) In the 1990s 2000 - 2010 2010+
[Q1.6]. How old is first active OPGW?
How old is first active OPGW?

35
30
31
25
20
15
10
5 7 2
0
Over >= 20 Years >=10 and <20 Years < 10 Years
134
[Q1.7] Do you plan to install OPGW or OPPC in next 5 years?
Do you plan to install OPGW or OPPC in next 5 years?
20%
80%
Yes No
[Q1.7.1] If “Yes”, How many kms of OPGW or OPPC?
If "Yes", How many kms of OPGW?

25
20
21
15
10
5 8
3
0
0 <= 500 km > 500 < 1000 km >= 1,000 km
If "Yes", How many kms of OPPC?

25
20 22
15
10
5
3 0
0
Zero 0 < 1000 km >= 1,000 km
135
[Q1.9] Do you use DTS or other systems using FO cable as sensors in OHL?
Do you use DTS or other systems using FO

cables as sensors in OHL?
17%
83%
Yes No
[Q1.9.1] If you use DTS, what do you use it for?
If you use DTS or other systems using FO

cables as sensors , what do you use it for?
25%
42%
33%
Line Monitoring Temperature Sensing Strain Monitoring
[Q1.9.2] What DTS technology do you use?
What DTS technology do you use?
Raman
20%
Brillouin
80%
Brillouin Raman
136
[Q1.10] What are the types of fibre optic systems in your utility?
What are the types of fiber optic systems in

your utility?
50
39
40
30
19
20
9
10 4
Operational Services Fibre Swapping Commercial Services Other
[Q1.11] Do you lease dark fibre and/or telecommunications services on your fibre?
Do you lease dark fibre and/or

telecommunications services on your fibre?
36%
64%
Yes No
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C.2. Design & project

[Q2.1] Who leads the OPGW/OPPC design in your company?
Who leads the OPGW/OPPC design in your company?

18 16
16 15
14
12
10
8
6 5
4 2 2
2
0
Telecoms Department HV Line Department

Telecoms Department & HV Line Department Contractor
Other Designer
[Q2.2] If there is collaboration between Telecommunications & HV Lines Departments, how is these
collaborations?
If "Yes", How do you collaborate?
9%
24%
67%
Separately Side by Side Other Collaboration
138
[Q2.3] Cable Design: what is the area of knowledge of your OPGW/OPPC specialists?
Cable Design: what is the area of knowledge

of your OPGW/OPPC specialists?
40
34
30
30 28
25
20
10
Structural Mechanical Electrical Optical
[Q2.4] Do you interface with third parties?
Do you interface with third parties?
28%
72%
Yes No
[Q2.4.1] If “Yes”, select the third party…
If "Yes", select the third party…

5% 12%
26%
32%
25%
Railways Telecoms Industry Other Electrical Companies Other Utilites "Others"
139
[Q2.4.2] Do you interface across international borders?
Do you interface across international borders?
38%
62%
Yes No
[Q2.5] Demarcation Points: how do you determine the demarcation between two optical networks?
Demarcation Points: how do you determine the

demarcation between two optical networks?
10%
3%
8%
37%
42%
Splice Box ODF Physical Border Geographical Border Other Demarcation Points
[Q2.6] What is the main constructive characteristics of your OPGW?
What is the main constructive characteristics of your OPGW?

20 19
18
17
15
15 13
10
5
2
Central Tube Central Alum Central Stainless Stainless Hexacore Slotted Core "Other"
140
[Q2.7] OPGW Cables are designed with…
OPGW Cables are designed with…
34%
66%
Loose Buffer Tight Buffer
[Q2.8] If any part of the project is fixed by a superior (e.g. Government, Standards, etc.), please specify
which standard.
If "Yes", please specify the reference

standard of ASTM
ASTM Option 4: B483 2
ASTM Option 3: A632 2
ASTM B502 2
ASTM B498 2
ASTM B415 4
ASTM B398 4
ASTM B230 3
ASTM B117 0
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5

standard of IEC
IEC 61395 8
IEC 61232 10
IEC 61089 7
IEC 60889 8
IEC 60888 1
IEC 60794-1-2 15
IEC 60793-1-40 20
IEC 60104 6
0 5 10 15 20 25
141

standard of IEEE
IEEE 1594 3
IEEE 1591.2 4
IEEE 1591.1 5
IEEE 1222 6
IEEE 1138 15
IEEE 524 7
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

standard of ITU and TIA/EIA and Others
TIA/EIA-455-82 4
TIA/EIA-455-81 4
TIA/EIA-455-41 4
TIA/EIA-455-3 4
ITU-T G.652 20
0 5 10 15 20 25
[Q2.9] At what stage is hardware and fitting compatibility considered during design process?
The majority (90%) consider the design of the hardware and procedures from the point of view of the
fitting compatibility from the beginning of the design process.
This part in a lot of cases is checking during the initial tendering process as part of the product technical
qualification process and the vendor approval process.
Only a few take this into account during the testing and only one, consider it and the end of the design
of the cable.
142
[Q2.10] Do you accept Type Test reports on a cable of “similar design”?
Do you accept Type Test reports on a cable of

"similar design"?
32%
68%
Yes No
[Q2.11] For the overall tests, do you conform to…
For the overall tests, do you conform to…

35
29
30 27
25
20
14
15
10
5 3
Own Company Standards International Standards Manufacturer Standards Other tests conforming to
[Q2.12] Do you use standard OPGW designs for your lines?
Do you use standard OPGW designs

for your lines?
15%
85%
Yes No
143
[Q2.13] Does your company require Type Tests for OPGW/OPPC cables?
Does your company require Type

Tests for OPGW/OPPC cables?
15%
85%
Yes No
[Q2.13.1] If “Yes”, what tests do you require?
If "Yes", what tests do you require?

Chromatic Dispersion 6 20
OTDR 2 28
Bleeding & Evaporation 5 16
Kink on Tubing 5 15
Kink on Complete Cable 9 13
Abrasion 6 14
Repeated Bending 9 16
Fiber Cut-off 5 24
Cable Cut-off Wavelength 8 18
Salt Spray 11 16
Temperature Cycle 3 27
Seepage of Flooding 12 13
Water Ingress 6 26
Lightning 6 25
Short Circuit 4 28
Galloping 13 14
Aeolian 6 26
Twist 5 27
Bend 6 24
Impact 11 16
Crush 5 25
Sheave 4 28
DC Resistance 4 27
Ultimat Tensile 4 29
Strain Margin 5 25
Stress-Strain/Fiber-Strain 2 31
Tensile/Stress-Strain 3 30
Creep Test 5 28
Dimensions 0 31
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
No Yes
144
C.3. Deployment, installation and commissioning

[Q3.1] Installation: what is the area of knowledge of your OPGW/OPPC deployment specialists?
Installation: what is the area of knowledge of your

OPGW/OPPC deployment specialists?
35 32 31
29
30
24
25
20
15
10
5
0
Structural Mechanical Electrical Optical
[Q3.2] Does your company have field specialists for inspecting & supervising the deployment of the
cable or the supervision is external?
Internal o external supervision?
38%
62%
Internal External
[Q3.3] Does your company require FAT?
Does your company require FAT?

10%
90%
Yes No
145
[Q3.3.1] If “Yes”, do you require FAT of the 100% of the reels, or do you require other inspection rates?
If "Yes", do you require FAT…

20
19
19
18
17
17
16
100% Reel test Other inspection rates
[Q3.3.2] What FAT do you require?
What FAT do you require?

30
24
25
20
20 18
16
15
10
Utility Tests National Standards International Standards Manufacturer Tests
146
[Q3.4] Does your company send inspectors to look/certify/supervise manufacturing process of

OPGW/OPPC cable at the factory?
Does your company send inspectors to

look/certify/supervise manufacturing process
of OPGW/OPPC cable at the factory?
43%
57%
Yes No
[Q3.5] Does your company have any number or list of certified factories or manufacturers that are
preferred?
Does your company have any number or list of

certified factories or manufacturers that are preferred?
25%
75%
Yes No
147
[Q3.6] Does your company use a Procedures Guide for mounting and installation of OPGW?
Does your company use a Procedures Guide for

mounting and installation of OPGW?
5%
95%
Yes No
[Q3.6.1] If “Yes”, who prepares it?
If "Yes", who prepares it?

20
16
14
15
10 8
The Manufacturer Utility Both
[Q3.7] Does your company supervise the mounting and installation tasks of the OPGW/OPPC?
Does your company supervise the mounting and

installation tasks of the OPGW/OPPC?
5%
95%
Yes No
148
[Q3.7.1] If “Yes”, who supervises?
If "Yes", who supervises?

35 33
30
25
20 18
15
10 7
5
0
Utility Employees Manfacturer Employees 3rd Party Employees
[Q3.8] Does your company have specialists for the fibre optic splicing tasks?
Does your company have specialists for

the fibre optic splicing tasks?
43%
57%
Yes No
149
[Q3.9] If your company subcontracts the FO splicing, do your contractors have to pass a specific training
course?
If your company subcontracts the FO splicing, do your

contractors have to pass a specific training course?
35%
65%
Yes No
[Q3.10] Does your company have instruments and adequate tools in order to do a precise optical fibre
splicing as well as measurement tasks?
Does your company have instruments and adequate

tools in order to do a precise optical fiber splicing as
well as measurement tasks?
23%
77%
Yes No
150
[Q3.11] Does your company require commissioning tests after installation?
Does your company require

commissioning tests after installation?
0%
100%
Yes No
[Q3.11.1] What tests do you do?
What tests do you do?

40 38
35
29
30
25
20
20
15 12
9
10
5 1
0
OTDR Power Meters CD PMD Attenuation Profile Other
[Q3.11.2] Who performs these tests?
Who performs these tests?
17%
83%
Utility Contractor
151
[Q3.12] For splicing tasks as well as for the fibre optic cable testing, does your company have its own…
For splicing tasks as well as for the fibre optic cable

testing, does your company have it's own…
30 28 27
26
25
20
15
10
4
5
Personnel Tools Instrumentation Other Splicing tasks
[Q3.13] Do you identify your cables on site?
Do you identify your cables on site?
23%
77%
Yes No
152
[Q3.13.1] How do you perform the identification on site?
How do you perform the identification on site?

18
16
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
4
2
2
0
labeling code measurement and test equipment GIS system
[Q3.14] Drum lengths: is there a maximum length?
Drum lengths: is there a maximum length?
24%
76%
Yes No
[Q3.14.1] What is the maximum length? And [Q3.14.2] What limits this length?
According to the answers normal lengths go between 4,000m - 6,000m, going from 2,000m to almost
10,000m but it depends a lot on the criteria of each company, on the limitations of handling and
transport due to the weight and size.
The main limitation for the maximum length of the drums is the weight and size of the reel and cable
that can be handled both in the manufacturing, transport and installation phases.
Other limitations are marked by the overhead power lines itself: type of towers, access to towers,
distance between towers, and location of splice boxes or simply mechanical issues
153
[Q3.15] Do you store your own stock?
Do you store your own stock?
50% 50%
Yes No
[Q3.15.1] If you store your own stock, do you have special storage requirements?
If you store your own stock, do you have

special storage requirements?
40%
60%
Yes No
154
[Q3.16] Does the hardware manufacturer contribute during the deployment, installation and
commissioning of the OPGW?
Does the hardware manufacturer contribute

during the deployment, installation and
commissioning of the OPGW?
32%
68%
Yes No
[Q3.17] Do you have specific packaging requirements for the cable (additional to international
standards)?
Do you have specific packaging requirements for

the cable (additional to international standards)?
46%
54%
Yes No
155
[Q3.18] What is the mechanical tension used to install OPGW?
The mechanical tension used to install OPGW is usually according not to exceed a certain percentage
of the cables rated breaking, some examples of responses are:
- Paying-out tension is less than 20 % of UTS of OPGW
- 20-30% RTS (Rate Tensile Strength)
- 10% of UTS up to 1000 kg,
- 14% cable breaking load
- Within a band of 15 % either side of the UTS
- It is under 20% of ultimate tensile strength.
Other companies follows manufactures recommendations but in general, the exact amount depends on
the OPGW cable type and the chosen criterias, i.e:
- Line type tension:
o OPGW 60m2 7.8kN(800kgf)
o OPGW 170m2 10.8kN(1100kgf)
- And maximum stringing tension of OPGW installation is 10% UTS

[Q3.20] Do you use dampers?
Do you use dampers?

5%
95%
Yes No
156
[Q3.21] What is the minimum radius of the drums and pulleys?
According to the answers this information is cable dependent and the companies usually follow the
cable manufacturer recommendations.
Some criteria are:
- Sheave diameters are generally based on IEEE 524 recommendation of 40 x D where D is
outside diameter of OPGW.
- Minimum radius of the pulleys; more than 225 mm or more than 20 times of OPGW diameter.
- Depends on cable diameter. Basically 70 x diameter.
- 30 x diameter of cable.
Some examples are:
- Minimum radius of the drum is 500mm and minimum radius of the pulley is 225mm.
- Minimum winding diameter is 1000mm. Minimum diameter of pulley is 450mm.
- Drums 2200 mm diameter, pulley 120° radius
- 800 mm drum and 300 mm pulleys
- 1200 mm for the drums and 800 or 600 mm for the pulleys depending on first/last pulley of the
section or not
- drums: 450 mm, pulleys: 175 mm depends on transmission tower type
157
C.4. Maintenance
[Q4.1] Does your company have preventative maintenance or only corrective/reactive maintenance?
Does your company have preventative maintenance

or only corrective/reactive maintenance?
39%
61%
Preventive Maintenance Only Corrective/Reactive Maintenance
[Q4.2] Does your company have a predictive maintenance program (condition-based maintenance)?
Does your company have a predictive maintenance

program (condition-based maintenance)?
42%
58%
Yes No
[Q4.3] Is the predictive maintenance governed by an overall asset management program?
Is the predictive maintenance governed by

an overall asset management program?
37%
63%
Yes No
158
[Q4.4] How are decisions made regarding which lines to maintain?
How are decisions made regarding which

lines to maintain?
20 18
16
15 13
10
Age Alone Tests on harvested samples Other
”Other” answers:
- Periodic maintenance plans (measurements and visual inspections) to preventive failures or

accidents.
- Number or previous failures/accidents
[Q4.5] Who performs this maintenance?
Who performs this maintenance?

25
20 19
20
15
10
Utility Employees Subcontractors
[Q4.6] Who is in charge of OPGW/OPPC maintenance?
Who is in charge of OPGW/OPPC

maintenance?
25 22
20 17
15
10
HV Line Department Telecoms Department
159
[Q4.7] What drives the decision to perform preventative maintenance vs. corrective (reactive)
maintenance?
What drives the decision to perform preventative

maintenance vs. corrective (reactive) maintenance?
25 23
20
15
15 12
10 7
5
Budget Resources Reliability Other
[Q4.8] What is the interval of the predictive maintenance?
What is the interval of the predictive maintenance?

10
8
8
6
6 5
4 3 3 3
2
2 1
0
1
Once a year Twice a year

Every Two years Every Three years
Every Five years Every more than Five years
No predictive maintenance (corrective) No predictive maintenance (per condition)
[Q4.8.1] Who performs this predictive maintenance?
Who performs this predictive maintenance?

25 22
20
15
10
10
Utility Employees Contractor
160
[Q4.9] Does your company have an Automatic Remote Monitoring System to remotely check your optical
cables?
Does your company have an Automatic

Remote Monitoring System to remotely
check your optical cables?
45%
55%
Yes No
[Q4.10] Does your Network Operation Center (NOC) monitor your fiber optic cables?
Does your Network Operation Center (NOC)

monitor your fiber optic cables?
49% 51%
Yes No
[Q4.11] What are the main maintenance issues with your OPGW/OPPC cables?
The main causes of breakdown or maintenance activities have to do with weather conditions or
environmental issues: corrosion, damage by vibration, wind or ice issues, lightning, falling trees, etc.
Other are relationed to improper installation:
- of the juction boxes: fibres creeping into splice box, rainwater infiltration,
etc.
- of the fittings or dampers.
161
[Q4.12] What are the main faults your OPGW/OPPC cables suffer?
- Faults and/or cable breaking due to mechanical types like falls infraestructure or aerial
accidents;
- Faults due to installation errors like optical fiber disconnection into splice boxes, water leaking
into cable, etc.
- Faults due to weather condictions like lightning, corrosion, snow, rain, etc.
The main consecuences of this fault are damages over the surface of the cables (like some brand
disconnection or even break off, corrosion, etc) or attenuation losses in the links.
Some examples of concrete answer are:
- Deformation of an aluminium pipe struck by the lighting causes the pressure to the fiber core
and consequently the loss of signal occurs.
- Melting or breaking down of steel core caused by lightning.
- The faults is caused by the freezing of the water that is soaked into the slotted core of the
OPGW. The fibre core is pressed by the expansion of the frozen water and consequently the
loss of signal is caused by the bending of the fiber.
- Increase in attenuation caused by compressing the fiber due to frozen or corroded aluminum
pipe.
- Strand disconnection or break off. Water leaking into cable. Installation errors.
[Q4.13] Do you have Service Line Agreements (SLA) with third parties?
Do you have Service Line Agreements (SLA) with

third parties?
38%
62%
Yes No
[Q4.14] Utility: how many cable suppliers do you have?
Utility: how many cable suppliers do you have?

30
24
25
20
15
10
10
5 3
One Two Other
162
[Q4.15] Are suppliers local or international?
Are suppliers local o international?

30
25
25 22
20
15
10
Local International
[Q4.15.1] If they are international, where are the suppliers from?
If "international", where are the suppliers from?

20 18
18
16 14
14
12
10 8
8
6
4 2
2
0
Europe Asia North America South America
[Q4.16] Do you have a fibre inventory management system in place?
Do you have a fiber inventory

management system in place?
36%
64%
Yes No
163
C.5. Survey 2
[S2-Q1] What construction Type was the 1st OPGW/OPPC Installation in your network?
What construction Type was the 1st OPGW/OPPC

Installation in your network?
slotted_core 0
stainless_tube_hexacore 2
Central_Stainless_tube 1
Central_Aluminium_tube 0
slotted_core 7
stainless_tube_hexacore 2
Central_Stainless_steel_tube 4
Central_Aluminium_tube 14
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
[S2-Q2] Please select the legacy and current characteristics of the fibre optic used in your OPGW/OPPC
network
legacy and current characteristics of the fibre optic used

in your OPGW/OPPC network
18 17
16
16
14
12
10
8
6
4 4
4 3 3
2 2 2 2
2 1 1 1 1
0 0
0
ITU-T_G655 ITU-T_G654 ITU-T_G653 ITU-T_G652C ITU-T_G652B ITU-T_G652D JIS C6835 Own Standard
LEGACY CURRENT
164
[S2-Q2.1] Why were these characteristics selected? i.e. legacy, national standard, etc.
Why were these characteristics selected?
16% 11%
5%
21%
47%
company standard national standard international standard manufacturers design legacy
[S2-Q3] As part of your OPGW/OPPC design, which do you choose?
As part of your OPGW/OPPC design,

which do you choose?
29%
71%
Loose_Tube_Buffer Tight_Tube_Buffer
[S2-Q3.1] Reason for choice?
Reason for choice?

12
10
10
8
6
4 3 3
2
2 1
0
Mechanical Stress Market standard Workability

Environmental Company standard
165
[S2-Q4] What type of fibre optic connectors do you use in your network?
Main connectors used by survey responders

E2000 7
APC/SC 4
SC 16
FC 12
LC 11
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
[S2-Q5] Section of report of most interest to you and your organisation?
Section of report of most interest to you

and your organisation?
12%
49% 24%
15%
Global state of the art Design & Project

Deployment & Commissioning Maintenance
166
APPENDIX D. Non-linear effects in fibre optics

Silica glass fibre is not an ideal media to transmit optical signals. Apart from the expected impairments
like attenuation, Chromatic and Waveguide Dispersions and PMD, the nonlinear phenomena inside the
fibre grows in importance as a signalling speed and distance increases.
The radiation emitted by conventional light sources is neither monochromatic nor coherent in time and
space. Intensity of electric field of radiation emitted by those sources is small, 10-103 V/cm. Radiation
of such intensity and incoherence, when interacting with matter does not change its properties, because
it is several orders of magnitude smaller than the intensity of electric field in the matter, 2·109 V/cm. in
average.
The intensity of laser light, in particular the generated by pulse lasers emitting short pulses which are
used in high speed signalling and long distances, can reach values of the order of 105 to 108 V/cm. It is
therefore comparable to the intensity of electric fields inside the matter and for sure, it will cause
changes in the matter. Those changes will be permanent or reversible depending on how comparable
in magnitude is the applied electromagnetic field and the internal matter’s field.
The Non-Linear effects in single mode fibre optics are caused by two main parameters:
The variations of Refractive Index (n) also described as a Kerr Nonlinearities
The Inelastic Scattering
The Kerr Nonlinearities
The major part of the nonlinear effects in Silica fibre can be explained as a diverse aspect of the Kerr
effect.
Inside the fibre, the main parameter which governs the light wave propagation is the refractive index (n)
of the media. Light is confined inside the fibre because the RI changes in the border between the core
and the clad. Also, the speed of the travelling wave inside the fibre is the speed of the light in the vacuum
divided by the RI:
v=c/n
In where v is the propagating speed, c the speed of the light in the vacuum and n the RI.
When we inject a laser pulse in a single-mode optical fibre, the propagation mode is TEM or quasi TEM
because the core diameter and its numerical aperture cuts other propagation modes. But this pulse trends
to propagate in all polarization modes, horizontal, vertical, inclined and circular.
In an isotropic media, the polarization mode is irrelevant because all of them propagates at same speed
and the wave-front of all polarization modes travels at the same speed. But what happens if the refractive
index becomes polarization dependent?
As a consequence of that, certain polarization modes will travel faster than others and its arrival time at
the detector will be not the same. This is the static PMD and its consequence is a pulse broadening. Its
causes can be found in symmetry or doping errors during the fibre manufacturing or manipulation
processes, deployment included.
In the real world and in terms to understand the propagation phenomena, we must consider that the
refractive index at every point inside the fibre depends on the polarization of the light, its power strength,
the temperature, the wavelength, the presence of external electric fields, its direction and other minor
parameters which are out of the purpose of this booklet.
To explain those complex phenomena, we need to apply superposition principle and examine the problem
from diverse points considering the RI properties only dependent of a few variables. In general, the
evolution of the optical wave inside the fibre will be the sum of those partial phenomena.
167
The Nonlinear Self-Focusing

Let’s first consider the variation of the RI due to the constant amount of optical power which crosses a
section of the fibre. The effect of this optical power causes an RI increment towards the centre of the
core. This provokes a beam concentration around the axis and, as a consequence, a diminution of the
effective area of the fibre.
The effective RI can be considered as the sum of two parts:
n=n0+n2·I·Aeff
In which n0 is the invariant part of the RI, n2 the non-linear coefficient and I the optical power density.
Owing that for a silica fibre G.652 (SMF-28) the typical values are:
- n0 = 1.4475 (Core)
- n0 = 1.4407 (Clad)
- Numerical Aperture NA=0.14
- Effective difference between n0 core and n0 clad 0.67%
- n2 = 0.27μm2 /W
- Effective Area = 85 μm2 at 1550nm
It is easy to conclude that the Effective Area starts to be affected with optical power when the launching
power is higher than +14dBm.
Because this is an effect with positive feedback if the optical power continues increasing, the effective
area continues decreasing and, finally, collapses.
This collapsing power can be calculated by:
͵Ǥ͹͹ᢵ
ܲ ൌ
ͺߨ݊଴ ݊ଶ
And for the above mentioned typical fibre the catastrophic Self-Focusing, at 1550nm, may occur when
launched power achieves +27.74dBm.
Note that in the major part of the cases this area reduction starts just in the fibre end and not all of the
launched power is injected in the fibre because the area mismatch.
Self-Phase Modulation
In the previous case we consider the Kerr effect due to the static optical power, which is the case of
Raman or ROPA pumping carriers.
Transmission of information implies carrier changes and now let’s analyse what is the evolution of the
RI when the optical power is changing. In that case the RI trends to increase when the amplitude of
the signal increases and decreases when the signal decreases. Increasing RI means low propagation
speed or phase delay while the opposite case means a phase advance.
This phase shifting can be considered as a Phase Modulation which broads the optical pulse.
Mathematically:
n(廡,I) = n0(廡)+n2I(t)
And Phase-Shift can be calculated
庣NL(t) = (2彃/ʎ)n2I(t)L
168
Source: (4)
Fig. D.1 Instantaneous frequency variation vs. Pulse Power in Arbitrary Units
Self-Phase Modulation is an impairment related to the Pulse Amplitude Modulation which is the optical
modulation generally applied. However, the continuous wave modulations that the Industry starts to
apply now, looking for highest signalling speeds, overrides this phenomenon.
Four Wave Mixing

When a signal travels inside a nonlinear media, a cross-modulation occurs. This impairment is negligible
if only a single lambda is present in the fibre; but if many ʎ are present, for example ʎ1, ʎ2 and ʎ3,
combinations like ʎ1 ± ʎ2 ± ʎ3 appears. Of course, combinations style ʎ1+ʎ2-ʎ3 are the most dangerous
because the new Lambda is inside the transmission band.
Few reports and methods have been proposed for solving the problems associated to the Four Wave
Mixing (FWM). The use of Non-Zero Dispersed (NZD) Fibres and as low a launching power as possible
may mitigate the problem because it improves the linearity, but other methods like unequal channel
spacing or low channel count have a low efficacy and the use of EDFA amplifiers with its limited bandwidth
does not contribute to solve the problem.
Source: ICP Science
Fig. D.2 Results of Four Wave Mixing nonlinearity.
More promising is the technique which uses orthogonal polarization for the optical carriers eliminating the
FWM because its orthogonality. This technique will improve the FWM but the system becomes more
sensitive to the PMD.
169
Presence of External Electromagnetic Fields

The fibre optics experiments some degree of impairment due to the presence of external electric or
magnetic fields. Normally known as Pockels Effect, it can be considered also another variant of the Kerr
effect because the presence of those external fields provokes changes in the Refractive Index.
In a few words, the presence of electric or magnetic fields transversal to the fibre cable provokes a
change in the Refraction Index (RI), which increases following the direction of the field. In consequence,
the photon density trends to increase following the RI; this provokes a certain phase shift and not all
the polarization planes have the same RI and PMD increases. In addition, a certain degree of rotation
of the light polarization plane caused by the birefringence will occur.
Source: IBM Photonics Research
Fig. D.3 The Induced Phase Shift in fibre optics with Transverse Electrical Field
Some Authors have described, also, a certain degree of Faraday’s rotation measured using a polarized
light. This becomes relevant with the recent transmission systems which uses coherent detectors.
In AC power lines, this effect has lower importance than the DC lines because the electric and magnetic
fields are periodical and its effect is self-cancelled. In DC power lines both electrical, magnetic fields are
constant along the power line, and this effect should be considered.
In general, the presence of external electric field will be noted as an increment of the PMD more
important in DC lines.
on the positive side, the effect of electric field over optical devices is appreciable in fibre optics but is
more intense in some crystals like Lithium Niobate. This effect is applied in a complete dielectric voltage
sensor that his working principle is illustrated in the next figure:
Source: NTT Research
Fig. D.4 Electromagnetic Sensor

Measuring the phase shift with an interferometer is easy to measure the magnitude of the electric
field. In addition, it’s large bandwidth makes it suitable for voltage sensors from DC to hundreds of
Megahertz.
170
The Inelastic Scattering

When the light travels inside transparent solids, fibre optics as an example, experiences some degree
of energy absorption due to the presence of particles much smaller than the wavelength of the light.
This is the Rayleigh’s scattering and his cause is the elastic collision of the photons with the particles in
the media which provokes that the incident light is diverted in many directions and some of that are
absorbed by the cladding or exits the fibre core. This is the principal attenuation factor in fibre optics.
In addition, some degree of inelastic collisions are produced and, because of that, new wavelengths
appears with energy levels slightly lower. Those internally generated wavelengths can propagate along
the fibre backward, Brillouin Scattering, or both, forward and backward, Raman Scattering.
Brillouin Scattering, Natural and Stimulated

From the perspective of the Solid-State Physics, Brillouin scattering is an effect caused when an incident
photon is converted into a scattered photon of slightly lower energy, propagating in the backward
direction, and the absorbed energy normally is released in form of quasiparticle, Phonon. The phonons
manifest his presence by mechanical vibrational waves travelling across the fibre following the direction
of the incident power. Those phonons may be absorbed by other light, in the appropriate wavelength,
producing amplification.
The effect can occur spontaneously even at low optical powers, and the frequency difference between
the incident light and the Brillouin scattered is function off the temperature inside the fibre. In
consequence, a completely dielectric temperature sensor can be build using that principle.
For higher optical powers, it can be a stimulated effect (SBS), where the optical fields substantially
contribute to the presence of backward energy. Above a certain threshold of injected power, in a
medium, stimulated Brillouin scattering can reflect most of the power of an incident beam. This process
involves a strong nonlinear optical gain for the back-reflected wave, which considerably attenuates the
incident one.
Source: (4)
Fig. D.5 SBS effect in a fibre when the launched power changes from +30 to +32.5 dBm
SBS introduces the most stringent power limit for the amplification and the passive propagation of
narrow-band optical signals in fibres. In order to avoid the Brillouin threshold, it is possible to increase
the bandwidth of the light beyond the Brillouin gain bandwidth, reduce the fibre length, concatenate
fibres with slightly different Brillouin shift, or, in high-power active fibre devices, exploit the longitudinally
varying temperature.
171
Source: (10)
Fig.D.6 Back reflection versus output power for three fibres with launched power up to
+27 dBm
Actually, the SBS effect is used in distributed sensors that uses the fibre itself. For silica fibres, the
Brillouin frequency shift is in the order of 10 to 20 GHz with the bandwidth up to 50 MHz and is a linear
function of the fibre temperature:
߭஻ ሺܶሻ ൌ ߭஻଴ ൅ ‫ ்ܥ‬ሺܶ െ ܶ଴ ሻ
Where CT is the Frequency-Temperature coefficient and ưB0 is the Brillouin frequency shift at reference
temperature T0
Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS)

Stimulated Raman Scattering is based on similar principle of Brillouin Scattering but here, the interaction
is similarly strong in forward and backward direction.
The Solid-State Physics consider that, after an inelastic collision, the result is a scattered wavelength,
propagating in both directions, and the absorbed energy is in form of optical phonons.
SRS can act over a long length of fibre and can lead to a substantial transfer of power to a Raman-
shifted wavelength component, which typically has a shift of 10 to 15 THz.
In a fibre carrying some optical power, both phenomena appear and the differences can be found in
the different spectra distribution of each contribution. For a certain launched wavelength, we found SBS
wavelength travelling backward with a frequency shift of 10 – 20 GHz and SRS wavelengths shifted 10
– 15 THz. In addition, bandwidth of each one is completely different, 50 MHz for SBS and up to 5 THz
for SRS.
Source: (4)
Figure D.7 The Raman gain in function of the pumping frequency offset
172
From engineering point of view, both SBS and SRS have the impairments and useful characteristics
resumed in the next table:
SBS SRS
• Suitable for applications where a single • Large Bandwidth allows its use as Telecom
wavelength is present in each direction signals amplifier
• Phonons propagates only in the same • Optical phonons propagate in both directions, the
direction of the pumping wavelength gain is effective in both directions
PROS • Excellent performance as a distributed • The frequency shift allows the filter separation of
temperature sensor the pumping wavelength
• High Peak Gain around 90 dB (Phonon Gain) • Gain Peak around 60 dB with some bandwidth
• High reflected power allows its use as a laser • Suitable for large bandwidth signal distributed
resonator amplifier
• Increase the noise level in multiwavelength

• Limits the power transmission
systems
• Lower bandwidth, not suitable for Telecom • The high energy of the pumping carriers, may
signals increase the Self Focusing effect
CONS
• low frequency shift, not easy to separate from • Common silica fibres,SMF-28, have poor Raman
pumping wavelength Gain
• Unidirectional Gain • Raman Gain depends on the effective area
Appendix D References:
(1) Z. Liu, G. Ferrier, X. Bao, X. Zeng, Q. Yu, A. Kim. Brillouin Scattering Based Distributed Fibre
Optic Temperature Sensing for Fire Detection
(2) AN 4091, Corning Glass, Inc. Explanation of the Sources of Variation in Optical Fibre Effective
Group Index of Refraction Values.
(3) O.V. Butova,*, K.M. Golanta, A.L. Tomashuka, M.J.N. van Stralenb, A.H.E. Breuls. Refractive
index dispersion of doped silica for fibre optics
(4) Dr. Rüdiger Paschotta. Encyclopaedia of Laser Physics & Technology.
(5) L. de la Cruz-May, E. B. Mejía, O. Benavides, J. Vásquez Jiménez, J. Castro-Chacón and M. May-
Alarcón. Novel Technique for Obtaining the Raman Gain Efficiency of Silica Fibres
(6) G. Ravet, M. Wuilpart, J.-C. Froidure, P. Mégret, M. Blondel. Measurement of the distributed
Raman Gain spectrum in single-mode optical fibres.
(7) Q. Lin and Govind P. Agrawal. Raman response function for silica fibres.
(8) S Mauger, L Bergé and S Skupin. Self-focusing versus stimulated Brillouin scattering of laser
pulses in fused silica.
(9) G. Ronald Hadley and Arlee V. Smith. Self-focusing in High-Power Optical Fibres.
(10) Moshe Tur, Eran Herman, Alexander Kozhekin, and Yochay Danziger. Stimulated
Brillouin Scattering in High-Order Mode Fibres Employed in Dispersion Management Modules.
(11) Avner Peleg, Michael Chertkov, and Ildar Gabitov. Inelastic interchannel collisions of
pulses in optical fibres in the presence of third-order dispersion.
173

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D2/B2

Design, deployment and maintenance

Deployment & Commissioning

1. Introduction and background ....................................................................... 13

2. Technology overview .................................................................................... 19

2.7.7 ITU-T G.657B bend insensitive fibre .................................................................................................. 48

4. Deployment & commissioning ..................................................................... 81

5.4.3 Grounding issues ............................................................................................................................. 103

6. Conclusion ................................................................................................... 125

APPENDIX a. Definitions, abreviations and symbols ........................................ 127

APPENDIX B. Links and references .................................................................... 129

APPENDIX C. Survey results ............................................................................... 131

APPENDIX D. Non-linear effects in fibre optics ................................................. 167

Figures and Illustrations

Figure 4.10 Protection by cradle blocks method [B16] .................................................................. 93

1. Introduction and background

1.1 Motivating factors

1.3 Scope of the document

Figure 1.1 Scope of the document

1.4 CIGRE previous publications on the topic

1.4.1 The 1980’s

1.4.2 The 1990’s

1.4.3 The 2000’s

1.5.1 Worldwide feedback

Africa America Asia Europe Oceania

Figure 1.2: Survey Participation

1.5.2 Profile of participants

Figure 1.3: Profile of participants

1.5.3 Highlights of survey

2.2 History of opgw

Figure 2.2 OPGW Patent

2.3 Overhead fibre optic cables

2.3.1.1 Self-Supporting Cables

OPGW (OPtical Ground Wire) - A dual function cable which

Figure 2.3 Example of OPGW [B20]

OPPC (OPtical Phase Conductor) – A dual function cable

MASS (Metal Armoured Self Supporting) - A separate

ADSS (All Dielectric Self Supporting) – A separate self-

Figure 2.6 Example of ADSS [B20]

2.3.1.2 Attached Cables

Figure 2.7 Wrapped cables [B20]

Lash cable cross section

Figure 2.8 Lashed cable installation and cable cross section

2.4 Cable structures

2.4.1.1 Aluminium Pipe Designs

Figure 2.9: OPGW Design: Aluminium Pipe [B20]

General Benefits of Aluminium Pipe Designs:

2.4.1.2 Stainless Steel Tube Designs

Stranded Tube – Stainless Steel Aluminium-covered Stainless Steel Central Tube

Figure 2.11 Stainless Steel Design: Stranded Tube [B20]

Figure 2.12 Stainless Steel Design: Central Tube [B20]

o An even number of layers can present some cancellation effects to be treated on a

General Drawbacks of Stainless Steel Tube Designs:

2.4.1.3 Slotted Core and Spacer Tube Designs

Slotted Core Spacer Tube

 Good mechanical protection to crush

2.4.2 OPPC Cable Design

 No other overhead fibre cable is practical,

 Suspended from the tower by an insulator.

General Benefits of OPPC Designs:

General Drawbacks of OPPC Designs:

2.4.3 General Design Considerations

2.5 Hardware / accessories design features

Good mechanical protection to crush

No other overhead fibre cable is practical,

Suspended from the tower by an insulator.

Suspension assembly (suspension towers) i.e. twisted double eye, HAES.

LC 1.25 PC APC IEC 61754-20 0.15dB Standardized for SFP modules

E-2000 2.5 mm PC APC IEC 61754-15 0.15dB Spring loaded shutter

Connectors are manufactured normally in two or three degrees of quality.

Lines Design: Choice of application (OPGW/OPPC/ADSS/MASS); mechanical and electrical

Construction: Planning; installation method; safety set-ups; location of pulling equipment;