CIGRE - Compact DC Overhead Lines

B2
Overhead lines
TECHNICAL
BROCHURE
Compact DC overhead lines
Reference: 831
March 2021
TECHNICAL BROCHURE
Compact DC overhead lines

WG B2.62
Members
J. IGLESIAS, Convenor ES S. STEEVENS, Secretary DE

J. A. JARDINI BR G. PERSSON SE
L. BARTHOLD US C. WANG CA
D. WOODFORD CA D. LIEBHABER US
R. STEPHEN ZA E. MARSHALL ZA
T. YAMANAKA JP D. DOUGLASS US
A. USEROS ES D. LOUDON NO
M. SALIMI CA S. IKOMA JP
J. LUNDQUIST SE P. RODRÍGUEZ ES
N. CHEN CN G. GHEORGHITA RO
Reviewers
H. LUGSCHITZ AT A. ANAND IN
G. WU CN W. TROPPAUER AT
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ISBN : 978-2-85873-536-5
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TB 831 - Compact DC overhead lines
Executive summary
As the need for high voltage direct current (HVDC) links within or overlaying existing AC systems and
providing high capacity is more widely recognized, rights of way (ROW) for those lines become
increasingly difficult to obtain. It is therefore appropriate that CIGRE undertakes studies leading to
greater compaction of DC lines in order to reduce their visual and environmental impact (making
regulatory approval easier) and to allow their construction on narrower rights of way or possibly shared
with public transport routes.
This brochure explains the concept of DC line compaction for reduced ROW and/or height. These two
aspects are often critical to gain the necessary permissions for the line. But reducing the horizontal
distances and heights results in increased electric fields and other effects which may become the
limiting factor and are necessary to manage in the design of a compact line. Therefore, compacting
simply means maximizing the power transmitted on a given ROW cross section or, inversely,
minimizing that cross section for a given power transfer requirement.
In general, HVDC links are designed to transmit high amount of power over long distances, or to serve
as system interconnectors. And both, system interconnectors and high power capacity lines, require
high levels of reliability and availability. Therefore, aspects like insulation coordination and live
maintenance must be kept in mind.
For DC power lines, increased power flow can only be realised by increasing the current through the
conductors and/or increasing line voltage. In AC it can also be done by bundle expansion and phase
compaction due to the variation of impedance. So compaction has not the same effect in AC or DC
lines, and the constraints associated with compaction are also different (corona-related effects,
clearances, arrangements…). This brochure covers the compact DC lines; while another working
group (WG B2.63) covers the AC compact theory and practice.
In addition to the theory, the brochure includes actual calculations of electric parameters for different
pole configurations. Note that the parameters used as limits in the different countries need to be
adopted as a whole, because they are interrelated. It is not possible to use one limit from one country
and another limit from another in one line design, unless the designer is aware of the interaction
between the parameters.
Case studies on line compaction designs are described with relation to pole compaction and pole
rearrangement. Voltage upgrading is also treated in this brochure, and some case studies are
considered.
The aim of the brochure is to provide the design engineer with an understanding of the electrical
parameters and methods required in designing compact DC lines.
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Contents
Executive summary ............................................................................................................. 2
1. Overview .................................................................................................................... 8
1.1 Definition and need for compaction......................................................................................................... 8
1.2 Right of way (easement or servitude) reduction ..................................................................................... 8
1.3 Height reduction ........................................................................................................................................ 9
1.4 Considerations for compaction ................................................................................................................ 9
1.5 Sustainability ........................................................................................................................................... 10
2. Corona and its effects ............................................................................................. 11

2.1 Corona and its effects on compaction................................................................................................... 11
2.2 Audible Noise (AN) .................................................................................................................................. 11
2.3 Radio Interference (RI) ............................................................................................................................ 12
2.4 Losses ...................................................................................................................................................... 12
2.5 Ground Level Electric Field Effects ....................................................................................................... 12
2.6 Underbuilt Ground Wires ........................................................................................................................ 14
2.7 Potential Role of Asymmetry .................................................................................................................. 15
3. Insulation co-ordination .......................................................................................... 16

3.1 Insulation co-ordination for HVAC and HVDC lines ............................................................................. 16
3.2 Insulator pollution characteristics under AC and DC........................................................................... 17
3.3 Principle of insulator dimensioning DC................................................................................................. 17
3.4 Insulators for DC lines ............................................................................................................................ 18
3.5 Selection of air clearances ..................................................................................................................... 19
3.5.1 Temporary overvoltages .................................................................................................................... 19
3.5.2 Slow-front overvoltages ..................................................................................................................... 20
3.5.3 Fast-front overvoltages ...................................................................................................................... 20
3.5.4 Overvoltage withstand ....................................................................................................................... 20
3.5.5 Tower top and midspan clearances ................................................................................................... 20
3.5.6 Safety clearance ................................................................................................................................ 20
3.6 Insulation coordination for neutral conductor ...................................................................................... 21
4. Pole configuration, conductor, tower and hardware ............................................. 22

4.1 Pole configurations ................................................................................................................................. 22
4.2 Conductor and ground wires selection ................................................................................................. 23
4.2.1 System costs ..................................................................................................................................... 23
4.2.2 Conductor Selection........................................................................................................................... 24
4.2.3 Aditional investigations ...................................................................................................................... 27
4.2.4 Conductor selection example ............................................................................................................. 28
4.2.5 Shield Wire selection ......................................................................................................................... 30
4.3 Insulation and hardware ......................................................................................................................... 30
4.3.1 V, Inverted V and T Sets .................................................................................................................... 31
4.3.2 Y-Sets ................................................................................................................................................ 31
4.3.3 Semi-Anchored Sets .......................................................................................................................... 33
4.3.4 Horizontal post insulators................................................................................................................... 33
4.3.1 Insulated cross-arms.......................................................................................................................... 34
4.3.2 Mechanical Aspects ........................................................................................................................... 36
4.3.3 Electrical Aspects .............................................................................................................................. 36
3
4.4 Tower and foundations design ............................................................................................................... 37

4.4.1 Tower design considerations ............................................................................................................. 38
4.4.2 Tower design Options ........................................................................................................................ 39
4.5 Anti Galloping considerations ................................................................................................................ 41
4.5.1 T-2 conductors ................................................................................................................................... 42
4.5.2 Interphase spacers ............................................................................................................................ 42
4.5.3 Air flow spoilers .................................................................................................................................. 42
4.5.4 Torsional control devices ................................................................................................................... 43
5. Live line work maintenance techniques ................................................................. 44

5.1 Difference between HVAC and HVDC Live Line Work .......................................................................... 44
5.2 Insulating tool method ............................................................................................................................ 44
5.3 Barehand Method .................................................................................................................................... 45
5.4 Minimum Approach Distance (MAD) for HVDC ..................................................................................... 45
5.4.1 Theoretical Method ............................................................................................................................ 45
5.4.2 Experimental Method ......................................................................................................................... 47
5.5 Tools and Equipment .............................................................................................................................. 48
5.6 Utilities Experience.................................................................................................................................. 49
5.6.1 Manitoba Hydro (Canada).................................................................................................................. 49
5.6.2 Electric Power Development Co. and Kansai Electric Power Co. (Japan) ......................................... 51
5.6.3 Eskom (South Africa) ......................................................................................................................... 54
6. Construction techniques ......................................................................................... 58
7. Influence of compaction in the line electrical design............................................ 59

7.1 Insulation Co-ordination ......................................................................................................................... 59
7.1.1 Operating Voltage Withstand ............................................................................................................. 60
7.1.2 Switching Surge Withstand ................................................................................................................ 60
7.2 Corona Effect ........................................................................................................................................... 63
7.2.1 Conductor surface gradient................................................................................................................ 63
7.2.2 Radio interference ............................................................................................................................. 65
7.2.3 Audible noise ..................................................................................................................................... 67
7.2.4 How to consider the conductor height ................................................................................................ 68
7.2.5 Assymetrical ROW ............................................................................................................................. 69
7.3 Right-of-way ............................................................................................................................................. 69
7.3.1 ROW for noise requirements ............................................................................................................. 69
7.3.2 Final ROW ......................................................................................................................................... 70
7.4 Electric Field ............................................................................................................................................ 70
7.5 Phenomena sensitivity to parameters ................................................................................................... 73
7.6 Electrical Line Design Criteria ................................................................................................................ 74
7.6.1 Summary of the Inquiry ...................................................................................................................... 74
7.6.2 Overvoltages...................................................................................................................................... 75
7.6.3 Insulation Co-ordination ..................................................................................................................... 76
7.6.4 Corona Effects ................................................................................................................................... 77
7.6.5 Fields ................................................................................................................................................. 77
8. Case studies ............................................................................................................ 79

8.1 Application of Y-Shaped suspension insulator strings in Japan ........................................................ 79
8.2 Comparison of HVDC layouts in Germany ............................................................................................ 80
8.3 Rotating Composite Insulated Cross-Arm (CICA) design for UHVDC line in China .......................... 82
8.4 Design of the ±500 kV Bipole 3 in Manitoba .......................................................................................... 86
8.5 Study of new compact HVDC line portion in Spain .............................................................................. 89
8.6 Comparison of HVDC layouts in Sumatra ............................................................................................. 91
4
8.7 Development of HVDC Transmission System in India ......................................................................... 92

8.7.1 ± 500 kV HVDC Transmission Lines .................................................................................................. 92
8.7.2 ± 800 kV UHVDC Transmission Lines ............................................................................................... 93
8.7.3 ± 320 kV Multi-pole HVDC Transmission Lines ................................................................................. 95
9. Voltage upgrading ................................................................................................... 97

9.1 Electric and mechanical concerns ......................................................................................................... 97
9.2 Upgrade of the Pacific DC intertie, in US............................................................................................... 98
9.2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 98
9.2.2 History................................................................................................................................................ 98
9.2.3 Electrical Concerns ............................................................................................................................ 99
9.2.4 Mechanical Concerns ...................................................................................................................... 101
9.2.5 Environmental .................................................................................................................................. 102
9.2.6 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 102
10. Conclusion ..............................................................................................................103
APPENDIX A. Definitions, abbreviations and symbols ..................................................104

A.1. General terms ........................................................................................................................................ 104
A.2. Specific terms ........................................................................................................................................ 104
APPENDIX B. Links and references ................................................................................108
Figures and Illustrations

Figure 2.1 Typical audible noise profile under an HVDC Line ............................................................................... 11
Figure 2.2 Typical radio noise profile under an HVDC Line ................................................................................... 12
Figure 2.3 Example use of under-built ground wires ............................................................................................. 14
Figure 2.4 Effect of underbuilt shield wires in allowing higher pole voltages ......................................................... 15
Figure 3.1. A comparison of indicative insulation distance requirements with respect to switching overvoltages
(blue), lightning overvoltages (red) and pollution (green) for AC and DC systems ................................................ 16
Figure 3.2 Schematic representation of dry band arc propagation under DC and AC voltage .............................. 17
Figure 3.3 Fundamental approach to the insulator dimensioning process ............................................................. 18
Figure 4.1 Possible pole arrangements, simple configurarions ............................................................................. 22
Figure 4.2 Typical configurations for bipole scheme.............................................................................................. 23
Figure 4.3 Load duration curve .............................................................................................................................. 26
Figure 4.4 Inverted V and T (pollution) sets for the accommodation of very high creepage distance on “limited”
tower clearance for 533, 560 and 600 kV DC applications [B41]. .......................................................................... 31
Figure 4.5 Y-set for line uprating 245 to 420 kV AC with BSL of 950 kV [B41]. ..................................................... 31
Figure 4.6 Case study for the structure of Y-shaped insulator strings ................................................................... 32
Figure 4.7 Y-shaped suspension insulator strings ................................................................................................. 32
Figure 4.8 Semi-anchored set consisting of a compression and a double tension insulator string. ....................... 33
Figure 4.9 Horizontal post insulator. ...................................................................................................................... 33
Figure 4.10 Suspended line post insulator. ........................................................................................................... 34
Figure 4.11 Horizontal (Pivoting) V Assembly [B41]. ............................................................................................. 35
Figure 4.12 Fixed Base Horizontal V Assemblies [B41] ........................................................................................ 36
Figure 4.13 Examples of towers and arrangements for DC ................................................................................... 37
Figure 4.14 Clearances. Climbing corridor ............................................................................................................ 39
Figure 4.15 Examples of DC tower designs .......................................................................................................... 40
Figure 4.16 T-2 conductor ..................................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 4.17 Example of using Interphase Spacer to Prevent Galloping [B45] ....................................................... 42
Figure 4.18 Air flow spoiler [B44] ........................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 4.19 Example of Torsional Control Device for Twin Bundle Conductors [B46] ........................................... 43
Figure 5.1 Insulating Tool Method from a Ladder for Insulator Replacement (HVDC) ........................................... 45
Figure 5.2 Barehand Method from a Ladder (left) and Insulated Aerial Device (right) ........................................... 45
Figure 5.3 Typical withstand voltages for switching surges [B51] .......................................................................... 46
Figure 5.4 Typical Test Setup to Determine MAD [B52] ........................................................................................ 47
Figure 5.5 Four Test Scenarios for ±660 kV Yindong HVDC Project ..................................................................... 48
Figure 5.6 Insulated Aerial Boom shown with Sheds and Inhibitor Electrode ........................................................ 50
Figure 5.7 Electrode lines – Manitoba Hydro ......................................................................................................... 51
Figure 5.8 Detection of faulty insulator for V-shaped insulator strings ................................................................... 52
5
Figure 5.9 Inspection of insulator strings by small-sized cameras ......................................................................... 52

Figure 5.10 Pre-Check and calibration of the detector .......................................................................................... 53
Figure 5.11 Automated Faulty Insulator Detector for tension insulator strings ...................................................... 53
Figure 5.12 Automated Faulty Insulator Detector for suspension insulator string .................................................. 53
Figure 5.13 Checking the leakage current displayed on the monitor ..................................................................... 53
Figure 5.14 Cahora Bassa 533 kV DC line ............................................................................................................ 54
Figure 5.15 Multiple broken disks due to vandalism .............................................................................................. 54
Figure 5.16 Helicopter based aerial washing under live conditions ....................................................................... 55
Figure 5.17 Suspension insulator replacement using helicopter underslung technique and hydraulic lifting
machine ................................................................................................................................................................. 56
Figure 5.18 Strain insulator replacement using cradle and thread and trunnions .................................................. 57
Figure 7.1 Basic HVDC line [B11].......................................................................................................................... 59
Figure 7.2 Conductor to tower clearances ............................................................................................................. 61
Figure 7.3 Conductor to object clearance (add 4.5 m of a truck to get conductor-to-ground distance).................. 61
Figure 7.4 Gradient as function of the number of conductors per pole .................................................................. 64
Figure 7.5 Gradient as function of the bundle spacing (basic case) ...................................................................... 65
Figure 7.6 Conductor surface gradient as a function of pole-spacing and conductor height parallel to ground
(minimum and average) ......................................................................................................................................... 65
Figure 7.7 Radio Interference (positive conductor only) ........................................................................................ 67
Figure 7.8 Audible noise (positive conductor only) ................................................................................................ 68
Figure 7.9 Audible noise different G calculation .................................................................................................... 69
Figure 7.10 Electric field and ionic current ............................................................................................................. 71
Figure 7.11 Electric field and ionic current ............................................................................................................. 72
Figure 7.12 Perception of electric field .................................................................................................................. 73
Figure 7.13 Phenomena sensitivity analysis .......................................................................................................... 74
Figure 8.1 Y-shaped insulator string of 500 kV Kii Channel HVDC Link ................................................................ 79
Figure 8.2 Comparison between Y-shaped insulator strings and V-shaped insulator strings ................................ 80
Figure 8.3 a) Exemplary tower design for a bipolar system with return path by earth; b) Exemplary tower design
for bipolar system with metallic return ................................................................................................................... 80
Figure 8.4 DC system configurations for 4 GW transmission power and ±500 kV operating voltage .................... 81
Figure 8.5 a) Tower design with one bipole system; b) Tower design with two bipole system .............................. 81
Figure 8.6. Lingzhou-Shaoxing ±800 kV UHVDC transmission line ...................................................................... 82
Figure 8.7. Composition of rotation CICA .............................................................................................................. 83
Figure 8.8. Drive and balance process by tension ................................................................................................. 83
Figure 8.9. Tower-line coupling model with six towers and seven lines ................................................................. 84
Figure 8.10. Weather Zone of Bipole III in Manitoba ............................................................................................. 87
Figure 8.11. Suspension Tower Geometries. Bipole III in Manitoba ...................................................................... 88
Figure 8.12 Example of HVDC conversion of a 400 kV line .................................................................................. 89
Figure 8.13 Comparison of structure height reduction from 42 to 22 m. Portion of plan-profile ............................. 90
Figure 8.14 Bipole configuration for ±300 kV Nominal voltage .............................................................................. 91
Figure 8.15 Monopole configuration for ±500 kV Nominal voltage ........................................................................ 91
Figure 8.16 ± 500 kV HVDC transmission line in India .......................................................................................... 93
Figure 8.17 ± 800 kV UHVDC Biswanath Chariyali – Agra Line ............................................................................ 94
Figure 8.18 ± 800 kV UHVDC Champa - Kurukshetra Line (with DMR) ................................................................ 94
Figure 8.19 ± 320 kV Multi-pole HVDC line in India............................................................................................... 96
Figure 9.1 Map of the Pacific DC Intertie (Celilo-Sylmar) ...................................................................................... 98
Figure 9.2 Typical Tower Types Found Throughout the PDCI ............................................................................ 101
Tables
Table 2.1 Statistical results for +/- 800 kV E-fields (kV/m) at ground level (50% likelihood values) ....................... 13
Table 2.2 Effect of independent positive or negative voltage increase on performance issues of compact HVDC
lines. ...................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Table 4.1 Transmission line cost constants (cost in US$ per km) ......................................................................... 25
Table 4.2 Transmission line cost constants (cost in US$ per km) ......................................................................... 28
Table 4.3 Values to compare alternatives ............................................................................................................. 29
Table 4.4 Values to compare alternatives ............................................................................................................. 30
Table 4.5 Galloping Reported Cases vs. Number of Loops [B42] ......................................................................... 41
Table 5.1 Summary of Test Results for ±660 kV Yindong HVDC Project .............................................................. 48
Table 5.2 Minimal Approach Distance (MAD) in Japan ......................................................................................... 52
Table 5.3 Clearance (MAD) calculation parameters. ............................................................................................. 55
Table 5.4 Results from research report, Cahora Bassa Clearance and Live Line Upgradeability,
RES/RR/10/31769, dated 27 March 2010 ............................................................................................................. 56
Table 7.1 Air clearances for operating voltages (m) .............................................................................................. 60
Table 7.2 Number of Insulator and String Length (P-G). ....................................................................................... 60
Table 7.3 Gap factor k for P-P clearances determination ...................................................................................... 62
Table 7.4 Clearances for switching surge P-G and P-P ........................................................................................ 62
6
Table 7.5 pole spacing for different towers type .................................................................................................... 62

Table 7.6 Alternatives to be evaluated .................................................................................................................. 63
Table 7.7 Conductor surface gradient for two different bundle spacing (case 5) ................................................... 69
Table 7.8 ROW for RI, AN and clearance to edge (m) .......................................................................................... 70
Table 7.9 Answers received for overvoltages ........................................................................................................ 75
Table 7.10 Answers received for insulation coordination ....................................................................................... 76
Table 7.11 Answers received for corona effects .................................................................................................... 77
Table 7.12 Answers Received for fields ................................................................................................................ 77
Table 8.1. Design conditions ................................................................................................................................. 83
Table 8.2. Rotation angle (deg) ............................................................................................................................. 84
Table 8.3. Economic analysis of rotation FRP cross arm (RMB) ........................................................................... 85
Table 8.4. Electrical Clearance for Insulator Swing-Out. Manitoba Bipole III. ........................................................ 87
Table 8.5. Salient Technical Particulars of ± 500 kV HVDC line in India ............................................................... 93
Table 8.6. Salient Technical Particulars of ± 800 kV HVDC line in India ............................................................... 94
Table 8.7. Salient Technical Particulars of ± 320 kV Multi-pole HVDC line in India ............................................... 95
Table A.1 - Definition of general terms used in this TB ........................................................................................ 104

Table A.2 - Definition of technical terms used in this TB ..................................................................................... 104
Equations
Equation 4.1 .......................................................................................................................................................... 23
Equation 4.2 .......................................................................................................................................................... 24
Equation 4.3 .......................................................................................................................................................... 24
Equation 4.4 .......................................................................................................................................................... 24
Equation 4.5 .......................................................................................................................................................... 24
Equation 4.6 .......................................................................................................................................................... 24
Equation 4.7 .......................................................................................................................................................... 25
Equation 4.8 .......................................................................................................................................................... 25
Equation 4.9 .......................................................................................................................................................... 25
Equation 4.10 ........................................................................................................................................................ 25
Equation 4.11 ........................................................................................................................................................ 26
Equation 4.12 ........................................................................................................................................................ 26
Equation 4.13 ........................................................................................................................................................ 26
Equation 4.14 ........................................................................................................................................................ 26
Equation 4.15 ........................................................................................................................................................ 26
Equation 4.16 ........................................................................................................................................................ 27
Equation 4.17 ........................................................................................................................................................ 27
Equation 4.18 ........................................................................................................................................................ 27
Equation 5.1 .......................................................................................................................................................... 46
Equation 5.2 .......................................................................................................................................................... 46
Equation 5.3 .......................................................................................................................................................... 46
Equation 7.1 .......................................................................................................................................................... 61
Equation 7.2 .......................................................................................................................................................... 63
Equation 7.3 .......................................................................................................................................................... 63
Equation 7.4 .......................................................................................................................................................... 63
Equation 7.5 .......................................................................................................................................................... 64
Equation 7.6 .......................................................................................................................................................... 64
Equation 7.7 .......................................................................................................................................................... 65
Equation 7.8 .......................................................................................................................................................... 67
Equation 7.9 .......................................................................................................................................................... 68
7
1. Overview
A compaction of an overhead line can be considered as a reduction of the line’s cross-section. This
reduction implies smaller horizontal and vertical distances of the line, which has consequences in
different aspects, like corona effects and others. This chapter introduces the general aspects to be
taken into consideration for line compaction.
1.1 Definition and need for compaction

For the purposes of this brochure, and based on the definition of compact lines provided by the
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) [B1], a compact power line (AC or DC) is a power line for
which the distances between the phases or the poles are much less than those used in conventional
designs. This is typically made possible either using special insulators or reducing the over-voltages
applied between phases or poles, or reducing the flashover reliability of the line. Note that the concept
of “compaction” which implies multiple circuits in a single right of way (ROW) is excluded from this
brochure.
For DC power lines, compaction may be required due to two main reasons:
 Right of way (easement or servitude) limitations – the obtaining of servitudes for placement of
lines is becoming more difficult world wide. It is often required that large capacity lines are
placed in the same servitude width of previous smaller lines, or in corridors that need to be
shared with other infrastructures like railroads or higways. Compact lines which permit the line
to fit into the smaller servitude width are often the solution.
 Visual impact – Compacting poles usually results in a lower visual impact (lower heigth and
width), which may be more pleasing to the public. This, in turn may result in more acceptance
from the public for the line.
For AC power lines, compaction may also be required to increase the power flow. The reduction of
phase spacing (which can be achieved by reducing the distance between bundle centres or by
increasing the bundle diameters), will result in an increase in the surge impedance loading of the line,
permitting an increase in power flow down the line. This is not the case in DC lines, where inductance
(L) and capacitance (C) play a secondary role, and the reduction of pole spacing does not implies an
increase in the power flow. However, in DC corona and field phenomena are much more important
than L and C and can be a limitation to the ROW or height.
This document focuses in compact DC overhead line designs. More detailed explanations for general
DC overhead line designs can be found in [B2].
1.2 Right of way (easement or servitude) reduction

The reduction in the servitude width can be achieved in many different ways. The servitude width is
generally determined by the blow-out of the conductor from the centre line. In order to reduce the
blow-out of the conductor the following can be done:
 Use of V instead of I string insulators – the V string will reduce the movement of the insulator
under wind conditions. In the case of the I string, the insulator moves increasing the blow out
and hence the servitude width requirement. Other arrangements, such as insulated
crossarms, Y sets, inverted V configurations, etc., can also be used to limit the conductor
blow-out, depending on the case (see Chapter 4).
 Use of shorter spans – shorter spans limit the blow-out of the conductor as the conductor is
fixed at each tower point. The drawback of this method is that the increase in the number of
towers (although the loads and height requirements are lower) increases the cost of the line.
Note that the conductor blow-out also depends on the conductor characteristics and
mechanical conditions, mainly tension. Particular bundling configurations or conductor
constructions (compact or motion resistant) can reduce the wind force and thus the blow-out.
 Use of vertical pole configuration – if the pole configuration is vertical as opposed to flat, the
blowout of all phases is the same as would be with the centre phase on a flat configuration.
This reduces the structure width and the servitude width required by blow-out.
 Reducing the distance between poles – the reduction between poles can be used in any pole
configuration be it verticle, flat or asymetrical. The reduction in the phase spacing will reduce
the structure width and servitude width required by blowout in the case of delta or flat
configurations and reduce the tower height (improve visual impact).
8
Note that for compact DC lines in narrow corridors, it is likely that the maximum admissible values for
the corona-related effects (electric field, ion current, audible noise, etc.) at the edge of the ROW be the
governing aspects of the line design.
1.3 Height reduction

As mentioned before, the total height of the power line is often a limitation, typically due to the visual
impact, but also because of other restrictions like proximity to airports or wild life considerations, for
instance.
The variables affecting HVDC tower height and occupancy are inter-related, so an overall design
assessment is required to determine the most efficient solution for each line or portion of a line.
However, generally, for a given voltage, and considering the minimum ground clearance according to
this voltage and/or the ground effects limits (like electric field or ion current density at ground level),
the conductor sag is the main factor affecting tower height. It is also critical to reduce the conductor
blow-out as mentioned previously.
The principle recourses for reducing sag are (1) shortening spans and/or (2) using particular low sag
conductor designs (like high-temperature low sag - HTLS conductors, for example). The case study
shown in Chapter 8 illustrates the option of span reduction. It is possible to reduce drastically the
height of the towers increasing considerably the number of structures. But it is complicated to advance
figures of the economic implications, as these structures are much smaller and lighter (lower loads),
the foundations can be optimized, and the construction and assembling methods are also potentially
easier. Other aspects are critical in this case, like the type of towers and materials, pole arrangement,
etc. More examples can be revised [B3].
When reducing the height of the line to minimum levels, the electric field, ion current densities or
audible noise at ground may become limiting factors. Some possible means to reduce these effects
are proposed in in this document, including pole arrangements, asymmetrical designs or the use of
underbuilt ground wires below the pole conductors. These proposals affect the global height and land
occupation.
1.4 Considerations for compaction

When compacting an overhead DC line by reducing the distance between the poles, the following
aspects need to be taken into account.
 Air clearances. The flashover reliability may be affected by the pole to pole distance
reduction. It depends on the line configuration, and different design options are available to
cover this aspect, as can be seen through the document.
 Audible noise and Radio interference. By decreasing the distance between the poles or
increasing the bundle size with the same distance between bundle centres, will increase the
surface gradient on the conductors. This may result in increased audible noise as well as
radio interference. It is important to check that these levels are within acceptable standards.
 Ground Level Field Effects. Electric field and ion current density at ground level are also
dependent on the pole to pole distances.. The acceptable limits must not be exceeded. These
limits are often considered at the edge of the Right Of Way, so compact designs in narrow
corridors may be limited by this aspect.
 Live line maintenance. The reduction in pole spacing reduces the distances that live workers
can operate within. It may be necessary to change the method of working or maintain the line
when it is out of service.
 Insulation co-ordination. The ability of the line to withstand lightning and switching surges
will be impacted by the reduction in pole spacing. It is important that studies are undertaken to
determine if the surges to be experienced on the line will result in flashovers. If so measures
should be taken to ensure reliability of the line is maintained.
 Sub-span oscillation. In order to reduce the surface gradient on the conductors, the bundle
size may be reduced. This reduces audible noise and radio interference. However, if the
distance between the sub-conductors are less than 15 diameters in the horizontal plane, one
may experience sub-span oscillation which can cause damage. This can be mitigated by
increasing the number of spacer dampers and checks need to be undertaken to ensure the
bundle is mechanically without vibration issues.
 Pole to pole clashing. Galloping may cause flashover due to pole conductors moving out of
synchronisation (in phase). This may be exacerbated with the reduction in pole to pole
distance. In areas where galloping is likely, mitigation measures may be necessary, as
described in detail in Chapter 4.5.
9
 Other considerations. It has to be noted that in many cases the only possible solution for
HVDC line routing is sharing corridors with other infrastructures, like for example railways or
other transmission lines. The reduction of the distance between the poles may affect these
other infrastructures, and the interactions have to be considered: safety distances, induced
effects, maintenance requirements…
1.5 Sustainability
Sustainable Development (SD) is a development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs [B4]. SD is a broad concept,
with three pillars that include the Environment, Economy and Society. Our infrastructure systems,
including our transmission systems, significantly impact all three pillars. The transmission line industry
has the challenge of providing a path for electricity to support societal and economical needs and to
facilitate the use of renewable energy sources while balancing negative impacts to the environment
and society. Compact transmission design plays a significant role in the future of sustainable
transmission line development.
The following SD concepts are inherent to compact design:
1. Reduction in visual impact resulting from smaller, shorter structures, less vegetation clearing
and smaller ROW
2. Efficient land-use by increased power flow on relatively smaller ROW
3. Reduction in EMF resulting from smaller pole spacing
4. Avoidance of land disturbance of important areas like sensitive habitats, farmlands and
greenfield areas by use of existing (greyfield) ROW’s
5. Reduced power losses resulting from increased voltages in a given ROW.
This is not a comprehensive set of considerations for a SD transmission line design. The decision to
apply a compact design to a given situation is commonly determined by the strong need to consider
one or more of these aspects, although SD should be approached holistically considering all aspects
of the design and sustainability. The following references are suggested for more information on SD in
transmission line design: [B5], [B6], [B7], [B8], [B9].
10
2. Corona and its effects

Compaction of HVDC transmission lines will increase the importance of corona-related limits to design
issues, e.g. conductor size and configuration, pole-to-pole spacing, and suspension height. In
illustrating this, it will be useful to briefly review the nature of corona on DC overhead lines.
2.1 Corona and its effects on compaction

The distribution of voltage between overhead transmission line conductors and ground is quite
nonlinear, being the order of 20 to 27 kV/cm at the conductor surface and generally in the range from
10 kV/m to 25 kV/m at ground level. While conductors appear to be smooth, small irregularities such
as scratches or contamination, can cause, with sufficiently high applied voltage, local surface
gradients to exceed the voltage withstand capability of the surrounding air – thus causing very small,
momentary, and local electrical breakdowns of the air (corona). Corona is sometimes visible at night
with binoculars.
Since both AC and DC corona discharges are a source of audible noise, conductor-to-conductor
spacing must be large enough and/or applied voltage low enough to prevent noise levels at the right-
of-way edge from exceeding certain criteria. Corona-based interference with AM band radio reception
and, to a lesser extent, TV reception may also limit applied voltage for a given conductor configuration.
The air that formed a path for a corona discharge is left ionized at the polarity of the conductor itself.
With AC, ions which would normally be repelled by the conductor of like polarity, are drawn back to it
on the succeeding half-cycle – thus are of no concern with AC transmission lines. With DC they are
repelled by the conductor of origin and either dispersed laterally from the right-of-way, neutralized by
ions emanating from a pole of an opposite voltage, or flow to ground. Thus a space charge
environment is created consisting of a positive unipolar region adjacent to the positive pole, a negative
unipolar region adjacent to the negative pole and a bipolar region between the two poles in which both
positive and negative ions drift, mix and are partly neutralised through recombination. This space
charge environment severely affects the electric field perception at the ground level. At any given point
on the right of way ion density will vary over wide range even under seemingly identical weather
conditions. While no adverse health effects have been found from ion flow to ground where people are
present, high ion flow will exacerbate the annoyance effects of high ground-level electric fields [B10].
2.2 Audible Noise (AN)

The physics governing positive and negative corona discharges differ, positive bursts having slower
rates of rise and longer duration and, for that reason, being the dominant source of audible noise (AN)
as well as radio interference (RI) adjacent to HVDC lines. Unlike AC lines, AN from DC lines is highest
when conductors are dry. AN level are measured in decibels, adjusted for the normal hearing
frequency spectrum, dBA. Allowable levels are generally governed by local noise codes, which, for
power lines are assumed to apply at the edge of the right-of-way while conductors are at rest. Fall-off
of audible noise is generally rather gradual as illustrated in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1 Typical audible noise profile under an HVDC Line
11
The positive pole being the source of noise, the noise curve is offset by one half the pole-to-pole
spacing. While audible noise is not normally a design constraint for HVDC lines, the likelihood of its
being so increases slightly as compaction brings the right-of-way edge closer to the positive
conductor.
2.3 Radio Interference (RI)

During the era when AM radio predominated, RI from power lines was a major design concern. RI has
less an issue both due to reduction in popularity of AM broadcasting and because economics normally
result in conductors large enough to prevent serious RI interference. If, by virtue of compaction, DC
lines are allowed to occupy ROW’s adjacent to highways or populated area, RI may become a more
important design limitation, particularly since RI is much less sensitive to increases in conductor
diameter than AN [B11]. A typical lateral profile of radio interference is shown in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2 Typical radio noise profile under an HVDC Line
2.4 Losses
While compaction of HVDC lines may favour conductor configurations that offer less wind resistance
and/or lower sag, those constraints are not likely to override the economic incentive to provide
sufficient cross-section to keep losses at an acceptable level relative to transmitted power. An
exception may be the case where high-temperature low sag HTLS conductors are used to take full
advantage of their high-temperature tolerance, in which case losses may be relatively high.
2.5 Ground level electric field effects

With either AC or DC, ground level electric fields, if too strong, will cause sensation to persons
exposed to them – that sensation ranging from a slight tingling for weak ground-level fields to severe
annoyance for very strong fields.
For DC pole-to-pole voltage low enough to prevent corona on conductors, calculation of ground-level
electric fields is quite straightforward and accurate. However even with relatively low levels of corona,
some positive and some negative ions will eventually flow to ground under the conductor generating
them, having two effects: (1) their presence distorts the ion-free distribution of voltage between
conductors and ground - increasing the gradient felt by persons on the right-of-way and under the
12
conductors, and (2) ions flowing to ground act as a constant current source, to which the human body
presents a lower resistance path than the adjacent air, thus attracting a low level of current to ground.
As a result two factors are weighed in determining the level of annoyance for a given conductor
configuration and applied voltage.
1. The electric field, in kV/m, at ground level as increased by field pattern distortion due to the
presence of ions.
2. The ion current level flowing to ground in nanoamperes per square meter, absent the
presence of an intervening path.
In an effort to establish guidelines for levels low enough to minimize the prospect of human
complaints, experts have recommended that electric fields at ground level not exceed E = 25 kV/m at
ground level nor that ion current density exceed J = 100 nA/m2 [B12]. However these
recommendations, if used, should be used with caution since they are not specific as to location,
which season, nor what probability. Almost all HVDC operating lines have a reasonable probability of
fields exceeding 25 kV/m during high humidity period in summer. Seasonal variations of the 50%
probability level as measured on an 800 kV Chinese configuration are shown in Table 2.1 below [B13].
Table 2.1 Statistical results for +/- 800 kV E-fields (kV/m) at ground level (50% likelihood values)
Season Time Negative Positive

Summer 2007.7 -32 35
2007.12 -38 30
Winter
2008.1 -27 18
2008.3 -27 20
Spring
2008.5 -25 23
The above-cited criteria of E ≤ 25 kV/m and J ≤ 100 nA/m2 were based on perception levels for
humans exposed to positive of E and J densities within a confined test environment [B14]. Values
under an operating line will vary over a wide range based on DC operating voltage, weather, air
density, and condition of conductors. Both ground level E and J, being dependent on ion flow, are
effected by even slight wind currents. Thus algorithms within predictive software attempt to predict E
and J values that will not be exceeded a certain percentage of the time, either 5% or 10%, depending
on the software used.
Strict use of the above maximum E and J guidelines as a means to judge the adequacy of a proposed
DC configuration or upper voltage limit should be tempered by several considerations, specifically:
1. A number of existing HVDC lines whose calculated E and J levels exceeds the guidelines
have operated for many years without a history of complaints [B15].
2. The tests on which the above E and J criteria were based used positive field and ion current
density since human perception of positive E and J levels have been shown to be at lower
levels than for negative levels [B16]. For example in those tests a field of +27 kV/m was
necessary to produce a perception of level 3 (slightly annoying) while a -36 kV/m was needed
to provoke the same response. If that +27 kV/m is reversed in polarity to – 27 kV/m, the
perception level is just 1.7 where 1 is “just perceptible” and 2 is “definitely perceptible.”
3. Experience has shown that, for the same voltage magnitude, the negative pole results in
substantially higher E and J levels than the positive pole. That has been clearly demonstrated
by complaint experience on the Cahora Bassa +/- 450 kV bipole line in South Africa – a bipole
but with poles separated by about 1 km for security reasons. 533 kV operation of that line,
which traverses densely populated areas, causes multiple complaints under the negative pole
but not the positive. A similar negative pole dominance was noted under 500 kV lines of the
Bonneville Power Administration in the US and under another 500 kV line built and operated
by Furnas in Brazil [B14].
Thus if, (1) criteria established for E and J are based on tests using positive field sensitivity tests, (2)
negative fields have a significantly lower annoyance level, and (3) in the field, negative field levels
significantly exceed positive levels, then application of those positive-based criteria to the (higher)
negative fields will lead to pessimistic results.
Perception threshold is not an issue for many new HVDC lines since other design constraints normally
result in reasonably low ground level field effects. It is much more important in studies of converting
13
HVAC line to HVDC where line parameters are fixed and where each incremental increase in
allowable DC voltage translates into very large increments in the present worth of incremental
transmission capacity [B17], [B18]. It will be of potential concern in design of compact HVDC lines as
well, where lower profiles are sought.
2.6 Underbuilt ground wires

Ground wires, suspended below the level of pole conductors may, in special cases, be useful to
reduce ground level field effects or to allow higher voltage operation. That recourse will be helpful only
in cases where conductor gradient is not a constraint. Its use will probably be limited to HVDC lines
passing through areas of high public access or mountainous where low clearance is likely to be close
to the towers rather than midspan.
The minimum clearance to ground of such ground wires would have to correspond to the minimum
fixed conductor-to-ground clearance, e.g. as prescribed by the US National Electrical Safety Code
[B19]. Recognizing the galloping and ice-dropping danger of conductors in the same vertical plan,
under-built ground wires would have to be offset laterally from the pole conductors and large enough
(or bundled) to prevent higher ground-wire gradients. To be effective, at least two such ground wires
would be required under each pole.
The effectiveness of such a recourse can best be demonstrated by the example bipole configuration
illustrated in Figure 2.3 in which, without underbuilt shield wires any voltage above +/- 460 kV could be
applied before the ground-level electric field gradient would exceed 25 kV/m. With two 25 mm ground
wires suspended under each pole conductor, but offset from that pole’s centerline by 1 meter, the
voltage could be increased to 500 kV. To gain the same increase without ground wires, pole conductor
clearance to ground would have to be increased by two meters.
Number Diameter
Pole Conductors 2 4.5 cm
Ground Wires 4 2.5 cm
Figure 2.3 Example use of under-built ground wires
Ground-level electric fields and ion current density both at 460 kV without ground wires and at 500 kV
with them are shown in Figure 2.4 For typical current ratings the present worth of the additional
transmission capacity achievable by that 9% boost on operating voltage is very high [B17].
14
Figure 2.4 Effect of underbuilt shield wires in allowing higher pole voltages
2.7 Potential role of asymmetry

Unlike AC transmission lines, the impact (or vulnerability) of DC lines differs for its two poles.
Audible noise and radio noise both emanate from the positive pole. Pollution withstand is generally the
order of 10% lower for the negative pole when disc insulators are used, withstand being close to equal
on either pole if long-rod insulators are used [B20]. Lightning, being predominantly negative, is more
often than not attracted to the positive pole. Anonymous flashovers, while still not thoroughly
understood, are attributed to high gradients on the negative pole. As noted above, experience with
ground-level field effects have shown stronger fields and ion current density under the negative pole.
Table 2.2 Effect of independent positive or negative voltage increase on performance issues of compact
HVDC lines.
Thus assigning unequal voltages to two DC poles may accommodate one constraint while
exacerbating another. However where one issue clearly limits the degree of compaction possible,
some level of asymmetry may be of advantage. For example if field effects are the predominant limit in
minimizing conductor height, an increase in positive voltage and drop in negative voltage may be an
advantage, assuming of course that the increase in audible noise is acceptable and the lightning
performance not materially affected.
15
3. Insulation co-ordination
Insulation co-ordination is an important aspect to be considered in line compaction. Note that this
chapter is not a complete description of the insulation coordination process, but merely a discussion of
differences in insulation stresses and withstand characteristics due to the compaction of overhead
HVDC lines. It also outlines the differences in the insulation design between AC and DC transmission
lines, considering that for AC lines the slow-front overvoltages are the determining parameter, while
for DC lines the insulation design is often determined by the pollution performance requirements. In
this regard, principles of insulator dimensioning for DC, as well as different types of DC insulators are
described here.
The chapter also discusses the requirements for air clearances with regard to overvoltages in DC
systems and the insulation co-ordination for the neutral conductor.
3.1 Insulation co-ordination for HVAC and HVDC lines

The function of the insulation coordination process is to choose the optimal dielectric strength of the
overhead line in order to ensure the handling of voltages and overvoltages appearing during operation
while considering any overvoltage protection and taking into account an acceptable failure rate.
For the insulation coordination, a distinction has to be made between AC and DC transmission lines.
The insulation design of existing AC transmission lines is generally dominated by the performance
with regard to slow-front (switching) overvoltages or lightning overvoltages, which determine the arcing
distance of the insulator strings. For a given insulator length, the pollution withstand requirements are
then normally satisfied by selecting insulators with a suitable creepage factor (i.e. creepage distance
per unit of insulator length). In almost all cases, except perhaps for locations with the highest pollution
severity, this can be achieved with commonly available insulator designs.
In DC systems the slow-front overvoltage levels are generally rather low, and the insulation design is
often dominated by pollution performance requirements. Considering the restricted space available for
the insulators on compact HVDC lines, it is necessary to limit as far as possible the uncertainties in
insulator selection and dimensioning by following a detailed design approach.
The importance of the design and selection of insulators with respect to pollution is illustrated in Figure
3.1 which shows a comparison of the indicative insulation lengths required for HVAC and HVDC
systems to withstand lightning and switching overvoltages, as well as the effects of insulator pollution
[B20].
Figure 3.1. A comparison of indicative insulation distance requirements with respect to switching
overvoltages (blue), lightning overvoltages (red) and pollution (green) for AC and DC systems
It is apparent from Figure 3.1 that in HVAC systems the insulation lengths are in most cases
determined by either switching or lightning overvoltages. In contrast, the situation for HVDC systems is
16
quite different. Firstly, the creepage distance required for DC at a particular site severity is higher than
for AC, and secondly, the magnitude of slow-front transients is generally lower than those occurring in
AC systems. In areas with significant pollution this may require large insulator dimensions, which may
influence, and in some cases dictate, the conceptual design of the whole HVDC line project. Choices
that may be impacted are:
 The routing of the line and siting of the converter stations to avoid polluted conditions.
 The use of cables instead of overhead lines to minimize the number of external insulation
surfaces exposed to pollution.
 Utilizing indoor switchyards and converter stations to protect the external insulation surfaces
from pollution and/or wetting.
 The choice of particular insulator assemblies or conductor configurations for the transmission
line, or special layouts of the converter stations, to accommodate long insulator dimensions or
special insulation solutions [B20].
An inappropriate design for pollution conditions can therefore have a strong impact on the overall
system cost as it may result in higher investment costs (i.e. the need for extremely long and costly
substation insulators, or taller towers to accommodate long insulator strings), or increase the operating
costs (e.g. the need for costly palliative maintenance measures). It is therefore necessary for the DC
case to limit, as far as possible, the shortcomings in the design process by following a detailed design
approach. This explains why a simplified approach, with its potential risk of over- or under-design, is
not advised for HVDC systems. This is in contrast to AC systems where a simplified approach can be
used with confidence in all environments with the exception of areas with particularly severe pollution
levels [B20].
3.2 Insulator pollution characteristics under AC and DC

If AC and DC lines are operating in the same pollution environment, the actual level of pollution on the
DC insulators will in most cases be higher than on the AC insulators. This difference may be up to 3
times depending on environment. The approach for taking this into consideration in the dimensioning
process is described in the IEC standard 60815-4 [B21]. Other references [B22], [B23], [B24], [B25],
[B26], show that an insulator with the same level of pollution will have a lower flashover strength under
DC voltage than under the corresponding AC voltage. The ratio of DC (peak) to AC (r.m.s.) flashover
voltage varies depending on pollution level and is influenced by many factors, but it typically falls in the
range 100% to 60% for the same type of insulator.
As described in [B20], experimental studies have clearly shown that there is a difference between DC
and AC arc propagation across the insulator surface. Under AC voltage the dry band arc will
extinguish and needs to re-ignite at each voltage zero. Furthermore, it is found that the arcs tend to
propagate along the insulator surface under AC energization while DC arcs are more likely to leave
the surface and propagate in the air, as is illustrated in Figure 3.2 optimized insulator profiles, which
have a larger shed, or under-rib, spacing than is the practice for AC insulators.
Figure 3.2 Schematic representation of dry band arc propagation under DC and AC voltage
3.3 Principle of insulator dimensioning DC

The essence of dimensioning insulators with respect to contaminated (or polluted) conditions is to
select the insulator dimensions to obtain an acceptable level of flashover performance in the network.
The basic principles applied in the insulation dimensioning process can be described with reference to
Figure 3.3 [B20].
17
Figure 3.3 Fundamental approach to the insulator dimensioning process

The variability of the environmental stress is described by a statistical frequency distribution function,
f(γ). The statistical nature of the dielectric strength of the insulation may also be expressed in terms of
a statistical function, P(γ). The risk that a flashover may occur is given by the area underneath the
curve which is obtained by multiplying and integrating the stress and strength probability functions.
The larger the area, the higher the risk of flashover. The aim of the dimensioning process is to
optimize the risk of insulator flashover accounting for the additional cost and feasibility of increasing
the insulator flashover strength. The tasks are to obtain, in this case, the function f(γ) for the pollution
severity and the function P(γ) for insulator pollution performance. Function f(γ) may be estimated from
regular site severity measurements over a considerable period of time, while function P(γ) may be
obtained through some form of pollution testing, whether under natural conditions or in the laboratory.
For HVDC systems, the application of a detailed statistical design approach [B27] is considered
beneficial in view of the importance of an optimal insulation design with respect to pollution. The main
obstacle in applying the statistical method is therefore to quantify the input parameters with sufficient
accuracy to warrant this approach [B28]. In particular:
 The statistical distribution of the pollution severity (i.e. stress) may vary along the line, or at
different locations in a station; thus, not all insulators will be exposed to the same stress.
 Each insulator type has its own strength characteristic, so the statistical distribution of the
strength needs to be determined individually for each insulator type.
 The number of pollution events (i.e. times when there is a non-zero probability for flashover)
may vary from site to site and from year to year.
Note that a cautious approach is recommended when defining the USCD according to [B21], as the
increasing data from different tests suggest that the theoretical curves may be over-pessimistic [B64].
3.4 Insulators for DC lines

Three types of insulators are commonly used for modern DC lines:
1. Ceramic insulators made from glass or glazed porcelain. These are commonly used.
2. Composite insulators, which consist of a fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) core or tube,
which provides the mechanical strength to the insulator, and a polymeric housing to seal the
rod from the environment and to provide the required creepage distance and profile for the
pollution performance. These are also commonly used.
3. Hybrid insulators which have a ceramic core (glass or porcelain) covered by a polymeric
housing. This type includes the silicone coated glass or porcelain which have been
extensively used in the last years.
18
When considering the choice of insulators it is important to consider the following performance
aspects:
 Prospective life and life cycle costing: The life expectancy and possible additional costs and
efforts for condition assessment, replacement and maintenance, need to be factored into the
selection process.
 Pollution flashover performance: Aged polymeric insulators may show some reduction in
flashover performance as a result of increased surface roughness (thus attracting more
pollution), or a reduction in hydrophobic properties. These ageing aspects need to be factored
in when selecting insulation (creepage) distances.
 Corrosion of the end fittings: corrosion of metallic end fittings is more prevalent on DC
systems. This may result in a reduction of the mechanical strength of the insulator, or
negatively impact the flashover performance if the insulating surface is coated with corrosion
by-products. Long rod designs will suffer less from corrosion than cap and pin designs,
because of less metal parts in the insulator string. However, to minimize the problem,
particular designs for DC have been developed, like the use of large zinc collar on the caps
and zinc sleeve at the pins
The use of composite insulators, in particular those with housings made of hydrophobicity transfer
materials (HTM), are attractive for HVDC systems as they offer an improved flashover performance
compared with ceramic or glass insulators. Documented service experience [B29] shows that
polymeric insulating materials have been successfully implemented for DC line insulators since the
1980s and a record of good service experience has been built up for the designer to be confident
about their performance. This early survey highlighted, however, some instances of severe erosion in
high-pollution areas and corrosion of the end fittings. The results should, however, be seen against the
rather limited number of insulators in the sample (i.e. less than 1 000 units) and their relatively short
service (i.e. less than 10 years) at the time of the survey. Other experiences have reported good
service performance [B20].
It is important to note that the type of glass for cap and pin insulators intended for DC differ from the
type used for AC, as well as the type of porcelain, while composite insulators for AC and DC
applications generally use the same polymeric material.
HTV silicone rubber, which is commonly used for composite insulators, contains the filler material ATH
(Alumina-trihydrate) for improved tracking resistance. This filler material also improves the
performance of the silicone rubber in HVDC applications as it reduces the housing’s tendency to
accumulate and retain space charge on its surface [B30].With other silicone rubber formulations, e.g.
RTV or liquid silicone rubber products, it may be necessary to consider the addition of anti-
electrostatic agents to avoid the accumulation of space charge.
Hydrophilic insulators, such as EPDM, on the other hand, have a lower surface resistance which is
beneficial for the drainage of space charge from the surface and therefore special additives are
generally not required. Unfortunately, they do not inhibit the development of the conducting layer, as is
the case with hydrophobic materials and their flashover performance is therefore not as good, but they
nevertheless demonstrate slightly improved performance compared to porcelain insulators in pollution
tests.
In contrast to ceramic insulators, where under-dimensioning usually result in an inadequate flashover
performance, under-dimensioning of composite insulators may also result in premature ageing. It is
therefore important to consider the long-term ageing performance of composite insulators for HVDC
applications.
3.5 Selection of air clearances

3.5.1 Temporary overvoltages
Due to the intrinsic control of conventional DC converters, temporary overvoltages are low and need
normally not be considered with regard to line insulation. Higher temporary overvoltage levels may
however occur with certain VSC-based converter configurations during DC line-to-ground faults.
However, such overvoltages are of short duration and the magnitude is usually kept well below 2 p.u.
by the DC surge arresters [B18].
19
3.5.2 Slow-front overvoltages

When single pole-to-ground faults occur on bipolar DC lines, transient overvoltages are superimposed
on the DC voltage of the healthy pole conductor and also on the neutral conductor, if present. The
overvoltage magnitude depends on the position along the line, the location of the fault, and the surge
reflection properties of the line terminal equipment. The resulting pole-to-ground overvoltages have
similar characteristics in terms of magnitude and wave shape as slow-front overvoltages in AC
systems. The maximum magnitude, occurring for fault locations at the midpoint of the line, is usually
below 1.8 p.u. for conventional DC systems [B11]. Different terminal equipment or novel converter
configurations, e.g. in VSC-based systems, may require special studies to determine the overvoltage
profile.
3.5.3 Fast-front overvoltages
Fast-front overvoltages are associated with lightning strikes directly to a DC pole conductor, or to
towers and shield wires. Methods for calculating fast-front overvoltages on AC transmission lines are
described in [B31]. The procedures are essentially the same for DC lines, with the following
exceptions:
 Lightning currents injected by direct strikes to a DC pole conductor generates transient
overvoltages which are superimposed on the DC service voltage. Thus, the composite
overvoltage occurring between the conductor and the tower varies depending on the
magnitude and polarity of the lightning current and the polarity of the DC voltage.
 When lightning currents are injected to towers or shield wires, the overvoltages occurring
between the DC conductors and the tower depend on the magnitude and polarity of the
lightning current, and the polarity of the DC conductor [B18].
Also it has to be considered that compaction is a reduction of vertical and horizontal distances, which
reduces exposure to lightning strikes.
3.5.4 Overvoltage withstand
The overvoltage withstand characteristics of the converted line can be divided into:
 Tower top and midspan clearances, primarily associated with the performance of the line.
 Clearances between the conductors and objects on the ground, primarily associated with
personal safety.
As discussed above, overvoltages on DC lines are generally composed of transient voltages

superimposed on the DC service voltage. However, the withstand of air gaps is only marginally
affected by the presence of the DC voltage bias, suggesting that the total composite overvoltage
across the air gap may be used for determination of required clearances with regard to fast-front and
slow-front overvoltages. The same can be said for the air gap across insulators, except in wet
conditions where the slow-front overvoltage withstand is reduced by about 15 % [B18].
The use of Transmission Line Arrester (TLA), placed in the line towers, e.g. in the midpoint of the line
or in a section of the line, can reduce the overvoltages and the insulation levels on DC lines.
3.5.5 Tower top and midspan clearances
Requirements on tower top and midspan clearances for AC lines are given in [B32], based on [B33].
When using a deterministic approach, the same requirements may be applied for checking the
clearances of the DC line, while taking into account the composite overvoltages discussed above.
Alternatively, a statistical approach may be used to calculate the performance of the DC line by
considering the composite overvoltage stresses, the withstand characteristics, and the rate of
overvoltage occurrences.
3.5.6 Safety clearance
The required safety clearance to objects on the ground is governed by national codes. Requirements
are usually based on the relation between the flashover voltage of the insulators and the flashover
voltage of the safety clearance. If it is conservatively assumed that both fast-front and slow-front
overvoltages are limited by flashovers across the line insulators, the required safety clearances for
fast-front and slow-front overvoltages can be expressed in relation to the insulator striking distance by
applying the appropriate gap factors for the respective air gaps and overvoltage types. However, slow-
20
front overvoltage levels of DC lines are often low enough to prevent insulator flashovers, suggesting
that only fast-front overvoltages need to be considered for determination of safety clearances [B18].
3.6 Insulation coordination for neutral conductor

HVDC lines may be equipped with a neutral conductor (metallic return) if a transition from bipolar to
monopolar operation cannot use ground return.
The neutral conductor is shared between the two poles and is electromagnetically coupled with both; a
fault in one DC pole may cause a fault of the neutral insulation and affect the operation of the other
pole. Thus, faults of the neutral insulation will affect pole independence unless they are efficiently
detected and cleared.
The neutral insulation must withstand the continuous operating voltage on the neutral conductor, the
system startup overvoltages, the system shut-down overvoltages, and the overvoltages that occur
during commutation failure.
A neutral insulator string comprising two to five units, or a composite insulator of corresponding length,
would typically satisfy these requirements. However, the neutral insulator must be much longer than
that to withstand both slow-front overvoltages due to pole-to-ground faults, and fast-front overvoltages
caused by lightning. The neutral insulation strength of originally designed DC lines is typically lower
than the pole insulation strength, and consequently, the neutral insulation is more susceptible to
flashovers (including back flashovers). If the converted line needs to have a dedicated neutral
conductor, its insulation has to be carefully designed in order not to reduce the reliability of the line.
Further information on insulation coordination for the neutral conductor can be found in [B18].
21
4. Pole configuration, conductor, tower and

hardware
The configuration and arrangement of the DC poles are a key aspect of compaction. The overall
design of a compact line in general considers it as a primary concern which is complemented with the
conductor selection, tower and foundation designs and hardware solutions. This chapter revises all
these aspects and their relation with the distances reduction or compaction.
Also, this chapter includes a general discussion on galloping, as it may be one of the major issues in
compact lines due to the reduced clearances between pole conductors and/or between pole
conductors and groundwires.
4.1 Pole configurations

As mentioned before, the DC power lines does not improve the power flow by modifying pole spacing
or the bundle diameters, unlike in AC transmission lines, where these parameters affect the surge
impedance loading of the line. Therefore, in DC compact lines, the different pole configurations pursue
a reduction of the right of way (ROW), a reduction of the visual impact and/or an optimisation of the
corona-related effects (electric field, ion current, audible noise, etc.). The limits to these effects may
often be the governing aspects of the design of compact DC lines.
This section describes the pole configurations that can be used for compact DC lines. The most
common scheme is the bipole, for which two main configurations are considered: horizontal, that
prioritizes in general the visual impact aspects due to the lower height; and vertical, that gives more
importance to the occupation and right of way (ROW) reduction due to the lower width. In both cases,
the corona-related effects must be studied in detail to address the regulated limits, for which the pole
spacing or bundle configurations are important. For the case of two bipoles in the same line, the
different alternatives of positive-negative pole position have to be evaluated in order to determine the
electrical effects. Advantages in terms of reducing certain phenomena could be obtained in
configurations with opposite polarities on the two sides of the tower (i.e. +/- on one side and -/+ on
another side, which would reduce the ground level electric field, for example). However, this may have
disadvantages for other parameters (e.g. audible noise produced by positive pole is higher). The
decision for an optimum configuration in each case should consider all the aspects, including the
performance when only one bipole is in operation, maintenance issues, etc.
Figure 4.1 Possible pole arrangements, simple configurarions

Section 7 details with examples the influence of the pole configuration and bundle arrangement on the
conductor surface gradient, the audible noise, the corona effect, the electric field, the ion current level,
etc.
In particular, for the most common horizontal configuration, a detailed sensitivity study is included. In
summary, there are some parameters that reduce the surface gradient (and consequently the audible
noise and radio interference): the increase in pole to pole distance, the increase in number of
subconductors and the increse in total conductor cross section. Also, the parameters that reduce the
electric field at ground level are the increase in conductor height, and the decrease in pole to pole
distance.
22
Figure 4.2 Typical configurations for bipole scheme

Vertical configurations can take advantage of a narrower occupation. Therfore, all the effects (electric
field, ion current, audible noise, etc.) at certain distance from the axis of the line are lower than those
produced by horizontal lines (maintaining the other parameters unvariable), because the distance to
the conductors is longer.
Other configurations can be studied. In particular, geometrically asymetrical solutions could be very
useful in compact designs. These configurations can take advantage of the differences between
positive and negative poles regarding the corona and field effects (audible noise generated, electric
field and ion current density at ground level, lightning attraction or pollution withstand properties...).
Also, as discussed in Chapter 2.6 and 2.7, assigning unequal voltages to the poles or underbuilding
groundwires could be studied to optimize the effects at ground level.
4.2 Conductor and ground wires selection

Conductor selection may have different phases when some specific optimizations are carried out. One
can start looking at the economic aspects and find the conductive material area with one type of
conductor and then carry out investigations with alternatives close to the value and analysing
uncertainty.
4.2.1 System costs
In order to set certain characteristics of the system (e.g. rated voltage, conductor configuration etc.),
an economical evaluation may be conducted. This evaluation should consider:
 Investment costs
 Transformer costs
 Line costs
 Substation costs
 Shunt (reactor) and series (capacitor) compensation in the lines.
 Operational costs
 Energy losses
 Maintenance, etc.
These investment costs (𝐶𝐼 ) are a function of the voltage (𝑉) and power/current (𝑃).
𝐶𝐼 = 𝑓(𝑉, 𝑃)
Equation 4.1
The investment cost can be decomposed in:
 line cost (𝐶𝐼𝐿 ) and
 substation/equipment cost (𝐶𝐼𝑆 ).
23
𝐶𝐼 = 𝐶𝐼𝐿 + 𝐶𝐼𝑆
Equation 4.2
The cost for joule losses (𝐶𝐽 ) is a function of the line/equipment conductor resistance, current, and
energy costs. This can also be split into line losses cost (𝐶𝐽𝐿 ) and equipment losses cost (𝐶𝐽𝑆 ). Thus,
𝐶𝐽 = 𝐶𝐽𝐿 + 𝐶𝐽𝑆
Equation 4.3
Losses are calculated on a yearly basis; therefore, in order to add to the investment cost one should:
 Capitalize the losses in a period of 𝑛 years, or,
 Evaluate the yearly cost of the investments (amortization in a period of 𝑛 years).
In this analysis, it was chosen to evaluate the yearly cost of the investment. If an investment has to be
recovered in a period of 𝑛 years at a return rate 𝑗, then, the yearly component is the investment
multiplied by a constant (𝑘), being:
𝑗
𝑘=
1 − (1 + 𝑗)−𝑛
Equation 4.4
Usually, the yearly maintenance cost is also included (both live line and normal), and it is defined as a
fraction of the investment per year (say, 2%). Therefore, the yearly cost of an investment results in:
𝐶𝐼𝑦 = (0.02 + 𝑘)𝐶𝐼 = 𝑓𝑦 𝐶𝐼
Equation 4.5
To estimate the investment cost, the historical cost database of the utility can be accessed, or,
alternatively, information from some manufactures or utilities can be collected.
In general, these costs are represented in the form of equations as a function of 𝑉 and 𝑃, obtained
through regression analyses of the information available.
The AC system cost (𝐶𝑆𝑌𝑆 ) is:
𝐶𝑆𝑌𝑆 = 𝐶𝐼𝑆 + 𝐶𝐼𝐿 + 𝐶𝐽𝑆 + 𝐶𝐽𝐿
Equation 4.6
Each of these components have been defined previously. All components are voltage dependent,
some of them increasing or decreasing with it. Therefore, there will be a voltage that minimizes the
system cost.
It should be noted that the parameters 𝐶𝐼𝐿 and 𝐶𝐽𝐿 vary with the line conductor cross section, whereas
the other parameters do not. Hence, it should be first defined before minimizing the overall equation.
This pre-optimization process is carried out considering 𝐶𝐼𝐿 and 𝐶𝐽𝐿 , as the rest of the variables are not
influenced by it (see details in the next section).
For a DC system, two additional terms have to be included: the converter station cost (𝐶𝐶𝑆 ) and the
converter station losses (𝐶𝐽𝐶𝑆 ). Indeed, the line equation and losses have to be properly changed
[B11].
4.2.2 Conductor selection
The conductor selection, as previously described, is carried out based on economics, the basis being
the minimization of the line cost and its losses. However, prior to economic evaluation, general studies
are carried out to ascertain conductor bundle’s suitability regarding electric field, surface gradient, RI,
AN etc. Based on the selected conductor bundle configuration, preliminary tower geometry is
developed and insulator, hardware and accessories are decided. For the preliminary conductor
selection, some equations are used for the line costs. They are functions of their type, size, number of
conductors in the bundle, and line voltage.
The losses cost is a function of the power to be transmitted, its peak value, yearly power duration
curve, voltage, and the cost of the energy. Depending on the purpose of the line, the load duration
curve cannot be well defined due to the new generation installed in the system, their characteristics
and the power sharing in various parallel lines.
24
It is more precise when the line is dedicated to a strong generation (e.g. a distant hydropower plant) or
a HVDC system where the power is limited by the converter rating.
After this preliminary selection, the range where the economical conductor is located is known and
some specific alternatives are established to carry out a dedicated economical evaluation.
a) Transmission line cost
As described, a regression equation is established for line cost per km (𝐶𝐿 ). In this case, this cost will
be set as a function of the voltage (𝑉) and conductive section of the aluminum (𝑆) of one of the AC
phases, or the DC poles, if it is the case.
𝐶𝐿 = 𝑓(𝑉, 𝑆)
Equation 4.7
According to [B11], [B34], the investment cost per km of a transmission line can be estimated by the
following equation.
𝐶𝐿𝐼 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑉 + 𝑆(𝑐𝑁 + 𝑑)
Equation 4.8
Where:
𝑉: Line voltage (phase-to-phase for AC, pole to ground for DC) in kV
𝑆: Total aluminum cross section of one phase, or pole in MCM (thousands of circular mils)
𝑁: Number of conductors in a bundle configuration
Note: 1 mm2 = 0.507 MCM
In, [B11], [B34], the values of 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑 were obtained through regression analysis based on the
cost values of ten AC and ten DC configurations. For these configurations, a detailed design of the line
(both electrical and mechanical analyses) was carried out, thus, obtaining their proper cost. The
weight of the towers, right-of-way width, insulator and hardware, their corresponding costs, etc. were
evaluated.
Indeed, these costs are dependent on local conditions like government taxes, labor costs, design
criteria, and engineering and administration costs. If desired, the 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 and 𝑑 parameters can be re-
defined having in hand local line costs and their configurations from a database.
The mentioned parameters, for ACSR (Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced) conductors are shown
in Table 4.1 which are related to Brazilian conditions.
Table 4.1 Transmission line cost constants (cost in US$ per km)
AC Line DC Bipole
𝑎 78252 86360
𝑏 264.24 130.3
𝑐 1.390 1.586
𝑑 34.3 25.9
Once the values for 𝑁 and 𝑉 are set, the line investment per km (𝐶𝐿𝐼 ) and the yearly cost (𝐶𝐿𝐼𝑦 )
become:
𝐶𝐿𝐼 = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑆
Equation 4.9
𝐶𝐿𝐼𝑦 = 𝑓𝑦𝐴 + 𝑓𝑦𝐵𝑆

Equation 4.10
25
b) Cost of Joule Losses per unit length
The line Joule losses per km, for a certain power, 𝑃, pole resistance and unit length, are calculated
through the following equations:
 For AC lines:
𝜌 2
𝐿𝐴𝐶 = 3 𝐼
𝑁𝑆
Equation 4.11
𝑃
𝐼=
√3 𝑉
Equation 4.12
 For DC lines:
𝜌 2
𝐿𝐷𝐶 = 2 𝐼
𝑁𝑆
Equation 4.13
𝑃
𝐼=
2𝑉
Equation 4.14
They are functions of the transmitted power (𝑃), the line voltage (𝑉), the conductor resistivity (𝜌) and
the number of conductors in the bundle (𝑁).
Note that for aluminum conductors the conductor resistivity is 57 Ohm/MCM/km.
The transmitted power is not constant in time; therefore, to get the yearly losses it is necessary to
define the loss factor (𝑙𝑓 ) which is the amount of hours along the year that transmitting the maximum
load gives the same losses as the variable dispatch (see Figure 4.3). In this figure, the average power
can be calculated by using the power duration curve and the load factor can be calculated as well
(average value divided by the peak power).
Figure 4.3 Load duration curve

The cost of the Joule losses per km is therefore:
𝐶𝐿𝐽 = (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑙𝑓 8760)𝐿𝑝
Equation 4.15
Where:
𝐶1 : Fixed cost of generation (US$/MW)
𝐶2 : Energy cost (US$/MWh)
26
8760: Number of hours in a year

𝐿𝑝 : Losses (AC or DC) at peak transmission
In summary, the Joule losses for a certain 𝑃 (peak) and 𝑉 can be expressed as:
𝐶
𝐶𝐿 =
𝑆
Equation 4.16
Note: Corona losses should also be included in the economical evaluation; however, they are smaller
compared to the Joule losses and may be neglected at least in the preliminary evaluation.
c) Line and Joule losses cost
The yearly cost of the line investment plus the Joule losses (𝐶𝐿𝐿 ) will be:
𝐶
𝐶𝐿𝐿 = (𝑓𝑦 𝐴 + 𝑓𝑦 𝐵 𝑆 + ) 𝐿
𝑆
Equation 4.17
𝐿 being the line lenght.
This function reaches its minimum value at:
𝐶
𝑆 = 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛 = √
𝑓𝑦 𝐵
Equation 4.18
By varying the number of the conductors in the bundle (𝑁), the best line cross section can be
obtained. Note that 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛 does not depend on the line length. Specific calculations can be carried out
for different values of 𝑁.
Note: Normally ampacity is not an issue for DC line as the current, in general, is limited by the capacity
of the converter stations.
4.2.3 Aditional investigations
a) Corona losses
Once the pole conductor cross section is determined, the cost of corona losses can be included
searching for another configuration. Corona losses are proportional to the conductor surface gradient,
bundle configuration, tower top geometry, and weather. As suggested in [B11], the inclusion of corona
losses will lead to a little higher conductor cross section.
b) Type of conductor and mechanical design (stringing)
Instead of ACSR (Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced) one may search for other types of
conventional conductors, for instance:
 AAC (All Aluminum Conductor);
 AAAC (All Aluminum Alloy Conductor);
 ACAR (Aluminum Conductor Alloy Reinforced);
 AACSR (Aluminum Alloy Conductor Steel Reinforced)
In this case the cost equation shall be revised or the calculation for a selected cases around the ACSR
economical section shall be carried out. Note that for the same conductive area, the resistances are
different and also the diameters which also influences the losses cost.
Different conductor types have different unit weights and breaking loads, the latter influencing the EDS
(Every Day Stress), stringing condition, the tower height, and applied forces; therefore affecting the
tower and foundation related cost.
Also other non-conventional conductors may be considered in the process of conductor selection, like
the so-called High Temperature Low Sag (HTLS) conductors. This include several types (see [B35],
[B36]). Note that the sag variation with the conductor temperature is quite different depending on the
type of conductor used, so the conductor performance can be optimized depending on the
transmission overload capacity. This type of conductors are generally used in case of high current
27
carrying capacity requirements (typically up to 1.5 to 2 times the current carrying capacity of
conventional conductors) and similar sag requierements.
It is important to highlight that for HVDC lines the power flow can be generally controlled in the
converter stations, for it may be usual to set this power flow close to the maximum capacity of the line
continuously. As, in general, HVDC are point-to-point transmission, the capacity of the lines are the
same as of the converters. The situation is different considering the system as multiterminal
(expandable) or a DC grid. To get a compromise of losses cost and current capability, it has to be
highlighted that conventional conductors lead to maximun temperatures in the range of 60 to 90oC,
while HTLS conductors become important when temperatures above 150 oC are needed. Operation at
high temperatures over long periods of time may lead to very high line losses, as the conductor
resistance is very temperature dependent, so this has to be taken into account.
Note: particular designs to optimize some aspects of the lines, like wind induced motion or corona
noise, may be considered, making the overall design vary and making the limits be reconsidered.
c) Sensitivity to parameters adopted
Many parameters impact the result: unit cost of losses; line material; currency rating… The calculation
above described was based on the life cycle cost, but it may occur to be important for the investment
cost alone (difficulties of loan, money etc.), and others requirements like, environment considerations.
There are always uncertainties in the future utilization of the line and a more expensive solution may
be a better choice provided for bigger current capacity as an example.
Reference [B38] analyzes uncertainties in another problem (system configuration including definition
of system voltage). Alternative configurations are set, costs are evaluated and probable scenarios are
evaluated. For every configuration a score is assigned connected with the scenario. The scores are
weighted by the scenarios probability to define a composite score to orient the decision. In an example
the life cycle cost; capital investment cost; MVA thermal; and conductor surface gradient; were
considered for various voltages; bundle numbers; and the ACSR conductor.
4.2.4 Conductor selection example
a) Optimization based on life cycle cost
With the methodology explained above, based on life cycle cost of the line, the pole conductor
configuration was calculated for a bipole ± 500 kV; 1300 MW (peak load) with 3 ACSR conductor per
pole. As a result, the 1590 MCM, code Lapwing, was selected as initial value.
Consider, therefore, a base case: three ACSR 1590 MCM (806 mm 2) as initial selection. Other
alternatives are considered as shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 Transmission line cost constants (cost in US$ per km)
Case N MCM Type diam. Rdc w RBS EDS H/w Sag Bundle Econduct Corona CL+ Comments
(mm2) (mm) pole (kg/m) (kN) kN (m) (m) area (kV/cm) (W/km) CLL
(Ω/km) (%RBS) (mm2) ($)
1 1590 33.73
3 ACSR 38.22 0.01199 2.671 187.4 1287 15.6 2418 23.3 7.1 36279
Base (806) (18)
1192.5 33.64 same area
2 4 ACSR 33.97 0.01205 2.280 186.9 1504 13.3 2416 21.5 6.1 37058
(604) (18) base case
1192.5 31.77 H/w criteria
3 4 ACSR 33.97 0.01205 2.280 186.9 1420 14.1 2416 21.5 6.1 37058
(604) (17) terrain 4
1590 21.53
4 3 AAC 36.90 0.01193 2.221 119.6 988 20.3 2418 24.0 7.5 NA type AAC
(806) (18)
1590 28.00 type AAC
5 3 AAC 36.90 0.01193 2.221 119.6 1285 15.6 2418 24.0 7.5 NA
(806) (23) and H/w
1973 39.40
6 3 AAAC 41.14 0.01105 2.766 281.9 1499 13.4 2999 22.0 6.6 NA type AAAC
(999.7) (14)
1700 34.2
7 3 ACAR 38.16 0.01192 2.375 180.0 1467 13.6 2433 23.3 7.1 NA type ACAR
(811) (19)
1590 AACS 40.1
8 3 38.22 0.01390 2.671 308.2 1530 13.1 2416 23.3 7.1 NA type AACSR
(805.6) R (13)
1780 41.0
9 3 ACSR 40.7 0.01076 3.089 227.7 1353 14.8 2706 22.2 6.7 36358 larger ACSR
(902) (18)
NA: not evaluated. N=conductors per pole; Rdc=DC resistance; w=weight; RBS=Rated breaking
strength; H/w=parameter (tension over weitght ratio); CL+CLL=line costs+losses cost.
28
The following comments apply:

 From case 1 and 2: Case 2 has bigger life cycle cost; corona losses are smaller, does not
meet H/w criteria for aeolian vibration [B39], sag is smaller, conductor surface gradient (Gc) is
smaller, wind force on conductor and tower is bigger.
 From case 2 and 3: Case 3 meets H/w criteria (terrain category 4: trees and buildings etc.) but
leads to a bigger sag.
 Case 4 and 1: Case 4 has higher sag, lower H/w, lower Gc.
 Case 4 and 5: Case 5 has an increase in H/w which brings a sag similar to case 1
 Case 1, 6, 7 and 8: Impact of conductor type: diameter/forces, H/w, sag, Gc and corona
losses.
 Case 9: same as base case but with a larger conductor.
Category 4* means H/w=425 m.
Therefore in order to be able to compare the configurations the tower and foundation calculations and
specific cost determinations for each case are necessary.
b) Multi criteria decision
As mentioned before, other scenarios may be considered than life cycle cost. An example is found in
[B38] item 8.2. There, the decision is oriented by a procedure mainly based in “qualitative scores”.
A similar approach will be done here with slightly different procedure, considering the cases 1, 2, 7
and 9. The criteria of orientation decision are:
 LCC - Life cycle cost (line investment plus capitalized Joule losses cost)
 LINV - Line Investment
 AMPAC - Current carrying capability (for future use)
 ENVIR - Environment (based on tower height)
Here, for the alternatives analysed, the values were evaluated following [B11] and are shown in Table
4.3.
Table 4.3 Values to compare alternatives
LCC LINV AMPAC ENVIR (height)

Altern. N MCM (mm2) type $ % $ % A % m %
base 1 3 1590 (806) ACSR 36278 100.0 26818 100.0 3675 100.0 47.4 100.0
2 4 1192.5(604) ACSR 37058 102.2 27597 102.9 4000 108.8 45.1 95.1
9 3 1780(902) ACSR 36358 100.2 27907 104.1 4050 110.2 46.6 98.3
7 3 1700 (861) ACAR 36412 100.3 26953 100.5 3675 100.0 45.5 96.0
Comment: LCC and LINV cost of alternative 7 was estimated by comparison with alternative 1. Both
have similar diameter (therefore similar effect of wind in the line); they have different conductor weight;
the impact estimated is in tower weight 2% (case 7 lower than case 1); and difference in sag and and
tower height leads to alternative 7 tower weight being 4% lower; tower/foundation participation in the
line cost is 26 % [B11]. As a result, the cost of the line in alternative 7 would be 1.5% less expensive.
ACAR conductor is 4.7% more expensive and conductor participates with 37 % in the line cost
resulting therefore that alternative 7 would cost 1.8 % more than alternative 1. As a result of the
combination of the effects it can be estimated that Alternative 7 would cost say ~0.5% more than
alternative 1.
Note: If the same methodology is applied to HTLS conductor (HTLW not included in [B39]) the sag
would be 14 m (a bit lower than for the base case) and the cost of conductor is estimated as 3 to 4
times bigger, therefore is more expensive than the alternative 1.
The values of Table 4.3 were used to evaluate the “Decision Orientation Index” in Table 4.4.
LCC includes the cost of line (LINV), and the use of both may look like a duplication of one effect, but
LINV has to be seeing not due to value but as a difficulty in getting the loan participation of local
industry and services; and will be considered as of small importance.
AMPAC is considered assuming that in the future others converter can be connected in a HVDC multi
terminal configuration.
29
ENVIR is based on tower height visual impact.

Losses are almost the same for all conductors configuration.
Table 4.4 Values to compare alternatives
altern pu %
1 0.348 34.8
2 0.193 19.3
9 0.227 22.7
7 0.232 23.2
In conclusion alernative 1 is the best, followed by alternative 7.

4.2.5 Shield wire selection
Shield wires are installed in the lines to avoid lightning hitting the conductor. Then direct flashover is
reduced improving lightning performance of the line.
Depending on the tower top geometry and location, the use of shield wire may be different. In places
with low lightning activity, only one shield wire usually gives good protection. However in most cases
two shield wires are used.
They are in general steel made, extra high strength, and diameter 3/8” is sufficient at least in areas
without ice. The shield wire is selected on the basis of short-circuit rating and surface gradient. The
surface gradient on shield wires can be calculated based on theory of images using capacitance
matrix and potential matrix.
When short circuits in the substation are of high magnitude in the lines close to substation (1-2 km)
steel wires may be replaced by ACSR or other Aluminum conductors selected based on loss of
strengh (anealing).
Now a day, communication is a top issue and the shield wires are being substituted by OPGW (Optical
Ground Wires), where the requirements are related to the messenger core (in general aluminum).
They are especially important for DC lines to take care of data communication between converter
stations.
4.3 Insulation and hardware

The acceptance of new overhead line construction by population is extremely low, driven by the
environmental and visual impact of large overhead line structures. Potential countermeasures are the
consideration of multiple usage of existing lines and corridors (hybrid lines, shared corridors) and the
application of compact lines with low visual impact and low demand for space.
A reduction of horizontal and/or vertical distances (i.e. compaction) can be achieved by using any of
the insulation solutions described below. In all cases, the aim is to “fix” the position of the conductor at
the suspension tower and thus reduce the ROW and/or the height:
 V, Inverted V and T sets
 Y assemblies
 Semi-anchored sets
 Horizontal post insulators
 Insulated cross-arms (rigid and pivoting horizontal V sets)
Composite insulators play an important role in most cases [B40], due to the combination of their
mechanical characteristics (withstand of high compression loads, large deformations, light weight,
response to dynamic loads…) and electrical behavior (good performance under severe pollution
conditions, the possibility to be used as full-length single units with no metal intermediate connecting
parts…).
This chapter gives a survey about insulation and hardware elements and solutions, as mentioned
before. Other standard elements may also be used in compact designs, although these are not
described in detailed in this document.
30
4.3.1 V, inverted V and T sets

V-strings configurations have been used widely in order to control the movement of the conductors at
suspension towers and reduce horizontal “blow-out”. In general, they are set transverse to the line
direction, and there are a number of examples using different insulation types (glass, porcelain,
composite).
Inverted V sets are applied as “pollution” sets in cases where the tower to conductor clearance is
limited but the pollution conditions on-site require high insulation length for accommodation of high
creepage distances [B41]. This is particularly interesting for compact DC lines, as the pollution
performance requirements are often the limiting factor for insulation. For example, it can occur in
replacement projects, where conventional glass or porcelain disk insulators failed due to pollution
flashover and have to be substituted by silicone rubber composite insulators. Figure 4.4 shows how
inverted V sets are applied for DC. This set increases the pollution performance since much more
creepage distance can be designed for the insulators. Similar effects can be achieved by T sets.
Figure 4.4 Inverted V and T (pollution) sets for the accommodation of very high creepage distance on
“limited” tower clearance for 533, 560 and 600 kV DC applications [B41].
4.3.2 Y-Sets
Y-sets have been used in compact lines both for AC and DC projects in order to limit the conductor
displacement at suspension towers and therefore reduce the horizontal distances. For example, an
AC voltage upgrading project in Germany applied this configuration to increase the voltage from 245
kV to 420 kV, using the same tower cross-arm structures.
Figure 4.5 shows this example. The Y-set limits the swivel of the string and therefore the clearance
(conductor to tower) is secured. In some cases, compromises regarding lower BSL levels (for example
950 kV instead of 1050 kV) have to be accepted.
Figure 4.5 Y-set for line uprating 245 to 420 kV AC with BSL of 950 kV [B41].
31
For DC, Y-shaped suspension insulator strings have been applied in order to shorten tower cross
arms and reduce horizontal distance between main conductors. Figure 4.6 and Figure 4.7 show an
example for 500 kV in Japan (see Chapter 8).
Based on the results of case study and various tests (such as pollution withstand voltage
characteristics, swinging characteristics and tensile strength test of insulators by full-scale test facility),
the angle of the V-part of the Y-shaped strings has been set to 110 degrees. Forty two insulator discs
are required for the V-part and twenty for the I-part per each Y-shaped string as the most optimum
structure in the heaviest polluted area. This lead to the reduction of the cross-arms width and
horizontal distance between main conductors.
Figure 4.6 Case study for the structure of Y-shaped insulator strings
Figure 4.7 Y-shaped suspension insulator strings
32
4.3.3 Semi-anchored sets

Semi-anchored sets have been used in overhead lines for more than 30 years, particularly in cases of
line uprating. A rigid insulating structure is formed in order to avoid any kind of swivelling of the
insulators. One example is showed in Figure 4.8.
Figure 4.8 Semi-anchored set consisting of a compression and a double tension insulator string.
Other arrangements and assemblies may be considered in order to reduce the pole to pole distances
and minimize both height and line Right Of Way. But a global analysis must be considered, including
electrical aspects, insulation coordination, lightning protection, mechanical considerations, corona-
related limits, etc.
4.3.4 Horizontal post insulators
Porcelain horizontal post insulators have been used for a long time proving a good performance and
helping for a better line acceptance. The development of composite insulators have increased the use
of horizontal post insulators massively in recent years [B40].
One of the most important aspects of this arrangement is the bending load to which the post insulator
is subjected. This is a key aspect in the insulator design.
Figure 4.9 Horizontal post insulator.
33
Another important advantage is the reduction of the height to which the horizontal wind force from the
conductors is applied to the tower, compared to conventional I-string design. This configuration
reduces the bending moment to the tower and foundations caused by horizontal wind, allowing
optimizing the overall design.
In order to reduce the vertical load on the horizontal post insulator, some designs include vertical long
rod insulators, forming a suspended line post insulator design.
Figure 4.10 Suspended line post insulator.
4.3.1 Insulated cross-arms

Compact lines have started to become more popular with the widespread introduction of composite
insulators [B40], mainly due to the fact that insulated cross-arms have to withstand a considerable
compression load and are subjected to large deformations, for which composite materials are more
appropriate than conventional ones, like porcelain or glass.
The use of insulated cross-arms can reduce both the height of the line as well as the horizontal
occupation (the horizontal movement of the suspension string is eliminated, reducing the conductor
blow-out movement).
The principle of the insulated cross-arms is based on the suspended line post insulator design. The
suspension string (brace) is fixed directly to the tower in order to avoid the metallic crossarm (see
Figure 4.11). The post insulator works under compression, which makes it critical in the design, and
the brace works under tension.
The insulated cross-arms can be rigid or pivoting, depending on how the post insulator is fixed to the
tower. In both cases, the mechanical performance is a major concern, due to the high loads
transmitted to the insulators. In general, the vertical loads are taken mainly by the brace, and the
horizontal loads are taken mainly by the post, which is loaded in buckling when these loads are
compression loads. This makes the design of the post insulator a critical aspect, for which different
solutions have been developed, like parallel posts, large rod diameter or hollow core insulators.
In the pivoting cross-arms, the longitudinal movement of the conductors is allowed by using rotating
connections, which allows the assembly to rotate about an inclined axis (inclined to create a restoring
force when deflected).
34
Figure 4.11 Horizontal (Pivoting) V Assembly [B41].
The horizontal fixed (non-pivoting) base assembly is needed in structures that have to accommodate
longitudinal loads (e.g. angle towers). Some national standards request this type of assembly in case
of road or railway crossings. The longitudinal load performance depends strongly on the post diameter
and on the geometry of the assembly. For high longitudinal loads (such as in the case of conductor
breakage) the post insulators may be arranged horizontally in V shape (Figure 4.12):
35
Figure 4.12 Fixed Base Horizontal V Assemblies [B41]
4.3.2 Mechanical aspects

One of the concerns for compact line designs is the need to consider suitable arrangements for the
insulator sets at the tangent structures, in order to restrict conductor movement due to wind and avoid
flashovers. The typical arrangements are mentioned above (V, T, Y sets, semi-anchoring sets, post
insulators, insulated cross-arms…). For all of them, the design with regard to strength of the
components should carefully consider the actual loading according to the resulting geometric sum of
loads:
 in the vertical direction from self-weight of the conductor (weight span) and additional ice load
acting on the weight span,
 in the horizontal direction perpendicular to the line from wind load on the wind span and, if
applicable, a component of conductor tension in case of an angle tower,
 in the horizontal direction along the line from horizontal conductor tension (the full tension in
case of tension towers and possibly loads from load cases that include differential loads in
case of suspension towers).
As revised in the above sections, all these loads put the insulators under different solicitations, which
depend on the arrangements. In general, compression solicitations become critical in the insulation
and hardware design. More details on calculations can be found in [B40].
As to coordination of strength of components, the same rules apply as for conventional lines, and
hardware components should be designed such that they are more reliable compared to towers,
foundations, conductors and insulators.
4.3.3 Electrical aspects

One of the main concerns in HVDC lines, as mentioned before, is the performance under severe
pollution conditions
Electrical aspects that need to be considered, in addition to insulation coordination (Chapter 3), are
RIV, corona and audible noise in connection with support hardware. These hardware may necessitate
fittings for grading the electrical field.
Protection against power arcs is another aspect that may require specific fittings like arcing horns or
similar arrangements. Compact tower top geometries make it even more important that design of
power arc protective fittings takes into account orientation of their end burning points and the effect of
36
electrodynamic forces that should guide the power arc in such a way that it actually burns on the end
points designed for that purpose.
In AC overhead lines, the surge impedance loading (SIL) of the line can determine the power capacity
to be transmitted. This SIL is increasesd by reducing the phase spacing, increasing the number of
subconductors per phase, increasing conductor diameter or increasing bundle radius. Therefore,
compact designs, that reduce the phase distances, can improve the the power flow.
In DC lines, the power flow is not increased by reducing the pole to pole spacing or by increasing the
bundle radius. However, the corona and field effects may be optimized both inside the ROW and at
the edge of ROW, which in some cases are limiting factors.
4.4 Tower and foundations design

Compact DC line designs are characterized for having much smaller distances between poles than
conventional DC line designs. Therefore, the structures are typically either narrower or lower, or both.
The tower types that can be used for compaction are many and varied. One characteristic (also
common to AC) is that the use of insulated cross arms or other types of insulation may be more
prevalent than on non-compact towers.
Depending on the scheme used, the typical configurations can vary. For the commonly used bipole
with metallic return, the towers can be classified depending if their body is between the two poles
(Figure 4.13 a) or sorrounds the poles (Figure 4.13 b to d).
Figure 4.13 Examples of towers and arrangements for DC
The use of V or H insulator string and/or composite insulator is important to the overall compact
design (Figure 4.13 b to d).
The vertical arrangement (Figure 4.13 d), although less common, may be very useful for narrow
corridors, providing a reduced footprint.
37
Ground level field effects, noise or other effects may become the limiting factor in the design, so the
configuration can become critical in compact lines (see Chapter 4.1).
4.4.1 Tower design considerations

Regarding overhead line compaction, tower design can be divided into two parts: Tower body type
selection and Tower top geometry.
Since the HVDC lines often carry higher quantum of power over long distances, these are generally
designed for higher reliability level.
4.4.1.1 Tower body type selection

Tower body is chosen according to visual impact and land occupation restrictions. Although there are
other options, the most used worldwide are:
 Broad Base Lattice Towers with separate foundations
 Narrow Base Lattice Towers with compact foundation
 Single Poles with compact foundation
From a compaction perspective the last two reduce land occupation to the minimum possible levels.
Guyed structures are also commonly used, and, although the base is quite narrow the land occupation
of the guys must be considered.
Regarding the towers that surround the poles, the most typical are those using two poles or two
narrow Base Lattice Towers with compact foundation.
4.4.1.2 Tower top geometry

Tower top geometry is one of the key factors when line compaction is needed, as pole to pole and
pole to ground distances are involved. In AC, it has been extensively studied, [B32]. However, in DC
the literature is more limited.Tower top geometry is governed by clearance requirements and
insulation, which depend on the maximum overvoltage expected. The DC overvoltages can result from
lightning strikes, pole to ground faults or switching and operating processes in HVDC terminals.
Precisely, the new technologies available for HVDC terminals can reduce the overvoltage levels, thus
reducing the clearances requirements and facilitating compaction.
The main distances requirements when designing a tower top geometry can be summarize into:
electrical, maintenance and environmental.
1) Electrical requirements
The electrical effects are the primary input for tower top distances. Obviously the flashover reliability
plays a key role in this design, but also, in compact lines, the different regulated limits to audible noise,
radio interference, electric field at ground, or ion current density are likely to be the limiting factors for
the tower top design.
2) Maintenance requirements
Like in AC; tower top maintenance works, such as tower painting, may often require bigger distances
than those that come purely from electrical requirements. Normally a climbing corridor is required and
this has to be considered as shown in the following image:
38
Figure 4.14 Clearances. Climbing corridor

If live line work is expected additional distances may need to be considered. More details can be
found in Chapter 5 of this Technical Brochure.
3) Environmental requirements
In some countries environmental regulations may require additional distances to be observed in order
to protect birds or other wild life from electrocution. This may end up with a limitation in the degree of
compaction that is achievable, especially for lower voltages power lines. Also the pole arrangements
may be affected.
4.4.2 Tower design options

The Figure 4.15 below shows a few of the tower design options that may be considered for DC lines:
39
Figure 4.15 Examples of DC tower designs
4.4.2.1 Other considerations for tower compaction

The increasing restrictions on visual impact, land occupation and environmental concerns have
enhanced the development of compact and low profile designs. These designs need to be reliable and
economically competitive. In general, lower height implies greater number of structures, although with
40
lower load requirements. Therefore an overall design assessment is needed, considering that in many
cases the alternative to a line or a portion of line can be an underground cable.
The following are some additional aspects that may intervene in the compact tower design:
 Aesthetics. Certain tower designs achieve more acceptability in general for the public,
although it is a subjective perception. There are a lot of references of aesthetic tower design in
the literature, and the options are infinite.
 Use of new materials for towers (non-metalic, for example), or new methods of construction
(pre-manufactured or modular, for example, allowing interchangeability of components) This
can be applicable to smaller structures, similar to lower voltage levels, requiring lighter
machinery and easier assembling.
 Considerations for regular maintenance to match certain requirements (particularly in shared
corridors), like special machinery to be used in rail-side or road-side lines, etc.
 Particular designs to include certain environmental requirements.
 Life cycle assessment.
4.5 Anti galloping considerations

Compact constructions of overhead lines require preservation of minimum air clearances distances
between pole conductors and between pole conductor and metallic return to avoid flashover. That
applies for normal operation and exceptional occurrences, e. g. galloping.
Galloping is a low frequency and high amplitude (several meters) wind induced oscillation of
conductors. Both single and multiple loops of standing wires per spans had been observed on power
lines previously. In general, galloping is usually caused by steady crosswind acting on the
asymmetrically iced conductor. However, it is worth noting that some cases of motion similar to
galloping have been reported where ice is not involved. For example, the crossing of the River Severn
in Great Britain is one example of ice-free galloping event. In this case, the conductor round wires
presented a slightly asymmetrical cross section to the oblique wind which causes the instability.
The effects of galloping on a line are dependent on the severity and duration of the event and on the
type of line construction. It may have a major impact on the design of overhead lines, both for
clearances and in some cases tower load. The sufficient mid-span clearance between conductors is
required to avoid contact or flashover between conductors, which are the most common effects of
galloping. Large, repeated load variations may occur between phases and even between each side of
a given tower, causing horizontal and vertical bending as well as torsional load on towers and cross-
arms.
Galloping is usually in one of two basic forms, standing waves and traveling waves, or a combination
of them. The number of loops in a span varies between different reported causes significantly. Data on
observed galloping of operating lines is shown in the following table:
Table 4.5 Galloping Reported Cases vs. Number of Loops [B42]
Cases Reported
No of Loops Phase Conductor Ground Wire
1 42 2
2 26 3
3 34 6
4 or more 2 1
In order to prevent the galloping, a number of control methods have been utilized which can be
classified into three major categories:
1. De-icing or ice removal systems on the conductors
2. Interfering with galloping mechanisms to prevent galloping from building up
3. Rugged tower design to withstand such extreme weather event
The working group is not aware of any existing HVDC line using category 1 or 2 to prevent galloping.
However, theoretically, several category 2 methods tested on HVAC line could be easily transferred
41
on HVDC line. So far, only category 3 has been widely used in tower design to withstand galloping
event such as WATL HVDC line in Alberta Canada and Bipole III HVDC line in Manitoba Canada. A
few category 2 methods are discussed here which might be transferred to HVDC line [B43], [B44].
4.5.1 T-2 conductors
The T-2 conductor, introduced in 1980s, is designed to reduce the wind-induced motions including
galloping. This type of conductor is essentially made of two smaller ACSR or AAC conductor and
twisted together with a lay length of about 2.7 m. The conductor was evaluated in the field tests in
Texas and Illinois. Over two year period, totally eight galloping events had been recorded on the round
strand conductor but no galloping happened on the T2 conductor. T2 conductor has been used in USA
and Denmark with mixed results.
Figure 4.16 T-2 conductor
4.5.2 Interphase spacers

Interphase spacer is an insulating device to prevent the phase-to-phase contact during galloping. This
method will not prevent galloping but force the motion into a model in which flashovers is much less
likely if the spacers are properly distributed along spans. They usually incorporate composite
insulators due to their light weight and mechanical properties.
Figure 4.17 shows a double exposure of a usual double loop galloping on a span of a vertical circuit
fitted with four interphase spacers. This shows that galloping motion can occur, but the spacers
maintain the phase separation and minimize the likelihood of phase-to-phase contacts.
Figure 4.17 Example of using Interphase Spacer to Prevent Galloping [B45]
4.5.3 Air flow spoilers

Air flow spoiler is a device to modify the shape of the conductor so the total aerodynamic forces acting
on the conductor along the line will be different. The idea is similar as T2 conductor but can be
installed on any regular conductor as retrofit solution. An example is shown in the Figure 4.18:
Figure 4.18 Air flow spoiler [B44]
42
4.5.4 Torsional control devices

Torsional control device is a tuned torsional spring and inertia system to control the galloping of
conductor. The torsional natural frequency is tuned to either first or second mode torsional frequency
of the span. Several forms of torsional control devices are available. Figure 4.19 shows one of the
examples developed in Japan for such application.
Figure 4.19 Example of Torsional Control Device for Twin Bundle Conductors [B46]
Other solutions and devices to control galloping can be found in [B43]. For compact lines, even
thought these exceptional loads originated by galloping are considered in the design of all the line
components, it is important to prevent the occurrence of galloping events in order to avoid flashovers,
due to the reduced distances.
43
5. Live line work maintenance techniques

Live line work is the activity in which a worker makes contact with energized parts of encroaches
inside the live working zone with either parts of his or her body or with tools, devices or equipment
[B47]. The requirement of live line work is becoming popular for many new transmission lines due to
power system constraints and significant outage costs.
The principle to perform live line work on a compact line is not different to a conventional line.
However, the transmission line designer should consider the live line requirement during the planning
and design stage in order to maintain a minimum approach distance (MAD) as required by
international standards, national safety code or utilities internal standard. Therefore, MAD might
become a governing factor in the design of compact HVDC lines in some cases. The actual live line
experience with compact DC lines is still scarce. Only a few utilities have attempted it so far. The
major difference between compact and conventional line are (1) reduced electrical clearance, and (2)
more complicated insulator configuration.
Regular (not-live line) maintenance techniques for compact lines are not different to those used for
conventional lines, and only particularities (configurations, accessories, etc.) may be considered.
5.1 Difference between HVAC and HVDC live line work

Live line work on HVAC line has been carried out since the 1930s and a number of research and
testing have been done for different voltage class of HVAC system to qualify tools and work methods.
Several international standards for HVAC are available based on past experience and knowledge
gained from testing. However, a similar standard is not available for HVDC live line work. In most
cases, the results based on HVAC system were carried over to HVDC applications. The design
principles are based on the following fundamental assumptions: DC pole-ground voltage is equal to
AC line-ground peak voltage.
One principle difference is the space charge generated by steady state corona present around the
head of a live line tool during the work. Physical differences between AC and DC corona, combined
with the fact that HVDC systems are characterized by unidirectional static electrical fields will certainly
result in a different space charge distribution for HVDC systems than that present for HVAC systems
[B48]. Unlike HVAC system, utilities must consider corona effects and space charge effects prior to
undertaking any live line work on HVDC lines.
In order to perform live line work in a safe manner, the following criteria should be considered:
1. The leakage current through the body should be less than 1 mA (perception limit),
2. The maximum electric field on the body of live line crew should be less than 240kV/m,
3. MAD should be maintained during live line work.
Typically, there are two methods to perform live line work on HVDC lines. One is insulating tool
method and the other is barehand method. In some cases, those two methods can be combined to
perform the particular task. In each method, the required MAD shall be maintained all the time.
5.2 Insulating tool method

In this scenario, the live line crew is always at ground potential and performs the work by using an
insulating tool. The insulation level of the insulating tool should maintain the minimal leakage current.
MAD should be maintained all the time between live line crew and phase conductor.
The safety of live line work crew highly depends on the performance of live line work tools in this case.
If the live line work tool is contaminated, the leakage current along the surface of the live line work tool
will increase significantly. In some cases, the leakage current was beyond the safety criteria and
caused electric shock. Therefore, the insulating tool used for primary employee protection shall be
removed from service within pre-determined time period and whenever required for examination,
cleaning, repairing and testing. The insulating tools must be wiped clean and visually inspected for
defects before use each day. If any defect or contamination that could adversely affect the insulating
qualities or mechanical integrity of the insulating tool is present after wiping, the tool must be removed
from service and examined and tested before being return to service [B49]. Meanwhile, a dedicated
work gloves should be used to avoid introducing unwanted contaminations during the live line work.
The CIGRE Working Group B2.64 “Inspection and Testing of Equipment and Training for Live-Line
Work on Overhead Lines” details the requirements for the equipment and best practices on this type of
work.
44
For HVDC live line work, full body conductive suits and boots are usually required due to large
electrical field. Figure 5.1 shows a utility company utilize insulating tool method on an HVDC line.
Figure 5.1 Insulating Tool Method from a Ladder for Insulator Replacement (HVDC)
5.3 Barehand method

Barehand method has been used to perform much live line work for years. In some cases, it becomes
the only option since the insulating tool method is not feasible due to the design of power lines. The
principle of barehand method is to maintain the body of the live line crew at the same electric potential
as the phase conductor. That way the current flow through the body is minimal.
The critical step of barehand method is when the live line work crew is in transition to and from the
worksite. MAD must be always maintained during the transition. For HVDC lines, conductive suits and
boots will be necessary. Figure 5.2 shows typical barehand method on HVDC lines.
Figure 5.2 Barehand Method from a Ladder (left) and Insulated Aerial Device (right)
5.4 Minimum Approach Distance (MAD) for HVDC

5.4.1 Theoretical method
The Minimal Approach Distance for HVDC can be determined based on the assumption of direct
equivalence between the DC pole-ground voltage and AC line-ground peak voltage in most cases.
The overvoltage factor of the HVDC system is typically assumed to be 1.8 p.u. An engineering
evaluation should be always performed to confirm the overvoltage factor of a particular project. In
some projects, the actual overvoltage factor is higher than 1.8 p.u. for HVDC lines. There are two
generally accepted methods to determine the MAD.
 IEC Standard 61472 [B50],
 IEEE Standard 516 [B51].
However, IEC standard only applies to AC system and no guidance for calculation of MAD for DC
system. Therefore, only the IEEE method will be discussed here briefly.
45
In IEEE method, the committee summarized the results of various testing and data from 13 worldwide
high-voltage laboratories that resulted in Figure 5.3 and established MADs for safety in performing live
line work maintenance. This distance did not include an inadvertent movement factor. This testing also
provided data to develop a saturation curve to permit including this effect at voltages over 635 kV
Peak. With these data, the IEEE committee developed equations that relate withstand distance to
system peak voltage [B51]. The curve was developed experimentally using switching impulse voltage
and can be used for MAD calculation for both HVAC and HVDC.
Figure 5.3 Typical withstand voltages for switching surges [B51]

The equations for calculation of three MAD values for HVDC are:
𝐷𝑀𝐴𝐷 = (𝐶1 + 𝑎) × 𝑉𝑝−𝑔 × 𝑇 × 𝐴 + 𝑀
Equation 5.1
𝐷𝑀𝐴𝐷 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑠 = (𝐶1 × 𝐶2 + 𝑎) × 𝑉𝑝−𝑔 × 𝑇 × 𝐴 + 𝑀

Equation 5.2
𝐷𝑀𝐴𝐷−ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟 = ((𝐶1 + 𝑎) × 𝑉𝑝−𝑔 × 𝑇 × 𝐴 + 𝑀) × 𝐻
Equation 5.3
where:
𝐷𝑀𝐴𝐷 The minimum air insulation distance (MAID) plus a factor for
inadvertent movement.
𝐷𝑀𝐴𝐷 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑠 The minimum length of insulation distance required, measured
using the shortest distance between the conducting part at the live
46
end and the closest point at ground potential. This term applies to
tools that are subject to inadvertent movement.
𝐷𝑀𝐴𝐷−ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟 The shortest distance in air between an energized conductor and
the closest point of helicopter.
𝐶1 0.01 ft/kV (60 Hz rod gap withstand).
𝐶2 Typically 𝐶2 = 1.1.
𝑎 Adjustment ratio to compensate for air saturation expressed as a
ratio of distance to kilovolts.
𝑇 The maximum anticipated p.u. factor.
𝐴 The altitude correction factor.
𝑀 The inadvertent movement factor.
𝐻 The helicopter factor for calculations in this guide (H is normally

1.10).
5.4.2 Experimental method

Because the theoretical computation for MAD of HVDC is completely based on the testing of HVAC
systems, a few DC related factors, such as space discharge, are still not fully understood at this
moment. Thus, some utilities companies conduct their own tests to determine the actual MAD for their
HVDC lines by using experiment method.
Between 2010 and 2014, State Grid Corporation of China conducted a number of experiments to
develop the live line work procedure and MAD for their newly built HVDC lines. The testing method
and findings will be presented here as an example to show how to utilize experiment method to
determine the actual MAD.
Simulated tower heads were made in the proportion of 1:1 based on the designed tower structures
and the simulated insulator strings and multi-bundle conductors were the same as the design
parameters of proposed HVDC line. The simulated man was made of aluminum alloy with the same
morphology and structure to the real one. The typical test setup is shown in Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4 Typical Test Setup to Determine MAD [B52]
47
All possible scenarios need to be examined in this case to determine the proper MAD. For State Grid
Corporation of China ±660 kV HVDC line, four different scenarios were examined which are illustrated
in Figure 5.5.
Figure 5.5 Four Test Scenarios for ±660 kV Yindong HVDC Project
The test was conducted at State Grid Electric Power Research Institute outdoor testing facility.
Standard switching positive impulse with 250 μs rising time was used for entire testing. The test
results are summarized in Table 5.1. The detailed finding of this test can be found in reference [B52].
Table 5.1 Summary of Test Results for ±660 kV Yindong HVDC Project
Overvoltage p.u. Elevation (m) 𝑈50 (kV) MAD (m)
Scenario 1 1.75 0 1445 3.6
Scenario 2 1.75 0 1457 4.1 (S1+S2)
Scenario 3 1.75 0 1447 4.0
Scenario 4 1.75 0 1442 4.5
5.5 Tools and equipment

Live line work tools, such as hotsticks, insulated ladder, cradles, etc. for HVDC lines are essentially
the same as those made for HVAC. This is primarily due to absence of research that would identify
DC live line work tool design and guide development of appropriate tools.
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) initiated a research project a few years ago to study the
unique factors of HVDC which might impact the performance of hotsticks. Three issues for live line
48
work on HVDC are currently studied by EPRI and some of preliminary findings can be found in their
2016 progress report [B48].
 Investigation into the potential effects of corona generated space charge on the electric field
distribution along the surface of live line work tools.
 Explore potential differences in the withstand strength of live-line work tools under voltages
composed of switching impulses superimposed on a steady dc bias voltage and switching
impulse voltages alone.
 Deposit charge on a live line work stick, and to examine the effect of this surface charge on
the switching impulse withstand level of a charged live line work tool.
More details on procedures recommendations on HVDC live line work can be found in [B53].
5.6 Utilities experience

5.6.1 Manitoba Hydro (Canada)
Manitoba Hydro first began live line work in 1972 on their HVDC lines (Bipole I and II). A basic set of
tools for suspension insulator changes was purchased at this time. Today Manitoba Hydro carries out
live line work using hot sticks and other fiber glass reinforced tools, applies the barehand method
using ladders, insulated aerial devices, conductor carts, and the helicopter method has also been
applied.
For all live line work maintenance at Manitoba Hydro there are various restrictions that apply. For
HVDC lines, there are restrictions on weather conditions such as wind and humidity for stick work and
barehand. There is the requirement for flame/arc resistant clothing and full conductive suits including
conductive gloves, boots and socks. A safety hold off is required for all HVDC line work such that
restarts on the line are disabled. Clean stick gloves must be worn when handling fiber glass reinforced
plastic (FRP) tools. If the barehand method is to be utilized, a barehand request must be submitted to
the Live Line Methods Coordinator prior to performing the work. HVDC procedures require their own
set of unique tools and in some cases there is the requirement for specially designed equipment for
the procedure and structure to be worked on. DC leakage meters are required for monitoring the
ladders and insulated aerial device booms. DC potential testers are required for testing for potential
prior to de-energize work. Highly trained and certified linemen are required for all live line work tasks.
No live line work is permitted on HVDC lines from May through October as the HVDC system has
been plagued by phantom trips with no apparent reasons. The trips occur during the warmer seasons
and occur mostly in the Northern part of the line, later in the day, and usually follow rain events. For
this reason the newly built Bipole III project will include a three bundle conductor configuration and
longer insulation lengths to attempt to avoid similar issues.
Insulators at Manitoba Hydro on our HVDC line have been sampled for contamination and the
pollution has been very light. For all live line work Manitoba Hydro has the requirement that all
insulators be inspected prior to live line work. There are minimum requirements on the number of
allowable broken insulators. These recommendations were based on literature review and results of
DC flashover testing in a high voltage laboratory.
Manitoba Hydro experienced hot stick flashovers in 1997 and 2002 during insulator replacements at a
500 kV AC line. The findings from the research of these incidents showed that the root cause was salt
contamination on the hot stick to which environmental conditions played a role. Manitoba Hydro now
works with weather restrictions, clean handling procedures for all FRP tools, annual stick maintenance
and testing, the use of dedicated clean hot stick gloves, polymer sheds on FRP tools and additional
field supervision.
Manitoba Hydro exceeds industry with the use of polymer sheds on FRP tools. The polymer sheds act
as a limits of approach marker, increase the leakage of the FRP tool to aid in the prevention of
pollution flashovers and will prevent streamer/charge based flashovers which propagate along the
surface of the tool. When Manitoba Hydro was investigating the 500 kV AC accidents, additional
laboratory testing was completed for HVDC. A laboratory based phenomenon was discovered and
termed “fast flashover”. The fast flashover was characterized by occurring for direct voltages of
negative polarity, at voltages less than system operating, at low relative humidity and occurs without
prior warning in terms of elevated leakage current. The flashovers were shown to be eliminated by the
use of polymer sheds on the FRP tools as well by installing a specially designed and patented inhibitor
electrode at the ground end of a hot stick or insulated aerial device boom. The fast flashover is a
space charge-based phenomenon which was shown to occur in the laboratory environment where the
FRP tool was precharged with negative DC voltage and then the voltage was ramped at 10 kV/s. For
49
this reason at Manitoba Hydro if an insulated boom is used to bond onto the HVDC conductor it must
have a minimum of 17 feet of insulation and be fitted with four booster sheds and a specially designed
inhibitor electrode (corona band shield).
Figure 5.6 Insulated Aerial Boom shown with Sheds and Inhibitor Electrode
For HVDC work at Manitoba Hydro all universal sticks and other FRP tools where applicable have the
requirement for being fitted with 3 polymer sheds equally spaced 1m, 2m and 3 m from the hot end as
well for the above reasons.
Presently limits of approach for HVDC in industry such as those specified in IEEE-516 are based on
AC laboratory tests. IEC 61472 does not provide any calculation methods for work on DC lines. There
is research being undertaken by EPRI to determine the limits of approach distance specific to HVDC
as well as the investigation of space charge on FRP tools. In the case of AC the corona tends to stay
very close to the conductor due to the alternating charges which oppose and attract. In the case of DC
the charge repels each other and the corona causes a space charge to be spread into space in the
vicinity of the conductor.
The most common live line work maintenance activity on HVDC lines is insulator replacements on
various structures, but also has included full damper replacement projects, conductor splicing/repair
and conductor barehand inspections.
Each Bipole line also includes ground electrodes. The ground electrode lines run from the converter
stations as overhead distribution, insulated to 25 kV, to the electrode sites which are buried metal
rings located within a section of land. While the DC line resistance is in the order of 15 Ω, the ground
path resistance is in the order of 0.1 Ω. The electrode lines carry unbalance while in bipolar mode but
are also capable of carrying full line current when in monopole mode. The voltages on the lines may
exceed 100 kV for milliseconds but in general under bipolar steady state operation the voltage is much
less than 25 kV. The electrode lines cannot be de-energized without taking out the complete Bipole
and there is no protection for clearing faults. The shield wire on the electrode line is grounded only at
the midpoint of each electrode line. It is floating everywhere else with an arc horn/ground wire giving
clearance to ground at each structure. Given recent industry concerns and new requirements on arc
flash, Manitoba Hydro has moved away from rubber glove work at structures on the electrode line to
stick work. Barehand and or rubber glove work can still be performed away from structures.
50
Figure 5.7 Electrode lines – Manitoba Hydro

Manitoba Hydro also carries out de-energized maintenance on our HVDC lines which come with their
own unique properties due to the long lengths of parallel conductors. Although there are no induction
concerns during steady state operation, when work is being performed on the de-energized pole a
switching transient on the energized pole can cause an impulse transient which can be a hazard for
workers. Workers are protected by Equipotential Bonding and Grounding Practices while working aloft.
Special precautions are taken for work on the ground where the workers have the highest probability
of being exposed to impulse transients from a fault on an energized pole. The de-energized HVDC
must be grounded at all times to ensure that the static charge from parallel HVDC lines is drained off.
The existence of parallel HVAC lines must be also considered as large loop currents can also exist or
occur due to steady state operation or faults. Workers have complained of nuisance shocks while
working on de-energized poles and this is likely due to the workers becoming charged from the
energized poles.
Since HVDC lines transfer large amounts of power, there are immense benefits to carrying out live line
work. These benefits include, but are not limited to, avoiding revenue losses, maintaining grid
reliability and stability, keeping the power flowing to customers, and avoiding the risks due to human
operating errors which can be experienced during de-energized maintenance. Manitoba Hydro has
performed live line work on HVDC lines for 40 years incident free. Only one incident occurred while
working on HVDC lines de-energized. Manitoba Hydro experience and industry experience shows that
live line work maintenance on AC and DC lines can be completed and is as safe as de-energized
maintenance. At Manitoba Hydro and in industry research on all aspects of live line work continues to
ensure that worker safety is maintained and ensured.
5.6.2 Electric Power Development Co. and Kansai Electric Power Co. (Japan)
In Japan, the Minimal Approach Distance (MAD) for HVDC can be determined based on the
assumption of direct equivalence between the DC pole-ground voltage and AC line-ground peak
voltage. For example, MAD for main line of DC +/-500 kV Kii Channel HVDC Link owned by Kansai
can be considered as being equivalent to that of AC 613 kV.
51
Table 5.2 Minimal Approach Distance (MAD) in Japan
Line Owner Voltage MAD (Main line / Standard Distance

Return line) (Main line / Return line)
Kii Channel HVDC Link Kansai 500 kV 3.5 m / 1.15m 3.8 m / 1.45 m
Hokkaido-Honshu
J-Power 250 kV N.A. 3.0 m / 0.5 m
HVDC Link
MAD can be determined in consideration with mainly internal abnormal voltage and minimum distance
for working. Also, standard distance is set as added 0.3 m to MAD which is desirable for safe work to
occur.
Kansai Electric Power
Kansai has been operating 500 kV Kii Channel HVDC Link since 2000. Two kinds of live line work
maintenance have been carried out so far.
One is the detection of faulty insulator using hot sticks on the live line that are carried out every 20
years. There are three types of detection devices depending on the shape of insulator strings. One
example is shown in Figure 5.8. This is called self-weight type detector used for long V-shaped or long
I-shaped insulator strings which can move down along insulators by its weight and detect faulty
insulators one by one. It is generally used for long insulator strings because it is impossible for
workers to lift up heavy hot stick with detector from arms.
Figure 5.8 Detection of faulty insulator for V-shaped insulator strings

The other is the inspection of insulator strings using hot sticks with small-sized cameras on live line as
shown in Figure 5.9. Insulator near seaside areas tend to be exposed to corrosive environment, but it
is impossible to check visual condition of far insulators from arms. Accordingly this device makes it
possible to inspect rust or corrosion among all insulators by using four cameras which are set above
and below insulators.
Figure 5.9 Inspection of insulator strings by small-sized cameras
Electric Power Development Co., Ltd.

Electric Power Development Co., Ltd. has used Automated Faulty Insulator Detector for DC +/-250 kV
Hokkaido-Honshu HVDC Link. There are two types of detectors. One for tension insulator strings and
the other is for suspension insulator strings. The detector is semi-self-propelled. It moves
automatically from the insulator disc on the ground side to the same on the line side. After checking
the last disc at the line side, it stops moving and the detector is retrieved by a line man drawing the
insulated chain connected to the detector.
52
Automated Faulty Insulator Detector measures the leakage current of each insulator discs. The data is
converted to FM of 800 MHz and sent to the measuring instruments on the ground and displayed on
that monitor. The inspector checks the leakage current and identifies the defective insulator disc.
Figure 5.10 Pre-Check and calibration of the detector
Figure 5.11 Automated Faulty Insulator Detector for tension insulator strings
Figure 5.12 Automated Faulty Insulator Detector for suspension insulator string
Figure 5.13 Checking the leakage current displayed on the monitor
53
5.6.3 Eskom (South Africa)

Eskom operates and maintains the South African section of the Cahora Bassa 533 kV HVDC. The line
connects the hydro generating plant at Songo in Mozambique to the Apollo converter station in
Johannesburg, South Africa. The total line length is 1034 km, of bi-pole design on single lattice steel
structures. Conductors are quad Zambezi and insulation consists of glass cap and pin insulation as
well as silicone composites installed more recently. The typical structure of the line is shown in Figure
5.14.
While the line was built in the 1970’s it was not fully operational for many years for various reasons. As
a result there was no maintenance requirement and Eskom thus has, considering the age of the line,
limited experience in HVDC live line work maintenance. The line has become critically important in the
last 10 years because of a shortage of generation capacity in South Africa.
Pollution related insulation failure faults have been of concern and several live line work maintenance
activities have been performed to improve the performance.
Severe vandalism was also experience on sections of the line resulting in multiple shattered glass
insulators (Figure 5.15).
Figure 5.14 Cahora Bassa 533 kV DC line
Figure 5.15 Multiple broken disks due to vandalism
Live maintenance activities

1. Live Aerial spray washing
Line inspections indicated some areas of high pollution on glass cap and pin insulators. A helicopter-
based insulator washing program was initiated to improve performance in the short term. A stock
standard commercial aerial spray washing unit was utilized on a Bell helicopter. Normal AC spray
washing requirements as far as water and techniques were concerned were applied.
54
Figure 5.16 Helicopter based aerial washing under live conditions

Both strain and suspension assemblies were washed in high pollution areas and the performance of
the line improved over the short term.
2. Re-Insulation
As part of a long term performance improvement a re-insulation project was initiated. Due to
generation constraints it had to be performed under energized conditions. Glass cap and pin insulation
was replaced with silicone rubber composite insulators (NCI’s) with increased creepage and superior
performance under polluted conditions.
Live line work safety clearance (MAD) was calculated to be 4250 mm at 533 kV DC, using a 1.8 p.u.
overvoltage at an altitude of 1500 m, in accordance with IEC 61472. This includes an ergonomic
distance of 0.5 m which is applied in Eskom. In an effort to compare this with international best
practices, Eskom found that information related to HVDC live work clearances was rather limited.
Table 5.3 Clearance (MAD) calculation parameters.
Live Line Work on DC Line

Overvoltage Factor 1.8 P.U.
Altitude 1500 m
Temperature (t) 40°C
Relative Air Density (σ) 0.781
Gap Factor (k) 1.2
Stat. Withstand Voltage U(10%) 1055.34
CFO 1128
Distance at Sea Level d 3.01 m
Go
T 0.64
U/U(0) 0.87
Ua 979.11
ka 0.87
Distance at 1500 meter Da 3.74 m
Minimum Approach Distance 4.24 m
55
On site, however, Eskom found that because of physical structure dimensions and coupling length of
new composite insulators the required clearance could not be achieved. With multiple bridges
however Eskom could reduce the voltage by 25 % to 400 kV which then results in a calculated
clearance (MAD) requirement of 3200 mm which could easily be achieved.
A table was compiled stipulating the various voltage possible levels and minimum required healthy
disks to allow safe bare hand live line work.
Table 5.4 Results from research report, Cahora Bassa Clearance and Live Line Upgradeability,
RES/RR/10/31769, dated 27 March 2010
Line % of 533 Maximum Electrical Ergonomic Live Work safe Minimum

Voltage kV DC Line Compon distance [m] approach number of
[kV] nominal Voltage ent [m] distance [m] healthy disks for
voltage [kV] safe live work.
600 113% 618 4.6 0.5 5.1 N/A - No live
533 100% 549 3.9 0.5 4.24 work
N/A - No live
400 75% 412 2.7 0.5 3.2 work 21
267 50% 275 1.6 0.5 2.1 17
133 25% 137 0.75 0.5 1.25 8
Re-insulation was performed at 400 kV DC using helicopter based underslung aerial live line work
technique. Eskom employed basic live work principles and tools relevant to AC with the above
clearance (MAD) values.
Figure 5.17 Suspension insulator replacement using helicopter underslung technique and hydraulic
lifting machine
56
Figure 5.18 Strain insulator replacement using cradle and thread and trunnions
Research
Internationally there are various aspects related to HVDC and live line work that are being researched.
Eskom also has research projects related to HVDC in general, and on live line work in particular, but
to date nothing has been conclusive. While much is said about space charges there is no definite
information related to its effect on live line work practices, techniques and tools.
57
6. Construction techniques
In general, it can be stated that there are no specific differences between the construction of
conventional lines and that of compact lines. The same general techniques are used for stringing,
erecting supports or completing the civil works, irrespective of the pole spacing. The differences can
be found in the particular design of the line components (tower/pole, bundle configuration, cross-
arms…).
It is thus suggested that each line construction be dealt with on a case by case basis as is normally
the case for a conventionally spaced tower design. In this regard, the following considerations can be
outlined considering that may be applicable to many compact line designs, although are not exclusive
of compact lines and can be also applicable to other line designs:
 Compact lines have much smaller distances between poles than conventional designs. This
can often lead to smaller and/or lighter supports, which influences the assembling and
erecting methods, as well as the civil works required. In general, lighter machinery and easier
assembling operations and methods could be expected, although it is very influenced by the
different types and designs, as mentioned below. One of the aspects that can be mentioned is
the potential possibility to increase automatization of the assembling and erecting processes
when using smaller towers or poles (techniques that may be used in lower voltages or railway
catenaries).
 Due to the smaller pole to pole distances, the design of compact structures may have some
key aspects that can affect the construction processes. For instance, the insulation solution
(see section 4.3) is of great importance during stringing and terminating, highlighting the
particularities in the use of the insulated cross-arm and other special assemblies. Also some
particular tower designs like cross-rope or guyed structures present very different methods
compared with self-supported structures.
 Some compact designs may have smaller spans than those used in conventional designs.
Therefore, the stringing methods and machinery could be adapted to this fact, optimizing the
process, but taking into account that the bundling configuration and type of conductor are
even more important than the span length.
 Compact lines may have to be installed in very restricted right of ways (like road-side, railway-
side or shared corridors). This may require specialized use of cranes or other lifting devices,
particular stringing methods and may have limitations in the accessing.
 The reduced distances in compact lines as well as the important insulation requirements may
encourage the use of new materials and components. It is considered that certain materials or
coponents, like, for example, fiber reinforced polymers (FRP) or new component materials
may be of special interest in the development of compact line configurations.
58
7. Influence of compaction in the line electrical

design
The objective of this section is to discuss the aspects related to the design of compact HVDC line, and
use it as a base for other CIGRE literature. To give a measure/quantification of the influence of an
item a base case HVDC line is considered with the below characteristics:
V=500 kV; Current Carrying Capability=1470 A (@ 90C); Power Economic=1300 MW

n=3 Conductor/Pole; Bundle Spacing, a= 45.7 cm; Diam., d=38.22 mm (ACSR Lapwing 1590 MCM)
Pole Spacing 13.0 m; Pole Height (min.)=12.5 m; Pole Sag=22.5 m; Av. Span 450 m; ROW=67 m
Shield Wire=3/8” EHS; Shield Wire Sag=16 m
Insulator string=30 anti fog type disc; Pitch=165 mm
Figure 7.1 Basic HVDC line [B11]

Sensitivity to various parameters will be evaluated to quantify the influence of the parameter change.
7.1 Insulation co-ordination

Insulation co-ordination aims at designing the clearances and at defining the number and type of
insulators to be used in the insulator strings, [B11], [B37], see also Chapter 3.
The number of insulators is selected based on the maximum DC voltage withstand and on the
assumption of a certain pollution level.
59
The main electrical clearances pole-to-ground (P-G) and pole-to-pole (P-P) to be determined are:
conductor-to-tower or objects (lateral), conductor-to-ground or objects (at the ground).
They are calculated for operating voltage and switching surge overvoltage withstand. The clearance to
objects at the edge of right-of-way shall be verified in the condition of conductor swing due to wind in
order to prevent flashovers and the touch to objects such as trees.
7.1.1 Operating Voltage Withstand
Air Clearances
For determining the minimum necessary clearances for operating voltage insulation, the following
premises are considered [B37]:
 Withstand voltage regarding the most unfavorable condition: positive polarity;
 Maximum operating voltage and correction for the atmospheric conditions (1.15 pu assumed
here).
The distances conductor-to-structure were obtained according to [B37] and are shown on Table 7.1.
Table 7.1 Air clearances for operating voltages (m)
Operating Clearance (m)
Voltage (kV) P-G P-P
+500 1.20 2.40
Number of Insulators
The number of insulators in a string is determined by adopting an environmental condition (pollution,
air density) and choosing a creepage distance criterion [B37]. Assuming ambient polution level as
“light/agricultural” and specific creepage distance as 30 mm/kV, the calculated values are as indicated
in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2 Number of Insulator and String Length (P-G).
Creepage distance 30 mm/kV
Operating
Number of String Length
Voltage (kV)
Insulators (m)
 500 30 5.20
For P-P gap, double the quantity of insulators and accordingly increased string length are necessary.
To have a compact line, V string (90º) shall be considered. In this case the presence of the string lead
to a clearance to tower equal to the string length multiplied by 0.707. V-string angle is calculated as
per [B32], based on the ratio of weight and wind load of conductor and insulator string considering up
to 15 deg relaxation of one arm of insulator string.
Notes: The following type of insulator was considered:
 Anti-fog insulator, pitch of 165 mm and leakage distance of 508 mm;
 Hardware length: 0.25m
 Porcelain type; or glass. Composite can be used in any area and is robust against vandalism
and pollution.
Conductor Swing Angle
The swing angle of the conductor due to wind (return period of 50 years), according also with the
assumptions of [B11] varies from 44 to 57 degrees from biggest to smallest ACSR conductor size, and
the minimum clearance in Table 7.1 above has to be preserved
7.1.2 Switching surge withstand
Calculation procedure
Once the switching surge overvoltages are known, the clearances can be calculated based on the risk
of failure, considering the withstand capability of the gaps. This can be estimated using the following
equation:
60
𝑉50 = 𝑘 ∙ 500 ∙ 𝑑 0.6

Equation 7.1
where:
 𝑉50 → Insulation critical flashover (50% probability), in kV
 𝑑 → gap distance (m); 2 < 𝑑 < 5 m
 𝑘 → gap factor:
𝑘 = 1.15 conductor – plane
𝑘 = 1.35 conductor – structure (below)
𝑘 = 1.30 conductor – structure (lateral or above)
𝑘 = 1.4 conductor – guy wire
The clearances are determined based on the fault application overvoltage profiles, [B11], [B37],
aiming at a certain flashover failure risk target (design criteria).
It should be noted that, if the line is designed with I-suspended insulator strings (as opposed to V-
strings), then it is recommended to consider in the risk calculation the effect of possible winds
simultaneously with the overvoltages (angles from 7º to 10º).
In [B11], [B37], the clearances were designed for a flashover risk of failure of 1/50 yr, no displacement
due to wind, results in Figure 7.2 and Figure 7.3.
Conductor-to-Tower
8,0
7,0
6,0
Clearance (m)
5,0
1,500 km
4,0
3,000 km
3,0
2,0
1,0
0,0
300 400 500 600 700 800
Voltage (kV)
Figure 7.2 Conductor to tower clearances
Figure 7.3 Conductor to object clearance (add 4.5 m of a truck to get conductor-to-ground distance).
In case of using I-string, a swing angle shall be considered together with the clearances in the Figure
7.3 above (6 to 9º [B11]).]). As per [B32], swing angles having a probability of occurrence of 1% or
more during a year is combined with the distance necessary to withstand switching.
61
Pole-to-pole clearances
The pole spacing requirements are determined considering the same fault application overvoltage. For
fault in the middle of the line (worst P-G overvoltage in the middle of the line, sound pole) the P-P
overvoltage is equal to the P-G overvoltage (in kV) as one pole is grounded. The same equation
above is used to determine the clearance and the risk of flashover. However the gap factor k is a
value dependant from the ratio “α” of the negative part of the overvoltage divided by the sum of the
negative and positive [B54], in the present case the worst case means a ratio equal zero, the gap
factors indicated in [B54] are (Table 7.3)
Table 7.3 Gap factor k for P-P clearances determination
Configuration α = 0.5 α = 0.33
Ring-ring or large smooth electrodes 1.80 1.70
Crossed conductors 1.65 1.53
Rod-rod or conductor-conductor (along the span) 1.62 1.52
It will be used for P-P clearance the same values of P-G clearances (conductor-structure) plus a
margin of 15%. According to [B11] the clearances are therefore (Table 7.4) [B54].
Table 7.4 Clearances for switching surge P-G and P-P
Operating Clearance (m)
Voltage (kV)
 500 3.1 / 3.6
Minimum Pole Spacing Required

The minimum pole spacing required is the sum of P-P clearances (Table 7.5) and two times the
bundle radius R. When using I-string the conductor swing has to be considered. In case of the tower
type a) the tower mast width has also to be included. Pole spacing for tower type a) are those from
[B11].
Table 7.5 pole spacing for different towers type
Minimum clearance required for: (m) Pole spacing Tower type

Voltage Operating Operating Switching a* b c *** d a **
(kV) Voltage Voltage P- surge P-G
(I-string) (V-string)
P-G air P gap with air gap
gap insulator
± 500 2.4 10.4 3.1 12.5-14.0 9.0-11.0 7.5–11.0 >3.7 9.3
* depend on the conductor size

** air gap is the string length horizontal component
*** air gap (I) or horizontal component (V)
Based on the above range of possibilities the following arrangements and pole spacing will be
considered in the corona and field evaluation (Table 7.6). Except for pole spacing the remaining data
of Figure 7.2 and Figure 7.3 applies.
62
Table 7.6 Alternatives to be evaluated
Alternative configuration (tower, chain) pole spacing (m)
1 (base) a (II) 13.1
2 a (VV) 9.3
3 b (VHV) 11.0
4 c (VV) 7.7
5 d vertical (VV) 3.7
6 same as 5 4.5
The same analysis can be performed for a double circuit line, but it has to be noted that different
combinations of the positive/negative pole position in the tower must be considered.
7.2 Corona effect

Corona effect in the HVDC line lead to: radio interference, RI, TV interference, TVI, and audible noise,
AN. The corona effect is dictated by the maximum conductor surface gradient (𝐸𝑚 ) and it’s ratio to the
Peek gradient. Therefore the impact of compactation can be firstly seen by measuring the variation on
𝐸𝑚 .
7.2.1 Conductor surface gradient
The simplified equations to evaluate the maximum conductor surface gradient in HVDC lines are
reproduced in [B11], [B37]. For a bipolar HVDC transmission line with a single conductor, the average
and maximum conductor surface gradients 𝐸𝑎 and 𝐸𝑚 , respectively, in kV/cm, are given as:
𝑉
𝐸𝑚 = 𝐸𝑎 = 2𝐻
𝑟 ∙ 𝑙𝑛
2𝐻 2
𝑟 √( ) +1
𝑆
Equation 7.2
Where:
𝑉 → voltage applied (actually ± 𝑉) to the conductors of the line, kV
𝑟 → conductor radius, cm
𝐻 → conductor height, cm
𝑆 → pole spacing, cm
When bundled conductors are used, the electric field around the sub-conductors of the bundle is
distributed non-uniformly, with maximum and minimum gradients occurring at diametrically opposite
points and the average gradient at a point in between. The degree of non-uniformity increases as the
number of sub-conductors as well as the ratio of the sub-conductor radius to the bundle radius
increase. Using the Markt and Mengele’s method, the average and maximum bundle gradients of a
bipolar HVDC line, with n-conductor bundles on each pole, are given as [B11], [B37].
𝑉
𝐸𝑎 = 2𝐻
𝑛 ∙ 𝑟 ∙ 𝑙𝑛 2
2𝐻
𝑟𝑒𝑞 √( ) +1
𝑆
Equation 7.3
𝑟
𝐸𝑚 = 𝐸𝑎 [1 + (𝑛 − 1) ]
𝑅
Equation 7.4
63
For greater accuracy of conductor surface gradient and, in order to calculate surface gradient on
earthwires, calculations can be performed based on theory of images using capacitance matrix and
potential matrix.
Where:
𝑛 → number of sub-conductor in the bundle
𝑟 → sub-conductor radius, cm
𝑅 → bundle radius, cm
𝑟𝑒𝑞 → equivalent bundle radius, cm
𝑎
𝑅= 𝜋
2 sin (𝑁)
Equation 7.5
𝑎 → distance between adjacent subconductors, cm
𝑛 ∙ 𝑟 1⁄𝑛
𝑟𝑒𝑞 =𝑅∙[ ]
𝑅
Equation 7.6
𝑎 → distance between adjacent subconductors, cm

The following aspects will be considered in the evaluation of maximum surface conductor gradient:
 conductor diameter
 pole spacing
 bundle spacing
 conductor height
 Horizontal/vertical configuration
Variations will be compared with the base case mentioned above.
Figure 7.4 shows the variation due to number of conductors per pole. Note that for the same total
cross section the surface gradients are very similar
Figure 7.4 Gradient as function of the number of conductors per pole
64
In Figure 7.5 the effect of bundle spacing is shown. Note that there are minimum points in the curves.
Figure 7.5 Gradient as function of the bundle spacing (basic case)

The maximum conductor surface gradient varies with pole spacing and conductor height and therefore
with tower/conductor arrangement. In the Figure 7.6 this variation is shown for several pole spacing
and considering two height values, the minimum height and the average height (minimum height plus
1/3 of the sag).
35
Peek grad
30 29.66 kV/cm
25
20 pole spacing (m)

15 minimum height
10 average height
0
11 2 3 4 55 5a
6 alternative
Figure 7.6 Conductor surface gradient as a function of pole-spacing and conductor height parallel to
ground (minimum and average)
Notes: 1) for cases 5 and 6 the gradient refers to the lower conductor
2) Peek gradient, both polarity, with m=0.82 ; air density 0.95 is 29.67 kV/cm
It can be seen that as the pole spacing reduces in size, the conductor surface gradient increases.
There is no difference for vertical or horizontal configuration with the same pole spacing (7.7m of pole
spacing was tested with both arrangements).
Using the average value for the height of conductor instead of minimum height in the calculation lower
values of gradient are obtained (22.9 kV/cm in the former and 23.3 kV/cm in the latter for case 1).
7.2.2 Radio interference
Based on data obtained on experimental as well as operating lines, a simple empirical formula has
been developed ([B11], [B37]) for predicting the average fair weather RI level for bipolar HVDC
transmission lines as:
𝑔 𝑑 19.9 𝑞
𝑅𝐼 = 51.7 + 86 log ( ) + 40 log ( ) + 10 {1 − [log(10 ∙ 𝑓)]2 } + 40 log +
𝑔0 𝑑0 𝐷 300
Equation 7.7
65
Where:
𝑅𝐼 → radio interference level measured at a distance 𝐷 from the positive pole with a CISPR
instrument, dB above 1 μV/m
𝑔 → maximum bundle gradient, kV/cm
𝑑 → conductor diameter, cm
𝑓 → frequency, MHz
𝐷 → radial distance from positive pole, m
𝑞 → altitude, m
The reference values are 𝑔0 = 25.6 kV/cm and 𝑑0 = 4.62 cm.
Adequate statistical information is not presently available to determine the difference in the RI level
between the average and maximum fair weather values or between the fair and foul weather values.
However, based on the results of some long-term studies [B11], the maximum fair weather RI may be
obtained by adding 6 dB; and the average foul weather RI may be obtained by subtracting 5 dB from
the average fair weather value.
Design criteria for RI from transmission lines are generally based on signal to noise ratios (SNR) for
acceptable AM radio reception. Studies carried out on corona-generated RI from AC and DC
transmission lines indicate that the SNRs for acceptable radio reception are:
a) background not detectable: SNR >30 dB
b) background detectable: 20 dB
c) background evident: 8 dB
Minimum radio station signal requirement in Brazil is 66 dB for cities with population from 2,500 to
10,000 inhabitants. Similar condition probably applies to other countries and is used here as part of
the criteria.
At present, there are no established design criteria for RI from DC transmission lines; so the tentative
guidelines are for limiting the RI at the edge of the right of way to (66-20) = 46 dB or to keep a
reception quality b) at the reception. The equation for calculating noise above gives the average fair
weather noise. For more stringent criteria, the noise shall be below 46-4= 42 dB for 90% probability of
not being exceeded, meaning that in 10% of the time the reception will be classified as between the
criteria b) and c) above. The reference frequency is considered in [B11] as 1 MHz, and the line is at an
average altitude of 600 m.
66
The values of the noise for the various arrangements are shown on Figure 7.7 (f=1 MHz, average
height and q=600 m):
65
dBμ
60
Cases as per Table 7.6
55
case 6 pos lower
50
case 5 pos lower
45
case 4
40
case 3
35
case 2
30 case 1
25 criteria
20
0 20 40 60 80
distance to center (m)
Figure 7.7 Radio Interference (positive conductor only)

Notes: 1) in the alternatives 5 and 6 the positive conductor is the lower
2) The contribution of the negative pole has to be added and has greater influence in the
vertical configuration and smaller pole spacing
7.2.3 Audible noise
Based on measurements made on experimental as well as operating DC lines and the general
characteristics of corona-generated AN, an empirical formula has been developed for the mean fair
weather AN, in dBA, from a DC line as:
𝑞
𝐴𝑁 = 𝐴𝑁0 + 86 log(𝑔) + 𝑘 log(𝑛) + 40 log(𝑑) − 11.4 log(𝑅) +
300
Equation 7.8
Where:
𝑔 → average maximum bundle gradient, kV/cm
𝑛 → number of sub-conductors
𝑑 → conductor diameter, cm
𝑅 → radial distance from the positive conductor to the point of observation
The empirical constants 𝑘 and 𝐴𝑁0 are given as:
𝑘 = 25.6 for 𝑛  2
𝑘=0 for 𝑛 = 1 or 2
𝐴𝑁0 = -100.62 for 𝑛  2
𝐴𝑁0 = -93.4 for 𝑛 = 1 or 2
67
The values of the noise for the various arrangements (as per Table 7.6) are shown on Figure 7.8.
55
dBA
Cases as per Table 7.6
50 # 6 pos lower
case 5
45 case 4
case 2
40 case 1
criteria
35 # 6 pos higher
case 3
30
0 20 40 60 80
dist center (m)
Figure 7.8 Audible noise (positive conductor only)
Notes: 1) in the alternative 5 the positive conductor is the lower
2) The contribution of the negative pole has to be added and has greater influence in the
vertical configuration and smaller pole spacing
The maximum fair weather AN (probability 10% of not being exceeded [B15]) is calculated by adding 5
dBA to the mean fair weather value obtained above, while the mean AN during rain is calculated by
subtracting 6 dBA from the mean fair weather AN.
As in the case of RI, there are presently no regulations for AN from HVDC transmission lines. The
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the US recommends that the day-night average sound
level 𝐿𝑑𝑛 [B11] be limited to 55 dBA outdoors. The level 𝐿𝑑𝑛 is defined as:
1 𝐿𝑑 𝐿𝑛 +10
𝐿𝑑𝑛 = 10 log { [15 ∙ 10 10 + 9 ∙ 10 10 ]}
24
Equation 7.9
Where 𝐿𝑑 and 𝐿𝑛 are the day and night time sound levels, respectively. However, since the highest
level of AN from DC lines occurs in fair weather, it may be prudent to limit the 𝐿𝑑𝑛 (10%) of AN from
HVDC transmission lines to 55 dBA, and this correspond to 50 dBA for 𝐿𝑑𝑛 (50%). Reference [B15]
indicates that the night, and the all time distribution are close together by 1.5 dBA. Therefore
assuming 𝐿𝑑 = 𝐿𝑛 = 42 to 44 dBA, results 𝐿𝑑𝑛 ~50 dBA.
As a conclusion, the AN calculated by the equation above (average value) shall be limited to ~42 dBA
at the edge of the right-of-way.
7.2.4 How to consider the conductor height
To calculate the capacitance, the conductor is supposed to be parallel to the soil when actually is a
catenary. There are two possibilities to carry out the calculation: conductor with the mid span height or
the equivalent height (mid span plus 1/3 of the sag). Therefore two values of gradient are obtained
Gmi and Gav. Now the calculation of noise in distances from the line can be done with the conductor
position at mid span (Hmi) or as an average (Hav). A combination of G and H can be done (Gav, Hav;
Gmi, Hmi; Gav, Hmi but not Gmi, Hav).
68
RI calculations were done for configuration T1 and T6 defined in Table 7.6 to examine the difference
in results (Figure 7.9).
G gradient H height
dBμ
a=average m=minimum
70
65
60
55
Gav/Hav T1
50
45 Gmi/Hmi T1
40 Gav/Hav T6 pos lower
35
30 Gmi/Hmi T6 pos lower
25 criteria
20
0 20 40 60 80 100
dist center (m)
Figure 7.9 Audible noise different G calculation

It may have an impact in the ROW determination.
7.2.5 Assymetrical ROW
The RI and AN for HVDC lines are due to corona in the positive pole. The contribution of negative pole
is minor therefore the noise in the negative pole side of the line is smaller. One can choose a ROW
shorter in the negative side of the line. This may produce important savings and benefits during
tramitation or construction provided that this phenomena governs the ROW width choice.
As an example consider the case of arrangement T1, AN, the blue curve (Gmi/Hmi) in Figure 7.9; for
this case the noise at 40 m from the center of the tower in the positive pole side is 35 dBA; in the
negative side the contribution of the positive pole is for a distance (40 + 6.5) m 33 dBA in Figure 7.9.
This consideration normally is not done.
7.3 Right-of-way
7.3.1 ROW for noise requirements
Table 7.8 shows the required right-of-way to meet the noise criteria: Radio 46 dBu; Audible 42 dBA.
Considering positive pole only; positive in the lower position in the vertical arrangement; gradient and
height at mid span.
To reduce the right-of-way requirements due to corona effect one may consider a reduction in the
bundle spacing. Below (Table 7.7) are the conductor surface gradients (maximum and average
maximum) for the case 5 with two bundle spacing 45.7 and 30 cm, positive pole in the lower position.
Table 7.7 Conductor surface gradient for two different bundle spacing (case 5)
𝑎 45.7 cm 30 cm
Average 𝐸𝑎 (kV/cm) +28.31 +25.97

-27.31 -25.09
[1 + (𝑛 − 1) ∙ 𝑟⁄𝑅 ] 1.145 1.221
Maximum 𝐸𝑚 (kV/cm) +32.41 +31.70
-31.27 -30.62
69
Remembering that Peek gradient (m=0.82 ; air density 0.95) are +30.93 and -29.67 kV/cm the
reduction to 30 cm does not meet the visual corona criteria, and do not show improvement in AN (less
than 1 dBA) ROW for minimum clearance at the edge and final selection.
For the ROW requirements for insulation coordination the conditions of [B11] (wind, sag, temperature)
are assumed leading to the value of 53 m for ROW (corresponding to swing angle of 39º; sag 34.9m;
clearance for operating voltage).
7.3.2 Final ROW
Therefore, the final ROW for the cases defined in Table 7.6, will be those of Table 7.8. The bigger
value to be adopted:
Table 7.8 ROW for RI, AN and clearance to edge (m)
I V
case RI AN clearance clearance
1 44 0 66.1 59.5
2 54 0 62.3 55.7
3 50 0 64.0 57.4
4 64 45 60.7 54.1
5 100 >150 53.0 46.4
6 85 >150 53.0 46.4
7.4 Electric field

The static electric fields produced by DC lines do not produce significant electric fields or currents
inside the body to cause biological effects, consequently, no limits have been recommended by
ICNIRP. In absence of other concerns, the remaining effects of DC electric fields are the ions
produced by corona, and their charging effects on body hair and skin, as well as the resulting
annoying micro shocks occurring when touching charged or grounded metallic objects under the line.
To calculate HVDC electric field there are three methods:
 Solution of Maxwell equations (differential) by simplifications and direct integration (software
called Anypole);
 By finite elements;
 The so-called saturation method (semi-empirical).
Key information for the two analytical method is the onset gradient, value difficult to be established,
that depends on season; conductor surface and therefore has a statically behaviour.
The semi-empirical method is based on small scale model complemented with test line measurements
in high voltage laboratory. There are parameters for all season and values with 50% and 95%
probability [B15].
70
To evaluate the electric field on the ground perpendicular to the line at mid span, the software Anypole
is used. The electric field and ionic current for alternatives 1, 4 and 6 (as per Table 7.6) are shown in
Figure 7.10:
100
J (nA/m2)
80
60
40
20
case 6
0
case 4
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
-20
case 1
-40
-60
-80
-100
- ion current density-
40
kV/m
30
20
10
case 1
0 case 4
-60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 case 6
-10
-20
-30
-40
- Electric field -
Figure 7.10 Electric field and ionic current
The vertical arrangement has slight higher values of electric field and similar vlues of ionic current.
Horizontal configurations have similar values for 3.7 or 7.7 m of pole spacing.
71
The calculations were also performed using the saturation method for configuration T1 and T2 (as per
Table 7.6), and the results are shown in Figure 7.11.
electric field
40
kV/m
30
20
10 T1 spring 50%
T2 spring 50%
0 T1 spring 95%
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 T2 spring 95%
-10 T1 H humid sum 95%
T2 H humid sum 95%
-20
-30
-40
distance (m)
ionic current
100
J (nA/m2)
50
0 T1 spring 95%
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 T1 humid sum 95%%
-50 T2 humid sum 95%
T1 spring 50%
-100
-150
distance (m)
Figure 7.11 Electric field and ionic current
72
So far, there is no agreed criteria for maximum limits, although 40 kV/m and 100 nA/m 2 are mentioned
([B11]) for worst meteorological condition (summer with high humidity).As for [B15], no concerned
biological effect are reported due to DC fields and ion currents except skin/hair movement. Figure 7.12
show the dependence of parameters.
Figure 7.12 Perception of electric field

From Figure 7.12 it can be seen that for the state criteria 50% of the people perceive the field, as
another 50% does not perceive, it may indicate that the stress is small. For the edge more stringent
values may be adopted, like for example 15 kV/m and 50 nA/m2.
In summary, the above criteria are based on perception of the field by humans. Values in Figure 7.12
indicate that the criteria are matched inside the ROW and with an edge of 25 m.
7.5 Phenomena sensitivity to parameters

Most of the HVDC lines are bipolar, single circuits, where the two polarities (poles) are arranged in a
flat (horizontal) configuration. Theoretically, the DC line can be monopolar (or two monopolar with
different polarities, in separated right-of-ways, like the Cahora Bassa case).
In the literature, some studies are described suggesting the use of double circuits (which allow
combinations of polarities in the tower sides and heights) and vertical configuration; however, so far no
practical application has being cited.
The corona phenomenon and the electric field are influenced by the conductor arrangement whose
sensitivity analysis for the general case (bipolar, horizontal, single circuit case) is shown below. The
influence of both shield wires and a dedicated metallic return in the tower were not considered in the
analysis.
During the sensitivity analysis the variation of the parameters to affect the phenomena were not large
(20- 30%). Here the term Phenomena refers to: Audible noise (AN); Radio Interference (RI); Electric
field (EF); Magnetic Field (MF); and Conductor Surface Gradient (SG). The latter being more directed
to the phenomena mainly related to AN, RI, EF.
73
PARAMETER EF MF RI AN SG
Pole to pole distance
Conductor height above ground
Number of subconductors (for a given total coss-section)
Sub-conductor spacing
Total conductor cross-section
Vertical configuration (respect to horizontal)
Strong increase: Strong decrease:
Slight increase: Slight decrease:
No significant effect:
Figure 7.13 Phenomena sensitivity analysis

For AN, RI the measured point considered is 20 m from the center of the tower, therefore, relatively far
from the line. As for the electric field, the measuring point was 20 m away and the maximum value
obtained was inside the right-of way.
In the comparison between horizontal and vertical configurations, it should be noted that the measured
point is at the same distance related to the center of the line; therefore, away from the conductors.
This fact favors the vertical configuration as the measured point is further from the conductor.
The vertical configuration allow for lower pole spacing (as there could be no truss in between poles)
and this impacts the surface gradient value and, therefore, the phenomena.
7.6 Electrical line design criteria

In cooperation between WG B2.62 (compact DC lines) and B2.63 (compact AC lines) a short inquiry
regarding the line electrical criteria for AC and DC was prepared. The inquiry was to be supported by
the different countries with their own knowledge. The scope of the inquiry was to put together the
overhead transmission line electrical design criteria used in several countries. 16 countries were
asked of which 8 countries answered with 10 answers.
The answers for DC are summarised in this document.
7.6.1 Summary of the Inquiry
There were four sections in the questionnaire. The first section included questions regarding
overvoltages. The second section asked about insulation co-ordination. The third section contained
questions about corona effects and the last section was to maintain information about electric and
magnetic fields.
Not every question was answered by the 8 countries who responded to the questionnaire. The
answers received are summarised in the following paragraphs.
Relating to overvoltages the operating voltage/power frequency overvoltage the answers differ
between 1.1 pu ( 2 of 7) and 1.0 pu (5 of 7). For the Switching surge V2%, 2 answers were received.
These are 1.6 and 1.0 both for 500 kV. The answers for the phase-to-ground energization differ
between 1.2 pu and 2.0 pu. For the phase-to-phase energization between 1.8 pu and 2.3 pu. For the
phase-to-ground reclosing only one value was received (1.2 pu), for the phase-to-phase reclosing as
well which is 2.3 pu. The range of the fault inception is between 1.6 pu and 2.0 pu. For the load
rejection, fault clearing only one value was received (1.1 pu)
74
For the insulation co-ordination the pollution level is light/clean. The insulation creepage differs
between 30 mm/kVp-g and 36 mm/kVp-g. For the air clearance, max. voltage is mainly the answer of
all countries despite of one (Canada Ontario:. 12.2 @ 160 km/hr). The wind return period (yr.) is
answered with 50 (8 of 9 answers). For the switching surge only one answer was received (1.6 pu).
For energization and reclosing only one answer was received for each question and all are the same
(0.99 pu). For fault inception only one value has been received which is 10-3. The answers for
shielding angle and outage rate/100 km/yr differ from each other very much which can be seen in
Table 7.10.
Regarding the corona effects the values for the max. conductor surface gradient vary between 20
kV/cm and 25 kV/cm. For the weather probability 3 countries answered with 90% and one country
with dry condition. One country has no policy and the other ones did not answer this question, so that
the answers for this question are very different to each other as well. The signal-to-noise radio
interference differs between 15 dBμ and 24 dBμ. The answers for radio interference signal are 66 dBμ
(3 of 5 answers) and 71 dBμ (1 of 5 answers). For the noise the answers differ between 42 dBμ and
47 dBμ. The weather probability for radio interference is mostly fair/dry condition (4 of 6 answers). The
noise for audible noise differs between 35 dBA and 70 dBA depending on situation are and time. The
weather probability here is fair/dry condition in all countries that have answered.
The answers for the electric fields are different to each other as well. The values can be seen in Table
7.12. The ion current is 100 nA/m2 (5 of 6 answers) and is mostly measured in the inside or outside of
ROW. For the magnetic field, 2 values were received 200μT and 500 μT. They places of
measurement differ from each other (see Table 7.12).
The questions and answers of the different countries can be seen in the tables below in detail.
7.6.2 Overvoltages
Table 7.9 Answers received for overvoltages
Canada Canata USA
Norway Manitoba Ontario Korea Germany Brasil France USA (BPA) Japan
Operating
voltage/powe
r frequency
overvoltage
1.1 (pu) 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.1 1.0
1.0
Switching 1.6 (500k
1.2 surge V2% (500 kV) Vpk)
a Energization
1.6 (+/-
500kV)
Phase-to- 1.7 (+/-
ground (pu) NA NA 2.0 NA 1.2 250kV)
Phase-to-
phase (pu) NA NA 1.8 NA 2.3 NA
b Reclosing
Phase-to-
ground (pu) NA NA NA 1.2 -
Phase-to-
phase (pu) NA NA NA 2.3 -
Fault
c inception <2.0 <2.0 <2.0 1.8 1.6 -
Load
rejection,
fault clearing
d (pu) NA NA NA NA 1.1 -
75
7.6.3 Insulation Co-ordination

Table 7.10 Answers received for insulation coordination
Canada Canada USA
Norway Korea Germany Brasil France USA Japan
Manitoba Ontario (BPA)
Power
2.1 0
frequency
Pollution light/ light/ light/ light/ light/ Light/
level clean clean clean clean clean clean
Insul.
Creepage 30 30 34 30 34*2/36*4
(mm/kVp-g)
12.2 @ max. max.
Air clearance max. max. max. max. Max.
160km/h voltag volta
(&wind) voltage voltage voltage voltage voltage
r e ge
Wind return
50 50 50 50 5-50 50
per. (yr.)
Switching
2.2 1.6
surge
a Energization
Phase-to-
ground
NA 0.99 NA
flashover
risk (pu)
Phase-to- IEEE
phase risk NA 0.99 NA 516
(pu) MAID
b Reclosing
Phase-to-
ground risk NA 0.99 NA
(pu)
Phase-to-
phase risk NA 0.99 NA
(pu)
Fault
c - 10-3.
inception
Lower -10-
Vary on
Shielding 30/40 30-35 than 30
0 the
angle degrees degrees critical degr
situation
ls ees
Average
no. of
Not
Outage rate/ outages light/ 0.3-
1.0 0.1 1.0 determin
100km/yr Per 100 clean 2.0
ed
circuit-
km/year
76
7.6.4 Corona effects

Table 7.11 Answers received for corona effects
Canada Canada USA
max.
conductor
3.1
surf. grad
(kV/cm) - <22 / peak 25 20
weather/ no dry
probability - 90% / 90% 90% policy condit.
Radio
3.2
Interference
Signal-to-
noise no
(dB μ) - 24 / 24 24 policy 15≤
66
signal (dB μ) 66 (@1MHz no
- (@1 MHz) 71 / 66 ) policy
no
noise (dB μ) - 44 47 / 42 42 policy
dry
weather/
no condit.
probability
- fair / fair fair policy
3.3 audible noise
35-70 45-70
(depends (depend
on on area
noise (dBA)
situation, and
area and 45 – time)
42 42 45 time) 42 42 55 50
dry
weather
fair fair fair fair fair fair fair fair condit.
7.6.5 Fields
Table 7.12 Answers Received for fields
Canada Canada USA
8.1
(equival
ent of
AC
electric
electric 1-5/ no field of 3
4.1 (kV/m) 30 43038 25 / 40/10 40/10 7-10 policy kV/m)
insid
where (in the e/
ROW right of inside/ inside/ inside/ edg no
way) inside edge inside / edge edge e policy in ROW
ion current no
2
(nA/m ) 100 100 100 / 100/5 100/5 policy -
under
the out
inside/ most inside/ inside/
where outside condu outsid outside no
(in the ROW) inside ROW ctor / e ROW policy -
worst
weath worst
worst er weather
weather/ weather 95% 95% no
probability 0.5 95% lower NA / lower lower policy NA
magnetic no
4.2 (μ T) NA NA NA 500 NA NA policy 200
under
the out places of
most non-
where condu temporary no
(in the ROW) ctor abidiance edge policy edge
77
Note that the above tables represent different practices from the different countries. This section
presents the different practices without comment as to whether the methods are correct, more
accurate or more practical. It is recommended that, if a particular countries’ standards are to be
adopted by another country, the full range of design specifications are studied. Since standards and
values interact to form a workable design, it is not recommended that values are used in isolation of
the remainder of the standard.
78
8. Case studies
This chapter gathers several examples of different overhead HVDC line designs that can be
considered compact designs. Note that it is not intended to classify the compat designs, but to show
existing alternatives around the globe.
8.1 Application of Y-Shaped suspension insulator strings in Japan

The 500 kV Kii Channel HVDC Link, passing through a heavy polluted area, would require much
longer insulator strings than those used on an equivalent AC 500 kV transmission line. Due to this
longer suspension strings, the tower cross arms and horizontal distances between the main
conductors would become remarkably longer. However, it is not desirable in terms of environmental
impacts.
Therefore, Y-shaped suspension insulator strings have been developed in order to shorten tower
cross arms and horizontal distance between main conductors.
Figure 8.1 Y-shaped insulator string of 500 kV Kii Channel HVDC Link
The tower using Y-shaped insulator strings can be more compact than those using V-shaped,
because the length of cross arms and horizontal distance between main conductors of Y-shaped
strings could be reduced to about 87% of that of V-shaped strings in case of the most polluted area.
In Japan, for transmission lines above 187 kV, electric power companies must consider the ROW as
the horizontal distance plus 3 m in both sides of the outermost main conductors, so as not to permit
construction of buildings. Therefore it is better that the horizontal distance between main conductors
becomes as narrow as possible. That’s why Y-shaped insulator strings is an effective measure to
compacting tower design and reducing the width of ROW.
79
Figure 8.2 Comparison between Y-shaped insulator strings and V-shaped insulator strings
The above figure shows the decrease in the Right Of Way achieved with this compact design, without
an increase in the height of the tower.
Several tests and studies have been carried ou to determine the appropriate angle of the V-part,
including pollution tests, swinging characteristics of strings test and tensile strength of insulators tests.
The optimum angle of the V-part of the Y-shaped strings has been set to 110 degrees. Forty two
insulator discs are required for the V-part and twenty for the I-part per each Y-shaped string as the
most optimum structure in the heaviest polluted area.
8.2 Comparison of HVDC layouts in Germany

The TSO Amprion GmbH from Germany has presented and discussed possible HVDC tower designs
for a transmission capacity of 4 GW [B55].
For the tower designs the bipole configuration has proven itself as the most convenient option, which
fulfills the main requirements concerning system stability and interactions with other infrastructure. So
there have been first conclusions in designing of tower layouts (Figure 8.3). Part a) presents a tower
layout which has been used for the Xiangjiaba-Shanghai HVDC project for a bipolar configuration with
return path by earth. The requirement for metallic return using bipole system leads to tower layout
showed in part b). In order to reduce the frequency of lightning strikes directly into the plus or minus
pole, the double earthing conductors on top of the tower are suggested. This option has also an
advantage comparing to one earthing conductor, that the tower height is lower and the protection level
better.
Figure 8.3 a) Exemplary tower design for a bipolar system with return path by earth; b) Exemplary tower
design for bipolar system with metallic return
The next question was, which converter technology should be used. Here, it has been decided to plan
and design the HVDC corridors from the North to the South of Germany in Voltage Source Converter
(VSC) technology. According to today’s technologies one VSC converter station is able to provide a
maximum direct current of Imax = 2000 A. In order to transmit the power of Ptrans = 4 GW the
80
nominal voltage of VDC = ±1000 kV is required. If two VSC converters connected in parallel with total
direct current of 4000 A are assumed, the voltage of VDC = ±500 kV is sufficient, see Figure 8.4.
There is also an option where the converters are not connected in parallel, in which two separate
bipoles are considered (see Figure 8.4).
Figure 8.4 DC system configurations for 4 GW transmission power and ±500 kV operating voltage
In the next step, environmental and operational aspects have been considered. It should be possible
to maintain the faulty pole on the tower as shown in Figure 8.5b while the other pole is still in
operation. If only one pole is available the direct current path closes in the neutral conductor, so that
the neutral conductor may experience (depending on the length of the DC link and applied conductors)
voltages in medium voltage range (for example 400 km · 10 mΩ/ km = 40 kV). Moreover, due to
backwards strike and commutation process even higher voltages may occur. For these reasons the
clearance distance to neutral during climbing on the tower to faulty conductor need to be assured.
From this point of view, the best option would be to have two neutral conductors located on both tower
sides as shown in Figure 8.4. In such case, one tower side could be completely disconnected for a
maintenance activities and the climbing on disconnected tower side would be possible without
considered restrictions.
With neutral conductors located beneath the conductors under operating voltage additional beneficial
effects on environmental impact can be achieved. Such neutral conductors will significantly reduce the
electric field in the right of way and they will partially collect the ions generated on upper conductors,
so that the secondary effects connected with charging of objects in right of way can be minimized.
Figure 8.5 a) Tower design with one bipole system; b) Tower design with two bipole system
Pros and cons for discussed system and tower layouts

 Environmental impact
 Both towers fulfill federal emission control regarding the electric and magnetic fields
and other emissions
 Both towers have similar right of way
 Tower a is higher than tower b
 Availability
 In case of a failure (earth fault as consequence of lightning strike) auto reclose would
lead to a power loss of 50% for tower a and 25% for tower b
 In case of maintenance of one tower side, the availability is 50% for both towers
 In case of maintenance on one of the converter and in case of failure of one of the
converter, 75% of total power will be available for both towers
81
 Total system losses

 By using the same conductors tower a has higher losses than tower b
 Conversion to AC
 Only a small impact on the tower height for both towers
Conclusion
The evaluation of proposed designs shows that there is no best option for the system and tower
design on this early planning stage. The following major criteria should be considered for choosing the
appropriate system configuration and design of the HVDC tower:
 Environmental impact: the dimensions of the tower (height and right of way), possibility to use
cable technology and reduction of emission levels below required limits
 Technology performance characteristics: operational aspects like system stability and
availability
 Costs: financial aspects like transmission losses and investment costs
 Sustainability: flexibility in the future like conversion back to AC with many stepdown
transformers
8.3 Rotating Composite Insulated Cross-Arm (CICA) design for

UHVDC line in China
Combined with the present status of the research and application of composite insulated cross arm
(CICA) tower, taking Lingzhou-Shaoxing ±800 kV UHVDC transmission line engineering as research
background, this case study put forward the force mechanism and designing scheme of rotating CICA,
and carried out simulation analysis based on tower-line couple model. The analysis results show that
the rotating CICA freely moves under the longitudinal unbalanced tensions, so the longitudinal
unbalanced tension can be released, the stress of CICA and tower can be reduced, and the weight of
tower and the cubic amount of concrete foundation can be effectively reduced, which has good
economic and social benefits.
a) Rotating CICA Tower b) Conventional Steel Tower

Figure 8.6. Lingzhou-Shaoxing ±800 kV UHVDC transmission line
For UHVDC line towers, the requirement for structure size and insulation performance is high, and the
load and the force to components are large, especially under the condition of broken line or uneven
iced, which will produce large longitudinal unbalanced tension. For a conventional tower, the load is
resisted by the structural bearing capacity. The longitudinal tension usually cause composite cross
arm components to bear a large force, which is not conducive to the design and construction of the
composite cross arm. So how to release the unbalanced tension becomes the focus of research on
UHVDC line CICA tower. This paper put forward a design scheme of rotating CICA through research.
Working mechanism
The rotating CICA is a planar triangular structure composed of one composite insulator and one post
insulator. The node can be rotated back and forth by the connection of rotating node and tower body,
as shown in Figure 8.7. In general, the post insulator transmits pressure and the composite insulator
transmits tension.
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Figure 8.7. Composition of rotation CICA

When the front and rear side conductor generates longitudinal unbalanced tension, the rotating CICA
rotates to the side with a large tension around the rotating node. In the case where the length of the
front and rear side conductor remains unchanged, the span and the tension become smaller for the
side with larger tension, and for the side with small tension, the span and the tension become larger.
The rotation will stop until the front and rear side tensions are equal, reaching a new balance. When
the longitudinal unbalanced tension disappears, the combined insulators will rotate in the opposite
direction, returning to the previous state automatically. Simply, the working mechanism of the rotating
CICA is “tension to drive, rotation to release, conductor to constraint”. For example, when uneven icing
occurs, the process of tension change for CICA front and rear side conductor is shown in the next
figure.
Figure 8.8. Drive and balance process by tension

Design scheme
The main design conditions of the line are shown in the table below:
Table 8.1. Design conditions
Design Design
Project Project
conditions(value) conditions(value)
Altitude/m 1500 Pollution class heavy pollution
Terrain plain Conductor JL/G3A-1250/70
Ground wire LBGJ-150-20AC Optical cable QPGW-150
Basic wind
27 Icing/mm 10
velocity/(m.s-1)
Horizontal span/m 460 Vertical span/m 550
The rotating CICA is made of insulated material, which realizes the unification of functional materials
and structures, but there is no relevant design method for composite cross arm insulation
configuration at present. In the initial determination of the insulator length, we referred to the 750 kV
composite cross arm test results and the previous ±800 kV line composite insulator test results.
Meanwhile, we also considered the beneficial effects of the composite insulator oblique placement.
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Then we determined that the effective insulation length of the composite material should be not less
than 9300 mm.
Structural finite element simulation analysis
Since the composite material rotation cross arm is one mechanism in longitudinal direction, so the
structural analysis cannot be performed. After the tower line coupling model is adopted and rotation
CICA has formed a stable structural system with strong geometric nonlinearity, the structural analysis
and calculation can be carried out. The six-tower and seven-line coupling model is shown in the
following figure.
Figure 8.9. Tower-line coupling model with six towers and seven lines
For the six-tower and seven-line tower-line coupling model, the internal forces and rotation angles of
each component of the rotating CICA tower under each working condition can be obtained by applying
loads. After that, we can carry out structural design. The rotation angles of CICA are as shown in the
table below.
Table 8.2. Rotation angle (deg)
Case Grade1 Grade 2 Grade3 Grade4 Grade5 Grade 6
Strong wind 0° 2.22 3.63 4.37 4.49 3.94 2.53
Strong wind 45° 1.29 2.03 2.34 2.28 1.91 1.23
Strong wind 60° 0.15 0.20 0.22 0.22 0.20 0.14
Uneven icing 2.53 5.29 5.78 5.78 3.63 1.75
Broken line 5.22 2.89 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.12
It can be seen from the table above that for the condition of no unbalanced tension (such as strong
wind 60°), the angle of rotation of the CICA is very small, so it can be considered that rotation does not
occur. Mechanical analysis can be performed as conventional cross-arm. For 0° strong wind, 45°
strong wind, broken line and uneven iced conditions, the post insulator rotates due to the unbalanced
tension. The maximum rotation angle occurs at the uneven iced condition, which is 8.63° and the
corresponding end displacement is 1.41m. However, under other normal operating conditions, the
rotating angle of CICA is small, and the tension can be released by slight adjustment of the front and
rear side sag, thereby reducing the stress of CICA. This is beneficial to the composite cross arm
design.
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Economic analysis
The economic comparison analysis between the rotation CICA tower and the conventional angle steel
tower is shown below.
Table 8.3. Economic analysis of rotation FRP cross arm (RMB)
Conventional Rotation
Project CICA Reduction Save/%
tower tower
Nominal height /m 52.00 45.0 7.0 13.0
Pulling force on the foundation /kN 1122.00 665.0 457.0 41.0
Corridor width /m 20.30 19.9 0.4 2.0
Weight of angle steel /t 36.50 24.5 12.0 33.0
Material Weight of composite insulator /t 0.00 4.7 -4.7 -100.0

quantity Foundation concrete /m3 80.36 37.6 42.8 53.0
Foundation steel/t 3.67 2.3 1.4 37.0
Angle steel tower 31.39 21.1 10.3 33
Composite insulator 0.00 13.0 -13.0 -100.0
Installation &
Cost / ten 6.20 5.0 1.2 20.0
transportation
thousand
Foundation fee 18.40 9.0 9.4 51.0
V string 1.60 0.0 1.6 100.0
Total 57.6 48.0 9.6 17.0
As can be seen from the table, compared with the conventional angle steel tower, the rotating CICA
tower material is reduced by 33%, weight is reduced by 20%, the concrete foundation is reduced by
53.2%, and the comprehensive cost is reduced by 17%. The economic efficiency is very prominent,
mainly caused by the following aspects.
(1) Nominal height is reduced by 7m. Due to the cancel of the suspend insulator string, the height of
CICA towers is reduced by 7m compared with conventional V type string tower under the same
service conditions, which has reduced the effect of the conductor load effectively. The main tower
body material is reduced from Q420L180×16 to Q420L160×14.
(2) Wind load is reduced at head of tower. Because only two insulators are used in CICA tower, the
wind-shielding area is much smaller than that of conventional angle steel tower, and the wind load on
the head of tower is correspondingly reduced.
(3) Release of longitudinal unbalanced tension. Because the tower can rotate freely in the longitudinal
direction, the unbalanced tension can be released. And the tower is not bearing the unbalanced
tension in the longitudinal direction anymore. The diagonal member of the tower body is reduced from
L110 ×7 to L90 ×7, which is reduced by 3 grades.
Conclusion
(1) The working mechanism of the rotating CICA is “tension to drive, rotation to release, conductor to
restraint”. The longitudinal unbalance tension of the conductor can be effectively released, and the
force of the cross arm and the tower body can be reduced.
(2) Referring to the 750kV composite cross arm test results and the previous experimental results of
±800kV line composite insulators, we determine that the effective length of composite insulators
should not be less than 9300 mm, considering the favorable effect of oblique placement of composite
insulators.
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(3) In order to reduce the pole spacing, compress the width of the corridor, and avoid the short-
connection between the hanging board and post insulator string, the maximum upward angle of the
post insulator is 20°.
(4) Because the rotating CICA tower is a mechanism system in the longitudinal direction, the
mechanical analysis cannot be carried out. So we bring in conductor constraint to form the tower-line
coupling system. The comparison analysis shows that the maximum error of the model is just 0.7%,
which can accurately study the change of rotation angle, conductor tension and sag of CICA.
(5) It can be seen from the simulation analysis that under the condition of no unbalanced tension (such
as strong wind 60°), the force mechanism is as same as the conventional tower; Under the condition
of unbalanced tension, the post insulator rotates, and the front and rear side sag slightly adjusts, so
that the tension is released effectively to reduce the stress of the component. .
(6) Compared with the conventional tower under same conditions, the weight of CICA tower is
reduced by 20%, the foundation concrete is reduced by 53%, and the comprehensive cost of the main
body is reduced by 17%. This shows that CICA has great economic advantage.
8.4 Design of the ±500 kV Bipole 3 in Manitoba

The ±500 kV HVDC Bipole III connects the generation source at the Nelson River in Northern
Manitoba with the load centre located near Winnipeg in the South, adding 2,000 Megawatts of
renewable energy to Manitoba Hydro’s high voltage direct transmission capacity. Each pole consists
of three-bundled conductors supported by steel lattice towers with a total circuit length of 1,384
kilometers. The line was energized in 2018 [B56].
The tower top geometry design of Bipole III is a balance design between electrical clearance, lightning
failure rate, live line maintenance and cost. The cross sectional tower top geometry of Bipole III line is
mainly directed by the following items:
 The clearances between conductors and the tower during still air and swung positions that
should prevent flashover between conductor and tower metal parts.
 Minimal approach distance (MAD) under swung positions to allow live line maintenance.
 Shield angle of the earth wire required to limit the probability of lightning related faults to an
accepted value.
 Mid span clearance between conductors to prevent pole‐to‐pole flashover when conductors
are in movement either due to wind, ice, or in a galloping mode.
Both I-string insulator and V-string insulator were considered during initial tower design. After detailed
comparison, the cost of I-string tower design and V-string tower design are closed to each other. As
existing Bipole I and II are using I-string configuration, the I-string tower design was selected for Bipole
III due to ease of maintenance (same live line tooling can be utilized).
86
As the line route traverse through various weather zones and terrains, a full weather study along the
proposed line route had been completed. Based on such study, five different weather zones are
established to optimize tower design and increase line reliability which is shown in Figure 8.10.
Figure 8.10. Weather Zone of Bipole III in Manitoba

The electrical clearances for insulator swing out is listed in Table 8.4.
Table 8.4. Electrical Clearance for Insulator Swing-Out. Manitoba Bipole III.
Weather Zone Wind Pressure (Pa) Minimal Required

Clearance (m)
North North AB North CD Central South
Still Air - - - - - 3.5
Cigre (1% Wind) 177 191 254 205 205 3.2
1 Hour Yearly Wind 318 344 458 370 370 2.5
90% Design Wind 734 853 1201 971 971 1.2
100% Design Wind 906 1055 1494 1199 1199 1.0
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Live line maintenance is one of the criterial requirements for tower design. Manitoba Hydro practices
live line maintenance works and observes and maintains MAD at maximum wind speed of 40 km/h in
which a live line crew could work under. All tower designs of Bipole III need to provide the sufficient
clearance for both bare hand method and hot line stick method. Due to this requirement, the MAD
becomes the governing clearance for tower geometry design in some sections of Bipole III.
Bipole III transmission line is located in Manitoba, where the ice or wet snow on conductor is common
phenomenon. With moderately strong wind in the prairie, galloping could happen easily on the
transmission line. Galloping of conductors can lead to short‐circuits between the two poles or
between one pole and the shield wire for middle span clearance. As discussed in Section 4.5, there is
no proven anti-galloping device used on HVDC line, so Manitoba Hydro has designed the tower to
withstand such event (Category 3 method in Section 4.5). The calculation of clearances between
conductors during galloping is done by software. Since galloping can occur with a small thickness of
ice, the weather condition defined for this calculation consists of 5 mm of radial ice and a wind
pressure of 150 Pa based on the weather study. Both single loop and double loop were included for
tower design. Single loop was considered for long span (up to 480m) to ensure the reliability of Bipole
III line according to the past experience.
After the consideration of all above design factors and parameters, the tower geometries of
suspension tower of Bipole III for different weather zone are shown in Figure 8.11.
Figure 8.11. Suspension Tower Geometries. Bipole III in Manitoba
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8.5 Study of new compact HVDC line portion in Spain

The Spanish TSO, Red Eléctrica de España, has studied the conversion of an AC 400 kV line to DC
operation. The objective was to assess the feasibility of expanding the planned international HVDC
interconnection France-Spain, in order to reach a stronger node of the Spanish transmission grid,
which could provide advantages in the system operation [B57].
Figure 8.12 Example of HVDC conversion of a 400 kV line

For the existing AC 400 kV line to be converted to DC operation, it would be required to do partial
modifications in the route, due to certain constrains, such as residential areas developed around the
line. Therefore, portions of new line would be needed to avoid these critical areas. The new line
portions would require compact designs to fulfill different requirements, like restricted rights of way,
limitations on the visual impact or compatibility with other infrastructures.
For comparative purposes, a line portion of 10 km is defined in a flat terrain. This can be
representative of a route modification to avoid a residential area. A typical standard design for a HVDC
line, ±450 kV is summarized with the following parameters:
 Bipole Horizontal configuration. Pole spacing: 13 m
 Total structure height: 42 m
 Conductor: ACSR Cardinal @ 90ºC. 3 conductor/pole
 EDS 18% (after creep)
 Rated transmission capacity: 3,150 MW (10ºC ambient, 0.6 m/s wind)
 Conductor minimum height above ground 12.5 m
 Conductor maximum sag 22.5 m
 Suspension string length: 5 m
 Average span 450 m (flat terrain)
If this standard line design was maintained in these route modifications, it may be probably difficult to
get the necessary permissions due to the visual impact and the right of way needed. Therefore, a
comparison with an alternative compact design is performed to identify the key aspects for
compaction. In order to obtain general results that can be applicable to different cases, the focus is
only on the main dimensional parameters of the line.
For example, the maximum height of the structures can be limited to 22 m (almost half of the initial
design), maintaining the rest of the characteristics unchanged. The following variations are obtained:
 The average span reduces from 450 m to 175 m
 The number of structures increases from 2.2 per km to 5.7 per km (more than double).
 The land occupation is reduced 1.88 times due to smaller blow-out
 The loads on each structure (horizontal and vertical) are reduced 2.6 times.
Therefore, the weight of the structures and the foundations can be adjusted according to these loads.
This can apply to the different structure types (self-supported lattice towers, guyed structures, T-
poles…), for which the comparison requires detailed designs for each one to obtain a final economical
comparison. Also, factors like, for example, the ease of assembling, erecting or maintaining much
smaller and lighter supports, can be important.
89
Figure 8.13 Comparison of structure height reduction from 42 to 22 m. Portion of plan-profile

Additionally, the use of lighter conductors could be included in this case to optimize the overall design.
For example, using a composite cored conductor, which can operate at temperatures up to 150ºC with
a very small increase in sag, we could the use a twin bundle configuration instead of triple bundle (4
conductors in total, instead of 6) maintaining the same transmission capacity. This would reduce as
much as 4 times the loads on the structures with respect to the standard design.
Also, limitations to structure width can be introduced. For example, a simple rearrangement of the
structure configuration, adjusting the pole to pole distance, can be proposed. In this regard, by using
V-type insulator arrangements can reduce a pole to pole distance, decreasing the land occupation
with respect to the standard design. Other insulation arrangements can also be proposed (horizontal
Vee-type, Y or T assemblies…).
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8.6 Comparison of HVDC layouts in Sumatra

A consultant company has presented and discussed possible HVDC tower designs for a transmission
line between Sumatra and Malaysia Peninsula with a transmission capacity of 600 MW, plus about 5%
which represent Joule and corona losses.
For the tower designs, in the first step, the bipole configuration at 300 kV nominal voltage and
monopole configuration at 500 kV nominal voltage have proven itself as the most convenient options,
which fulfill the main requirements concerning system and environmental aspects.
As particulars on Sumatra Island the route will follow an existing approved right-of-way of a 275 kV
line and the pollution will be considered medium, heavy and very heavy. In this respect, three types of
towers were designed in nominal voltages options (
Figure 8.14 and
Figure 8.15).
Suspension tower equipped Suspension tower equipped Suspension tower equipped

with “I” string type with “Vee” string type with “Y” string type
Figure 8.14 Bipole configuration for ±300 kV Nominal voltage
Suspension tower equipped Suspension tower equipped with Suspension tower equipped with
with “I” string type “Vee” string type “Y” string type
Figure 8.15 Monopole configuration for ±500 kV Nominal voltage

In the next step, environmental aspects have been considered. To maintain the line corridor in a
reasonable limit of about 15 m, for insulation were selected three options, “I”, “Vee” and “Y”. The angle
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tension towers type is not considered an issue vs. pollution, because they may be included in same
corridor, having the jumpers fixed by jumper strings.
For bipolar line the neutral was split for redundancy reason. Same reason was to install two OPGW’s
on line in both nominal voltage options.
The type of OPGW and pole-to-OPGW distances was designed to minimize the OPGW electrical
gradient vs. corona discharges.
Pros and cons for discussed system and tower layouts
The following aspects were discussed:
 Environmental impact
 The towers designed in both nominal voltage options fulfill emission control regarding
the electric and magnetic fields and other emissions
 The towers in both nominal voltage options have similar right of way
 The difference in height is resulted first, because of length of insulators and second
because of different ground clearances.
 Economic analysis
 The “Y” string configuration requires higher towers, and therefore are likely to be more
expensive (although it is necessary to fullfil the detailed analysis).
 The “Y” string and “Vee” string configurations require wider cross-arms in general,
and therefore are likely to be more expensive (although it is necessary to fullfil the
detailed analysis).
Conclusion
The following major criteria were considered for choosing the appropriate system configuration and
design of the HVDC tower:
 Environmental impact: the dimensions of the tower i.e. height and right of way designed for
emission levels below required limits;
 Costs: financial aspects like transmission losses and investment costs have to be analysed in
detail.
The final decision relating nominal voltage will be subjected to economical design, considering the
overhead line part of a system which covers converters, transmission line and submarine cables.
8.7 Development of HVDC Transmission system in India

Indian power system has grown rapidly over the years. Besides development of a large transmission
network of 400 kV and 765 kV AC lines, various HVDC transmission lines have been constructed
keeping in view advantages of HVDC in long distance bulk power transmission and asynchronous
operation.
India is a country with high population density, thus, obtaining right of way for large network of
transmission lines is a serious constraint. Bulk power transmission systems are considered one of the
solutions to meet this challenge and promote sustainable development. In order to facilitate bulk
power transmission and enhanced inter-regional flow of power, leading to formation of National Grid,
construction of a number of power highways comprising 765 kV double circuit transmission lines as
well as High Capacity UHVDC Bipole lines has been taken up. These new technologies have resulted
in overall conservation of right of way requirement of overhead transmission lines by effectively
transferring much more power per unit width of right of way.
8.7.1 ± 500 kV HVDC transmission lines
The first ± 500 kV HVDC transmission line between Rihand & Dadri (line length approx. 815 km) was
commissioned in 1991. Subsequently, four more long distance ± 500 kV HVDC transmission lines
(total line length approx. 3900 km) were constructed in the country during years 2000 to 2010.
Salient technical particulars of the ± 500 kV HVDC transmission lines are indicated hereunder and
some photographs are shown below. Quadruple conductor bundle configuration has been adopted for
these ± 500 kV HVDC lines. Conventional V type insulator strings for suspension towers and Quad
tension insulator strings for angle/tension towers have been used. Operating experience of these lines
over the years has been generally satisfactory. Number of insulators per string for these lines had
earlier been selected based on light/medium pollution level considerations. With increase in pollution
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levels over the years, insulators in some of the existing lines in high pollution regions have been
replaced with higher creepage polymer insulators.
Table 8.5. Salient Technical Particulars of ± 500 kV HVDC line in India
Conductor-bundle Quadruple ACSR Bersimis/Lapwing

Earthwire 11 mm dia galvanized steel earthwire & equivalent size OPGW
Type of Towers Suspension type (A); Angle/Tension type (B,C & D)
Normal Span 400 m
Live-metal clearance 3.75 m
Pole to Pole Spacing 12.5 – 13.5 m
Minimum Ground Clearance 12.5 m
Insulator strings Suspension towers: V Suspension, 160/210 kN
Tension towers: Quad Tension, 160/210 kN
Figure 8.16 ± 500 kV HVDC transmission line in India
8.7.2 ± 800 kV UHVDC transmission lines

Construction of India’s first UHVDC line viz. ± 800 kV HVDC Biswanath Chariyali – Agra transmission
line was undertaken as part of the transmission system associated with Lower Subhansari project for
facilitating transfer of power from North East region to North region through so called chicken neck
area having very limited space. The line was commissioned in 2015.
Design and optimization studies for India’s first ± 800 kV UHVDC transmission line were carried out
covering various alternatives and aspects, like conductor-bundle selection (five alternatives analyzed),
tower design optimization (designs involving alternate V and Y configurations developed and tested),
insulator design and optimization (based on pollution testing), earthwire and groundwire clearance
selection (based on corona and electric field studies) etc. [B60].
Subsequently, another ± 800 kV HVDC line between Champa & Kurukshetra (line length approx. 1300
kms) was also constructed and commissioned in 2017 [B61]. This new line is one of its kind 800 kV
UHVDC line as it has been designed and constructed with dedicated metallic return (DMR)
conductors. With use of dedicated metallic return conductors, the earth electrode lines and stations
(requiring large land areas of low soil resistivity for grounding) near both terminal ends of the HVDC
line have been avoided.
The third ± 800 kV HVDC line with DMR between Raigad and Pugalur (line length approx. 1800 km) is
presently under construction and expected to be commissioned in 2021.
93
Salient technical particulars of the ± 800 kV HVDC transmission lines are tabulated in Table 8.6 and
some photographs are shown below.
Table 8.6. Salient Technical Particulars of ± 800 kV HVDC line in India
Conductor-bundle Hexagonal ACSR Lapwing (45/4.77mm+7/3.18mm)

For DMR – 2 x Twin ACSR Lapwing
Earthwire 13.5 mm dia galvanized steel earthwire & equivalent size OPGW
Normal Span 400/450 m
Live-metal clearance 6.5 m / 7.7 m
Pole to Pole Spacing 22 - 24 m
Minimum Ground Clearance 18 m
Insulator strings Suspension towers: Y Suspension, 420 kN
Tension towers: Triple Tension, 420 kN
DMR towers: Single Suspension 160/210 kN & Double Tension
210 kN
Figure 8.17 ± 800 kV UHVDC Biswanath Chariyali – Agra Line
Figure 8.18 ± 800 kV UHVDC Champa - Kurukshetra Line (with DMR)
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8.7.3 ± 320 kV Multi-pole HVDC transmission lines

Construction of first VSC based ± 320 kV HVDC transmission system of the country has been
undertaken between Pugalur (Tamil Nadu) and North Trichur (Kerala) in the Southern Region of India.
The VSC based ±320 kV HVDC transmission system consisting of two symmetric monopoles shall
deliver 2000 MW of power through a narrow corridor.
Due to severe ROW constraints in the area, special consideration in deciding configuration and
dimensions of transmission line towers for ± 320 kV line was necessitated. For minimizing land use of
transmission lines, all four poles of the ± 320 kV HVDC transmission system have been
accommodated on the same structure, thereby developing the first multi-pole HVDC overhead line of
the country. Also for further reduction in corridor requirement for the multi-pole overhead line, narrow
base towers have been developed. It may be mentioned that for transmission of 2000 - 2500MW
power, conventionally ± 500kV HVDC or 765kV HVAC single circuit lines having ROW requirement of
at least 52 m and 64 m are built. By accommodating all four pole conductors on narrow-base multi-
pole towers having base width of approx. 6 m, ROW requirement of the ± 320kV multi-pole HVDC line
has been reduced to 44 m which is less than the ROW width required by a 400 kV double circuit lines
having power transfer capability in the range of 1000 - 1500 MW.
Design and development of the first multi-pole HVDC overhead line has been carried out based on
deatiled studies for assessment of air-gap / clearance requirements, conductor bundle selection and
finalizing optimum positioning / placement of pole conductors so as to meet the electric field and
interference level limits as per International guidelines.
Salient technical particulars of the ± 320 kV multi-pole HVDC transmission line are tabulated in Table
8.7 and some photographs are shown below. The line length between Pugalur and North Trichur is
approx. 170 km (approx. 140 km overhead portion and 30 km underground cable). The project is
presently under construction and expected to be commissioned in 2021.
Table 8.7. Salient Technical Particulars of ± 320 kV Multi-pole HVDC line in India
Conductor-bundle Twin ACSR Lapwing (45/4.77 mm+7/3.18 mm)

Earthwire 11 mm dia galvanized steel earthwire & equivalent size OPGW
Normal Span 400 m
Live-metal clearance 3.0 m
Pole to Pole Spacing Horizontal: 12 m
Vertical: 8 m
Minimum Ground Clearance 8.5 m
Insulator strings Suspension towers: V Suspension, 160 kN
Tension towers: double tension, 210 kN
95
Figure 8.19 ± 320 kV Multi-pole HVDC line in India
96
9. Voltage upgrading
This section has been created to present general information on voltage upgrading of HVDC lines.
Voltage upgrading means to increase the operating voltage of an existing transmission line already in
operation. This is normally done in order to increase the transmission capacity of a HVDC line,
considering that it is also necessary to maintain or enhance the required reliability after years of
operation. This is a very important aspect because, in general, HVDC links are singular lines that
require very high reliability levels, as they are intended to transmit high power over long distances, or
to interconnect different systems.
It is no intended here to cover the conversion of AC lines to DC operation. This is coverd in detail in
[B18].
9.1 Electric and mechanical concerns

It has to be noted that the increase of the transmission capacity of a HVDC line can be achieved by
different means (voltage upgrading, increasing the maximum temperature of the existing conductors,
reconductoring with standard larger conductors, reconductoring with HTLS conductors…). Each
method may require different works and modifications depending on the original line design, condition
of the components, etc. More information can be found in [B59] and referenced documents.
In particular, voltage upgrading can range from the case where it is possible to increase operating
voltage with minor or no modification on the line to the case where it requires major upgrade. The
case with major upgrade, such as rebuild the entire structures, is not in the scope of this section. This
section is only focus on the cases where there is no or minor modification on the line, so the best
candidates are overhead lines that are either overdesigned or that were initially built for higher voltage
levels but are currently operating at reduced voltage.
An overhead HVDC line can be considered overdesigned, from the point of view of the electrical
distances, if it uses extra margins or buffers for the required air gap on pole to ground and pole to pole
spacing for a given voltage. Thus, a better assessment or a more accurate calculation method can
lead to consider this margin to be sufficient to operate the line at a higher voltage with no or minor
modifications, ending up with a compact line.
In the same way, those lines that were initially designed for higher voltage levels but are currently
operating at reduced voltages, should require a detailed revision (actual condition of components and
equipment, potential changes in the environmental conditions, possible constructions in the vicinity,
etc.) before upgrading to a higher voltage.
Before a voltage upgrading project can be studied in detail, the necessary power system studies must
be completed. These must cover the overall system performace (power flow, stability considerations,
etc.) If the voltage upgrading deems to be the preferred solution for a specific problem, both electrical
and mechanical feasibility studies must be conducted.
The major issues to be addressed at the electrical feasibility study are the following:
 Ground Clearance and Right of Way
 Corona Performance
 Insulator Performance
 Lightning and Switching Surge Performance
 EMF
 Protection
 Maintenance and Live Line Work
The major issues to be addressed at the mechanical feasibility study are listed bleow:
 Structure Load
 Insulator Strength
 Structure Geometry
 New Wind and Ice Loading
The design engineer should be aware that every voltage upgrading project is unique, requiring its own
individual study. Differences in existing line design and condition, as well as differences in system
needs, give each study its own special characteristics. Solution works for one project might not work
for other projects.
97
9.2 Upgrade of the Pacific DC intertie, in US

9.2.1 Introduction
The Pacific DC Intertie (PDCI) is an 846-mile long (1362 km) ±500kV bipole line running from the
Celilo Converter Station in The Dalles, Oregon, to the Sylmar Converter Station in Los Angeles,
California. The Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) owns, operates, and maintains the northern
265 miles (426 km) of the PDCI. As can be seen in Figure 9.1 below, the remaining 581 miles (936
km) of transmission line from the Nevada border to Sylmar is owned by five Southern Partners. BPA
completed an upgrade on their portion of the line to allow for a north to south transfer capability of
±560kV in November 2017. Following this upgrade, the PDCI north to south power rating was
increased from 3100 MW to 3220 MW at an operating voltage of ±520kV. The northern 265 miles (426
km) of the PDCI is capable of transmitting 3800 MW at ±560kV, which can only be realized if the
southern portion of the PDCI were to be upgraded.
Figure 9.1 Map of the Pacific DC Intertie (Celilo-Sylmar)
9.2.2 History
Originally energized in 1970 at ±400kV and rated at 1440MW, the PDCI was built to transmit cheap
power from dams along the Columbia River to Los Angeles, California. Over time, the operating
voltage and power rating was increased following studies that showed line insulation had sufficient
design margin to boost the operating voltage and transfer capacity. Additionally, converters were
added at both Celilo and Sylmar to further increase the PDCI transfer capacity. The latest upgrade to
the PDCI was necessary for bolstering transmission capacity in addition to addressing reliability
concerns stemming from the Celilo Converter Station and the transmission line.
Prior to being upgraded, the Celilo Converter Station had known control system reliability concerns
resulting from the equipment’s complexity. In addition, the converter transformers, smoothing reactors,
and converter valves contained equipment that was no longer supported by manufacturers, had
98
reached or nearly reached the end of design life, or had other reliability problems. As for the
transmission line, there were reliability concerns surrounding compression fittings, aging vibration
dampers, aging polymer insulators, and more. Due to these concerns, an upgrade of the transmission
line became a high priority for BPA.
In order to meet the objectives of the upgrade and improve line reliability, it was found necessary to
replace a number of hardware components. The hardware improvements included replacing all line
insulators with HVDC insulators, installing shunts on all splices, installing grading shields on armor
rods and helical shunts, replacing all dead-end fittings, replacing vibration dampers, reconductoring 11
spans of both poles, and adding four dead-end structures to more closely satisfy BPA’s failure
containment policy.
9.2.3 Electrical concerns
Ground Clearance:
Ground clearance requirements became more difficult to implement due to an increased insulator
length stemming from a higher operating voltage. This introduced impairments in various areas along
the transmission line. Initially, the upgrade effort planned to insulate the transmission line to ±575kV,
but following LiDAR data processing it was discovered that insulating to ±575kV required addressing
an unmanageable amount of clearance issues to both ground and structures. As a result, a revised
voltage of ±560kV was chosen for the line design.
Corona Performance:
The transmission line’s ability to withstand corona was an important design consideration. Before the
upgrade, the PDCI fitting and insulator assemblies had a corona extinction requirement of 365kV AC
line-to-ground. Following the upgrade, the corona extinction requirement was increased to 455kV AC
line-to-ground. These tests were performed with AC power, as DC corona testing had not been widely
standardized or implemented. As the conductor stayed the same for the vast majority of spans, corona
stemming from the conductor worsened with the voltage increase and increased bundle spacing. This
increase in corona from the conductor was combated by reducing corona in other areas, mainly
through hardware changes and the installation of grading shields. Overall, the audible noise due to
corona increased following the upgrade, but remained below acceptable levels. Federal regulations
limit audible noise to nighttime levels of 55 dBA. BPA policy is more restrictive, limiting nighttime levels
to 50 dBA. For the transmission line, the median audible noise at the right-of-way edge increased from
44.2 dBA to 46.3 dBA during fair weather conditions. From modeling corona on the transmission line,
it was found that implementing a quad bundle would effectively reduce audible corona and corona
related losses. This would have required a much more extensive investment, which was not
determined necessary for the degree of corona occurring on the transmission line.
Insulator Performance:
With an increased operating voltage, the performance of the transmission line’s insulators was of great
concern. Although the physical dimensions of each individual insulator bell remained the same, the
number of insulators in a string was increased and HVDC (high resistivity) toughened glass was used
in place of AC toughened glass. The HVDC glass chemistry is different, and contains fewer impurities
in its structure. This improves the ionic migration prevention and, therefore, the performance in DC
environments, but is more costly. Also, a zinc sleeve was added under the insulator cap to help
prevent corrosion.
Another major design consideration was where to install composite insulators. Due to the large
expanse of land crossed by the PDCI, the line passes through several areas that are at high risk for
contamination due to alkali substances. Although composite insulators retain their insulative properties
more effectively in high contamination areas, the tradeoff lies within the life span of the insulator.
BPA’s policy attributes composite insulators with an estimated life expectancy of around 20 to 25
years.
Elevation also played a significant role in the selection of the composite insulators. Structure
elevations vary from 200 ft to 6340 ft (61 m to 1933 m) above sea level, which affects minimum
clearances and insulator hardware selection. BPA made an engineering decision to use only a single
length of composite insulator on the line based on the highest elevation requirements. This simplified
matters in many ways from a design perspective, but also saved limited time and resources that would
have been used qualifying and testing additional insulators for the project.
99
Lightning & Switching Surge Performance:

In order to protect the transmission line from lightning, a single ground wire (shield wire) above the line
was relied upon in accordance with BPA policy. Concerning switching surges, historically a value of
1.7 p.u. was used. Following a detailed study of the northern part of the transmission line, it was found
that a switching surge assumption of 1.6 p.u. would be permissible.
Electrical Environment:
During scoping and the environmental review process, direct current magnetic and electric fields were
calculated for the existing HVDC configuration and all proposed alternatives. The changes in the direct
current magnetic fields was very small and dropped off quickly as distance from the line increased.
The direct current electric field produced by the ±560kV transmission line was found to be well below
the level of perception (25-28 kV/m) at the edge of the right-of-way. The maximum ion-enhanced
electric field under the transmission line, during foul weather and at the highest line elevation, was
determined to be approximately 65 kV/m. Although this is higher than the level of perception, an
intense thunderstorm can produce a similar electric field.
Construction & Maintenance:
How the upgrade work would be performed also mandated attention, in addition to contemplating
future maintenance and live line work processes. The limited outage availability was the most
restrictive element to performing the upgrade work on the transmission line. Protected species of
birds, fish, and various plants required monitoring, mitigation measures, and limited outage windows to
specific times of the year. Historically, line maintenance occurred during a two-week window, which
made coordinating the multiple month-long outages with the Southern Partners difficult. The outage
windows with the least impact were chosen through a tradeoff analysis including power needs,
environmental considerations, social considerations, and costs.
Previously, the line had five different conductor bundles varying in width and orientation throughout the
BPA-owned section in an effort to address vibration. To address the vibration issues and streamline
future maintenance efforts, the conductor bundle was widened and standardized across the entire
BPA-owned section to a single configuration, reducing variation in materials and practices, reducing
costs, and reducing complexity. Minimizing the number of tower types is also a method to reduce
maintenance costs, but must be weighed against the suitability of a set of towers for a specific region.
The tower types found along the transmission line can be seen in Figure 9.4.
BPA’s Live Line crew was used during the outages to help complete the upgrade work. They also
worked a short duration with the line energized. However, performing live line work limits transmission
capabilities. At 560 kV, clearances are not adequate for energized work, climbing and/or working are
only allowed at 448kV or below in order to provide proper clearance to climbing and working
boundaries.
A wide elevation variation exists between areas composite insulators were installed. As mentioned in
the Insulator Performance section, a decision was made to use only a single length of composite
insulator on the line based on the highest elevation requirements. This reduced variation in materials,
costs of stocking multiple sizes, and reduced complexity overall. It should be noted, that although a
single composite insulator design was settled upon, which helps to simplify maintenance efforts,
maintenance with composite insulators is generally more difficult to coordinate, as BPA policy does
not permit the use of line carts or hot line maintenance on spans containing composite insulators.
100
Suspension Towers
Ground Wire Ground Wire
19’ to 21’ 21’ to 23’

Insulators Insulators
2 Sub-Conductors Heights 90’ to 150’

2 Sub-Conductors
Guy Wires
Dead End Tower

Ground Wire
22.5’
Insulators
2 Sub-Conductors
Heights 100’ to 180’
Figure 9.2 Typical Tower Types Found Throughout the PDCI
9.2.4 Mechanical concerns

Structural Loading:
A major mechanical design element that required attention was structure reliability in a worst-case
loading scenario. Internal failure containment standards at BPA require dead-end structures at least
every 5 miles to minimize the impact of a cascading failure. The BPA-owned portion of the PDCI had
sections up to 20 miles long between dead-end structures. If a cascading failure were to occur in
these sections, the affects would be greatly magnified due to the longer outage(s) and higher costs of
repair. In order to mitigate the risks associated with cascading failure, four additional dead-end
structures were added to the transmission line in strategic locations.
Insulator Strength:
Insulator mechanical strength was also reviewed for the upgrade. Investigation into possible loading
cases determined that the same suspension insulator strength (40,000 lbs M&E) and dead-end
insulator strength (66,000 lbs M&E) would be sufficient for the upgraded transmission line.
Vandalism:
The resiliency of insulators and hardware to vandalism was of interest during the upgrade. It is not
uncommon in rural areas of the United States for transmission structures and insulators to be used as
targets for shooting, leading to broken insulators and other damages. To combat this, composite
insulators were installed in known high vandalism areas, as composite insulators are smaller in profile
and, therefore, harder to hit than glass or porcelain insulator bells. Additionally, when hit, the result is
bland and unexciting in comparison to those of porcelain or glass insulators. Reduced repeat
vandalism is the anticipated result of using composite insulators in known vandalism areas.
Compression Fittings:
Compression fittings along the transmission line were in need of attention. An IEEE paper, published
in October of 1991, highlights some concerns related to the compression fittings on the PDCI line. The
paper, titled “Investigation of Thrasher Compression Fittings on BPA’s Direct Current Transmission
Line”, concluded that the original compression fittings installed on the line were “marginal performers
with an expected remaining life of 30 years.” The upgrade addressed these concerns by replacing all
dead-end and jumper terminal fittings with improved fittings that underwent more rigorous current
cycle testing. In addition, all splices were reinforced with helical shunts to reduce the electrical load on
the splices, bolster mechanical strength, and increase longevity.
101
9.2.5 Environmental
A number of additional hurdles had to be navigated during the upgrade of the transmission line. These
included environmental, cultural, and social elements that required detailed study and analysis to be
properly addressed. Environmental considerations were related to minimizing the impact the upgrade
would have on wildlife, which affected the outage windows chosen for the upgrade. One of the
environmental considerations surrounding this upgrade was related to the effect of elevation variation
on design elements. Terrain elevations vary from 200 ft to 6340 ft (61 m to 1933 m) above sea level,
which affect minimum clearances and insulator hardware requirements.
9.2.6 Conclusion
The Celilo Converter Station upgrade was completed in 2016, addressing the major aforementioned
issues, and increasing its power rating to 3800MW. The upgrade of the transmission line began in
October 2014, with work being completed in November 2017. The upgrade addressed major electrical
and mechanical concerns that included clearances, corona, EMF, maintenance, compression fittings,
insulator hardware, structure overloading, and more. Work was completed through a combination of
multiple one-month outages and live line work. A combination of both BPA and contracted crews were
implemented to perform the upgrade work, often working simultaneously on different sections. Multiple
crews working together allowed for a faster completion of the work, although it was more difficult to
implement logistically than having only one organization performing the upgrade work.
With the northern section of the PDCI upgraded to transmit 3800MW, the Southern Partners have the
ability to take advantage of the increased power rating following an upgrade of the lower 581 miles of
the PDCI. If this upgrade is performed, the Southern Partners will face many of the same challenges
experienced by BPA. Regardless of the hurdles, the Northwest and Southwest U.S. both stand to
benefit from greater transmission capacity between the two regions. As energy demands increase, a
more connected and robust electrical network will increase grid reliability and encourage low rates.
102
10. Conclusion
This guideline covers the main aspects relating to the design of compact DC lines. The main concept
with regard to compact lines is that the electrical stresses are higher than with conventional lines. This
higher stress manifests itself in the form of audible noise, electric field and ion current density at
ground level, compromised insulation co-ordination for switching and lightning impulses…. This guide
highlights these areas and allows the reader to understand the aspects that need to be taken into
account when mitigating the effects of the higher electrical stress.
The calculation examples show the effect of different design solutions. The reader is able to optimise
his solution initially from these examples prior to the detailed calculations that need to be performed
on a specific design.
The case studies indicate different practical solutions that have been implemented or are under study
in different countries. These case studies focus on the main aspects related to compaction and the
various proposals to reduce the distances while keeping acceptable limits to different paramenters.
Other examples can be found around the world.
Note that the guide is not a design document but a document by which the reader can assess the
aspects required for design of compact lines as well as determine the calculations that need to be
undertaken in the completion of a detailed compact line design. It does, however, provide references
that will enable the designer to fully design a compact line.
103
APPENDIX A. Definitions, abbreviations and

symbols
A.1. General terms
Table A.1 - Definition of general terms used in this TB
Acronym Phrase Definition

EPRI Electric Power Research Institute American independent nonprofit organization that
conducts research and development related to the
generation, delivery, and use of electricity
IEC International Electrotechnical An international standards organization that
Commission prepares and publishes international standards for
all electrical, electronic and related technologies
ICNIRP International Commission on Non- An international commission specialized in non-
Ionizing Radiation Protection ionizing radiation protection
TB Technical Brochure A publication produced by CIGRE representing the
state-of-the-art guidelines and recommendations
produced by an SC WG. Hardcopy TBs can be
purchased, or Individual Members, or staff of a
Collective Member can download the PDF for free
using their login credentials (copyright restrictions
for use within their own CIGRE Membership only)
SC Study Committee One of the 16 technical domain groups of CIGRE
WG Working Group A group formed by a SC to develop a TB on a
particular subject of interest
A.2. Specific terms
Table A.2 - Definition of technical terms used in this TB

𝜌 Resistivity (Ω/m) Conductor resistivity
𝑎 Subconductor separation Distance between adjacent subconductors
AAC All aluminum conductor A bare conductor consisting of stranded aluminum
wires
AAAC All aluminum alloy conductor A bare conductor consisting of stranded aluminum
alloy wires
AACSR Aluminum alloy conductor steel A bare conductor consisting of a core made up of
reinforced stranded steel wires surrounded by stranded
aluminum alloy wires
ACAR Aluminum conductor alloy reinforced A bare conductor consisting of a core made up of
stranded alloy wires surrounded by stranded
aluminum wires
AC Alternating current An electric current which periodically reverses
direction
ACSR Aluminum conductor steel reinforced A bare conductor consisting of a core made up of
stranded steel wires surrounded by stranded
aluminum wires
AM Amplitude modulation AM broadcasting is a radio broadcasting technology,
which employs amplitude modulation transmissions
AN Audible noise (dB) Any sound that the eardrum can detect
ATH Alumina-trihydrate Aluminum hydroxide, Al(OH)3
104

𝐶 Capacitance (F) Capacitance is the ratio of the change in electric
charge of a system to the corresponding change in
its electric potential
𝐶𝐼 Global investment cost The cost of the total investment, including line and
substations/equipment
𝐶𝐼𝐿 Line investment cost The cost of the overhead line investment
𝐶𝐼𝑆 Substation investment cost The cost of the substation and equipment
investment
𝐶𝐽 Cost of Joule losses The cost of the total Joule losses
𝐶𝐽𝐿 Line losses cost The cost of the overhead line Joule losses
𝐶𝐽𝑆 Substation losses cost The cost of the substation and equipment Joule
losses
𝐶𝐿 Cost of line investment per year The cost of the the overhead line investment
annualized
𝐶𝐿𝐿 Cost of line losses per year The cost of the line Joule losses per year
𝐶𝐶𝑆 Converter station cost The cost of the converter station investment
𝐶𝐽𝐶𝑆 Converter station Joule losses The cost of the converter station Joule losses
CICA Composite insulated cross-arms Cross-arrm consisting of one composite insulator
and one post insulator
𝑑 Conductor diameter The diameter of the conductor
𝐷 Distance from positive pole Radial distance from positive pole
DC Direct current An electric current which flows only in one direction
DMR Dedicated metallic return Conductor(s) used to transmit the DC neutral
current
𝐸 Electric field (V/m) A field that surrounds an electric charge and exerts
force on other charges in the field, attracting or
repelling them
EDS Every day stress (N) The tension or stress that a conductor normally
experiences for most of its service life, typically at a
conductor temperature of 0ºC to 25ºC without wind
or ice
EF Electric field (V/m) A field that surrounds an electric charge and exerts
force on other charges in the field, attracting or
repelling them
EHS Extra High Strength steel Extra High Strength steel. IEC designation S3
EMF Electromagnetic field A classical field produced by movement of electric
charges
EPDM Ethylene propylene diene monomer A type of synthetic rubber that is used in many
rubber applications
𝑓 Frecuency (Hz) The number of occurrences of a repeating event per
unit of time
FRP Fiber glass reinforced polimer A composite material made of a polymer matrix
reinforced with glass fibres
𝑔 Maximum bundle gradient The maximun electric field gradient of the bundle
𝐻 Conductor height The height of the conductor
HTLS High temperature low-sag conductor A bare stranded conductor which is capable of
Conductor sustained operation at temperatures above 100 C
without change in its initial mechanical and
electrical properties and with reduced thermal
elongation to limit sag
HTV High-temperature vulcanized (silicone A processes for hardening silicone rubbers at high
rubber) temperature
HVDC High voltage direct current High voltage system (typically considered above
±100 kV) using direct current
105

HVAC High voltage alternating current High voltage system (typically considered above 100
kV) using alternating current
𝐻/𝑤 Conductor parameter (m) Ratio between horizontal tension and conductor
unit weight
𝐽 Ion current density (A/m2) The amount of ion charge per unit time that flows
through a unit area
𝐿 Inductance (H) Inductance is the tendency of an electrical
conductor to oppose a change in the electric current
flowing through it
𝐿𝐴𝐶 Joule losses for AC lines Line Joule losses per km for AC lines
𝐿𝐷𝐶 Joule losses for DC lines Line Joule losses per km for DC lines
𝐿𝑝 Joule losses at peak Line Joule losses at the maximum power of the line
(AC or DC)
MAD Minimum approach distance Safe working distance from energized parts
MCM Thousands of circular mils A unit of area, equal to thousand times the area of a
(kcmil) circle with a diameter of one mil (one thousandth of
an inch or 0.0254 mm)
MF Magnetic field (T) A vector field that describes the magnetic influence
of electric charges in relative motion and
magnetized materials
𝑁, 𝑛 Number of conductors per pole Number of conductors per pole bundle
configuration
OPGW Optical ground wire A cable that contains a tubular structure with one or
more optical fibers in it, surrounded by layers of
steel or aluminum wires
𝑃 Power (W) The amount of energy transferred or converted per
unit time
P-G Pole-to-ground Difference between pole and ground of a DC system
P-P Pole-to-pole Difference between the two poles of a DC system
pu Per-unit The expression of system quantities as fractions of a
defined base unit quantity
𝑞 Altitude Altitude of the line
𝑟 Conductor radius Radius of the conductor
𝑟𝑒𝑞 Equivalent bundle radius Radius of the equivalent bundle
𝑅 Bundle radius, m Radius of the bundle
RBS Rated breaking strength The stress at which a conductor breaks
𝑅𝑑𝑐 DC Resistance (Ω) Resistance in DC
RI Radio interference A disturbance in the radio signal generated by an
external source
ROW Right of way The legal right to pass a power line along a specific
route through grounds or properties. The
dimensions of this route are here referred to as
ROW
RTV Room-temperature vulcanized A processes for hardening rubbers at room
(silicone rubber) temperature
𝑆 Phase or Pole Section The total aluminum cross section of one phase or
pole
SD Sustainable development A development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs
SG Surface gradient Electric field gradient at the surface of conductor
SIL Surge impedance loading (or natural The power loading at which reactive power is
loading) neither produced nor absorbed
SNR Signal to noise ratio A measure that compares the level of a desired
signal to the level of background noise
106

T-2 T-2 conductor A conductor wherein two ordinary round stranded
conductors are twisted around each other
TLA Transmission line arrester Arrester placed on overhead lines, in parallel with
the insulators
TSO Transmission system operator Entity entrusted with transporting energy in the
form of natural gas or electrical power on a national
or regional level, using fixed infrastructure
UHVDC Ultra high voltage direct current Ultra high voltage system (typically considered
above ±800 kV) using direct current
USCD Unified specific creepage distance Creepage distance of an insulator divided by the
r.m.s. value of the highest operating voltage across
the insulator
𝑉 Voltage (V) The difference in electric potential between two
points
VSC Voltage source converter A voltage-sourced converter generates ac voltage
from a dc voltage
𝑤 Weight per unit length (kg/m) Weight of the conductor per unit length
107
APPENDIX B. Links and references

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Alto, California. Ed. 2008. www.epri.com
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Current Overhead Transmission Line Design”. February 2018.
[B3] “Prospects for Compaction of HVDC Transmission Lines”. M Salimi, L. Barthold, D. Woodford, A.
Gole. Paper 140 CIGRE-IEC Colloquium Montreal, May 2016. www.e-cigre.org
[B4] Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development. “Our Common Future”.
Transmitted to the General Assembly as an Annex to document A/42/427 - Development and
International Cooperation: Environment. Brundtland Report, 1987.
[B5] CIGRE Technical Brochure 147. “High Voltage Overhead Lines Environmental Concerns,
Procedures, Impacts and Mitigations”. WG 22.14. Paris, October 1999. www.e-cigre.org
[B6] CIGRE Technical Brochure 265. “Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) For Overhead Lines”. WG B2.15.
Paris, December 2004. www.e-cigre.org
[B7] CIGRE Technical Brochure 340. “Utilities Practices Toward Sustainable Development”. WG C3.03.
Paris, February 2008. www.e-cigre.org
[B8] CIGRE Technical Brochure 383. “Sustainable Development Performance Indicators For
Transmission System Operators”. WG C3.02. Paris, June 2009. www.e-cigre.org
[B9] CIGRE Technical Brochure 548. “Stakeholder Engagement Strategies in Sustainable Development
– Electricity Industry Overview”. WG C3.04. Paris, August 2013. www.e-cigre.org
[B10] “Corona Performance of High-Voltage Transmission Lines”. (Book) P. Sarma Maruvada. Research
Studies Press Ltd., Baldock, Hertfordshire, England. 2000.
[B11] CIGRE Technical Brochure 388, “Impacts of HVDC Lines on the Economics of HVDC Projects,”
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Working Group B2.41. Paris, 2012. www.e-cigre.org
[B19] National Electrical Safety Code C2-2007. IEEE 3 Park Ave. New York, NY 10016, USA.
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cigre.org
[B21] IEC Standard 60815-4. “Selection and dimensioning of high voltage insulators intended for use in
polluted conditions. Part 4: insulators for dc systems”. Edition 1.0. October 2016.
[B22] “DC pollution performance of insulators”. T. Kawamura et al. CIGRE paper 33-10. Paris Session.
August 1984. www.e-cigre.org
[B23] “Study of the dielectric strength of external insulation of HVDC systems and application to design
and testing”. R. Cortina et al. CIGRE paper 33-12. Paris Session. August 1984. www.e-cigre.org
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108
[B25] “A comparison of HVAC and HVDC contamination performance of station post insulators”. Baker et
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[B31] CIGRE Technical Brochure 63. “Guide to procedures for estimating the lightning performance of
transmission lines”. WG 33.01. Paris, October, 1991. www.e-cigre.org
[B32] CIGRE Technical Brochure 348. “Tower top geometry and mid span clearances”. WG B2.06. Paris,
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[B33] CIGRE Technical Brochure 72. “Guidelines for the evaluation of the dielectric strength of external
insulation”. WG 33.07. Paris, 1992. www.e-cigre.org
[B34] “Power Transmission Over Long Distances: Economic Comparison Between HVDC and Half-
Wavelength Line”. M L Santos, J A Jardini, R P Casolari, R L V Arnez, G Y Saiki, T Sousa, G L
Nicola, IEEE, PWRD, 2013.
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CIGRE - Compact DC Overhead Lines

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Compact DC overhead lines

Compact DC overhead lines

J. IGLESIAS, Convenor ES S. STEEVENS, Secretary DE

2. Corona and its effects ............................................................................................. 11

3. Insulation co-ordination .......................................................................................... 16

4. Pole configuration, conductor, tower and hardware ............................................. 22

4.4 Tower and foundations design ............................................................................................................... 37

5. Live line work maintenance techniques ................................................................. 44

6. Construction techniques ......................................................................................... 58

7. Influence of compaction in the line electrical design............................................ 59

8. Case studies ............................................................................................................ 79

8.7 Development of HVDC Transmission System in India ......................................................................... 92

9. Voltage upgrading ................................................................................................... 97

10. Conclusion ..............................................................................................................103

APPENDIX A. Definitions, abbreviations and symbols ..................................................104

APPENDIX B. Links and references ................................................................................108

Figures and Illustrations

Figure 5.9 Inspection of insulator strings by small-sized cameras ......................................................................... 52

Table 7.5 pole spacing for different towers type .................................................................................................... 62

Table A.1 - Definition of general terms used in this TB ........................................................................................ 104

1.1 Definition and need for compaction

1.2 Right of way (easement or servitude) reduction

1.3 Height reduction

1.4 Considerations for compaction

2. Corona and its effects

2.1 Corona and its effects on compaction

2.2 Audible Noise (AN)

Figure 2.1 Typical audible noise profile under an HVDC Line

2.3 Radio Interference (RI)

Figure 2.2 Typical radio noise profile under an HVDC Line

2.5 Ground level electric field effects

Season Time Negative Positive

2.6 Underbuilt ground wires

2.7 Potential role of asymmetry

3.1 Insulation co-ordination for HVAC and HVDC lines

3.2 Insulator pollution characteristics under AC and DC

3.3 Principle of insulator dimensioning DC

Figure 3.3 Fundamental approach to the insulator dimensioning process

3.4 Insulators for DC lines

3.5 Selection of air clearances

3.5.2 Slow-front overvoltages

As discussed above, overvoltages on DC lines are generally composed of transient voltages

3.6 Insulation coordination for neutral conductor

4. Pole configuration, conductor, tower and

4.1 Pole configurations

Figure 4.1 Possible pole arrangements, simple configurarions

Figure 4.2 Typical configurations for bipole scheme

4.2 Conductor and ground wires selection

𝐶𝐿𝐼𝑦 = 𝑓𝑦𝐴 + 𝑓𝑦𝐵𝑆

b) Cost of Joule Losses per unit length

Figure 4.3 Load duration curve

8760: Number of hours in a year

The following comments apply:

LCC LINV AMPAC ENVIR (height)

ENVIR is based on tower height visual impact.

In conclusion alernative 1 is the best, followed by alternative 7.

4.3 Insulation and hardware

4.3.1 V, inverted V and T sets

Figure 4.7 Y-shaped suspension insulator strings

4.3.3 Semi-anchored sets

Figure 4.9 Horizontal post insulator.

Figure 4.10 Suspended line post insulator.