EMM3502

Control ENGINEERING
Lecture 2 Modeling in Frequency Domain
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Contents
• Modeling in the frequency domain
• Introduction to modeling in the frequency domain
• Laplace transform review
• Transfer function
• Translational mechanical system transfer function
• Rotational mechanical system transfer function
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Introduction
• We have discussed the analysis and design
sequence that included obtaining the systems
schematic.
• To obtain a schematic, the control systems engineer
must often make many simplifying assumptions in
order to keep the ensuing model manageable and
still approximate physical reality.
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Introduction
• There are two methods to develop mathematical
models from schematics of physical systems.
• Transfer functions in the frequency domain (this
chapter)
• State equations in the time domain (next chapter)
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Introduction
• A differential equation can describe the
relationship between the input and output of a
system.

𝑑𝑚 𝑐(𝑡) 𝑑𝑚−1 𝑐(𝑡) 𝑑𝑚 𝑟 𝑡 𝑑𝑚−1 𝑟 𝑡

+ 𝑑𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑑0 𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑏𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏0 𝑟(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑛 𝑑𝑡 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚−1

• Although the differential equation relates the

system to its input and output, it is not a satisfying
representation from a system perspective.
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Introduction
• Simplest representation of a system where input,
output, and system are distinct and separate parts.

Input, r(t) Output, c(t)

System
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Introduction
• We would also like to represent conveniently the
interconnection of several subsystems.
• A mathematical function, called a transfer function,
is inside each block, and block functions can easily
be combined for ease of analysis and design.
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Laplace transform
• As mentioned previously, a system represented by
a differential equation is difficult to model as a
block diagram.

• Thus, we now lay the groundwork for the Laplace

transform, with which we can represent the input,
the output, and system as separate entities.
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Laplace transform
• Laplace transform is a method of operational
calculus that takes a function of time (t-domain)
and converts it to a function of complex variable (s-
domain/frequency domain)
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Laplace transform
• Transform time domain functions into frequency
domain functions
∞
ℒ𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐹 𝑠 = න 𝑓 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0−

Where 𝑓(𝑡) = function in time domain

𝑠 = complex variable (𝑠 =  + 𝑗 )
𝐹(𝑠) = Laplace transformation of f(t)
ℒ = an operational symbol indicating that the quantity that it prefixes
is to be transformed by the Laplace integral
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Laplace transform
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Laplace transform
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Laplace transform
• Problem: Find the Laplace transform of 𝑓 𝑡 =
𝐴𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡).
• Solution: The time function does not contain an
impulse function.

∞ ∞
𝐹 𝑠 = න 𝑓 𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝐴𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡
∞ 0 0
𝐴
= 𝐴 න 𝑒 −(𝑠+𝑎)𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
0 𝑠+𝑎
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Laplace transform
• The inverse Laplace transform, which allows us to
find f(t) given F(s) is
1 +𝑗∞
ℒ −1 𝐹 𝑠 = න 𝐹(𝑠)𝑒 𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑓 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
2𝜋𝑗 −𝑗∞

Where 𝑢 𝑡 =1 𝑡>0
𝑢 𝑡 =0 𝑡<0

is the unit step function. Multiplication of f(t) by u(t) yields a time

function that is zero for t<0.
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Laplace transform
• Problem: Find the inverse Laplace transform of
1
𝐹1 𝑠 = 2
(𝑠+3)
• Solution:
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Laplace transform
• To find the inverse Laplace transform of a complicated function, convert the
function to a sum of simpler terms for which the Laplace transform of each term
is known. The result is called a partial-fraction expansion.
• If F(s)=N(s)/D(s), where the order of N(s) is less than the order of D(s), then a
partial-fraction expansion can be made.
• If the order of N(s) is greater than or equal to the order of D(s), then N(s) must
be divided by D(s) successively until the result has a remainder whose
numerator is of order less than its denominator.

s 3  2s 2  6s  7 2
F ( s)   F ( s )  s  1 
s2  s  5 s2  s  5
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Laplace transform
Three Cases:
• Case 1. Roots of the Denominator of F(s) are Real and Distinct
s 1 A A
F ( s)   1  2
( s  3)( s  4) s  3 s  4

• Case 2. Repeated (multiple) real poles

2s  3 A A A3
F ( s)   1  2 
( s  4)( s  1) 2
s  4 s  1 ( s  1) 2

• Case 3. Complex conjugate poles

s 1 A B
F ( s)   
( s  1  j )( s  1  j ) s  1  j s  1  j
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Laplace transform
Case 1. Roots of the Denominator of F(s) are Real
and Distinct
• Example of an F(s) with real and distinct roots in
the denominator:

2
𝐹 𝑠 =
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)

• Solution:
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Laplace transform
Example 2
Case 1: Roots of the Denominator of F(s) Are Real and Distinct
2
𝐹(𝑠) =
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2) To find 𝐾2 , multiply above equation with (𝑠 + 2)
𝐾1 𝐾2
= +
(𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2)
To find 𝐾1 , multiply above equation with (𝑠 + 1)
2 (𝑠 + 2)𝐾1
𝐹 (𝑠 ) = = + 𝐾2
(𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 1)

2 (𝑠 + 1)𝐾2 Let 𝑠 = −2, yields 𝐾2 = −2

𝐹(𝑠) = = 𝐾1 +
(𝑠 + 2) (𝑠 + 2)
Let 𝑠 = −1, yields 𝐾1 = 2
Hence, 𝑓(𝑡) is the sum of the inverse Laplace transform of each term,
2 2
𝐹 (𝑠 ) = −
(𝑠 + 1) (𝑠 + 2)
𝐿−1 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑓(𝑡) = (2𝑒 −𝑡 − 2𝑒 −2𝑡 )𝑢(𝑡)
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Laplace transform
• Problem: Given the following differential equation,
solve for y(t) if all initial conditions are zero. Use
the Laplace transform

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2
+ 12 + 32𝑦 = 32𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

• Solution:
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Laplace transform
Laplace transform solution of a differential equation
Find the y(t) if all initial condition are zero. Use the Laplace
transform.
Solving for the response, Y(s), yields
2
𝑑 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
+ 12 + 32𝑦(𝑡) = 32𝑢(𝑡) 32 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑌 𝑠 = = + +
𝑠 𝑠+4 𝑠+8 𝑠 (𝑠 + 4) (𝑠 + 8)
The Laplace transform for the terms in the equation are:
Where,
𝑑 2 𝑦(𝑡) 2 𝑌 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑦 0 −
𝑑𝑦 0
𝐿 = 𝑠 = 𝑠2𝑌 𝑠 32
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝐾1 = =1
(𝑠 + 4)(𝑠 + 8) 𝑠→0
𝑑𝑦(𝑡)
𝐿 = 𝑠𝑌 𝑠 − 𝑦 0 = 𝑠𝑌(𝑠) 32
𝑑𝑡 𝐾2 = = −2
(𝑠)(𝑠 + 8) 𝑠→−4
𝐿 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑌(𝑠)
Hence, the Laplace transform is 32
𝐾3 = =1
(𝑠)(𝑠 + 4) 𝑠→−8
32
𝑠 2 𝑌 𝑠 + 12𝑠𝑌 𝑠 + 32𝑌 𝑠 = Hence,
𝑠
1 2 1
𝑌 𝑠 = − +
𝑠 (𝑠 + 4) (𝑠 + 8)
𝐿−1 𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑦 𝑡 = 1 − 2𝑒 −4𝑡 + 𝑒 −8𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
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Laplace transform
Case 2. Repeated (multiple) real poles
• Example of an F(s) with real and repeated roots in
the denominator:

2
𝐹 𝑠 =
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)2

• Solution:
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Laplace transform
Case 2: Roots of the Denominator of F(s) are Real and
Repeated

2 To find 𝐾3 ,
𝐹 𝑠 = 2
𝑠+1 𝑠+2 𝑑 2 2
𝐾1
− 𝑠+2 − 𝑠 + 2 𝐾3 − 𝐾2 = 0
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3 𝑑𝑠 𝑠 + 1 𝑠+1
= + 2
+
𝑠+1 𝑠+2 𝑠+2 2 𝑠+2 𝑠
𝐾3 = − − 𝐾 = −2
𝑠+1 2 𝑠+1 2 1 𝑠→−2
2 𝐿−1 𝐹(𝑠) = 𝑓 𝑡 = 2𝑒 −𝑡 − 2𝑡𝑒 −2𝑡 + 2𝑒 −2𝑡
𝐾1 = 2
=2
𝑠+2 𝑠→−1
2 2
𝐾1
𝐾2 = − 𝑠+2 − 𝑠 + 2 𝐾3 = −2
𝑠+1 𝑠+1 𝑠→−2
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Laplace transform
Case 2. Roots of the Denominator of F(s) are complex
or imaginary
• Example of an F(s) with real and distinct roots in
the denominator:

2
𝐹 𝑠 =
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5)

• Solution:
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Laplace transform
• Exercise
1. Find the Laplace transform of 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑒 −5𝑡
2. Find the inverse Laplace transform of 𝐹 𝑠 =
10
𝑠(𝑠+2)(𝑠+3)3
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Transfer function
• Transfer function is the ratio of the Laplace
transform of the output variable to the Laplace
transform of the input variable assuming zero initial
conditions

Input, r(t) Output, c(t)

System
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Transfer function
• This function will allow separation of the input,
system, and output into three separate and distinct
parts, unlike the differential equation.
• This function will allow us to algebraically combine
mathematical representations of subsystems to
yield a total system representation.
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Transfer function
• The form the ratio of the output transform, C(s),
divided by the input transform, R(s);

C ( s ) bm s m  bm 1s m 1  ...  b0
G (s)  
R( s ) an s n  an 1s n 1  ...  a0

• This ratio, G(s), is the transfer function and evaluate

it with zero initial conditions.
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Transfer function
• Example: Find the transfer function represented by

dc(t )
 2c(t )  r (t )
dt

Ans:
C ( s) 1
G( s)  
R( s ) s  2
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Transfer function
1
• Example: If 𝐺 𝑠 = ,
find the response c(t), to
𝑠+2
an input, r(t) = u(t), a unit step, assuming zero
initial conditions.
1
C ( s)  R( s)G( s) 
s( s  2)

Ans:
1 1  2t
c(t )   e
2 2
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Transfer function
• Exercise
1. Find the transfer function, G(s), corresponding to
𝑑3 𝑐 𝑑2 𝑐 𝑑𝑐
the differential equation 3 + 3 2 + 7 +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
5𝑐 = + 4 + 3𝑟
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
2. Find the differential equation corresponding to
2𝑠+1
the transfer function 𝐺 𝑠 = 2
𝑠 +6𝑠+2
3. Find the ramp response for a system whose
𝑠
transfer function is 𝐺 𝑠 =
(𝑠+4)(𝑠+8)
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Transfer function
• Important terms/definitions:

s 2  4s  3
G( s)  5
Zeros (z1 = -1,

s  8s 4  20s 3  16s 2
z2 = -3)

Order

( s  1)( s  3)
G( s) 
s 2 ( s  2) 2 ( s  4)
Type

Poles
(p1 = 0, p2 = 0, p3 = -2, p4
= -2, p5 = -4)
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Transfer function
• Example: Express the given complex function in
pole-zero form. Identify the zeros and the poles.
2s  1
G( s) 
s( s  2) 2 (10s  3)

Ans:
2( s  0.5) 1 ( s  0.5)
G( s)   
10s( s  2) ( s  0.3)  5  s( s  2) 2 ( s  0.3)
2
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Mechanical system transfer

function: translational motion
• A mechanical system can be modeled by a transfer
function, G(s), that algebraically relates the Laplace
transform of the output to the Laplace transform of
the input.

• We will concentrate on translational mechanical

systems.
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Mechanical system transfer

function: translational motion

capacitor

resistor

inductor
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Mechanical system transfer

function: translational motion
• Problem: Find the transfer function, X(s)/F(s), for
the system of Figure below
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Mechanical system transfer

function: translational motion
• The mechanical system requires an equation of motion
to describe it. This is 1DOF system.
• It is assumed that a positive direction of motion to the
right. (thus negative direction of motion to the left)
• Draw a free body diagram, placing on the body all the
forces that act on the body
• Use Newton’s Law to form differential equation (setting
the sum equal to zero)
• Assume zero initial condition
• Take Laplace Transform
• Find Transfer Function
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Mechanical system transfer

function: translational motion
• Draw the free-body diagram (using differential
equation)
• Place on the mass all forces felt by the mass
• Mass is traveling toward the right (force points
to the right)
• All other forces impede the motion and act
oppose it.

• Write the differential equation using Newton’s Law

(sum to zero all of the forces)

𝑑2 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
𝑀 2
+ 𝑓𝑣 + 𝐾𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
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Mechanical system transfer

function: translational motion
• Taking the Laplace Transform assuming zero initial
condition

𝑀𝑠 2 𝑋 𝑠 + 𝑓𝑣 𝑠𝑋(𝑠) + 𝐾𝑋(𝑠) = 𝐹(𝑠)

(𝑀𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣 𝑠 + 𝐾)𝑋(𝑠) = 𝐹(𝑠)
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Mechanical system transfer

function: translational motion
• Solving the transfer function & block diagram

X (s) 1
G (s)  
F ( s ) Ms 2  f v ( s )  K
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Mechanical system transfer

function: translational motion
• Problem: Find the transfer function, X(s)/F(s), for
the system of Figure below
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Mechanical system transfer

function: translational motion
• Draw the free-body diagram (using differential
equation)
For M1 For M2
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Mechanical system transfer

function: translational motion
• Write the differential equation using Newton’s Law
(sum to zero all of the forces)
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Mechanical system transfer

function: translational motion
• Taking the Laplace Transform assuming zero initial
condition
EOM 1 : [ M 1s 2   f v1  f v 3 s  K1  K 2 ] X 1 ( s )   f v 3 s  K 2 X 2 ( s )  F ( s )

 
EOM 2 :  f v 3 s  K 2 X 1 ( s )  M 2 s 2   f v 2  f v 3 s  ( K 2  K 3 ) X 2 ( s )  0
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Mechanical system transfer

function: translational motion
• Solving the transfer function & block diagram

X 2 (s) ( f s  K2 )
 G (s)  v3
F (s) 

𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣1 + 𝑓𝑣2 𝑠 + (𝐾1 + 𝐾2 ) −(𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2 )

∆=
−(𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2 ) 𝑀2 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣2 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + (𝐾2 + 𝐾3 )

F(s) X2(s)
𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2
∆
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Mechanical system transfer

function: rotational motion
• It is handled the same way as translational
mechanical systems, except that torque replaces
force and angular displacement replaces
translational displacement.
• Also, it should be noted that values of 𝐾, 𝐷, and 𝐽
are called as spring constant, coefficient of viscous
friction, and moment of inertia, respectively.
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Mechanical system transfer

function: rotational motion
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Mechanical system transfer

function: rotational motion
• Problem: Find the transfer function, for the rotational
system shown in the figure below. The rod is supported by
bearings at either end and is undergoing torsion. A torque is
applied at the left, and the displacement is measured at the
right.
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Mechanical system transfer

function: rotational motion
• Draw the free-body diagram (using differential equation)
For J1

For J2
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Mechanical system transfer

function: rotational motion
• Write the differential equation using Newton’s Law (sum to
zero all of the forces)
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Mechanical system transfer

function: rotational motion
• Taking the Laplace Transform assuming zero initial condition
( J 1 s 2  D1 s  K )1 (s)  K 2 (s)  T (s)

 K1 (s)  ( J 2 s 2  D2 s  K ) 2 (s)  0

• Solving the transfer function & block diagram

 2 ( s) K T(s) 𝐾 𝜃2 (s)

T ( s)  ∆
( J1s 2  D1s  K ) K

K ( J 2 s 2  D2 s  K )
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• Any questions??

• End of Lecture 2 Modeling in Frequency Domain