Basics of Occupational Hygiene

(2012)

Industrial activity - it is an integral part of a life of an adult able-bodied

person. Industrial process and production factors have a multilateral effect on the

human body.

Occupational Hygiene - preventive discipline that studies the influence of

labor and the working environment on the body of the employee to develop

sanitary-hygienic and therapeutic measures aimed at creating more favorable

conditions of work and maintaining a high level of health and working capacity.

Hygiene of labour studies the following subjects:

1. sanitary features of production and equipment from the point of view of

their influence on an working organism;

2. sanitary working conditions,

3. character and organization of labor processes;

4. changes of physiological functions of an organism in the process of work;

5. state of health of workers (general morbidity, occupational and nonspecific

diseases);

6. condition and hygienic efficiency of engineering devices, installations and

means of individual protection.

 On the basis of studying of features of the industrial environment and its

influence on a workers, hygiene of labour works out hygienic requirements to

rationalization of production and equipment, works out hygienic norms and rules

for their inclusion in the sanitary legislation, works out measures of personal

hygiene and also proposals on the rational organization of work and rest.

The history of the development of hygiene of labour in Russia began in

the nineteenth century. A big contribution were made by our outstanding

hygienists F.F. Erisman and A.A. Letavet. Researches of A.A. Letavet in the

field of radiation hygiene, toxicology of industrial poisons and other branches of

hygiene of labour promoted the development of domestic hygiene of labour.

Working conditions are determined by the social system, by level of a

technical progress, correct organization of work, sanitary conditions at a factory.

The positive influence of labour is possible only if it takes place in favorable

social and physiological conditions.

Physiology is a basis of hygiene of labour.

There is a concept of an "capacity for work" in physiology of labour. This

concept can be formulated so: capacity for work is a person’s ability to perform

specific work for a long time without decrease in its quality and quantity.

Working capability depends on age, a state of health, physical strength,

psychological mood, experience, training, mutual relation in a group & family,

feeling of responsibility, conscientious attitude to business, etc.

 Capacity for work is not always constant: it changes within a day, week or

year. However, there is a general patterns of its changes during a shift for various

kinds of industrial activity.

As a rule, at the beginning of a working day or shift, the capacity for work is

rather insignificant. In the process of work it increases, reaches a certain level,

keeps at this level during some time and gradually starts to decrease.

It depends on the fact that during work various functions of an organism

change constantly. These changes occur in several stages.

There is the so-called "pre-starting" period, which precedes the work and

provides a certain, including psychological, readiness of a person’s organism to

performance of this or that practical activity.

The pre-working period is followed by in-working period, during which all

functions of an organism gradually reach the optimum level. The duration of this

period is different. The more heavier work & the more impellent activity, the

quicker this period finishes.

Later the period of a steady high working capacity follows, during which

the optimum level of activity of all systems (nervous, cardiovascular, respiratory,

etc.), providing performance of work, is established. This period lasts for different

time, approximately from one hour and a half till three hours. Then as a result of

increasing fatigue the working capacity gradually decreases. But even in a

condition of fatigue (sometimes at the end of a shift) the phase of "a final impulse"

is observed. It is a stage of increased working capacity, which is caused by the

emotional rise in connection with the end of shift and anticipation of rest and by

desire to finish working quicker.

The heavier and more intense work, more uninteresting and monotonous, the

quicker working capacity reduces.

Graph of change of capacity for work

1. In-working period (period of inclusion into work)

2. Period of high stable working capacity

3. Period of decline of working capacity.

The last period is divided into 3 zones:

1) zone of unstable working capacity

2) zone of final momentum

3) zone of progressive decline of working capacity

What is fatigue? Fatigue is decrease of operating capability, resulting from

work of big intensity, tension or duration and expressing in a quantitative and

qualitative deterioration of its results.

For example, quantitative deterioration means reduction in number of

products or operations in a unit of time. Qualitative deterioration means occurrence

of defects.

Fatigue is a reversible, physiological condition, in other words, it is a norm

for any organism if the recreation compensates it. It is established that fatigue can

develop quickly at very hard work (for example, of a loader, a mason) and more

slowly at less intensive work (work of a driver, worker on conveyor).

 Overwork is a condition that borders on pathology. Conventional short rest

does not restore the initial level of working capacity, because changes in

morphological and biochemical parameters are expressed and prolonged. Therefore,

the main objective of occupational hygiene is the prevention of overwork

development.

The working activity of a person proceeds in conditions of a certain

industrial environment, which in some cases favors work & in another cases renders

a negative influence on health & working capacity.

The increase of working capacity can be carried out: firstly, by complex of

medico-technical measures and, secondly, by complex of measures, concerning

directly an organism of a person.

Here is a list of the measures, which refer to medico-technical

measures:

1. Identification of unfavorable physical and chemical factors;

2. The use of technical means of individual and collective protection;

3. Strict registration (registration) physiological, psychophysiological, and

anthropometric parameters in the design of the system "man - machinery";

4. Medical and technical regulation of labor.

Here is a list of measures concerning directly an organism of a person:

1) Scientifical regulation of a regime of work, rest and feeding of workers

and employees;

2) Professional psycho-physiological selection;

 3) Training and special trainings on specialty;

4) Hardening and physical training;

5) Application of restorative (tonic) medicines and stimulators (at a

pinch).

There are still some professional harmfulness at factories all over the world.

It is caused, first of all, by the fast introduction of new types of energy, chemical

substances, by creation of absolutely new kinds of production, technological

operations in the industry & agriculture. It poses a problem of the detailed study

of new production factors from the point of view of their influence on an

organism.

Professional harmful factors are the factors of industrial environment,

organization of work and production, which can serve directly or indirectly as the

reason of infringement of working capacity and health of workers.

All negative factors of production and industrial environment can be

divided into 2 categories: harmful and dangerous.

The harmful factors influence negatively state of health and working

capacity and can cause some diseases (including occupational diseases).

Dangerous factors on certain conditions can cause acute damage to

health up to death.

Nowadays the classification of dangerous and harmful production

factors (professional harmfulness) is accepted according to AUSS (All-Union

State Standard) 12.0.003-74.

There are 5 groups of professional harmfulness:

 1. Psycho-physiological- factors

1) Physical (static and dynamic) overload the musculoskeletal system

during lifting and carrying heavy objects, inconvenient body position, prolonged

pressure on the skin, joints, muscles and bones.

Not mechanized work: loading and unloading, repair work, the work of

miners, work at sewing machines, etc.

2) Physiologically insufficient impellent activity (hypodynamia).

The majority of kinds of brainwork: scientists, teachers, accountants, etc.

3) Physiological overloads of organs of blood circulation, respiratory

organs and vocal ligaments.

Work in different branches of industry: musicians, playing the wind

instruments, singers, glass-blowers.

4) Neuropsychological overloads: an intellectual overstrain, emotional

overloads, an emotional overstrain, overexertion of analyzers, monotonous work.

Work of operators, dispatchers and drivers, work on the conveyor, etc.

2. Physical production factors.

1) High or low temperature, humidity, air mobility of a working zone.

Metallurgical factories, machine-building plants, dyeing workshops, construction

work in the open air.

2) High level of infrared radiation.

Metallurgical factories, manufacture of glass, etc.

3) Increased level of ultra-violet radiation.

Welding works, electric melting of metal, etc.

4) Increased level of monochromatic (laser) radiation.

Research works, instrument-making, medicine.

5) Increased level of ionizing radiation.

Atomic power stations, gamma-and X-ray defectoscopy.

6) Increased level of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation & of intensity of

electric and magnetic fields.

Nuclear power stations, gamma- and roentgeno-defecto-scopy. Production and

application of generators, radiolocation.

7) Increased level of static electricity.

Production of artificial leather, fabrics and, etc.

8) High dust- and gas-pollution of air of a working zone (non-toxic dust). Mining,

machine-building plants, etc.

9) High level of noise, vibration, ultrasound and infrasonic fluctuations.

Working with hand tools at machine-building factories, mines, work of tractor-

driver

10) Insufficient illumination or non-rational lighting of a working zone; absence

or lack of natural light, insufficient illumination of a working zone, high

brightness, low contrast, high pulsation of a light flow.

Mines, instrument-making, machine-building, weaving and other workshops.

11) High or low barometric pressure and its sharp changes.

Construction of bridges, tunnels, air transport, etc.

 3. Chemical harmful and dangerous production factors.

Gases, vapors, liquids, aerosols, possessing general toxic, irritant,

sensitizing, carcinogenic, mutagenic effects, as well as affecting the reproductive

function.

Chemical plants, foundries and galvanic workshops of machine-building

plants, the use of pesticides in agriculture.

4. Biological production factors.

1) Macro- and microorganisms, which can be sources of infections, fungous

diseases.

Care of sick animals, processing of skins.

2) Vitamins, hormones, antibiotics, substances of albuminous nature.

Pharmaceutical factories, meat processing and packing plants, manufacture of

artificial forages.

4. Biological production factors.

1) Macro- and microorganisms are sources of infections, fungous diseases.

Animal Production, processing of leathers.

2) Vitamins, hormones, antibiotics, substances of aluminous nature.

Pharmaceutical factories, meat processing and packing plants, manufacture

of artificial forages and nutritious remedies.

5. Danger of industrial traumas.

 Presence of moving machines and mechanisms, unprotected mobile elements

of industrial equipment, high or low temperature of surfaces, equipment and

materials, presence of caustic solutions of acids and alkalis, dangerous level of

voltage.

Machine-building plants, chemical plants, processing of timber.

There is a close relationship between the occupational harmfulness that can

cause illness and occupational diseases.

Occupational diseases - diseases that occur exclusively (pneumoconiosis) or

predominantly (tendovaginitis) due to effects on the body of professional factors.

The term «occupational diseases» has a legislatively - insurance value. The list

of occupational diseases is approved in the legislative order. The illnesses, which

have not been included in the list, are not considered to be occupational. Every

doctor should know, that there are not only occupational diseases, but also the

diseases connected with work.

One should regularly struggle against professional harmfulness at a factory.

Here is a general plan of a struggle:

A. Radical elimination of harmfulness.

B. Slackening of influence of harmfulness which can be carried out by two

ways:

1. By improving of working conditions

2. By rising of resistibility of an organism.

Prevention of occupational diseases includes the whole system of measures:

1. Hygienic standartization
 2. Organizational measures

3. Technological measures

4. Sanitary-engineering measures.

5. Therapeutic-and-prophylactic measures.

6. Application of individual protective means.

Hygienic standartization – is working out norms and rules, providing

creation of safe and healthy working conditions.

The organizational measures include: legal regulation of working

hours, time of rest, the right to privileges and other legal acts, aimed at

prevention of the unfavourable influence of production factors (the right to

the reduced working day, additional holidays, overalls and individual means of

protection, a therapeutic-and-prophylactic nutrition, etc.)

Technological measures

The primary goals aimed at optimization of working conditions are:

introduction of new technologies in the industry, use of chemical compounds,

which do not render harmful influence on an organism.

Improving of working conditions in industry is closely connected with the

transition to hermetically sealed and continuous technological processes, remote

control of these processes, etc.

Sanitary-engineering measures.

Industrial ventilation as one of the hygienic measures is still considered to

be an essential measure at a number of manufactures and some technological

processes. It often plays a leading role in the struggle against untoward factors of

industrial environment.

Industrial lighting should also provide the best conditions for the work of

organs of vision of workers, their state of health and promote the increase in labor

productivity.

Individual protective means. When it is impossible to rationally solve

the problem of liquidation of professional harmfulness due to the character of

production, then individual protective means serve as an important addition to the

general preventive measures. Individual protective means can weaken

substantially influence of harmfull factors on an organism. The individual

protective means include gas-masks, respirators, goggles, earplugs, protective

pastes and ointments, overalls and safe shoes.

Therapeutic and prophylactic measures.

The clinical examinations & preventive medical examinations are the main

methods of doctors’ work of all specialties at an industrial enterprise.

The clinical examination is a system of work of therapeutic-and-prophylactic

establishments, aimed at prevention of diseases, active revealing and treatment of

patients. One of the primary objectives of a medical examination is revealing of

two groups of people, who are subject to clinical examination:

1. Healthy people, who need regular active supervision in accordance with

age-physiological features of an organism (children, pregnant women) or working

conditions (professional harmfulness, military service);

 2. Ill people, suffering from certain nosologic forms of diseases

(tuberculosis, malignant neoplasms, precancerous conditions, venereal,

cardiovascular, neuro-psychological diseases, diabetes, glaucoma) etc.

The purpose of clinical examination for the first category of people is

preservation and strengthening of their health, for the second category -

active revealing, account and treatment of diseases.

Preliminary medical examinations have as their purpose - to prevent for

work, connected with certain harmfulness, persons who have impairments of

health, that are likely to worsen under the influence of specific industrial

harmfulness.

Periodic medical examinations of workers are conducted primarily to detect

early changes in the body caused by exposure of harmful factors.