Measurements of Temperature,

Heat flux and Heat transfer

coefficient
Arun M.
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
National Institute of Technology Karnataka
 Measurement of Temperature
• Temperature is an important intensive property.
• Temperature is defined via the so called “zeroth law of
thermodynamics”.
• Temperature measurement using modern scientific
thermometers and temperature scales goes back at least as
far as the early 18th century.
• Celsius to Fahrenheit conversion: [°C] = ([°F] − 32) × 5⁄9
 Measurement of Temperature
Properties that vary systematically with temperature may be
used as the basis of a thermometer.
• Thermoelectric thermometer
Based on thermo-electricity
- Thermocouple thermometers using two wires of different
materials
• Electric resistance
Resistance thermometer using metallic materials like
Platinum, Copper and Nickel etc.
Thermistors consisting of semiconductor materials like
Manganese-Nickel cobalt oxide mixed with proper binders
 Measurement of Temperature
• Thermal expansion
Bimetallic thermometers
Liquid in glass thermometer using mercury or other liquids
Pressure thermometer

• Pyrometry and spectroscopic methods

Radiation thermometry using a pyrometer

• Special methods like spectroscopic methods, laser based

methods, interferometry etc.
• A thermocouple is a sensor for measuring
temperature. This sensor consists of two dissimilar
metal wires, joined at one end, and connected to a
thermocouple thermometer or other thermocouple-
capable device at the other end.
• Due to their wide range of models and technical
specifications, it is extremely important to understand
its basic structure, how it works, its ranges as to better
determine what is the right type and material of
thermocouple for your application.
 How does a thermocouple work?

• Consider two wires of dissimilar materials connected to

form a circuit with two junctions. Let the two junctions be
maintained at different temperatures as shown, by the
application of heat at the two junctions.
• In 1821 Thomas Seebeck discovered the continuous current
flow in the thermoelectric circuit when two wires of
dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one of the
ends is heated. This is referred to as the Seebeck effect.
 How does a thermocouple work?

• Then there is a continuous current which flows in the

thermoelectric circuit. If this circuit is broken at the center,
the net open circuit voltage (the Seebeck voltage) is a function
of the junction temperature and the composition of the two
metals.
 Laws of thermo-electric circuits
• Law of homogeneous circuit.
• Law of intermediate metals.
• Law of intermediate temperatures.
 Thermocouple types
• Thermocouples are available
in different combinations of
metals or calibrations. The
most common are the “Base
Metal” thermocouples known
as Types J, K, T, E and N.
• There are also high
temperature calibrations - also
known as Noble Metal
thermocouples - Types R, S, C
and GB.
 Types of Thermocouples
• Type K Thermocouple (Nickel-Chromium / Nickel-Alumel): The
type K is the most common type of thermocouple. It’s
inexpensive, accurate, reliable, and has a wide temperature
range (–270 to 1260C) .
• Type J Thermocouple (Iron/Constantan): The type J is also very
common. It has a smaller temperature range (-210 to 760C) and a
shorter lifespan at higher temperatures than the Type K. It is
equivalent to the Type K in terms of expense and reliability.
• Type T Thermocouple (Copper/Constantan): The Type T is a very
stable thermocouple and is often used in extremely low
temperature applications (-270 to 370C) such as cryogenics or
ultra low freezers.
 Types of Thermocouples
• Type E Thermocouple (Nickel-Chromium/Constantan): The Type E
has a stronger signal & higher accuracy than the Type K or Type J at
moderate temperature ranges (-270 to 870C).
• Type N Thermocouple (Nicrosil / Nisil): The Type N shares the same
accuracy and temperature limits as the Type K. The type N is slightly
more expensive. Noble Metal Thermocouples are selected for their
ability to withstand extremely high temperatures while maintaining
their accuracy and lifespan.
• Type B Thermocouple (Platinum Rhodium – 30% / Platinum
Rhodium – 6%): The Type B thermocouple is used in extremely high
temperature applications (0 to 1700 C). It has the highest
temperature limit of all of the thermocouples listed above. It
maintains a high level of accuracy and stability at very high
temperatures.
 Construction of a thermocouple

• The construction and type of insulating material

surrounding the thermocouple must match the
temperature range and atmospheric environment to
prevent deterioration. The simplest and least protected
type is the wire thermocouple, which has an exposed
junction and no protective sheath. Advantages of this type
are fast response, low cost, light-weight, and flexibility of
use. A major disadvantage, however, is that it is susceptible
to environmental and mechanical damage.
 Thermocouple junction design
• Sheath covered thermocouples can
have an exposed, ungrounded, or
grounded measuring junction.
• The junction selection depends on
the environment and mechanical
impact the junction will be subjected
to.
• The exposed junction has the fastest
response of all types, but is the least
protected from the environment.
 Thermocouple junction design
• The grounded thermocouple junction
also can be a potential safety hazard. The
thermocouple and insulator are
completely sealed and protected from
the atmosphere, but the junction is
welded to the sheath from the inside. It
provides a path for a ground return
circuit through the sheath, which can be
a shock hazard. This type provides a
faster thermal response than the
ungrounded type, but it is much slower
than the exposed type with the same
sheath diameter.
• The ungrounded junction has the best
thermocouple protection of all types,
including electrical isolation. However, it
is also the slowest.
 Thermocouples
Each calibration has a different temperature range and
environment, although the maximum temperature varies
with the diameter of the wire used in the thermocouple.
Although the thermocouple calibration dictates the
temperature range, the maximum range is also limited by
the diameter of the thermocouple wire. That is, a very
thin thermocouple may not reach the full temperature
range.
K Type Thermocouples are known as general purpose
thermocouple due to its low cost and temperature range.
How do I choose a thermocouple type?

Because a thermocouple measures wide temperature ranges and

can be relatively rugged, thermocouples are very often used in
industry. The following criteria are used in selecting a
thermocouple:
- Temperature range
- Chemical resistance of the thermocouple or sheath
material
- Abrasion and vibration resistance
- Installation requirements (may need to be compatible
with existing equipment; existing holes may determine
probe diameter)
• A time constant has been defined as the time required by a
sensor to reach 63.2% of a step change in temperature under
a specified set of conditions which is called the ‘Response
time’.
• Standard Limits of Error: These thermocouples use standard
“thermocouple grade” wire. They are less expensive and more
common.
• Special Limits of Error: These thermocouples are made with a
higher grade of thermocouple wire, which increases their
accuracy. They are more expensive than standard
thermocouples.
 Resistance temperature detectors

• Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), are sensors used to

measure temperature.
• RTD elements consist of a length of fine wire wrapped around
a ceramic or glass core but other constructions are also used.
 Resistance temperature detectors
• The RTD wire is a pure material, typically platinum, nickel, or
copper.
• The material has an accurate resistance/temperature
relationship which is used to provide an indication of
temperature. As RTD elements are fragile, they are often
housed in protective probes.
• RTDs, which have higher accuracy and repeatability, are slowly
replacing thermocouples in industrial applications below
600 °C
 Resistance temperature detectors
• The significant characteristic of metals used as resistive
elements is the linear approximation of the resistance
versus temperature relationship between 0 and 100 °C.
This temperature coefficient of resistance is denoted
by α and is usually given in units of Ω/(Ω·°C):
α = (R100 − R0 )/(100 ∘ C ⋅ R0) , where
R0 is the resistance of the sensor at 0 °C,
R100 is the resistance of the sensor at 100 °C.
• Platinum has the most stable resistance–temperature
relationship over the largest temperature range.
 Resistance temperature detectors
• Nickel elements have a limited temperature range because
the amount of change in resistance per degree of change in
temperature becomes very non-linear at temperatures over
572 °F (300 °C).
• Copper has a very linear resistance–temperature relationship;
however, copper oxidizes at moderate temperatures and
cannot be used over 302 °F (150 °C).
• Platinum is the best metal for RTDs due to its very linear
resistance–temperature relationship, highly repeatable over a
wide temperature range. The unique properties of platinum
make it the material of choice for temperature standards over
the range of −272.5 °C to 961.78 °C.
 Resistance temperature detectors
The advantages of platinum resistance thermometers include:
• High accuracy
• Low drift
• Wide operating range
• Suitability for precision applications.
The limitations are
RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660 °C. At
temperatures above 660 °C it becomes increasingly difficult to
prevent the platinum from becoming contaminated by impurities
from the metal sheath of the thermometer.
 Thermocouple vs. RTD
• Temperature range:
First, consider the difference in temperature ranges. Noble
Metal Thermocouples can reach 3,100 F, while standard RTDs
have a limit of 600 F and extended range RTDs have a limit of
1,100 F.
• Cost:
A plain stem thermocouple is 2 to 3 times less expensive than
a plain stem RTD. A thermocouple head assembly is roughly
50% less expensive than an equivalent RTD head assembly.
• Durability:
In the sensors industry, RTDs are widely regarded as a less
durable sensor when compared to thermocouples. However,
some developed manufacturing techniques that have greatly
improved the durability of RTD sensors.
 Thermocouple vs. RTD
• Accuracy, Linearity, & Stability:
As a general rule, RTDs are more accurate than
thermocouples. This is especially true at lower temperature
ranges.
RTDs are also more stable and have better linearity than
thermocouples. If accuracy, linearity, and stability are your
primary concerns and your application is within an RTD’s
temperature limits, go with the RTD.
Response Time:
RTDs cannot be grounded. For this reason, they have a slower
response time than grounded thermocouples.
Thermocouples are generally placed inside a smaller
diameter sheath than RTDs. A smaller sheath diameter will
increase response time.
 Infrared Thermography

• Infrared thermography (IRT), thermal imaging, and

thermal video are examples of infrared imaging science.
• Thermographic cameras usually detect radiation in the
long-infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum
(roughly 9,000–14,000 nanometers or 9–14 µm) and
produce images of that radiation, called thermograms.
 Infrared Thermography
• Thermal images, or thermograms, are actually visual displays of the
amount of infrared energy emitted, transmitted, and reflected by
an object.
Incident Radiant Power = Emitted Radiant Power + Transmitted
Radiant Power + Reflected Radiant Power
Where, Incident Radiant Power is the radiant power profile when
viewed through a thermal imaging camera.
Emitted Radiant Power is generally what is intended to be measured;
Transmitted Radiant Power is the radiant power that passes through
the subject from a remote thermal source.
Reflected Radiant Power is the amount of radiant power that reflects
off the surface of the object from a remote thermal source.
 Heat flux measurements
• Temperature is a fundamental property of a material and
accurate measurement and calibration standards are readily
available.
• The measurement of heat transfer, is the movement of
thermal energy through a material and is not a property.
• Consequently, establishing measurement standards and
calibration methods is much more challenging.
• Diller (2015) made three classifications of gauges considering
measured temperature difference over space, the
temperature change with time, and the power dissipated at a
maintained temperature.
 Heat Flux measurements
• Heat flux is defined as the amount of heat transferred per unit
area per unit time from or to a surface. It is directly
proportional to the temperature gradient.
• In a basic sense it is a derived quantity since it involves, in
principle, two quantities viz. the amount of heat transfer per
unit time and the area from/to which this heat transfer takes
place.
• In practice, the heat flux is measured by the change in
temperature brought about by its effect on a sensor of known
area.
 Foil type heat flux gage
• The foil type heat flux gage (also known as the Gardon gage
after its inventor) consists of a thin circular foil of constantan
stretched tightly over a cooled copper annulus.
Water cooled foil heat flux gage
 Foil type heat flux gage
• One surface of the foil is exposed to the heat flux that is to be
measured while the other surface may be taken as insulated.
• A copper wire is attached at the geometric center of the foil. A
second copper wire is attached to the cooled copper annulus.
• The constantan foil forms two junctions with copper, the first
one at its center and the second one at its periphery.
• Under steady state, the thermoelectric voltage across the two
copper leads is a direct measure of the temperature
difference set up between the center and the periphery of the
• constantan disk. The temperature difference is obtained by
performing the following
• analysis.
Energy balance over a foil element in
the form of an annular ring
 Energy balance over a foil element in
the form of an annular ring
Integrate equation 1 once with respect to r to get

where A is a constant of integration. This may be rearranged to

get

Integrate this once more with respect to r to get

• where B is a second constant of integration. The constant A has

to be chosen equal to zero in order that the solution does not
diverge at r = 0. The constant B is obtained from the boundary
condition at r = R as
 Energy balance over a foil element in
the form of an annular ring
• With this the solution for the temperature is obtained as

• It may be noted that the constant B is nothing but the

temperature at the center of the constantan disk. Hence,

• In the above T 0 is the temperature at the center of the disk.