INTRODUCTION

Waste has been recognized as one of the major problems confronting

government and city planners, there by posing a serious threat to
environmental quality and human health.

Rapid increase in volume and t5ypes of solid and hazardous waste

as a result of continuous economic growth, urbanization, and
industrialization becoming problems to national, state and local
government to ensure effective and sustainable management of waste.

It is estimated that in 2006 the total amount of municipal solid

waste generated globally reached202 billion tones representing 7%
annual increase since 2003 (Global waste management market). It is
further estimated that between 2007 and 2011, global generation of
waste will rise by 37.3% equivalent to roughly 8% increase per year.

Although considerable efforts are being made by many

governments and other entities In tackling waste related problems
there are still major gaps to be filled in this area.

There is need for intensive use of environmentally sound

technology (ESTs) in current waste management system and practices
covering all stages of waste management chain VIZ. primary generation
and disposal, collection and transportation, sorting and material
recovery for recycling, treatment and recourses recovery and final
disposal.

Technology in managing solid waste now vary from simple

traditional practices to large scale and highly sophisticated facilities
used for collection, transportation, treatment, disposal, recycling and
recovery of wastes. There are different technological interventions
within a solid waste management chain and these are documented in
each stage of waste management chain in terms of source reduction, or
downstream, from primary collection and transfer, transportation,
treatment, final disposal, recycling and recovery

LITERATURE REVIEW

THE TECHNOLOGY FOR WASTE MANAGEMENT CHAIN

/INFRASTRUCTURE IN BANKOK (THAILAND)
The Environmental Department and 50 districts offices are
responsible for the Collection of solid waste in Bangkok. They
applied both direct and indirect Methods for collecting solid waste.
For direct collection method, the waste is collected by vehicles or
boats. Indirect collection is a system in which containers are
provided for collecting waste at various sources such as markets,
department stores, and Pedestrian walkways. The containers are
classified according to food waste,
Recyclable waste and household hazardous waste. The collected
waste is transported to 3 transfer stations then transferred to 2
sanitary landfills atKumpaeng Saen district Nakhon Phathom
province and Bang Plee district SamutPrakarn province.
Household Waste
Collected household municipal solid wastes both separated and
not Separated wastes will be subjected to both formal and
informal recycle process. Organic Wastes are being sent to
landfill while recyclable waste will be sent to related Recycle
facilities. Treatments for each type of waste separated are shown
in Figure below.
Hazardous Waste

Hazardous wastes from household such as batteries, fluorescent

tubes, Insecticide cans, herbicide cans, etc. are collected by
placing bins (grey bin with red lid) at appropriate places in the city.
These hazardous wastes are collected by Public Cleansing
Department and each district and stored at 3 transfer stations
before Transporting to the Authorized Treatment Centers that are
authorized by Department Of Industrial Works.

Infectious Waste
Infectious waste from health institutions such as state and private
Hospitals and clinics are collected by temperature-controlled
vehicles and disposed by 2 incinerators at On-Nuch transfer site.
Each incinerator has the capacity of 10 tons per day. The
management of hazardous and infectious wastes is described in
Figure below.
Description of Technology Used for Solid Waste
Management
Primary Collection and Transport

The primary collection work involves all collection and

transportation activities from collection points to transfer stations.
The district offices are responsible for the collection and
transportation of wastes. The planning and operation of waste
collection work are the responsibility of the public cleansing
Sections in districts offices. The collection method varies by
collection area as the characteristics of each area differ.

Collection of solid waste in Bangkok is highlighted by the

fact that there are a lot of vehicles in use compared with what
other countries in the region. In 2005, collection of raw wastes is
done with a 2,610 vehicles fleet, and over 7000persons
workforce. However, there is little maintenance operations of the
fleet and this activity are managed separately by most of the 50
districts. Types of vehicle and number of each type are shown in
Table below.
Waste collection team normally consists of a driver, four
collection workers with one or two helper per compactor truck.
The collectors, while collecting the waste, do separate and sort
wastes for recoverable materials. Segregation of the valuable
items is done whenever possible on the way between the street
And the transfer station, therefore decreasing the productivity of
the system, however, increases income for collectors and helpers.
The trucks deliver the remains to the three transfer stations; On
Nut, Tae Raeng and Nong Khaem.Hospital wastes are collected
separately on a private contract basis to be transferred and
incinerated at On Nut transfer station.

ITEMS Type of vehicle Quantity

1. Compaction truck; 4 cu.m. 128
2. Compaction Truck; 4 cu.m. (rented) 152
3. Compaction Truck; 10 cu.m. 627
4. Compaction Truck; 10 cu.m. (rented) 464
5. Compaction Truck; 20 cu.m. 20
6. Compaction Truck; 23 cu.m. 42
7. Side Open 1 ton 83
8. Side Open 1.5 tons 120
9. Side Open 12 cu.m. 21
10 Lift-up 1.3 tons 173
11 Container lift-up truck 89
12 Container lift-up truck (rented 124
13 Compactor 25
14 Waste segregation truck 41
15 Infectious waste collection truck 19
ITEMS TYPES OF VEHICLES QUANTITY
16. Tree-branch digestion truck 3
17 Dump truck 189
18 Small dust vacuum sweeper truck 24
19 Medium dust vacuum sweeper 50
truck
20 Large dust vacuum sweeper truck 30
21 Fiber-glass ship 186
TOTAL 2,610
However, although the Department of Environment of Bangkok
reported that collection service could fully cover waste generated
from different sources. There are areas in Bangkok metropolis
that may not receive the collection service. New human
settlement areas that expand with no planning have faced this
problem the Most

Secondary Collection at Waste Transfer Sites

Concerning the transfer of the waste, Bangkok has three transfer

sites, located in the North, in the East and in the West of
Bangkok. These sites belong to the Department of environment
and these are former landfill sites, but as the city expanded in the
last 20years, these landfills sites were abandoned and moved to
the outside area of the Bangkok Metropolitan Area. The sites are
now clean except that the soil is still at the natural ground level,
and underneath there remains from 2 to 4 meters of un-cleaned
waste. Recently, the Bangkok had already implemented some
industrial activities, treatment activities, which focus mainly on
composting.

All the collecting trucks arrive in one of the transfer station of the
Bangkok. All transfer stations are equipped with a weighbridge,
which is operated by the department of environment staff, who
also enter all data acquired into the computer.
The works at the transfer stations include the unloading of
waste onto transfer stations and the loading of waste from
transfer station onto trailers to be transported to the landfill sites.
Private contractors undertake transporting of waste in the trailers
to landfill sites for final disposal. Waste loaded onto the trailers is
covered with a sheet prior to the transportation. Waste pickers
were regular at the three transfer stations. the amount of waste
brought in to transfer stations is far beyond the estimated capacity
of the transfer stations resulting in accumulation of waste at the
sites.
Nuch transfer station is equipped with hospital waste incineration
(privately owned and operated), composting plant (stopped in
1996after private operation) and night soil treatment plant
(managed by the night soil treatment Division). Nong Khaem
transfer station is managing a night soil treatment plant (night soil
treatment Division).

Final Disposal
Transport and disposal of the waste to the landfill sites outside of
Bangkok is done under private contracts with BMA. The waste is
dumped through the transfer station’s hoppers into the
contractor’s trucks. The waste from Tae Raeng, Nong Khaem and
OnNuch transfer sites are transported to landfills located outside
of the Bangkok metropolitan area.

Rachathewa landfill site has a capacity of 7.5 million cubic meters

and was operated from July 2000. At present, around 3,800 tons
of waste is brought to the site daily.Kampangsaen landfill sites are
located in a sugarcane field and are undergoing the expansion. At
present both sites receive around 5,700 tons of waste per day
(Padungsirikul).

Resource Recovery Pattern

From the information on composition of municipal solid waste in

the Bangkok, it can be seen that waste can be classified
according to their utilization as follow;

Waste to be used in fertilizer fermentation, 


Waste to be used in recycled process, and 

Waste to be sent to landfill for final disposal

At present Bangkok has initiate waste reduction program by the

Promotion of compost production and waste separation for
recycled materials.

Table below compare waste arrived at three transfer stations by

its utilization potential
TYPES TRANSFER STATIONS AVERAGE
OF (%)
WASTE
UTILISATION ON NUCH NONG KHAEM SAI MAI
(%) (%) (%)
Fertilizer 49.39 47.85 54.34 50.53
Ferment TYPE
wood 44.25 41.36 47.35 44.32
wood &leaves 5.14
others
recycled
type
Paper (recycled)
Plastic (recycled)
foam
Glass
Metal
Landfill
type
Paper non
recycled
Plastic non
recycled
Leather and
rubber
Cloth and textile
Stone and ceramic

Recycling and Resource Recovery

 Recycling practices are dominated by informal sector. Very low
Portion of waste generated are being recycled. Most recycling
efforts have focused on encouraging community to establish
garbage bank and Composting facilities. There are three basic
type of recycling programs being implemented in Thailand. They
are

 Composting facility
 Material recovery facility-produce recyclable materials
 Waste bank

Bangkok initiated a policy to reduce waste by 10% per year.

Intensive campaigns launched at the public to reduce and
separate wastes resulted in continuing decrease of waste volume

Recycling has been promoted in Bangkok as means to reduce

waste generation and quantity of waste transferred for final
disposal. The current recycling activities in Bangkok are as
follows;
Material recovery by waste pickers and tricycle waste buyers in
the city or densely settlement areas.
In Thailand, recycling at generation source has long
been practiced. Households, shop houses and business sectors
Normally separate their recyclable waste (mainly paper, glass
and metal) and store it until the amount is enough to sell to
waste buyer or recycling shops. Waste buyer purchases these
materials directly from waste generators.
Material recovery by environmental waste collectors during their
routine waste collection work:  collection workers separate
recyclable materials from waste collected during regular waste
collection and sell these waste to waste traders located near
transfer stations. It was estimated that in Bangkok collection
trucks recycle a total of 413 ton of waste per day. 
Material recovery by waste pickers at transfer stations
Material recovery through Bangkok official recycling
programmes
The total amount of waste recycled is estimated at 766 tons per
day. The recycling rate is approximately 8% of total waste
generated

Apart from material recovery activities stated above, recycling at

generation source is normally practiced. Households normally
store their recyclable materials such as paper, glass bottles and
plastic bottles at home until the amount is large enough to sell to
waste buyer or recycling shops. These activities have been
practiced by household long before official programs to educate
the public about recycling were originated.
INTERVENTION OF ENVIROMENTALLY SOUND TECHN
OLOGY (ESTs) IN SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT CHAIN
Technologies in managing solid wastes now vary from simple
and traditional practices to large-scale and highly sophisticated facilities
used for collection, transportation, treatment, disposal, recycling and
recovery of wastes. There are different technological interventions
within a solid waste management chain and these are documented in
each stage of waste management. Technologies might be applied
upstream in the waste management chain in terms of source reduction,
or downstream from primary collection and transfer, transportation,
treatment, final disposal, recycling and recovery.

The primary goal of any solid waste management system is to

safeguard public health and the environment. This is achieved by
ensuring proper collection, transportation, recycling or processing
and, finally, safe disposal of waste. The last step is lacking in
most solid waste management systems implemented in most
countries.

The technological applications within SWM chain are as

follows:

Primary collection and transfer stations:

􀀵􀁆􀁄􀁉􀁏􀁐􀁍􀁐􀁈􀁚􀀁􀁇􀁐􀁓􀀁􀁆􂒏􀁄􀁊􀁆􀁏􀁕􀀁􀁘􀁂􀁔􀁕􀁆􀀁􀁕􀁓􀁂􀁏􀁔􀁑􀁐􀁓􀁕
The expansion of urban areas widens the garbage
collection zone. It is possible to improve the efficiency of
collection and transport operations in cities with widening
collection zones by setting up waste transfer stations
where wastes can be transferred from small- or medium-
sized garbage trucks to larger trucks. The cost of
collecting and transporting garbage accounts for high
percentage of waste disposal operations. Improving the
efficiency of collection and transport leads to cost
reduction while maintaining or improving services to
residents. Garbage collected by small garbage trucks is
dropped in a hopper, compressed in containers and
reloaded onto larger trucks. In this transfer station,
garbage collected by thre2-ton trucks can be compressed
in one container. The container is then transported to a
disposal site or incineration plant on a large container
truck.

Determination of whether or not to set up transport

stations depends on its cost effectiveness. , it is
advantageous to introduce a transport station when the
total collection and transport fee with the transport
station is cheaper than the total collection and transport
fee without the transport station. Generally speaking,
when the transport distance exceeds 18km, a transport
station should be considered.

The primary collection and transfer stations may include the waste
collection bins for segregated municipal waste and special containers for
hazardous waste. Material, construction, labeling and storage of the
collection containers are important. Similarly construction and location
of transfer station is also crucial to avoid adverse effects due to odor,
breeding of vectors such as flies and mosquitoes, and entry of birds or
cats and dogs. The transfer stations should be located and constructed in
such a way that it is convenient for small carts to unload solid waste and
for bigger vehicles to collect and transport that waste.

There is a high efficiency in collection in the especially in urban areas, but in

rural areas, common disposal practices still involve dumping, burning,
burying and feeding to animal. This practice has been lessened because of
the introduction of new technology.
. For municipal solid waste, primarily, technology in collection, transfer
and transportation involve only traditional mobile equipment such as
garbage bins and three-wheeled bikes, dump truck and compactors.

In Nigeria, people used manual means in collecting their waste to the

final waste dump. People use bin bags, wheelbarrow in waste
collection. Only few of the residents used truck especially, where the
distance to dump site are far and when the debris are too large

Transportation:
This covers all types of vehicles under operation to transport solid
waste from its generation point to the transfer station; and from there to
the treatment and disposal site. All the vehicles in operation should be
listed out including manually driven small carts, mechanically driven
sophisticated transportation vehicles and special vehicles for special
wastes - hazardous, bulky and recyclable wastes.

Efficient Collection and Transport Vehicles with

high Load Volume
It would be more efficient in many of the
developing countries to use small collection trucks
because of narrow roads. Many of the roads in Japan, too,
are narrow, and 1t to 2t compact garbage collection
trucks were developed with reduced body weight in order
to increase load capacity. There are two types of this
garbage collection trucks - mechanical trucks (Mobile
Packers) and compressor-type trucks, but mobile packers
are more commonly used. Packers scoop up the garbage
with as pinning disk and thrust it into the storage space
with a sliding board. Garbage with high moisture content
reduces compression efficiency; however, with
continuous modification, trucks have achieved high
compression rate, with 1.5 times more load than flat pile
trucks Compressor-type trucks press down the garbage
on to the floor with a compressor board (pressing plate),
and after breaking it up and reducing volume, the
garbage is slid into the storage area. The trucks
efficiently collect large garbage requiring breakdown,
bulky PET bottles and plastic waste.
Due to the worldwide problem of global warming, low-
pollution-type garbage trucks, such as electric
Motor-drive and hybrid trucks are being developed and
put into practical use. Safety, loading efficiency and
operability are required for garbage collection trucks.
Smaller trucks have openings set less than 800mm above
the ground to realize outstanding workability and
operability.

􀋔Low-pollution garbage collection trucks (Example)

generally, garbage loading and unloading is powered by
the engine. This type of truck generates electricity
required for loading and unloading while the truck is
running. This reduces the consumption of light oil and
CO2 emissions.

Treatment:
MUNICIPAL WASTE INCINERATION TECHNOLOGY
This includes separation of different types of waste, hence, the
technology equipped at this level may enable separation of various types
of materials for recovery and recycling, equipment for shredding and
treatment of final disposable waste. In some countries, incineration is
covered at this level and ash from it is sent to landfill for final disposal.
Incineration is a high-tech process –the negative impacts of which could
be worse for both public health as well as the environment.

Today, while high level environmental conservation

technologies are being introduced, technologies related
to high-efficiency power generation and technologies
related to safe operation, such as automatic incineration
devices and automatic cranes, are also being developed.
We are now accumulating know-how on handling diverse
types of garbage of today, ranging from the low-calorie
garbage, which was generated when incineration facilities
were first being built, to the high-calorie garbage. Such
technology can be utilized for the type of garbage
generated in the Asian region.
The newest stoker furnace technology is low air
incineration that aims for high-efficiency power
generation, which is already under construction in Japan:
a facility exhibiting high pollution prevention and high-
efficiency power generation capacity.
With Japan's high-tech incineration facilities,
waste incineration has won trust as safe and sound
technology, and when planning construction of such
facilities, communication with the surrounding residents
about risks is smooth, enabling swift progress in plans to
construct incineration facilities in urban and residential
areas.
\\
􀋔Shibuya Incineration Plant / Tokyo (Example) In Tokyo,
a metropolis in Japan, there exists a mixed commercial
and residential area where a large amount of waste is
generated. In August 2001, an incineration plant was
constructed near Shibuya
Station in the center of a high-density urban district. The
facility was constructed with a high technology with a
capacity of200t/day, which cleared strict gas emission
regulations for NOx, SOx, smoke, dioxin and other gases.

Chemical disinfection
Hospitals and Medical Center, said it is strict with chemical
disinfection of their waste but admitted this could not be enough to
properly dispose of the pathological and hazardous wastes like body
parts, tissues, and tumors, and used medical supplies and chemicals.

Treatments of Contagious Waste

Contagious waste is designated as a specially-controlled
waste under the Wastes Disposal and Public Cleansing
Act, and its disposal must be executed as shown on the
right. The act
Stipulates the treatment of contagious waste as follows:
In measures 3 to 5, waste must be broken down and fully
disinfected so that contagious pathogens cannot spread
through the air. In measures 1 or 2, gas temperature in
the incinerator must be maintained at 800°C or higher,
and when the treatment capacity of the incinerator is less
than 2t/hour, dioxin should be 5ng-TEQ/m3 or lower.

Final Disposal:
Though sanitary landfill is the most common technology around
the world, the conventional and environmentally unfriendly methods
including open-burning, open-dumping and non-sanitary landfill can still
be evidenced. However, in most countries these are officially banned
allowing only sanitary landfill for final disposal. Sanitary landfills can
be operated with fully aerobic, semi-aerobic and anaerobic methods. The
technologies may also vary in accordance with the type of fin disposable
waste, for example, some landfills may be used for co-disposal of
special wastes. The landfills for hazardous wastes could be more
complicated and are known as “secure landfill.” The location of landfill
is also an important factor considering the transportation costs and its
impacts on the urban environment.

SECURED LANDFILL
A secured landfill is an engineered facility designed for the safe
disposal of waste. ‘Landfilling’ means disposal of residual
solid wastes on land in a facility designed with protective
measures against pollution of groundwater, surface water
and air Including control of dust, wind-blow litter, bad odor,
fire hazard, bird menace pests or rodents, greenhouse gas
emissions, slope instability, and erosion. It is a site where
urban local bodies can take waste to be buried and compacted in
a manner that ensures safe containment and degradation of
waste over a period of time, ultimately becoming a part of nature.

‘Landfilling’ is the process by which residual waste is placed in a

landfillin a planned manner. It primarily consists of (a) placing
incoming waste in a landfill cell using various equipment such as
tractors, dozers, and so on; (b) compaction of waste, and (c) a
daily cover (soil, debris, and so on) on the waste to prevent flies,
birds, and odor. Land filling is a technical operation requiring
appropriate expertise and equipment (such as bulldozers or
compactors). With proper compaction a lot more waste can
be disposed per unit area of land. For a well-designed and
operated facility, waste can be landfilled up to50 meters high
(internationally, landfill heights can be over 100meters), thus
offering immense capacity for waste disposal per unit area of
land.

ESSNTIAL COMPONENTS OF SECURED LANDFILL

 Liner system at the base and sides to prevent migration of
leachate or landfill gas (largely methane) to the surrounding
environment. Typically consists of a high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) membrane, layers of clay, and sand or
gravel.
 Leachate collection and treatment facility
 Landfill gas collection and control facility.

 Fenced buffer zone and greenbelt around the landfill facility

to serve as a visual and protective barrier.
On closure of a landfill cell, a final cover system at the top to
prevent infiltration of water and support surface vegetation.
 An environmental and waste monitoring system (including
weighbridge).
 Safety provisions and basic amenities (for example, roads,
lighting arrangements, water supply, protective gear toilets, and
health checks).
In many developing countries, city's waste landfill sites,
waste is dumped and burned openly. Japan used to be
the same; however, a joint research by Fukuoka
University and Fukuoka City in 1970s produced and
applied a semi-aerobic landfill structure for landfills that
is sanitary and presents no environmental problem.
Compared to anaerobic landfill, the semi-aerobic landfill
technology quickly stabilizes landfill sites after the land
has completed its role as landfill, enabling it to be used
for parks and open space for sports. This technology was
accredited as CDM methodology by the UN CDM
Executive Board.
Increased efficiency of wide-area collection and
transport throu transfer stations

Recycling and Recovery:

This includes various types of activities like recycling of reusable
materials (e.g., plastic and glass containers), recycling of materials for
Industrial production (e.g., paper and iron), converting waste into
energy (e.g., burning tires in cement kiln to produce heat), and
converting waste into a resource (e.g., composting and landfill gas).
Hence technology can determine the level and sophistication of
recycling and recovery activities

TECHNOLOGY TO EFFICIENTLY RECOVER ELECTRICITY

AND FUEL FROM BIOMASS WASTE
Waste generated in cities and villages includes
combustible waste with low moisture content, such as
paper, plastic, and wood debris; and waste with high
moisture content, such as food production waste, kitchen
waste, manure, sewage sludge, biomass and other
organic sludge. Waste with high moisture content will
generate methane gas and hydrogen sulfide when buried
without treatment, causing environmental pollution.
Incineration of high moisture waste requires sub-material
to assist with the incineration. Cooking oil waste with low
moisture content may be effectively recycled as BDF, and
energy can be recovered from wood debris incineration.
Waste treatment, such as composting, methane
fermentation.

Fertilizer and feed producers, users, collection and

transport companies cooperate to collect and treat two
million tons of food waste, etc. annually. The waste is
then recycled into feed and fertilizer, or gas fuel by
methane fermentation for power generation.

PET Bottle recycling technology

Under the 3R policy (Reduce, Reuse, Recycle), Japan has
been collecting PET bottles, food trays, and can
separately for reuse as recycle resources in the
manufacturing of new products. PET bottles are collected
in accordance with the Act on the Promotion of Sorted
Collection and Recycling Containers and Packaging, and
they are used to make a variety of textile products, etc.
Relatively high-grade PET bottles are collected and
remade into PET bottles or carpets with the high
technology possessed by Japan.

Recycled resin from PET bottle waste is used to

make material for civil engineering and inner cotton for
bedding. It was thought that making long fiber or resin
product that will not decolorize would be difficult to
achieve. One Japanese company began recycling and
reproducing PET bottles in China, Thailand and Taiwan.
There are cases of recycled material being colored at the
resin stage and made into high quality carpets using high
level sewing skill.

HOME APPLIANCE RECYCLING TECHNOLOGY

Home appliance recycling technologies in Japan focus on
the effective utilization of resources and the safe
treatment of hazardous material, and methods and
operations becoming more and more sophisticated. Japan
has many outstanding recycling achievements and many
recycling facilities are operating stably.
The prevailing method of handling used home appliances
in the past was to first break them apart with a simple
machine and then sort out the recyclable parts using
magnets. Today, recycling has become more
sophisticated. To improve the purity of recovered
resources, appliances are first taken apart and sorted
manually, then compacted. The operation is efficient in
that not only metallic material but also plastic parts are
recovered for recycling.

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