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GEC: ETRY
PART I

SCHOOL MATHEMATlCS STUDY GROUP

YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS

School Mathematics Study Group

Geometry

Unit I 3
Geometry
Student'z. Text, Part I

Preparcd under the supervision of

thc Panel otl Sample Textbooks
of' chc Schoal Mathematics Study Group:

Frank B. Allen Lyons Township High School

Edwin C. Douglas Taft School
Donald E. hchmond Williams College
Charles E. liickart Yale University
Henry Swain New Trier Townslu~N g h School
Robert J. Walker Cornell Universiry

Ncw Haven and London. Yalr University Press

Copyright @ 1960, 1961 by Yale Utlivcrsity.
Printed in the United States of America.

All rights reserved. Ths book may nor

be reproduced, in whole or in part, in
any form, without written permission from
the publishers.

Financial support for the School Mathematics

Study Group has been provided by the National
Sciencc Foundation.
 FOREWORD
The I n c r e a s i n g contribution of mathematics t o the culture of
t h e modern world, as well as i t s importance as a v i t a l part of
scientific and humanistic education, has made it essential that the
mathematics In our schools be both well selected and well t a u g h t .
Wlth t h l s In mind, t h e various mathematical organizations in
the United States cooperated In the formation of the School
Mathematics Study Group (SMSG). SMSG includes college and univer-
sity mathematicians, teachers of mathematics at all levels, experts
in education, and r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of science and technology. The
general o b j e c t i v e of SMSG 1s t h e improvement of the teaching of
mathematlcs In the schools of t h i s country. The National S c i e n c e
Foundation has provided substantial ftmds for the support of t h i s
endeavor.
One of the prerequisites for the improvement o f the teaching
of mathematics in our schools is an improved curriculum--one which
takes account of the increasing use of mathematics in science and
technology and In other areas of knowledge and a t the same time
one which r e f l e c t s recent advances In mathematics i t s e l f . One of
t h e f i r s t projects undertaken by SMSG was to e n l i s t a group of
outstanding mathematicians and mathematics teachers to prepare a
series of textbooks which would illustrate such an improved
curr lculum .
The professional mathematicians In SMSG believe that the
mathematics presented i n thls t e x t is valuable f o r a11 well-educated
citizens In our society to know and t h a t it is Important f o r the
precollege student to learn In preparation f o r advanced work in the
f i e l d . A t the same tlme, teachers in SMSO b e l i e v e that it Is
presented in such a ,form that it can be readily grasped by students.
In most instances the material w i l l have a famlliar n o t e , but
the presentation and the point of view w i l l be different. Some
material w l l l be entlrely new t o the traditional curriculum. This
I s as I t should be, for mathematics is a living and an ever-growing
subJect, and not a dead and frozen product of antlquity. This
healthy i'ual~n of the o l d and the new should lead students t o a
better understanding of the baalc concepts and structure of
mathematics and provide a firmer foundation for understanding and
uae of mathematics In a scientific society,
It is not Intended that t h i s book be regarded as t h e only
d e f i n i t i v e way of presenting good mathematics to students at thls
level. Instead, it should be thought of as a sample of t h e kind of
imp~ovsdcurr1cu;Lum that we need and as a source of suggestions f o r
t h e authora of donunercial textbooks. It is sincerely hoped that
these texts w l l l lead the way toward I n s p i r i n g a more meaningful
teaching of'Mathematlcs, the Queen and Servant of the Sciences.
Below are llsted the names of all those who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n m y or the w r i t i n g aessionrc
at which t h e following SMSG texts were prepared:
Intermediate Mathematics, Elementary Functions, and I n t r o d u c t i o n to Matrix Algebra.
H . W . Alexander, Earlham College
F . B . Allen, Lyons Township H i g h School, La
Grange, I l l l n o i s
Alexander Beck, Olney High School, P h l l a -
delphia, Pennsylvania
E.F. Beckenbach, Unlversity of C a l i f o r n i a
a t Los Angeles
E . G . Begle, Schoal Mathematics Study Group,
Yale Universlty
F a u l Berg, Stanford U n l v e r s i t y
bil B e r g e r , Monroe High School, St. P a u l ,
Mlfineso L a
Arthur Bernhart, U n i v e r s i t y of Oklahoma
R.H. Bing, U n i v e r s i t y of Wisconsin
A .L. Blakers, University of U e s t e r n
Australia
A . A . Blank, N e w York U n i v e r s i t y
S h i r l e y Boselly, F r a n k l i n H i g h School,
Seattle, Washington
K.E. Brown, D e p a r t n e n t of Health, Educa-
t i o n , and W e l f a r e , Washington, D . C .
S.M. Calloway, Carleton College
Hope Chipman, University H i g h S c h o o l , Ann
Arbor, M i c h l g m
R . R . Christian, U n i v e r s i t y of British
Columbia
R .J. C l a r k , S t . Paul I s S c h o o l , Concord,
New Hampshire
P.H. Daus, University of California at Los
Angeles
R . B . Davis, Syranuse U n i v e r s l t y
C h a r l e s DePrirna, C a l i f o r n i a Institute o f
Technology
Mary Dolciani, Hunter College
Edwin C . Douglas, The Taft Sctlool, Water-
town, C o n n e c t i c u t
Floyd h w n s , East High School, Denver,
Colorado
E.A. Dildley, North Haven H i g h School, North
Haven, C o m e c t i c u t
Lincoln Durst, The Rice I n s t i t u t e
Florence Elder, West Hempstead High School,
West Hempatead, New York
W.E. Ferguson, Uewton Hi@ School, Newton-
v i l l e , Massachusetts
N.J. F i n e , University of P e n n s y l v a n i a
Joyce D. F o n t a i n e , N o r t h Haven Hlgh School,
North Haven, C ~ n n e c t l c u t
F.L. Friedman, Msssachusetts I n s t i t u t e of
Techno1 ogy
Esther O a a s e t t , Claremore High School,
Claremore, Oklahoma
R.K. Cetoor, U n i v e r s i t y of Washlngton
V .H. Haag, F r a n k l i n and Marehall College
R . R . Hartman, Edina-Morningside S e n i o r High
School, Edlna, Minnesota
M.H. H e i n s , U n i v e r s i t y of lllinoia
Edwin Hewltt, U n i v e r s i t y of Washlngton
Martha Ellldebrandt, Froviso Township High
School, Maywood. Illinois
F i r s t Course ln Alaebra, Geometrx,
R.C. Jurgenaen, Culver Military Academy,
Culver, lndlana
Joseph Lehner, Michigan State Universlty
Marguerite Lehr, Bryn Mawr College
Kenneth Leisenring, University of Michigan
Howard Levl, Columbia University
Eunice L e w i s , Laboratory High School,
University of Oklahoma
M.A. Linton, Wllllam Penn Charter School,
F h i l a d e l p h i a , Pennsylvdnla
R.E. L i v i n g s t o n , U n l v e r s i t y of Washington
L.H. Loomis, H a r v h r d U n i v e r s i t y
R .V. Lynch, Phillips Exeter Academy,
E x e t e r , New Hampshiw
W.X. McNabb, Hockaday School, Dallas,
Texas
K.G. Michaels, N o r t h Haven H i g h School,
N o r t h Haven, Connecticut
E.E. M o l a e , U n i v e r s i t y of M i c h l g a n
E.P. N o r t h r o p , U n i v e r s i t y or Chicago
O.J. Peterson, Kansas S t a t e Teachers
College, Emporia, Kansas
B . J . P e t t i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f N o r t h Carolina
R . S . P i e t e r s , P h i l l i p s Academy, Andovar,
Massachusetts
H.O. P o l l a k , B e l l Telephone Laboratories
Walter Prenowltz, Brooklyn College
G.B. Price, Univeralty of Kansas
A . L . Putnan, U n i v e r s i t y of Chicago
Persis 0. Redgrave, Norwich Free Academy,
Norwich, C o n n e c t i c u t
Mlna Rees, H u n t e ~College
D .E. Richmond, W i l l i a m s College
C .E. R i c k a r t , Yale U n i v e r s i t y
Harry Rudeman, Hunter College FUgh S c h o o l ,
New ~ o r kc i t y
J . T . Schwartz, New York U ~ i v e r s i t y
0 .E. S t a n a i t i s , S t . Olaf College
R o b e r t Starkey, Cubberley H i g h Schools,
Palo Alto, C a l i f o r n i a
P h i l l i p Stucky , R o o s e v e l t High S c h o o l ,
S e a t t l e , Uaahington
Henry Swain, New T r i e r Township H i g h
School, Winnetka, I l l i n o i s
Henry Syer, K e n t S c h o o l , Kent, Connecticut
G.B. Thomas, Massachusetts I n s t i t u t e of
Technology
A .W. Tucker, P r i n c e t o n University
H.E. Vaughan, University of I1:inois
J o h n Wagner, Universlty of Texas
R.J. Walker, Cornell U n i v e r s i t y
A . D . Wallace, 'IUlane U n i v e r s i t y
E.L. Walters, William Fenn Senior Hlgh
School, York, Pennsylvania
Warren White, North H i g h School, Sheboygan,
Wisconsin
D.V. Widder, Harvard University
W l l l l a m Wooton, P i e r c e J u n i o r College,
Woodl3nd H i l l s , California
J.H. Zant, Oklahoma S t a t e University
 CONTENTS

Chapter
1 .
COMMON SENSE AND ORGANIZED KNOWLEDGE ........
1
. .
Thin Types of Problems ...........
1.2. An Organized Logical Development of Geometry

2 . SETS. REAL NUMBERS AND LImS ..... . . . . . ..

2
.
1
2-2
..
Sets.
The Real Numbers
............
. .. .. .. .. .. .. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. ..
..
2-3 .
The A b s o l u t e v a l u e . . . . . ..
2.4. Measurement of Distance ... . . . . . ..
2 .
A Choice of a Unit of Distance .......
2.6 .
AnInfiniteRuler .............
.
2.7
Segments and Rays . . . . . .. .Wtweeness,
The Ruler Placement P o s t u l a t e
......
3. LINES. PLANES AND SEPARATION . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 . Lines and Planes in Space . . . . . . . . .
3.2 . Theorems I n the Form of Hypothesis and
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 3 ................
Convex S e t s
4 . ANGLES AND TRIANGLES
4
.
1 .. ................
...........
The Basic D e f i n i t i o n s
4-2 Remarks on Angles .............
43.
4.4 .. Measurement of Anglea ...........
P e r p e n d i c u l a r i t y , Right Angles and Congruence
of Angles .................
5. ....................
CONGRUENCES
5-1 .
The I d e a of a Congruence ..........
..
5.2
5.3
Congruences Between T r i a n g l e s
The B a s i c Congruence P o s t u l a t e
.......
.......
5.4 . Writing Your Own Proofs . . . . . . . . . .
5.5 . Overlapping Triangles. Using the Figure i n
Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6 . The I s o s c e l e s T r i a n g l e Theorem . The Angle
Bisector Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . The Angle Side Angle Theorem . . . . . . . .
57
- 8 The Side Side S i d e Theorem . . . . . . . . .
Review Exercises. Chapters 1 to 5 . . . . . . . . . . .
6 . A CLOSER LOOK AT PROOF
6
.
1 ..
How A Deductive System Works
...............
........
6.2 Indirect Proof ...............
6 Theorems About Perpendiculars . . . . . . .
.
6.4
6 . . . . . . .. .. ..
I n t r o d u c i n g Auxiliary Sets i n t o P r o o f s
Betweenneaa and Separation
Chapter
7 . CEOYETRIC INEQUALITIES ..............
7-1
7.2
..
Making Reas onable Conjectures
Algebra of Inequalities . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
7.3 . The E a s i c I n e q u a l i t y Theorems . . . . . .
7.4 . A l t i t u d e s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8. FERPENDICULAR LINES AND PLANES IN SPACE . . . . .
8.1 . The B a s i c D e f l n l t i o n . . . . . . . . . . .
8 - The B a s i c Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 . Existence and Uniqueness Theorems . . . .
9 . PARALLEL LImS IN A PLANE . . . . . . . . . . . .
9 - Conditions Which Guarantee P a r a l l e l i s m . .
9 - Corresponding Angles . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3 . The P a r a l l e l P o s t u l a t e . . . . . . . . . .
9.4 . Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.5 . Quadrilaterals in Plane . . . . . . . . .
9.6 . Rhombus, Rectangle and Square . . . . . .
9.7 . Transversals To Many P a r a l l e l L i n e s . . .
10 . PLSALLELS I N S P A C E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1 . Parallel Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 . Dihedral Angles, P e r p e n d i c u l a r Planes ..
10.3 . Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix I . A Convenient Shorthand . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix I1 . P o s t u l a t e s of Addit:on and Multlplicatlon
Appendix I11 . R a t i o n a l and I r r a t i o n a l Numbers . . . . .
Appendix IV . Square Roots ...............
Appendix V . ......
How t o D r a w F i g u r e s in >-Space
Appendix VI . ..
P r o o f s of Theorems on Ferpendicularitg
.............
THE M E A N I N G AND USE OF SYMBOLS
LIST OF POSTULATES ...................
............
LIST OF THEOREMS A N D COROLLARIES
INDEX OF DEFINITIONS ............. following page y
 PREFACE
This book 1s d e s i g n e d for t h e one-year i n t r o d u c t o r y c o u r s e
in geometry which i s usually taught i n t h e t e n t h g r a d e , Students
i n this grade n o r m a l l y have l e a r n e d a f a i r amount of Informal
geometry, i n c l u d i n g the c a l c u l a t i o n of a r e a s and volumes f o r
v a r i o u s elementary figures, t h e Pythagorean r e l a t i o n , and t h e use
of similar r i g h t triangles t o c a l c u l a t e unknown heights and d i a -
t a n c e s . S t u d e n t s who have n o t l e a r n e d this m a t e r i a l may h a v e t o
b e g i v e n some e x t r a attention, but t h e book s h o u l d s t i l l be
teachable, a t a s u i t a b l y a d j u s t e d p a c e . I n a l g e b r a , no s p e c i a l
p r e p a r a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d beyond the knowledge and skills normally
a c q u i r e d in t h e n i n t h g r a d e ,
The book is devoted mainly t o p l a n e geometry, w i t h a few
c h a p t e r s on s o l i d geometry, a n d a short i n t r o d u c t i o n t o a n a l y t i c
geometry a t t h e end. It seems n a t u r a l , i n a p r e f a c e , t o g i v e a n
a c c o u n t of the n o v e l f e a t u r e s in the treatment. We a r e aware, of
c o u r s e , of a danger in so doing. A l o n g s t r i n g of novelties,
o f f e r e d for t h e reader's s p e c i a l a t t e n t l o n , may v e r y well convey
t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e a u t h o r s have been engaged in a n u n h e a l t h y
p u r s u i t of i n n o v a t i o n f o r its own sake, This is by no means the
way in which we have conceived o u r t a s k . We began a n d e n d e d o u r
work w i t h t h e :onvlctlon t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l c o n t e n t of E u c l i d e a n
geometry amply d e s e r v e s t h e p r o m i n e n t p l a c e which it now holds
in high-school study; and we have made c h a n g e s only when the need
f o r them a p p e a r e d t o b e compelling.
The bas3.c scheme I n the p o s t u l a t e s is that of G. D. Birkhoff.
In this scheme, i t 1s assumed t h a t t h e r e a l numbers a r e known, a n d
t h e y a r e used f r e e l y f o r measuring b o t h d i s t a n c e s and a n g l e s .
This h a s t w o main a d v a n t a g e s .
In t h e flrst p l a c e , t h e r e a l numbers give us a sort of head
s t a r t . It h a s been c o r r e c t l y p o i n t e d o u t t h a t Euclidts p o s t u -
l a t e s a r e not logically s u f f i c i e n t for g e o m e t r y , a n d t h a t t h e
treatments based on them d o n o t meet modern s t a n d a r d s of rigor.
They were improved a n d s h a r p e n e d by f j i l b e r t , B u t t h e f o u n d a t i o n s
of geometry, I n t h e s e n s e of Hilbert, a r e n o t a p a r t of elementary
mathematics, a n d do n o t belong in t h e t e n t h - g r a d e curriculum. If
we assume t h e r e a l numbers, a s in the Birkhoff treatment, t h e n
t h e h a n d l i n g of our p o s t u l a t e s becomes a much e a s i e r t a s k , and we
need n o t f a c e a c r u e l c h o i c e between mathematical a c c u r a c y a n d i n -
telligibility,

I n t h e s e c o n d p l a c e , it seems a good i d e a i n i t s e l f t o con-

n e c t u p geometry w l t h a l g e b r a a t e v e r y r e a s o n a b l e o p p o r t u n i t y , so
t h a t knowledge i n one of t h e s e f i e l d s w i l l make i t s natural con-
t r i b u t i o n t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of both. Some of t h e topics
u s u a l l y s t u d i e d I n geometry a r e e s s e n t i a l l y a l g e b r a i c . This is
t r u e , f o r example, of t h e proportionality r e l a t i o n s for s i m i l a r
t r i a n g l e s . In this book, such t o p i c s a r e t r e a t e d a l g e b r a i c a l l y ,
so a s to b r i n g o u t the connections w i t h t h e work of t h e ninth a n d
eleventh grades.
 We hope t h a t t h e statements of d e f f n i t l o n s and theorems a r e
exact; we have t r i e d h a r d to make them s o . Just a s a lawyer needs
t o l e a r n to draw u p c o n t r a c t s that say what they a r e supposed to
say, so a mathematics student needs to learn t o write matbemati-
c a l s t a t e m e n t s t h a t c a n be taken l i t e r a l l y . B u t we a r e not u n d e r
t h e illusion t h a t t h i s sort of e x a c t i t u d e is a s u b s t i t u t e f o r in-
tuitive i n s i g h t . We have, t h e r e f o r e , based t h e design of b o t h
t h e t e x t and t h e problems on our b e l i e f t h a t i n t u f t i o n and, logic
should move forward hand in hand.
 Chapter 1

COMMON SENSE AND ORGANIZED KNCICLEDGE

1-1. of Problems.
Two Types -
Consider the following problems:
1. A line segment 14 inches long is broken i n t o two segments.
If one of the two smaller segments is 6 inches long, how l o n g is
the o t h e r one?
2. In a certain rectangle, the sum of the length and t h e
w i d t h is 14 (measured in inches). A second rectangle is t h ~ e e
times as long as the first, aRd twfce as wide. The perimeter of
t h e second rectangle is 7 2 . What a r e t h e dlmenslons of the f i r s t
rectangle?
The answer t o Problem 1, of course, is 8 inches, because
6 + 8 = 14, lle could solve t h i s problem a l g e b r a i c a l l y , if we
w a n t e d to, by setting up the equation
6 +- x = 14,
and s o l v i n g to g e t x = 8. But this seems a little s i l l y , because
it is so unnecessaxy. If all algebraic equations were as super-
f l u o u s as this one, then no serious-minded person would pay any
a t t e n t i o n to them; in f a c t , they would probably never have been
invented.
Problem 2 , however, is quite another matter. If t h e length
and width of the first rectangle are x and y , t h e n the length and
width of the second r e c t a n g l e a r e 3x and 2y. Therefore,

because the sum of the length and width is h a l f t h e perimeter. We

already h o w t h a t x +- y = 14. Thus we have a system of two linear
equations in two unknowns:
x + y = 1 4
3x + Zy = 36.
To solve, we multiply each term in the f i r s t equation by 2, getting
2~ + 2y = 28,
and then we s u b t r a c t this last equation, term by term, from the
second. This g i v e s
x = 8.
Since x + y = 14, we have y = 6 , whfch completes t h e solution of
our problem. It is easy to check that a length of 8 and a width
of' 6 s a t i s f y the conditions of t h e problem.
In a way, these two problems may seem similar. But In a very
important sense, they are dffferent. The first is what you might
call a c m o n - s e n s e problem. It i s very easy to guess what the
answer ought to be, and it i s also very easy to check that t h e
n a t u r a l guess is actually the right answer. The second problem
Is entirely another matter. To solve the second problem, we need
t o b o w something about mathematical methods.
There are cases of this kind in geometry. Consider the
following statements:
1. Tf a triangle has sides of l e n g t h 3, 4 and 5, then it Is
a right triangle, wlth a r i g h t angle opposite the l o n g e s t side.
2 . L e t a triangle be given, with sides a, b and c. If

then the triangle is a right t r i a n g l e , w i t h a right angle opposite

the longest s i d e .
The first of these facts was h o r n t o the ancient Egyptians.
They checked it by experiment. You can check I t yourself, with
a ruler and compass, by drawing a 3-4-5 triangle, and then
measuring the angle opposfte the longest side wlth a protractor.
You should b e a r in mind, of course, that t h l s check is only
approximate. For example, if the angle were r e a l l y 89' 591 5 9 " ,
instead of 90' exactly, you would hardly e x p e c t to tell the
difference by drawing your figure and then taking a readlng w i t h
your protractor. Nevertheless, the "Egyptian method1' is a sound
common-sense method of verifying am expermental f a c t .
 The Egyptians were extremely skillful at m a k i n g physical
measurements. The edges of the base of the great pyramid are about
756 feet long; and the lengths of these f o u r edges agree, wLth an
e r r o r of only about two-thirds of an inch. Nobody aeems to h o w ,
today, how the builders g o t such accuracy.
Statement 2 above was not bown to t h e Egyptians; it was
discovered l a t e r , by the Greeks. This second statement is very
d i f f e r e n t from the first. The most important difference is that
there are infinitely many possibilities f o r a, b and c . For
instance, you would have to construct triangles, and t a k e readings
w i t h a p r o t r a c t o r , f o r a l l of t h e following cases,
a ' b c

1 1 @-
2 1 F
2 2 JB
3 1 Sris
3 2 r/T3
3 3 m
and so on, endlessly. It seems p r e t t y hopeless to try to verify
our general statement by experiment, even approximately. Therefore,
a reasonable person would not be convinced that Statement 2 was
true in all cases until he had seen some l o g i c a l reason why I t
should be true in a l l cases.
In f a c t , this is why it was the Greeks, and not the Egyptians,
who discovered t h a t o u r second statement is true, The Egyptians
had lots of common-sense howledge of geometry. But the Greeks
found something b e t t e r , and much more powerful: they discovered
the science of exact geometrical reasoning, By exact reasoning,
they learned a great deal that had n o t been h o r n before t h e i r
time. The things that they learned were the f i r s t b i g step toward
modern mathematics, and hence, toward modern science in general.
 Problem S e t 1-1

1. Try the following experiment. Take a plece of string, about

six feet long, and p u t it on the f l o o r in the form of a loop
with the ends free:

Then pull t h e ends of t h e s t r i n g a p a r t , making the loop

g r a d u a l l y smaller, and s t o p when y o u think t h a t the loop is
the s i z e o f y o u r own waist. Then check the accuracy of your
guess by m a p p i n g t h e string around your waist. A f t e r you
have checked, read the remarks a t the end of this s e t of
problems.
2 In this p a i r of questions, the f i r s t c a n be answered by
"common sense. " S t a t e o n l y its answer. The second requires
some arithmetic or a l g e b r a i c process f o r its solution. Show
your work f o r it ,
a. l,T'r,at f s h a l f of 2?
b. :hat 5 s h a l f of 135,790?
3. Answer as in P r o b l e m 2 :
a. One-third of t h e d i s t a n c e between two cities is 10 m f l e s .
?:hat I s the e n t i r e d i s t a n c e ?
b. The d l s t m c e between two cities is 7 miles more t h a n one-
t h i r d t h e distance between them. 1 ~ i a lis t h e d i s t a n c e
hetween t!lem?
*I!. Answer as In Problem 2 :
a . If a 5-inch pfece of wire is c u t Into two p a r t s so t h a t
one part is 4 times as long as the o t h e r , what are the
lengths of the parts?
b. If a 5-inch g i e c e of wire is c u t i n t o two parts such that
a square formed by bending one p i e c e will have f o u r times
the area of a square formed by bendlng t h e other, what
are t h e lengths of t h e parts?
5. If the sides of a triangle are 5, 12, 13, is it a right
triangle?
6. Ir two students carefully and independently measure t h e width
of a classroom w l t h rulers, one measuring from left to right
and t h e o t h e r from r i g h t t o left, they are l i k e l y to g e t
d i f f e r e n t answers, You may check this with an experiment.
Which o f the following are p l a u s i b l e reasons f o r t h i s ?
a . The r u l e r s have d i f f e r e n t lengths.
b. One person may have lost count of t h e number of feet in
the width.
c. Things are longer ( o r s h o r t e r ) from left to r i g h t t h a n
r i g h t t o left.
d . The e r r o r s made i n changing the position of the ruler
accumulate, and the sum of the small errors makes a
discernable e r r o r .
7 . Show that n2 - 2n + 2 = n if n = 1. Is the equation true
when n = 2? Is it true when n = 3? Is it always t r u e ?
2 2
8. a. If 3 , 52 and 7 are d i v i d e d by 4, what is the remainder
in each case?
b. How many odd integers would you have t o square and divide
by 4 to guarantee t h a t the remainder would always be the
same ?
Number of
~aLnts
connected 3 5 6
M u ~ b e rof
regions formed 2 4 8 16 ?

Replace the q u e s t i o n mmk by the number y o u think kelongs

t h e r e , 3 e r i f y your answer by making n drawing Ln which six
points on a circle are connected in all p o s s i b l e ways.
10. The following optj-cal i l l u s i o n s show tha? you carmot always
trust appearmces. "Things are seldom what they seem; skim
milk masquerades a s crem." F r o m "H.M.s. Plnafore" by
Gilbert and S u l l i v a n .
a . Is CD a continuation of AE?
T e s t your answer w i t h a ruler.

b, Are RS and ST equal in length?

Compare t h o lengths w i t h your
ruler or c3mpass.
R

c. Which figure has t h e greater

area?
 d. WhZch is l o n g e r , AB o r CD?
Check with your r u l e r .

*11. Use a ruler to check the accuracy of t h e measurements o f t h e

figure. Show t h a t if these measurements are correct the swn
of the areas o f the four p i e c e s of t h e rectangle is more than
the area of the rectangle. Odd, isn't it?

12. A t r i p of 60 miles is t o be done atan average speed of 60

.
m.p h , The f irsl: 30 miles are done a t 3 0 m.p. h. A t what
r a t e must the remaining 30 miles be covered?

Remarks on Problem 1. Nearly everybody makes a l o o p about

twlce as big as it should be. You can g e t much b e t t e r r e s u l t s
by the following method, The circumference of a circle is equal
to T times the diameter, and a is approximately equal t o 3.
Therefore, the d i a m e t e r is about one-third of the circumference.
If y o u r waist measure i s , say, 21 Inches, t h i s means that the loop
on t h e floor should be about 7 fnches across. This will look
unbelievably small, but if you have thought the problem out
mathematically, you will have the courage of your convictfons.
This is one of a large number of cases in which even a very
crude mathematical approach t o a problem is b e t t e r than an outright
leap in the dark.

1-2. -
An Organized Logical Development - of Geometry.
If you s t o p t o t h i n k , you w i l l , r e a l i z e that by now you h o w a
g r e a t many geometrical facts. For example, you lolow how t o find
the area of a rectangle, and of a right triangle, and perhaps of
a triangle in general, and you h o w the Pythagorean relation for
right triangles. Some of the things that you mow a r e so simple
and obvious t h a t it might never occur to you to even put them into
words, let alone to wonder whether or why they are true. The
following I s a statement of this type:
Two straight l i n e s cannot cross each other in more than one
point.
B u t some of them, like the Pythagorean relation, a r e not
obvious a t a l l , b u t rather s u r p r i s i n g , We would l i k e t o organize
our h o w l e d g e of geometry, In an orderly way, in such a way that
these more complicated statements can be derived from simple
statements. This suggests t h a t we ought t o be able to make a list
of the f a c t s of geometry, with the simplest and e a s i e s t statements
coming first, and the hard ones coming l a t e r . We might t r y to
arrange the statements In such an o r d e r t h a t each statement in
the list can be derived from the preceding statements by logical
reasoning.
Actually, we s h a l l c a r r y out a program that 1s very much l i k e
this. W e w i l l s t a t e definitions, as clearly and exactly as we can;
and we will establish the facts of geometry by giving l o g i c a l proofs.
The statements t h a t we prove wfll be c a l l e d theorems, (The
proving - of theorems - - a spectator-sport,
i's-not --
more than
arithmetic - is: -- the best ----- t o learn about it 2 s by doing - it.
Therefore, in this course, you will have l o t s of opportunities t o
prove l o t s of theorems f o r yourself.)
While nearly a l l of the statements t h a t we make about geom-
e t r y are g o i n g t o be proved, t h e r e w i l l be some e x c e p t i o n s . The
sfmplest and most fundamental statements will be given without
p r o o f s . These statements w i l l be c a l l e d postulates, and will form
t h e foundation on which we will b u i l d . In the same way, we w i l l
use the simplest and most f'undamental terms of geometry w i t h o u t
d e f i n i n g them; t h e s e w i l l be c a l l e d the undefined t e m s . The
definitions of t h e other tems that we u s e will be based on them.
At ffrst g l a n c e , it might seem b e t t e r t o define every term
t h a t we u s e , and t o p r o v e every statement t h a t we make. With a
l i t t l e r e f l e c t i o n , we c a n convince ourselves t h a t this c a n i t be
done.
Conslder first t h e question of t h e postulates. Most of t h e
t i m e , when we prove a theorem, we do so by showing that it f o l l o w s
l o g i c a l l y from theorems that have already been p r o v e d . But it
is c l e a r t h a t p r o o f s of theorems cannot always work this way. In
particular, the f i r s t theorem that we prove cannot p o s s i b l y be
proved this way, because in this case t h e r e arenit any previously
proved theorems. But we have to s t a r t somewhere. This means
that we have to accept some statements vrlthout p r o o f . These un-
proved statements are the postulates.
The purpose of stating postulates is to make it clear Just
where we are starting, and just what sort of mathematical o b j e c t s
we are studying. We can then b u i l d up a s o l i d , organized body of
facts about these mathematical objects.
Just as we start w i t h some unproved statements, so we s t a r t
with some undefined terms. Most of the time, when we g i v e a
definftion of a new geometric term, we define it by means of o t h e r
geometric terms which have already been defined. But it is c l e a r

Esec. 1-21
that d e f i n i t i o n s cannot always work this way. I n particular, the
first definition t h a t we s t a t e cannot possibly be s t a t e d in this
way, because in this case there aren't any prevlously defined
geometric terms. B u t we have to s t a r t somewhere. This means that
we introduce some geometric terms without defining them, and then
u s e these b a s i c terms in our f l r s t d e f i n i t i o n s . We s h a l l use the
simplest and most fundamental geometric terms without making any
attempt to g i v e definftions f o r them. Three fundamental undefined
terms
-- w i l l be p o i n t , line and plane.
P o s t u l a t e s , of course, are not made up a t random. (1f t h e y
were, geometry would be of' no interest or importance. ) P o s t u l a t e s
describe fundamental propertlea of cpace. In the same way, the
undefined terms p o i n t , line and plane are suggested by p h y s i c a l
o b j e c t s . To g e t a reasonably good picture of a p o i n t , you make a
d o t on paper w i t h a p e n c i l . To g e t a b e t t e r approximation of the
mathematlcal i d e a of a point, you should first sharpen your pencil.
The picture i s s t i l l approximate, of course: a dot on paper must
c o v e r some area, or you couldnlt see it a t all. But if you t h i n k
of d o t s made by sharper and sharper pencila, you w l l l have a good
idea of what we are d r i v t n g at when we use the undeffned term,
point;.
\hen we u s e the term l i n e , we have In mind the Idea of a
straight line, A s t r a i g h t line, however, is supposed t o extend
i n f i n i t e l y f a r in both directions. Usually, we shall indicate
this in pictures by arrowheads at the ends of t h e p o r t l o n of the
l i n e t h a t we draw, like this:

We s h a l l have another term, sement, for a figure that looks like

thls :

A thin, tightly stretched string i s a good approximation of a

segment. An even t h i n n e r and more t i g h t l y stretched string is a
b e t t e r approximation. And so on.
 Think of a perfectly flat surface, extending infinitely f a r
in every direction, and you have a good idea of a plane,
You should remember t h a t none of the above statements are
definitions. They are merely explanations of t h e ideas t h a t
people had in the back of' their minds when they w r o t e the postu-
l a t e s . When we are writing p r o o f s the Information t h a t we claim
to have about points, l i n e s and planes will be the information
given by the postulates.
We have said that theorems are going to be proved by l o g i c a l
reasoning. We have n o t explained what l o g i c a l reasoning is, and
in f a c t , we don't h o w how t o explain t h i s in advance. As t h e
course proceeds, you will g e t a b e t t e r and better idea of what
l o g i c a l reasonlng is, by seeing it used, and b e s t of a l l by using
it yourself. This is t h e way that all mathematicians have learned
t o tell what is a proof and what isn't.
A t t h e beginning of t h e next chapter, we shall g i v e a short
accouht of t h e idea of a s e t , and a s h o r t revfew of the funda-
mentals o f algebra f o r real numbers. S e t s and a l g e b r a w i l l be used
throughout this course, and our s t u d y of geometry will l a r g e l y
be based on them. W e s h a l l think of them, however, as t h i n g s t h a t
we are working w i t h . They w L l l n o t be an actual p a r t of our
system of postulates and theorems. They are supposed t o be a v a f l -
able at the start; some of our postulates w i l l i n v o l v e real
numbers; and elementary a l g e b r a w i l l be u s e d in proofs, In f a c t ,
geometry and algebra are very closely connected, and b o t h of them
are easier t o learn if' the connections between them are brought
out as soon as p o s s i b l e .
 Problem -
S e t --1 - 2
1. A s t u d e n t wanting t o f i n d the meaning of t h e word "dimension"
went t o a dictionary. ThIs dictionary d i d n o t g i v e definttions
as we have them f n geometry b u t d i d g i v e synonyms of words.
He made t h e following c h a r t .

size
extent -
dimension - measurement - (! - longest
dimens ion

\ size -
dimension
measurement

a. P o i n t out from t h e above c h a ~ ta c i r c u l a r l i s t of t h r e e

terms each of which has I t s f o l l o w i n g tern as a synonym.
(1n a c i r c u l a r list, t h e first t e n is assumed to f o l l o w
the l a s t . )
b. Nake a circular list rshich contains f o u r such terms.
$2. Make a c h a r t similar to t h a t in Problem 1, s t a r t i n g with sone
word in your dictionary.
3. John convinced h i s mother that he d i d n o t t r a c k mud o n t o the
living room r u g by pointing o u t t h a t it d i d n o t start r a i n i n g
until 5 orclock and t h a t he had keen in his room studying
since 11: 30. He mentioned that a persorl cannot do some thing
if he i s not t h e r e . The thin^ he was proving (that he d i d n o t
t r a c k mud) m i g h t be rhcgarded as a theorem and t h e statement
a b o u t a p e r s o n n o t being able t o do something if he is n o t
t h e r e mlght be regarded as a p o s t u l a t e . Kake a n o t h e r example
of such a convincing argument and p o l n t out what corresponds
to the theorem, what t o the proof', wardwhat to postulates.
4. Janie: What's an a r c h i t e c t ?
Mother: An architect? A n architect I s a man who d e s i g n s
buildings.
Janie : m a t 7 s "des fgns " ?
Mother: Well--plans .
Janie: Like we plan a picnic?
Mother: Yes, quite like t h a t .
JanFe: What are buildings?
Mother: Oh, Janie, you know -- houses, churches, schools.
Janie: Yes, I see,
Consider the above discussion. What were basic undefined terms
as f a r as Janie was concerned?
5. The Stuarts have three c h i l d r e n . Joe is a senior in h i g h
s c h o o l . . Karen is a seventh grader, and Beth is four. A t the
dinner table:
Joe : We learned a furp.2y r e w word In geometry class
today -- parallelepiped.
Karen: What in the world is it?
Joe : Well, it's a s o l i d . You h o w what I mean by a s o l i d
figure -- it takes up some space. And it's bounded
by planes. You h o w what a plane is, don t you?
Beth: Like a windowplane?
Joe : The word is a windowpane, but that's the I d e a . A
parallelepiped is a solid bounded by parallelograms.
A candy box I s one, b u t i t r s a s p e c i a l one because
t h e SIX faces a r e all rectangles. If you had a candy
box and could shove it a t one c o r n e r you'd g e t a
parallelepiped. Got the idea?
In the above discussion what baslc, undefined terms did Joe
use in his d e s c r i p t i o n ?
 6. \ h a t do you t h i n k is wrong with t h e following faulty
. definitions?
a, A square is something t h a t is not round.
b. A right triangle is a t r i a n g l e each of whose angles has
a measure o f go0,
c. A n e q u i l a t e r a l t r i a n g l e is when a triangle has three s i d e s
the same i e n g t h .
d. The permeter of a r e c t v l g l e i s where you f l n d the sm of
the lengths of t h e s i d e s of t h e r e c t a r g l e .
e. The circunference of a circle is found by multiplying the
d i a r e t e r by T .
57. I n d i c a t e whether t h e following are t r u e o r false:
a . It is possible to d e f i n e e a c h geometric term by using
strr~plergeometric terms.
b, Zxact g e o m e t r i c reasoning leads u s t o geometric truths
t h a t c a n n o t b e deduced from measurement.
c. Theorems are proved only on t h e b a s i s of d e f i n i t i o n s and
undefined terms.
d . If you are v r i l l i n g t o m i t e in a l l t h e s t e p s , each
t h e o r e m can be deduced from p o s t u l a t e s without making
recourse t o previous theorems.
 Chapter 2
SETS, REAL NUMBERS A N D LINES

2-1. Sets
-
You may not have heard t h e word s e t u s e d In mathematics be-
f o r e , but the idea 1 s a very familiar one. Your f a m i l y is a s e t
of people, consisting of you, your p a r e n t s , and y o u r b r o t h e r s and
s i s t e r s ( if a n y ) . These people are the members of the s e t . Your
geometry class is a s e t of students; its members are y o u and y o u r
classmates. A school a t h l e t i c team is a set of students. A
member o f a set is s a i d to belong to t h e s e t . F o r example, y o u
belong t o your family and to your geometry c l a s s , and so on. The
members of a s e t are o f t e n called I t s elements; the t w o terms,
members and elernevts, mean exactly t h e same thing. We say t h a t
a s e t c o n t a i n s each of its elements. For example, b o t h your
family and y o u r geometry class c o n t a i n you. If one set contains
every element of a n o t h e r s e t , t h e n we say t h a t the f i r s t s e t
c o n t a l n s t h e second, and we say t h a t t h e second s e t is a subset
of t h e first. F o r example, t h e student body of your s c h o o l con-
t a i n s your geometry class, and y o u r geometry class is a subset
--
of' t h e student body. b!e say t h a t t h e subset lies in t h e s e t t h a t
c o n t a i n s it. For example, the s e t of' a l l violinists l i e s in the
s e t o f a l l musicians.
Throughout thls book, lines and planes w i l l be regarded as
s e t s of points. In f a c t , a l l t h e geometric figures t h a t we talk
about are s e t s of points. ( Y O U m y regard t h i s , if y o u like, as
a postulate. )
When we say that two s e t s are equal, or when we write a n
e q u a l i t y A = 8 between two s e t s A and B, we mean merely that t h e
two s e t s have exactly the same elements. For example, let A be
1 1

t h e s e t of a l l whole numbers between 3 I

and, and let B be t h e
1
s e t of a l l whole numbers between and 2. Then A = B, because
each of t h e sets A and B has p r e c i s e l y t h e elements 1, 2, 3; b
and 5 . In f a c t , I t very o f t e n happens t h a t the same s e t can be
d e s c r i b e d in two different ways; and if t h e descriptions look
d i f f e r e n t , t h i s doesn't necessarily mean t h a t the sets are
different.
Two s e t s intersect if there a r e one o r more elements t h a t
belong t o b o t h of them. For example, y o u r f a m i l y and y o u r
geometry class must i n t e r s e c t , because you yourself belong t o
both of them. But t w o different claases meeting at t h e same h o u r
do n o t I n t e r s e c t . The Intersection of two s e t s is the set of all
o b j e c t s that belong t o both of them. F o r example, t h e i n t e r -
s e c t i o n o r t h e s e t of a l l men and the s e t of a l l musicians is t h e
s e t o f a l l men musicians.
Passlng t o mathematical topics, we see that the set of all
odd numbers is the s e t whoae membera are
1, 3, 5 , 7 , 9, 11, 13, 15, * * *
and so on. The s e t of all multiples of 3 is the s e t whose
members are
3, 6 , 9, 12, 15, .
and s o on. The lnteraection of these two s e t s is
3, 9, 15, 21, ...
and s o on; i t s members are t h e odd m u l t i p l e s of 3 .
In the figure below, each of t h e two rectangles l a a s e t
of points, and t h e i r i n t e r s e c t i o n contains exactly two points.

[ a e c . 2-11
Similarly, each o f t h e corresponding r e c t a n g u l a r regions is a s e t
of poir.ts, and their i n t e r s e c t i o n is t h e small rectangular region
in t h e m i d d l e of the figure. In t h e next f i g u r e , each of the t w o
l i n e s is a s e t of p o l n t s , and t h e i r intersection consists of a

Below, we see t w o sets of p o i n t s , each o f which is a flat rec-

t a n g u l a r s u r f a c e . The i n t e r s e c t i o n o f these two s e t s of p o i n t s
is a p a r t of a s t r a i g h t llne,

The union of t h e two s e t s is t h e s e t of a l l o b j e c t s t h a t

belong t o one o r b o t h of them. For example, t h e union o f the s e t
of a l l men and t h e s e t of a l l women is t h e set of a l l adults.
The intersection, or the union, of three o r more s e t s is d e f i n e d
s i m i l a r l y . Thus a t r i a n g l e is the union of three s e t s , each of
w h i c h is a subset of a line.

The f l g u r e below is t h e union of five s e t s , each of which is a

In some s i t u a t i o n s , It is convenient to use the idea of the

empty - s e t . The empty s e t I s the set that has no members a t a l l .
T h i s idea may seem a little peculiar a t first, but it is really
very much like t h e idea of the number 0. For example, t h e
following three statements a l l say t h e same thing:
( 1) There are no m a r r i e d b a c h e l o r s in the w o r l d .
( 2 ) The number of mrried bachelors In the w o r l d is zero.
( 3 ) The s e t of a l l married bachelors in the world is the
empty s e t .
Once we have I n t r o d u c e d the empty s e t , then we can speak of
t h e intersection o f any two s e t s , remembering that the i n t e r -
section may t u r n o u t t o be the empty s e t .
For example, the i n t e r s e c t i o n of t h e s e t of all odd numbers
and the s e t of all even numbers is t h e empty s e t .
---
A word of warnin@;: If you compare the d e f i n l t l o n s of t h e
terms I n t e r s e c t and intersection, you will see t h a t these two
terms are n o t related in quite the simple way t h a t you m i g h t ex-
p e c t . When we speak of the intersection of t w o s e t s , we allow
the possibility t h a t the intersection may be empty. But if we say
that the t w o s e t s intersect, this always means that they have an
element in common.
--
Another word of warning;: Statements ( 2 ) and (3) above mean
the same t h i n g . B u t t h f s does not mean t h a t a set that c o n t a i n s
only the number 0 l a empty. For example, the equation x + 3 = 3
has 0 as i t s only root, and s o t h e s e t of r o o t s i s not t h e empty
set; t h e s e t of roots has exactly one element, namely, the
number 0 , On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e s e t of all roots of the equa-
tion x + 3 = x + 4 r e a l l y l s t h e empty s e t , because t h e equation
x + 3 = x + 4 has no roots at a l l .

--
Problem S e t 2-1
I. Let A be the s e t { 3, 5, 6, 9 , 11, 123 (that i s , t h e s e t whose
members are 3, 5, 6, 9, 11, 12) and B be the s e t
w 9 5 9 79 9, 10, 111
What is the intersection o f s e t s A and B? What is t h e union
of A and B?
2. Conslder the following s e t s :
S1 is t h e s e t o f a l l students in your school.
S2 i s the s e t of all boys in y o u r student body.
S 3 is the s e t of a l l girls in y o u r student body.
Sh is the s e t o f a l l members of the f a c u l t y of your school.
S Is t h e s e t whose only member Is y o u r s e l f , a s t u d e n t in
5
your s c h o o l .
a . Which pairs of s e t s intersect?
b. JVhIch s e t is the union of S2 and S3?
c. Which s e t is the union of SI and S ?
5
d. Describe t h e union o f SI and S q .
e . Which o f the s e t s a r e sub-sets of S1?
3. In the following figures, c o n s i d e r the line and the circle as
t w o s e t s of p o i n t s . In each case, w h a t is t h e i r intersection?

Case I, Case 11. Case 111.

4. C o n s i d e r a s e t o f t h r e e boys, [ A , B, C ] .
Any s e t of boys
selected from these t h r e e w i l l b e c a l l e d a commfttee.
a. How many d i f f e r e n t two-member committees can be formed
from the t h r e e b o y s ?
b. show that a n y two of t h e committees in ( a ) i n t e r s e c t .
What does t h e w o r d "intersect" mean?
5. C o n s i d e r the s e t of a11 p o s i t i v e even i n t e g e r s and t h e s e t
o f a l l p o s i t i v e odd integers. Describe t h e s e t w h i c h is the
union of these t w o s e t s .
6 Describe the intersection of t h e two s e t s g i v e n in Problem 5 .
7. In the flgure, what is the intersection of the triangle ABC
and t h e segment BC? What is t h e i r union?

8. Let A be the s e t of pairs of numbers (m,n) which s a t i s f y the

equation 4m I- n = 9.
Let B be the s e t o f pairs of numbers (m,n) which s a t i s f y the
equation 2m + n = 5 .
F i n d the i n t e r s e c t i o n of tne s e t s A and B.
Csec. 2-11
 9. L e t A be the s e t of pairs ( x , ~ ) f o r w h i c h x + y = 7 .
L e t B be the s e t of pairs ( x , y ) for w h i c h x - y = 1.
What is the intersection o f A and B?
10. Let A be the s e t of pairs ( x , ~ for ) which x + y = 3.
L e t 8 be t h e s e t of pairs ( x , y ) f o r w h i c h 2x + 2y = 7 .
What is the inte~sectionof A and B?
11. C o n s i d e r the s e t of a l l p o s i t i v e integers divisible by 2.
C o n s i d e r the s e t o f a l l p o s i t i v e integers divisible by 3.
a. Describe t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of these two s e t s . Give its
f i r s t f o u r members.
b. Write an algebraic expression f o r the intersection.
c. Describe the union of t h e t w o s e t s . Give i t s f i r s t
e i g h t members.
12. a. How many s t r a i g h t lines can be drawn t h r o u g h 2 polnts?
b. If three points do not lie in a s t r a i g h t line, how many
straight lines can be drawn t h r o u g h pairs o f t h e points?
c. If f o u r points are g i v e n and no a e t of three of them l f e
in a s t m i g h t line, how many straight lines can be drawn
containing s e t s of two of t h e P o i n t s ? Answer t h e same
question if five pofnts are g i v e n .
*d. Answer Question c if. n points a r e g i v e n .

2-2. --
T h e Real Numbers
The first numbers that you learned a b o u t were t h e " c o u n t i n g
numbers" o r " n a t u r a l numbers",
1, 2, 3 , 4, 5 ,...
and so on. (YOU knew about these before you learned to read or
wrlte. And ancient man learned t o count long before the inven-
tion o f w r i t i n g . ) The c o u n t i n g numbers never end, because s t a r t -
i n g w i t h any one of them, we can always add 1, and get a n o t h e r
one, We may t h i n k of t h e counting numbers a s arranged on a l i n e ,
s t a r t i n g at some p o i n t and continuing to t h e r i g h t , like t h i s :

To t h e left of 1, we p u t in the number 0 , like t h i s :

And t h e next step is t o p u t in t h e negative whole numbers, l i k e

this:

The numbers that we have s o f a r a r e c a l l e d the i n t e g e r s o r

whole numbers ( positive, negative and z e r o ) . The counting
numbers are t h e p o s i t i v e integers, and are o f t e n referred t o by
t h i s name.
Of course, there a r e l o t s of points of the line t h a t have no
numbers a t t a c h e d t o t h e m s o f a r . Our n e x t s t e p I s t o put in t h e
f r a c t i o n s T1 , -3,
1 -5, 1 - 7,
2 - T, 1 - 5 2 and S O on, The new numbers

t h a t we want t o put in include a l l numbers that can b e expressed

as t h e r a t i o 2 o f any two i n t e g e r s ( w i t h q not e q u a l t o z e r o ) .
9
'de can indicate a few of these, as samples:

T h e numbers t h a t we have so f a r are c a l l e d the r a t i o n a l

numbers. (This term is n o t supposed t o mean t h a t they are in a
better state o f m e n t a l h e a l t h than o t h e r and less f o r t u n a t e
numbers. It merely r e f e r s to t h e f a c t t h a t t h e y are r a t i o s o f
whole numbers ) .
 The ~ ~ a t i o n numbers
al f o r m a v e r y large s e t . Between any t w o
u f t h e m t h e r e is a third one; and there are i n f i n i t e l y many o f
t h e m b e t w e e n any two whole numbers, It is a fact, however, that
t h e rational numbers still do n o t fill up the line completely.
For example, 5 1 s n o t rational; It cannot be expressed as the
r a t i o of a n y two integers y e t it does correspond to a p o i n t on t h e
line. ( F O P a proof, see Appendix 111. ) The same is t r u e for fi
and 5, and a l s o f o r such "peculiar" numbers as a. Such non-
r a t l o n a l numbers are c a l l e d l r r a t l o n a l . If we Insert all these
extra numbers, i n s u c h a way t h a t e v e r y p o i n t of the line has a
-
number attached to it, t h e n we have the real numbers. We i a d l c a t e
some samples, l i k e t h i s :

You s h o u l d check t h a t these numbers appear on the scale in

approximately the positions where they belong. ( c i s
approximately 1.111. How would you f l n d g ? )
The real numbers will f o r m part of the foundation of almost
a l l t h a t we are going t o do i n geometry. And I t w i l l b e important
t h r o u g h o u t f o r us t o think of the real numbers as being arranged
on a line.
A number x is less than a number y if x lies t o t h e l e f t
of y .

We a b b r e v i a t e t h i s by w r i t i n g x ( y . We notice t h a t every negative

number lies to the l e f t of every p 0 3 f t i v e number. T h e r e f o r e , every
negative number is less t h a n every p o s i t i v e number. F o r example,
-1,000,000 < 1,
even though t h e number -1,000,000 may in a way look "bigger" .
 Expressions of the form x < y are called inequalities. Any
inequality can be w r i t t e n in reverse. F o r example,
1 >
-1,000,000;
and in general, y > x means that x < y.
T h e express i o n
X I 3'
means t h a t x Is leas than o r equal t o y . For example, 3 <5 be-
cause 3 ( 5 , and 5 1 5, because 5 = 5 .
In your s t u d y of algebra, you have by now learned q u i t e a
lot a b o u t how the real numbers behave under addition and multi-
plication. All the algebra that you know can be d e r i v e d from a
few trivlal-looking statements. These statements are the postu-
lates f o r a d d i t i o n and multiplication of real numbers. You will
find them listed in Appendix 11. You may not have studied algebra
on the basis of the postulates; and we are not going to start such
a proceeding now. In this course, we are simply going to use the
methods of elementary algebra, without connnent.
We should b e a little more careful, however, about Inequal-
i t i e s and aquare roots. The r e l a t i o n ( defines an order f o r the
real numbers. The fundamental properties of this order r e l a t i o n
are the following:
0-1. (~niqueneasof order) For e v e r y x and y , one and only
one of the f o l l o w i n g c o n d l t l o n s holds: x ( y, x = y, x ) y.
0-2. (Transitivity of order) ff x < y, and y ( z , then
x < 2.
0-3. ( ~ d d i t i o nt o r ~ n e ~ u a l i t i e s )If x ( y , then
x + z y
( + z t o r every z .
0-4. ( I ~ u l t i p l i c a t i o nf o r ~nequalities) If x < y and z ) 0,
then xz ( y z ,
The statements 0-2. and 0-3. have an important consequence,
which is w o r t h mentioning separately:
0-5* If a < b and x < y, then a + x < b + y .
 This is true f o r the following reason: By 0 - 3 , we know t h a t
a + x ( b + x
and a l s o that
b + x < b + y .
(That is, an Inequality is preserved f f we add t h e same number on
each side.) By 0-2, these l a s t t w o inequalities f i t together t o

a + x ( b + y ,
which is what we wanted.
F i n a l l y , we are going to need the following p r o p e r t y o f t h e
real numbers :
R-1. ( ~ x i a t e n c eo f Square Roots.) Every p o s i t i v e number has
e x a c t l y one p o s i t i v e square root.
There is one r a t h e r t r i c k y p o i n t i n connection w i t h square

means merely t h a t x2
and -3
-
r o o t s . When we say, i n words, t h a t x is a square root of a, t h i s
a . For example, 3 is a square root of 9,
Is a square r o o t of 9. But when we w r i t e , in symbols,
that x =& we mean t h a t x is t h e p o s i t i v e square root o f a.
Thus, the following statements a r e true o r f a l s e , as indicated:
-
True : -3 is a square root of 9 .
-
False: =fl.
-3
True: fl= 3.
-
False: fl=+- 3 .
The reason for this usage is simple, once you think o f it.
1f ,/acwere allowed to denote either t h e p o s i t i v e r o o t o r the neg-
a t i v e r o o t , then we would have no way at a l l t o write t h e p o s i -
tive square root of 7 . ( P u t t i n g a plus sign in front of t h e
e x p r e ~ s i o n f l ~ e t sus nowhere, because a plus sfgn never changes
t h e v a l u e o f an expression. 1f J'rwere negative, t h e n , + r
would a l s o be negative).
1.
--
Problem Set 2-2
Indicate whether each of the f0110~1ng i e true or false.
a. The real number s c a l e Ma no end polnts,
b. There exists a p o i n t o n the real number scale which
.
represents F e x a c t l y ,
c. The point corresponding to on t h e real number scale
l i e s between the points corresponding t a 3
and 5.
d . Negative numbera are real numbers.
2. Restate the following in words:
a. A B ( C D , e. O(l(2.
b, x > y . f* 5 2 x 2 - 5 -
C. XY 2 n. g. x > 0.
d, n 3.
3. Write as an inequality:
a. k is a p o s i t i v e number.
b, r is a negative number.
c, t is a number which ia not p o s i t i v e .
d. a is a non-negative number,
e. g has a value between 2 and 3.
f. w has a value between 2 and 3 inclusive.
g. w has a value between a and b .
4. For which of the f o l l o w i n g is it true that p=x?
x = 5.
a.
b. x - -5.
x = 0.
e.
f.
x = -1.
x > O .
x < 0.

5.
c.
d, x -7.
g*
,1
h * .ji. > 0.
How would the polnts corresponding to the following s e t a of
numbers be arranged from left to rlght on a number scale in
which the p o s l t i v e numbers are t o t h e r l g h t of O?
*6, If r and s are real numbers, o t h e r than zero, and r ) s,
indicate whether the f o l l o w l n g are always true (T), sometimes
true ( S ) , or never t r u e (N) .
a. 3 < r.

*7, Follow t h e i n s t m c t l o n s of Problem 6 f o r the followlng:

2-3. -
The A b s o l u t e -
Value
-
The i d e a of the a b s o l u t e value of a number l a e a s i l y under-
a few examples:
s t o o d from
(1) The absolute value of 5 is 5 .
( 2 ) The absolute value of -5 is 5 .
(3) The absolute value of B is a.
( 4 ) The absolute value of -a is T , and so on.
Graphically speaking, the absolute value of x is simply the
distance between 0 and x on the number scale, regardless of
whether x l i e s to the left o r t o t h e right of 0. The absolute
value of x is w r i t t e n as Ix l .
1x1--I CI- l XI 4
4 0
X 0 0 X
x<o x>o
The two p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r x are indicated in the f i g u r e s . In
each of the two cases; I xl is the distance between 0 and x.
 If a p a r t i c u l a r number is w r i t t e n down arithmetically, it is
easy t o see h o w we s h o u l d w r i t e I t s absolute value. The reason
is t h a t in arithmetic, the positive numbers are w r i t t e n as 1, 2,
3, 4, and s o on. A way to write negative numbers is to put minus
signs in f r o n t of the positive numbers. This gives -1, -2, - 3 ,
- 4 , and so on. T h e r e f o r e , in arithmetic, if we want to wrlte the
absolute value of a negative number, we merely o m i t t h e minus
sign, thua, 1-11 = 1 1-21 = 2, and s o on.
We would l i k e to give an algebraic definition f o r I XI, and we
would l i k e the definition to apply both when x is p o s i t i v e and
when x la negative. In algebra, of course, the l e t t e r x can
represent a negative number. In working algebra problems, you
have probably w r i t t e n x = -2 nearly as o f t e n as you have w r i t t e n
x = 2. If x is negative, then we canrt write the corresponding
positive number by omitting t h e minus sign, because there isn't
any minua sign to omit. There l a a simple device, however, t h a t
gets around o u r d i f f i c u l t y : If x l a negative, then the correspond-

-
ing p o s i t i v e number l a -x. Here are some examples:
x -1, -x = -(-I) = 1; that I s , if x = -1, then -x = 1.
x = -2, -x = - ( - 2 ) = 2 ; t h a t Is, if x = -2, then -x = 2.
x = -5, -x = -(-5) = 5; t h a t I s , If x = -5, then -x = 5 .
In each of these c a s e s , x is n e g a t i v e and -x is the corre-
spondlng p o s i t i v e number. And in fact, this is what slwaya
happens. S i n c e we knew a l l along t h a t 1x1 x x when x is p o s i t i v e
o r zero, it f o l l o w s that the a b s o l u t e value is described by the
following t w o statements:
( I ) If x I s p o s i t i v e or zero, then 1x1 = x.
( 2 ) If x is negative, then 1x1 = -x.
If t h i s still looks doubtful to you, try substituting various
numbers f o r x . No mtter what number x you pick, one of the con-
d i t i o n s above will a p p l y , and w i l l g i v e you t h e right answer f o r
the absolute value.
 Problem Set 2-3 --
1. Indicate which of t h e following are always true:
a. 1-31 = 3.
b. 131 = -3.
C. 1 2 - 7 1 = 1 7 - 21.
d. 1 0 - 51 = 1 5 - 01.

"2. I n d i c a t e which of the following are always true:

a. 1-nl = n.

3. Complete these statements:

a . If 0 (r, then Irl =-•
b. If 0 > r, then [rl = -
c. If 0 = r, then trl =-.
4. The following t h r e e examples g i v e a geometric interpretation
to algebraic statements.
x < 2.

A l l ~ o i n t sof t h e scale to the l e f t of 2.

I
I
1
The s e t of polnts between 2 and -2.
1 1 1 I"

d
T w o p o i n t s . -
I I I I I I I -
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Contlnue as above for the following problems:
a. x < 0. e. 1x1 = 1.
b. x = 1. f. Ix)<~.
c. x>l. g. 1x1 > 1.
d. x 1. h. 1x1 2 0.
5. a. How would t h e s e t of points represented by x 1 0
d i f f e r f r o m t h e set represented by x ) O?
b. How w o u l d the s e t of points represented by 0 <x<1
d i f f e r f ~ o mt h e s e t represented by 0 ( x < l?

2 Measurement of Distance
The f i r s t s t e p in measuring t h e distance between two p o i n t s
P and Q i s t o l a y down a r u l e r between them, l i k e t h i s :

RULER

Of course we want t o use a straight ruler, since we cannot expect

to g e t consistent r e s u l t s if our rulers are curved o r notched.
A straight ruler has the property t h a t however It I s placed
between P and Q the line drawn along i t s edge Is always the
same. In o t h e r words, t h i s line Is completely determined by t h e
t w o given p o i n t s . We express t h i s basic property of lines a s our
f i r s t geometric p o s t u l a t e :

-
Postulate 1. Given any two d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s ,
there is e x a c t l y one line which c o n t a i n s both of them.

We s h a l l often refer to this postulate, b r i e f l y , by saying

t h a t every two p o i n t s d e t e r m i n e a l l n e . T h i s is simply an
a b b r e v i a t e d way of s t a t i n g Postulate I.
To desfgnate t h e line determined by two p o i n t s P and Q we use
the n o t a t i o n R. h he d o u b l e arrow will r e c a l l our p i c t u r e of
the line.) Of course we can always a b b r e v i a t e by Introducing
a new letter and calling t h e line L, o r W, or anything e l s e .
Now let us consider the marks on the r u l e r and t h e a c t u a l
distance between P and Q. The easiest way to measure the
distance I s to p l a c e t h e r u l e r llke t h l s :
P Q

This gives 7 " . Of course, t h e r e is no need to put one end o f t h e

r u l e r at P. We might put it like t h i s :
P Q

In this case, the distance between P and Q, measured in inches,

is 9 - 2 = 7 , as before.
O n many rulers t h a t are sold now, one edge is laid o f f in
inches, and the other edge in centimeters. Using t h e centlmeter
scale, we can measure the distance between P and Q l i k e t h i s :

This gives the diatance a s approximately 18 cm., where cm.

stands f o k centimeters.
A foot is, of course, 12", and a yard 1s 36" .A meter is
a hundred centimeters; m. stands f o r m e t e r s . A millimeter is
1
a tenth of a centimeter (or r n o f a m e t e r ) ; mm. stands f o r
millimeters. We can therefore measure the d i s t a n c e between
P and Q in at least t h i s many ways: 18 cm., 180 mm., .18 m.,
7 ft., 3
7 in., ~2 7 yda.

That Is, t h e number we get, ae a measure of the distance, depends

on the --
unit o f measure. Ve can use any unit we like, as long as
we use it consistently, and as long as we say what u n i t we are
us i n g .
Problem --
S e t 2-4
1. What common f r a c t i o n s (or integers) are needed t o
complete the f o l l o w i n g table?
a. 2 in. = - ft. = - yd.

in. = 4 2 1 ft. =
b. - -y d *
2
Ca - in. = .- ft. = 3 y d *
2. What numbers are needed to complete t h e following table?
a. 500 mm. = -cm. = -m.
b. - rnm. = 32.5 cm. = -m.
C- - mm. = -cm. = 7.32 m, 1
3. a. Suppose you decide to use the w i d t h of an 8 in. by 11 In.
sheet of paper as a u n i t of length. What is the l e n g t h
and the w i d t h of t h e sheet in terms of t h f s unit?
b. Hepeal t h e problem w i t h t h e l e n g t h of the sheet as your
new u n i t .
4. If the lengths of t h e sides of a triangle are 3 ft., 4 ft.,
and 5 ft., it is a rlght triangle because 32 + 4* = 52,
V e r i f y t h a t t h e Pythagorean r e l a t i o n s h f p still h o l d s if t h e
lengths above are expressed in inches.
5. If t h e l e n g t h of each side of a s q u a r e is 4 ft. its perimeter
is 16 ft. and its area is 16 sq. ft. Observe that t h e
numerfcal value o f t h e perimeter fs equal t o the numerical
v a l u e of the area.
a. Show that the numerical values o f the perimeter and
area will no longer be equal to each o t h e r If the length
of the side l a expressed in inches.
 b. In y a r d s .
*6. Generallze Problem 4. Given that the numbers a, b and c are
the number o f units i n t h e s i d e s of a trfangle if some
particular u n l t of length 1s used and that a2 + b2 = c
2
.
Show t h a t the Pythagorean r e l a t i o n s h i p will s t i l l h o l d I f t h e
u n i t of length is multiplied by n. ( ~ i n t : The lengths of
the sides wlll become T;, a b and 2 . If a, b and c seem t o o
abstract use 3, 4 and 5 a t f i r s t . )
*7. Generalize Problem 5. Show t h a t IS the numerical values of
t h e area and perimeter of a square are e q u a l f o r some
particular unit of measure, then they will n o t be equal. for
any o t h e r unft. (~int: Start by letting the number s be
t h e length o f the side o f the square f o r some u n i t and
e q u a t i n g the area and perimeter fomulas ) .

2-5. A ----
Choice of a Unit of Distance
We h a v e noticed t h a t t h e choice of a u n i t of distance is
merely a matter o f convenience. L o g i c a l l y speaking, one u n l t
works as well a s another, f o r measuring dlatances. Let us there-
f o r e choose a u n i t , and agree t o t a l k i n terms of this u n l t in
a l l o f our t h e o r e m s . (It w i l l d o no harm t o t h i n k o f o u r u n l t a s
being a n y t h i n g we like. If you happen to like inches, feet,
y a r d s , centimeters, cubits, or furlongs, you are f r e e t o consider
t h a t t h e s e are t h e u n i t s that we are using. All of our theorems
----
w i l l h o l d true f o r any u n i t . )
Thus, to every pair of polnta, P, Q there w i l l correspond a
number which is the measure of the d i s t a n c e between P and Q In
terms of our u n i t . Such numbers w l l l be used extensively in o u r
work, and i t would be very inconvenient to have to be continually
repeating the long phrase "measure of the distance between P and
Q in terms of o u r u n i t " . We shall therefore s h o r t e n this phrase
t o " d i s t a n c e between P and Q1', trusting t h a t you will be able
to flll In the remaining words if it should e v e r be necessary.
 We can now describe this situation In the following precfse
form:
Postulate 2. (The Distance Poatulale. ) To every
pair of d i f f e r e n t pointa there corresponds a unique p o s i t i v e
number.
D e f i n i t i o n . The distance between two p o i n t s is t h e p o s i t i v e
number g i v e n by the Distance Postulate. If the points are P and
Q, then t h e distance is denoted by PQ.
It w i l l sometimes be convenient to allow the possibility
P = Q, that is, P and Q are the same p o i n t ; In this case, of
course, the distance ia equal to zero. Notice t h a t d i s t a n c e is
defined simply f o r a pair of points, and does n o t depend on the
order In which the points are mentioned. Theref ore PQ is always
the same as QP.
Some of the problems you will be asked to do will involve
v a r i o u s units of d i s t a n c e , such as feet, miles, meters, e t c . A s
noted above, our theorems w i l l be applicable to any of these unfts,
- --
provided you coneistently use just one u n i t throughout any one
theorem, You can use inches In one t h e o ~ e mand feet I n a n o t h e r ,
if you wish, but n o t both in t h e same theorem.
2-6. -
An Infinlte -
Ruler
A t t h e beginrJng of t h i s chapter we l a i d off a number-scale
on a line, like t h i s :

W
e could, of course, have cornp~essed t h e scale, l i k e t h i s :

o r stretched it, like t h i s :

But let us agree, from now on, that every number-scale that we
lay off on a l i n e is t o be chosen in such a way t h a t t h e point
l a b e l e d x lles at a dlstance 1x1 from the p o i n t labeled 0. For
example, consider the points P, Q, R, 5, and T, l a b e l e d w i t h t h e
numbers 0, 2, -2, -3, and 4, as in the figure below:

Then PQ - 2, PS = 3 and PT = 4.
PR = 2,
If we examine various pairs of points on the number-scale,
it seems reasonable to find t h e distance between two pointa by
taking the difference of the corresponding numbers. F o r
36

example ,
PQ = 2, and 2 = 2 - 0;
4 - 2;
SQ
RT
- 5,
QT = 2,

= 6,
and 2 Q

and 5 = 2 - ( - 3 ) ;
and 6 = 4 - (-2).
Notice, however, that I f we look at the pairs of points in reverse
o r d e r , and perform the s u b t r a c t i o n s in reverae order, we will get
the wrong answer every time: I n s t e a d of getting the distance
(which is always p o s i t i v e ) , we will get the corresponding negative
number. Thia difficulty, however, is easy t o g e t a r o u n d . All we
-
need to do is to take t h e absolute value of the difference of t h e
numbers. If we do t h i s , then a l l of o u r positive r i g h t answers
w i l l still be right, and a l l of o u r negative wrong answers w i l l
become r i g h t .
-----
Thus we see that the d i s t a n c e between two points is the
absolute value of the difference of the corresponding numbers.
I -

Surely a l l this seem reasonable. But surely we have not

proved it on the basis of the only postulateathat we h ~ v ew r i t t e n
down so far. ( ~ n d , in fact, it cannot be proved on the b a s i s of
the Distance Poatulata.) We therefore awn up t h e above discussion
in t h e form of a new postulate, l i k e t h i s :

Postulate 3. h he Ruler P o s t u l a t e . ) The points of

a l i n e can be placed in correspondence w i t h the ma1
numbers in such a way t h a t
(1) To every p o i n t of the l i n e t h e r e corresponds
exactly one real nwnber,
( 2 ) To every real number there corresponds exactly
one point of the l i n e , and
( 3 ) The distance between two p o i n t s is the abso-
lute value of the d i f f e r e n c e of t h e corresponding
numbers.
 W e call t h l a the Ruler Postulate because in effect it f u r -
n i s h e s u s w i t h a n inflnite ruler, wlth a number-scale on it, w i t h
which we can measure distances on any line.
D e f i n i t i o n s . A correspondence of the sort d e s c r i b e d in
Postulate 3 is c a l l e d a coordinate system f o r the l i n e . The
number corresponding t o a g i v e n point is called the c o o r d i n a t e
of the p o i n t .
--
Problem S e t 2-6
1. Simplify:
a, 1 3 - 61. d. 1-4 - (-2)l.
b. 16 - 31. e. la - (-a)\.
c. ( - 2 -11. f. lal-I-a\.
2. Using t h e kind of coordinate system d i s c u s s e d in the t e x t ,
f i n d the distance between point pairs with the following
coordinates:
a. 0 and 12. f. -5.1 and 5.1.
b. 12 and 0.
c. 0 and -12. h. x1 and x2.
d. -12 and 0. 1. 2a and -2a.
e. - 3 71a n d -5. j. r - a and r + s.

The lower numbering on t h i s scale was put there by Jim.

Pete began t h e uppe-r numbering b u t qult.
a. Copy the scale and write in t h e r e s t o f Pete's numbering.
b. Show how to f i n d t h e distance from P to Q, f i r s t b y
using Jlmls scale and then by using Pete's s c a l e .
c. Do t h e same f o r t h e distance from W to P.
4. Suppose in measuring t h e dlatance between two p o i n t s P and Q
you Intended t o place t h e zero of t h e number-scale at P and
r e a d a p o a l t i v e v a l u e at Q. However, you happen to place t h e
number-scale so t h a t P is at 1 and Q is farther t o the r i g h t .
 How is it still possible to measure the d i s t a n c e PQ?
*5. C o n s i d e r a c o o r d f m t e system of a line. Suppose 2 is added
t o t h e c o o r d i n a t e of each p o i n t and t h i s new sum is assigned
t o t h e point.
a . W i l l each polnt then correspond t o a number and each
number to a p o i n t ?
b. If two p o i n t s of t h e l i n e had coordinates p and q in the
c o o r d i n a t e system g i v e n , w h a t numbers are assigned to them
in the new numbering?
c. Show t h a t the formula
I u umber assigned t o one point)- umber assigned to
o t h e r p o i n t ) I g i v e s the d i s t a n c e between the t w o points.
d. Does t h e new corresp~ndencebetween p o f n t s and numbers
s a t i s f y each of t h e t h r e e conditions of P o s t u l a t e 3?
(If it does it m a y b e c a l l e d a coordinate system.)
*6. Suppose a c o o r d i n a t e system I s set up on a l i n e so t h a t each
p o i n t P corresponds to a real number n. If we replace each
n by -n, then the p o i n t P w i l l correspond t o a number -n.
Show t h a t t h f s correspondence is a l s o a coordinate system f o r
t h e line. (HINT: It is apparent t h a t each point wlll have a
number associated w i t h it and each number a point. You must
show in addition that t h e absolute v a l u e of the difference
of the numbers a s s i g n e d to t h e two points w i l l remain un-
changed when the numbering is changed . )
7. In a c e r t a i n county t h e towns o f Alpha, Beta and Gamma are
c o l l l n e a r ( o n a line) but not necessarily in t h a t o r d e r . It
is 16 miles f r o m Alpha to Beta and 25 miles from Beta t o
Gam .
a. Is it p o s s l b l e to tell which town is between the other
two? Which tcwn is not between the o t h e r t w o ?
b. T h e r e m i g h t be two dlfferent values f o r t h e dlstance
from Aipha t o Gamma. Use a s k e t c h to determine what
these are.
 c. If you are given the a d d i t i o n a l information t h a t the d i s -
tance from Alpha to Gamma I s 9 miles, then which town is
between the other two?
d. If t h e distance between Alpha and Beta were r miles, the
distance from Alpha t o G a m s miles, and the d i s t a n c e
from Beta t o Gamma r + s miles, which c i t y would be
between t h e o t h e r two?
8. A, B y C are three collinear p o i n t s . A and B a r e 10" apart,
and C is 15" from B. Is there j u s t one way to arrange
these p c i n t s ? Explain.
9. Three different coordinate systems are assigned t o the same
line. T h r e e fixed p o i n b A, B, C of the l i n e are assigned
v a l u e s a s follows:
With the first system t h e coordinate of A Is -6 and
that of B is -2.
W i t h t h e second the c o o r d i n a t e s of A and C are 4
and -3 r e s p e c t i v e l y .
With t h e t h i r d the respective coordlnates o f C and B
are 7 and 4.
Vhat p o i n t is between t h e o t h e r t w o ?
E v a l u a t e AB + BC + A C .

2-7. The Ruler Placement P o s t u l a t e -

Betweenness Segments-
-
A n d Rays
The Ruler Postulate ( ~ o s t u l a t e3) tells u s t h a t on any line,
we can s e t up a coordinate system by l a y i n g o f f a number-scale.
T h i s can be done in l o t s o f different ways. F o r example, given
a p o i n t P of t h e line, we can s t a r t by making P the zero-point.
And we can then l a y o f f the scale In e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n , like t h i s :
D
This means t h a t given another point Q of the l i n e , we can always
choose the coordinate system in such a way t h a t Q corresponds t o
a p o s i t 1ve number, like t h i s :
P Q
I 1 I I I I I
1
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
or this:
Q P
I 1 I 1 1
1 I
3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
L e t us w r i t e t h i s down, for future reference, in the form of a
postulate.

Postulate A. h he Ruler Placement Postulate. )

Given two points P and Q of a l l n e , the coordinate
system can be chosen in s u c h a way that the coordinate
I
o f P Is z e r o and t h e c o o r d l m t e of Q I s positive.

Everybody knows what it means t o say t h a t a p o i n t B i s

between t w o points A and C. It means t h a t A , 3 and C lie on
t h e same llne, and t h a t they are a r r a n g e d on the line lfke t h i s :
I I I

A 8 C
or like t h i s :
I L
I
1 --
C B A
If we a r e going to use betweenness as a mathematical Idea, however,
we had b e t t e r give a mathematical definition t h a t s t a t e s exactly
what we mean, because the feelings that we have in o u r bones are
n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e l i a b l e . To see t h i s , let us l o o k at t h e
corresponding s i t u a t i o n on a c i r c l e . In the f i g u r e on the left,
it seems reasonable t o say t h a t B l a between A and C. But C can
be moved around the circle in easy s t a g e s , w i t h o u t passing over
A or B, so as to lie just to the l e f t of A, as i n the r l g h t -
hand f i g u r e . I n the final position, indicated by t h e e x c l a m t l o n
point, it looks a a if A i a between B and C . In this respect,
circles are t r i c k y . Given any three points of a circle, it is
quite reasonable t o conelder t h a t each of them is between the
other two.
Betweenneaa on a line is not a t a l l t r i c k y . It is easy to
aay exactly w h a t it means for one point of a line to be between
two others. We can do t h i s in t h e following way:
Definition. B is between A and C if (1) A, B and C are
d i s t i n c t paints on the same l i n e and ( 2 ) AB + BC = AC.
It is easy to check that this definition r e a l l y expresses
o u r common-sense idea of what betweenneas ought t o mean. It may
be a good idea to explain, however, the way in which language is
ordinarily used In mathematical d e f i n i t i o n s . In the d e f i n i t i o n
of betweenness, two statements are connected by t h e word if. -
What we r e a l l y mean is that the statements before and after t h e
-
word if are completely equivalent. Whenever, In some theorem or
problem, we are given or can prove that conditions ( 1 ) and (2)
b o t h h o l d , then we can conclude t h a t B is between A and C . And
whenever we find t h a t B l a between A and C then we can conclude
t h a t (1) and (2) both h o l d . T h i s I s n o t a s t r i c t l y l o g i c a l use
-
of t h e word if, and in p a r t i c u l a r the word if Is never used in
t h i s way in postulates, theorems or problems. In definitions,
however, I t Is comon.
The following theorem d e a c r l b e s betweenness In terms of
coordinates on a line.
 -
Theorem 2-1. Let A, B, C be three points of a lfne, w i t h
coordinates x, y, z. If
X < Y < Z ,
then 8 is between A and C.
Proof: S i n c e K ( y < z, we know t h a t t h e numbers y -
x,
z - y , and z -x are a l l p o s i t i v e . Therefore, by d e f i n i t i o n of
the absolute value,
IY - xl = Y - x,
lz - YI = 2 - Yt
Iz - XI 3 z - X*

Therefore, by the Ruler Postulate,

AB -
BC = z
y -
- y,
X,

AC = z - X.
Theref ore
A B + BC = ( y - x) + (z - y)
= - X + Z

= z - X
a AC.
Therefore, by the definition of betweenness, B is between A and C,
which was to be proved.

--
Problem Set 2-7a
1. a. A number-scale Is placed on a l i n e w l t h -3 f a l l i n g at R
and 4 at S. If the Ruler Placement Poatulate is applied
w i t h 0 placed on R and a p o s i t l v e number on S, what w i l l
this number be?
b. Same question if -4 f a l l s at R and -10 at S.
c. Same question if 8 falls at R and -2 at S.
d. Same question if -4 $f a l l s at R and 4 at S.
e . Same question if 5.2 f a l l s at R a n d 6.1 at S.
f . Same queation if xl falls at R and x2 at S .
2. Explain b r i e f l y how the Ruler Placement Postulate simplifies
t h e procedure g i v e n by t h e Ruler Postulate f o r computation of
dlstance between two p o i n t s .
 3. Suppose R, S and T are callinear polnts. What must be true
of the lengths RS, ST and RT if S is to be between R and T?
( See d e f i n i t i o n oS between. )

4. A C B
= A C and BC each equals 8.
The c o o r d i n a t e of C is 6 . The coordinate o r B la greater
than t h e c o o r d i n a t e of C. I a a t are the coordlnatea of
A and B?
5. If a, b and c are c o o r d i n a t e s of collinear points, and if
la - c l + Ic - bl = la -
bl, what is the coordinate of t h e
point which lies between the o t h e r two? Be able to justify
y o u r answer.
6. If xl, x 2 and x 3 are coordinates of p o l n t s on a line such
t h a t x3 > xl and x2 < xl, which point is between t h e other
two? Which theorem would be ueed t o prove your answer?

7. Consider a c o o r d i n a t e system In w h i c h A is assigned t h e

number 0 , B is assigned the p o s f t i v e number r, E the number
31 r, and F the number 32 r.
Prove t h a t :
a. AE=EF=FB
b. E is between A and F.
*8. Prove: If A , B and C are three points of a line w i t h
c o o r d i n a t e s x, y and z r e s p e c t i v e l y and if x ) y ) z, then
B is between A and C.

Theorem=. Of any three different polnts on the same line,

one is between t h e other two.
Proof: Let the points be A, B and C. By the R u l e r Postulate,
there is a coordinate system f o r the l i n e . Let the coordinates
of A , B, and C be x, y, and z . There a r e now six possibilities:
 (1) X < Y < Z ,
(2) X < Z < Y ?
(3) Y < x < 2,
(41 Y < < x,
(5) Z < X < Y ,

( 6 z < Y < x*
In each o f these cases, Theorem 2-2 follows by Theorem 2-1.
In cases (1) and (61, B is between A and C. In c a s e s ( 2 ) and
( 4 ) , C is between A and B. In cases ( 3) and ( 5 ) , A is between
3 and C.
Theorem 2-3. Of t h r e e d i f f e r e n t points on the same line, o n l y
one is between the other two.
Restatement. If A, B and C are three different points on the
same line, and B is between A and C, then A is n o t between 3 and
C, and C is not between A and B.
(It often happens that a theorem is easier to read, and
e a s i e r t o refer to, if it is s t a t e d In words. But to prove
theorems, we usually need to s e t up a notation, giving names to
the o b j e c t s that we w i l l be talking about. For t h i s reason, we
s h a l l o f t e n give restatements of theorems, in t h e style that we
have Just used for Theorem 2-3. The restatement glves us a sort
of head-s t a r t in the p r o o f . )
Proof: If B is between A and C, then
A 8 + BC = AC.
If A is between B and C, t h e n
BA + AC = BC,
What we need to prove is t h a t these t w o equations cannot both
h o l d a t t h e same time.
If the f i r s t equation h o l d s , then
AC - BC = AB.
If t h e second equation holds, then
AC - BC = -BA -
Now A 8 I s positive, and -AB is negative. Therefore, these
-AB.

equations cannot both be true, because the number AC - BC cannot

be both p o s i t i v e and negative.
[ s e c . 2-71
In an e n t i r e l y simllar manner we can show t h a t C is not between A
and 8,
Def I n i t i o n s .
For any t w o points A and B the segment AB is
t h e s e t whose points a r e A and B, together with a l l points t h a t
a r e between A and 3. The points A and B are called t h e end- -
- AB.
points o f
Notice t h a t t h e r e I s a b i g difference between t h e segment AB
and the distance AB. The segment is a geometrical f i g u r e , that
is, a set of p o i n t s . The dfstance is a number, which t e l l s us
how far A i s from 3.
Definition. The distance AB is called the l e n g t h of
t h e aegment m.
A ray is a f i g u r e t h a t looks like t h i s :

A 8
The arrow-head on t h e right is meant t o Indicate t h a t the ray i n -
cludea - a l l p o i n t s on the l i n e t o the r i g h t of the p o i n t A, plus
t h e p o l n t A Itself. The r a y ia denoted by 3. Notice t h a t when
we write 8, we simply mean the ray that starts at A, goes t h r o u g h
B, and then goes on in t h e same d i r e c t i o n f o r e v e r . The ray might
look l i k e any of t h e following:

1,
That is, the arrow in the symbol AB always goes from l e f t to
r i g h t , regardless of how the ray 1s pointed in space.
Having explained informally what we are driving at, we proceed
t o give an exact definition.
 Definitions. Let A and B be points of a line L. The 3
is the a e t whlch Is the union o f (1) the segment AB and ( 2 ) the
set of a l l points C f o r which I t is true that B is between A and
C. The p o i n t A is called the end-point of d.
These two parts of t h e r a y are a3 indicated:

A B C
If A is between B and C an L, then the two r a y s a and a
" g o in opposite d i r e c t i o n , " like t h i s :
3
- - \*/'
- - -
C A 8
Definition. If A is between B and C, then and 3 are6
called opposfte rays.
Note that a pair of points A, B determine8 e i x geometric
figures;
e
The l i n e AB,
The segment E, I

The m y $,
The ray BA,
+
The ray oppos 1 t e to 3,
+
-
The ray opposfte to BA.
The R u l e r Placement Postulate has three more simple and
uaeful conseauencea.
+
Theorem 2-4, (!The Point Plotting he or em) L e t A 3 be a rag,
and let x be a p o s i t i v e number. Then there is e m c t l y one
+
point P of A 3 such that AP = x.
Proofi By the Ruler Placement Postulate, we can chooae the
~ ~ O r d i n a tsystem
e on the line f i In such a way that the coordinate
of A is equal to 0 and the coordinate of B is a p o s i t i v e
number r:
----- ----- A L
B
1
P
1
 (In the figure, the labels above the l i n e represent points,
and the l a b e l s below t h e line represent the correspondfng numbers.)
L e t P be the p o i n t whose coordinate is x . Then P belongs to
a, -
and A P = ( x 01 = 1x1 = x, because x is p o s i t i v e . Since o n l y
one point of the m y has coordinate equal t o x, only one p o i n t of
the ray lies a t a d i s t a n c e x fpom A .

- Definition. A p o l n t B is called a mid-point of a segment

AC if B is between A and C, and AB = BC.

Theorem =, Every segment has exactly one mid-polnt.

Proof. On t h e segnent AC we want a polnt B such that AB = BC.
We know, by d e f i n i t i o n o r a segment, t h a t B is between A and C.
Therefore, AB + BC = AC. From these two equations we conclude
1 Since B is to lle on segment AT
t h a t 2AB = AC, o r AB = g AC.
it must also lie on my 2, and Theorem 2-4 t e l l s us that there
is exactly one such p o l n t B.
D e f l n l t i o n . The mid-point of a segment is said to b i s e c t the
segment. More generally, any figure whose Intersection w i t h a
segment is the wid-point of the segment is said to b i s e c t t h e
segment.

-
Problem S e t 2-7b
1. If three points are on a l i n e , how many o f them are not
between the o t h e r two?
2 Each of the following is a particular case of what defLnition
or theorem?
It three collinear points R, S and T have coordinates
respectively 4, 5 and 8:
a. S is between R and T because 4 ( 5 and 5 < 8.
b. R cannot be between S and T aince S is between
R and T.
c . S is between R and T because RS + ST = RT.
 3, Describe in mathematical language what points are fncluded in:
- 4
a. XY b. XY
"4. Show that the restriction "between A and C" in t h e d e f i n i t i o n
of the midpoint of AC i a unnecessary by proving the
follow lng theorem:
If B 1s any p o i n t on the line fi such that A 3 = BC, then
B is between A and C. ( ~ i n t : Show t h a t A cannot be
between B and C n o r C between A and 3, Use algebra in
showing this. Use Theorem 2-2 to finiah t h e p r o o f . )
,

*5. Suppose that P Is a p o i n t on a line M and r is a positive

number. Which of the plcevlaus theorems shows that there
are exactly t w o points on M whose distance from P is t h e
given number I?
*6. Prove t h a t if B is between A and C, then AC ) AB.
7. a. Copy the following paragraph. Supply the appropriate
missing symbol, if any, over each letter pair.
XZ contains points Y and R, b u t XZ contains neither
points Y nor R . R belongs t o XZ but Y does n o t .
YZ $ ZR = YR,
b. Make a drawing showing the relative position of the
f o u r points .
Review Problems
I. Consider the following s e t s :
S1 is the s e t of a l l boys in the 10th grade.
Sp is t h e set of a l l g i r l s i n the 10th grade.
S3 is the s e t of a l l 10th grade geometry studenta.
S4 ia t h e s e t of a l l students in high s c h o o l .
S is t h e s e t of all 10th g r a d e studenta.
5

a. What is the intersection of Sland S ?

5
b. What is the union of S3 and Sq?
c. What is the intersection ,of S3 and S4?

[ sec . 2-7)
 d. What I s the union of S1 and S2?
e. What is the intersection of S1 and S2 ?
2. a. How many squares does a given p o s i t i v e number have?
b. How many square r o o t s ?
c. Is n e v e r negative?
3. a. Draw a l l n e and locate the following points on it.
he coordinate of each p o i n t is given i n parentheses. )
Use any unit of measure you choose, but use the same
unit t h r o u g h o u t .
P (21, Q (-11, R (01, S (-31, T ( 4 ) .
b. Find PQ, RT, TR, PT, W.
4 a, If a ) b, then a - b Is
b. If 0 ( k and k2 < h , t h e n b is
c. If a < b then a - b is
5
4 B1 CI -
a. Write an equation t h a t describes the relative positions
of these three points.
b. z?
Under what c o n d i t i o n would B be the m i d p o i n t o f
6. Four points A, B, C, D are arranged along a llne so t h a t
AC > AB and BD ( BC. Picture t h e line with the f o u r points
in place. Is there more than one possible order? Explafn.
7. The l e t t e r pairs contained In t h e following paragraph are
either numbera, lines, line segments, or rays. Indicate
w h i c h each i s by placing the proper missing symbol, If any,
above each letter pair.
"AB -F BC = A C . DB contains points A and C, but DB con-
tains n e i t h e r point A nor p o i n t C, A belongs to DB
but C does not.'' Draw a picture that i l l u s t r a t e s your
response.
8. A Is the s e t of a l l Integere x and y whose sum Is 13. B is
t h e s e t o f a l l Integers whose difference is 5. What is the
i n t e r s e c t i o n o f A and B?
 9. John said, "My house is on Weat Stmet halfway between Bfll's
house and J o e I s house ." Pete s a i d , " S o l a mine!" What can
you conclude concerning John and Pete?
10. N men s i t on a s t r a i g h t bench. Of how many may I t be s a i d ,
"He s l t s between two people?"
11. Use the f i g u r e below to answer questions a, through e.:

a. Describe t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n of triangle AEF and

rectangle ABCD.
b. Describe the i n t e r s e c t i o n of segment 5 and

c.
rectangle ABCD.
--
Describe the union of segments AF, EF, and E.
d. Deacribe the lntersectf on of segments AE and E.
e . Descrfbe the union of triangle AEF and segment z.
12. Given a group of five men ( ~ e a a r s .Andrewa, Brown, Crawford,
Douglas, and Evans ) , a. From t h e group, how many d i f f e r e n t
4-man committees can be formed? b. 2-man? c, 3-man?
13. Given that A, B and C are collinear and that AB = 3 and
BC 510, can AC = 6? Give a picture t o explain your anawer.
14. Indicate which of the following statements are true and
which are false. F o r any that are f a l s e , give a correct
answer.
a. I - 1 3 ~ 7 )= 2 0 .
1-8-91 = 17.
e. 1-41
f. I(3a-6)
-
1-111
-
-7. - -
(a-711 I2a+ll.
-
b.
c. 15a-ht lal. g. 171 - 191 = - 2 .
d. ~ 1 1 . h. 1-111 -
1-41 = -7.
 Looking at thia number-scale, Jack said, "The length of RQ
I s (x-y!." S a m maintained that when g i v i n g t h e length of
T Qit would be j u a t as correct to use simply y-x.
Do you agree with Sam? Explain,
16. The first numbering of the points on the line below represent8
a coordinate system. Which of the other numberlngs are not
coordinate systems according t o Postulatea 2 and 3?
I
-
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
a. -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 o 1 2 3
b. 0 1 2 3 4 5 4 3 2 1 0
C. 11 12 13 14 15 17
16 18 19 20 21
d. -11 -12-13 -14 -16 -17 -18
-15 -19 -20 -21
e. -3 -2 1 0 -1 2 3 4 5 6 7
+17. Consider the points of a line whose coordinates are described
a3 follows:
a. x ( 3.
b. x - 1 .
e. x -3, -
f. 1 x 1 ~ 3 .
c. x > 2. g * 1x1 > 2 .
d. x 3 1. h. 1x1 2 0.
Which of the above sets is a ray? A point? A line?
A segment?
 Chapter 3
LINES, PUKES AWD SEPARATION

3-1. --
Lines and Planes - in S p a c e .
In t h e l a s t c h a p t e r , we were talking only about l l n e s and t h e
measurement of d i s t a n c e . We s h a l l now proceed t o t h e s t u d y of
planes and space. We recall that o u r basic u n d e f i n e d terms are
p o i n t , l i n e and plane. Every line is a s e t of p o i n t s , and e v e r y
p l a n e i s a s e t of points.
Definition. The set of a l l points is c a l l e d space.
In t h i s section we will e x p l a i n some of t h e terms we are go-
i n g t o u s e In talking about points, l i n e s and planes, and s t a t e
some of the basic facts about t h e m . Most of these basic f a c t s will
be s t a t e d as postulates. Some o f them will be stated as theorems.
These theorems will be so simple t h a t I t would be reasonable t o
accept them w i t h o u t p r o o f , and c a l l them postulates. Ne do not do
this, however; tile f i r s t of them is going t o be proved i n this sec-
tion, and t h e rest of t h e m wlll be p r o v e d , on t h e basis of the
postulates, in a l a t e r c h a p t e r . For t h e p r e s e n t , h o w e v e r , let us
n o t worry about this question, one way or another; let us si-mply
t r y t o get these basic f a c t s straight,

--
Problem S e t 3-la

1. On a piece of paper, or on the blackboard, place t w o marks to

represent p o i n t s A and B. How many d i f f e r e n t l i n e s can you
draw through both A and B? What happens if you consider "line"
in a sense other than " s t r a f g h t 'I?
2. Take a p i e c e of s t i f f cardboard or your book. Can you support
it in a fixed position on t h e ends of two p e n c l l s ? What i s
t h e minimum number of p e n c l l s needed to s u p p o r t it in this
way?
3. Thlnk of one cover of your book as p a r t of a p l a n e . How many
p o i n t s are needed to determine t h i s plane?
4. How many end-points does a line have? How many end-points does
a l i n e segment have?
 Definition. A s e t o f points is c o l l i n e a r if t h e r e is a l i n e
which contains all t h e points of t h e set.
D e f i n i t i o n . A set of p o i n t s is coplanar if t h e r e is a plane
which contains a l l t h e points of t h e set.

F o r example, in t h e above f i g u r e of a triangular pyramid, A ,

E and B are collinear, and A , F and C are c o l l i n e a r , but A , B and
C are not collinear. A , B, C and E are c o p l a n a r , and A , C, D, F
and G are coplanar, but A , 3, C and D are not coplanar.
One of t h e properties we desire f o r t h e s e t s of points which
we c a l l lines, planes and space is t h a t they s h o u l d contain l o t s
of p o i n t s . A l s o , a plane should in some sense be "bigger" than a
line and space should be "blggerttthan any plane, The existence
of p l e n t y of p o i n t s on a l i n e is insured by the Ruler P o s t u l a t e ;
f o r planes and space the following postulate will give us the pro-
perties we want:

P o s t u l a t e 5 . ( a ) Every plane contains at least

three non-collinear points.
(b) Space contains at l e a s t f o u r non-coplanar points I.
For convenience in reference we repeat P o s t u l a t e 1.

two different points, there

them.
 Theorem 3-1. Two d i f f e r e n t l i n e s i n t e r s e c t in at most one
point.
The proof of this follows from P o s t u l a t e 1. It is impossible
f o r t w o different lines to i n t e r s e c t in two d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s P and
& because by P o s t u l a t e I there is only one
l i n e that contains P and
Q.

Problem Set 3-lb

1. Given: 1.
L1 and L2 are different lines.
2. P o i n t P lies on L1 and L2.
3. P o i n t Q lies on L1 and L2.
What can you say must be true a b o u t P and Q?
2 How many lines can c o n t a i n one given p o l n t ? two given p o i n t s ?
any three given points?
W f , *
3. The diagram shows three different l i n e s AB, CD, and EF, whose
H @
view is p a r t i a l l y obstructed by a barn. If A 3 and CD i n t e r s e c t
t o the left of t h e barn, which p o s t u l a t e says t h a t t h e y cannot
a l s o i n t e r s e c t to t h e right of t h e barn?

b, Draw a diagram t o illustrate each part o f this problem and j u s -

tify your answers in terms of P o s t u l a t e 1.
a . How many lines can be drawn through both of two f i x e d
points?
 b. How many l i n e s can be drawn through three points taken t w o
at a time?
5. a. How many l i n e s can be drawn t h r o u g h four coplanar p o i n t s ,
taken t w o at a time, if no t h r e e of the points are collin-
ear? ( ~ i n t : Call the points A , B, C, D.)
b . How many lines would there be if p o i n t s A , B, and C were
c o 11 i n e a r ?
c. Draw a diagram f o r ( a ) and (b) .
* 6 . "A p o i n t lies on a l i n e " and "a l i n e contains a p o i n t " are two
forms of saying t h e same thing.
a. The d e f i n i t i o m a f collinear and coplanar a r e phrased using
t h e second form. Rephrase these definitions using the
first form.
b. The f i r s t p a r t of P o s t u l a t e 5 is phrased u s i n g the second
form. Rephrase t h i s part of P o s t u l a t e 5 using t h e f i r s t
forrn .
*7. A s in Problem 6, Postulate 1 is written in one of the t w o forms.
Which form? Restete P o s t u l a t e 1 In the other form.

By P o s t u l a t e 5 a plane contains at least three p o i n t s . Does

it c ~ n t a i nany more? On the basis of o u r present postulates we
cannot conclude t h a t it does, so we i n t r o d u c e

Postulate 6 . If t w o p o l n t s l i e in a plane, t h e n
t h e l i n e containing these p o i n t a l i e s in the same plane.

This postulate essentlally says t h a t a plane i s flat, t h a t is,

t h a t if it c o n t a i n s part of a line it contains t h e whole line.
Theorem 3-2. If a line intersects a plane not containing it,
then the intereect ion is a single p o i n t .
This follows from Postulate 6 in t h e same way that Theorem
3-1 follows from P o s t u l a t e 1.
 The f i g u r e shows line L, i n t e r s e c t i n g a plane E in a p o i n t P .
You are going to see lots of drawings like t h i s , of figures in
space, and to learn to draw them yourself. You should examine them
c a r e f u l l y to see how they work. We usually indicate a plane E by
drawing a rectangle in E. Seen i n perspective, the rectangle looks
somewhat like a parallelogram. The Line L punctures E at P. Part
o f L is d o t t e d . Thls is t h e part that you "can't s e e " , because the
rectangular p i e c e of E g e t s in the way. or a discussion on draw-
ing 3-dimensional figures see Appendix v.)
We have seen that two p o i n t s determine a l i n e . T h e next
postulate s p e c i f i e s a similar determination of a plane.

Postulate 7. Any three p o i n t s lie in at l e a s t one

plane, and any three non-collinear p o i n t s l i e in exactly
one p l a n e . More b r i e f l y , any three p o i n t s are coplanar,
and any three non-collinear points determine a p l a n e .

Theorem 3-3. Given a line and a point not on the line, t h e r e

is exactly one plane containing both of them.
 The figure shows a plane E determined by t h e line L and the
point P .
Theorem 3-4. Given t w o intersecting lines, there is exactly
one plane contain in^ them.

The figure shows t w o lines El and L2, intersecting In a p o i n t

P. E i s the plane t h a t containa both l i n e s .
F f n a l l y , we s t a t e one more postulate:

I P o s t u l a t e 8. If two d i f f e r e n t planes intersect,

then their intersection is a line.

--
Problem S e t 3-lc

1. How many planes can contain one given point? two gfven points?
three given points?
2 On a l e v e l f l o o r , why will a four-legged table sometimes rock,
while a three-legged t a b l e is always steady?
3. Complete: Two d i f f e r e n t l i n e s may intersect in a p

and two different planes may Intersect in a

4. Can two p o i n t s be non-collinear? t h r e e p o i n t s ? four points?
n points?
5. Write a careful definition of a set of non-collinear points.
6. Given: 1. P o i n t s A , B, C l i e in plane E.
2. P o i n t s A , B, C l i e in plane F.
Can you conclude that plane E is t h e same as plane F? Explain.
7. Complete t h e f o l l o w i n g statements using t h e
accompanying diagram.
a . Points D, C, and - a r e collinear .
b. Points E, F, and - are collinear .
c . Points B, -, and A are collinear.
d . P o i n t s A , B, C, D, E, F, are
E

8. Examine t h e following figure of a rectangular solid until you

see how it looks as a three-dimensimal drawing. Then close
t h e book and draw a figure like this f o r yourself. Practice
until you a r e satisfied w i t h t h e results.

9 . A f t e r doing Problem 8, draw a figure that represents a cube.

10. Draw a plane E, using a parallelogram t o indicate the p l a n e .

Csec. 3-11
 Draw a line segment which lies in the plane E. Draw a l l n e
that intersects the plane E but does not Intersect t h e line seg-
ment. Use dashes to represent the part of the l i n e hidden by
the plane.
11. The accompanying f i g u e is a triangular
pyramid, or t e t r a h e d r o n . It has f o u r
v e r t i c e s : A , B, C, D, no three of
which a r e collinear.
a . Make a definition of an edge
of this tetrahedron. U s e t h e
ideas of the t e x t t o h e l p you
C
form t h e definition.
b. How many edges does t h e tetrahedron
have? Name them,
c. A r e there any pairs of edges that do not i n t e r s e c t ?
d . A face is the triangular surface determined by any three
vertices. There are f o u r f a c e s : ABC, ABD, ACD, BCD. Are

rcb
there any pairs of faces t h a t do not intersect? Explain.
12. How many different planes (determined by D
t r i p l e t s of l a b e l e d points) are there in
the pyramid shown? Make a complete list.
( Y O U s h o u l d have seven planes. ) /
#
/
/ /

A B
3 in the Form of Hypothesis and Conclusion.
Theorems ----
-
Nearly every theorem is a statement that if a certain thing is
-
true, then something e l s e is a l s o t r u e . For example, Theorem 3-1
states that - -
if L1 and L2 a r e t w o d i f f e r e n t lines, then L1 I n t e r s e c t s
L2 in at most one point. The if p a r t of a theorem is c a l l e d t h e
hypothesis, or t h e given data, and the then part is c a l l e d the - con-
elusion, or t h e thing t o be proved. Thus we can write Theorem 3-1
i n this way:
Theorem 3-1. Hypothesis: L and L2 a r e two d i f f e r e n t l i n e s .
I
Conclusion: L1 i n t e r s e c t s L2 in at most one
point.
P o s t u l a t e s , of course, are l i k e theorems, except t h a t t h e y a r e
 ...
n o t g o i n g t~ be p r o v e d . M o s t of them can be p u t in t h e same if
t h e n form a s theorems. P o s t u l a t e 1 can be s t a t e d t h i s way:
Hypothesis: P and Q are two d i f f e r e n t points.
Conclusion: There i s exactly one l i n e c o n t a i n i n g P and Q.
T h e r e are cases i n which the hypothesis-conclusion form does
n o t seem n a t u r a l o r useful. F o r example, t h e second part of Postu-
iate 5, expressed in this form, looks awkward:
Hypothesis: S is space.
Conclusion: Not a l l p o i n t s o f S a r e copianar.
Such cases, however, a r e very rare.
It is not necessary, of course, t h a t a l l theorems be s t a t e d i n
t h e hypothesis-conclusion f o r m . It ought to be clear, regardless
of t h e form in which t h e theorem i s stated, what part of it is t h e
hypothesis and what p a r t i s the conclusion. It i s very important,
however, t h a t we be able to s t a t e a theorem i n t h f s form if we want
t o , because if we cannot, the chances a r e that we do not understand
exactly what t h e theorem says.

--
Problem Set 3-2

1. Indicate which part of each of the following statements is t h e

hypothesis and which p a r t is t h e conclusion. If necessary,
rewrite in i f - t h e n form f i r s t .
a . If John is ill, he should see a doctor.
b. A person with red hair is nice t o b o w .
c . Four p o i n t s are collinear if t h e y l i e on one line.
d . If I do my homework well, I w i l l g e t a good grade.
e . If a set of points lies in one plane, t h e points are coplanar.
f. Two i n t e r s e c t i n g lines determine a p l a n e .
2. Write t h e following s t a t e m e n t s In conditional, or If-then, form:
a. Two different l l n e s have at most one p o i n t in common.
b. Every geometry student mows how to add Integers.
c . When it rains, it pours.
d . A l i n e and a p o i n t n o t on the l i n e are contained in
exactly one plane.
 e. A dishonest practice is unethical.
f . Two p a r a l l e l lines determine a p l a n e .
3. Using t h e words "if" and "then", write Postulate 1 and Theorem
3-1 in conditional form. Indicate the hypothesis and the con-
c l u s i o n f o r each c a s e .
4, a. Does t h e following statement mean the s a w t h i n g as Theorem
3-4? "Two l i n e s always i n t e r s e c t in a p o i n t , and there is
exactly one plane c o n t a i n i n g them." Why or why not?
b. Write Theorem 3-4 in the "hypothesis and conclusion" f o r m .

3-3. Convex Sets.

Definition. A s e t A is called convex i f f o r every t w o p o i n t s
P and Q of A , t h e entire segment lies in A .
F b r example, the t h r e e s e t s p i c t u r e d below are convex.

Here each of the s e t s A, B and C c o n s i s t s of a region of the plane.

We have illustrated t h e i r convexity by showing a f e w segments B.
None of t h e s e t s D, E and F below is convex:

D E F
We have shown why n o t , by showing p a i r s of p o i n t s P, Q f o r which
the segnent does not lie e n t i r e l y in the given set.
A convex s e t may be very large. F o r example, take a l i n e L
in a plane E and let Hi and H2 be t h e s e t s l y i n g on t h e t w o sides
o f L, l l k e this:

The t w o s e t s HI and Hg are c a l l e d half-planes o r sides of L, and

I

t h e l i n e L is c a l l e d an edge o f each o f them.(Notice t h a t L does

not l i e in e i t h e r of the t w o half-planes; L I s not on either s i d e
of itself. )
If two points P and Q are in t h e same half-plane, say HI, then
t h e segment P& a l s o lies in H1, and so does not intersect L.

Thus Hj is convex, And in the same way, H2 is convex; t h i s is

illustrated by the points R and S In t h e figure.
We notice, however, t h a t if T and U ape points belonging t o
d i f f e r e n t half-planes, then t h e segment i n t e r s e c t s L, because
you cannot g e t from one s i d e of L to t h e o t h e r s i d e w i t h o u t crosaing
t h e edge. We express this f a c t by saying that L separates HI from
H2 In t h e plane, o r that L separates the plane i n t o two half-planes
HI a n d Hz.
 This discussion is a fair account of the facts, but it is not
very good mathematical form, because it is based on a p o s t u l a t e
t h a t we haven't even s t a t e d so far. We shall therefore state the
p o s t u l a t e that is needed, and then state the definitions that are
based on it.

P o s t u l a t e 9 . (The Plane Separation Postulate.)

Given a l i n e and a plane containing it. The points of
t h e plane that do not l i e on the l i n e form t w o s e t s such
t h a t (1) each of t h e s e t s is convex and ( 2 ) if P is in
one set and Q is in t h e o t h e r then the segment P& inter-
sects the lfne.

Definitions. Given a line L and a plane E containing it, t h e

two sets determined by P o s t u l a t e 9 a r e called half-planes, and L
i s c a l l e d a n edge of each of them. We say t h a t L separates E into
the t w o half-planes. If two points P and Q of E l i e i n t h e same
half-plane, we say t h a t they * ----
lie on t h e same side of L; if P lies
-
in one of the half-planes and Q in the other they lie on opposite
s i d e s of L.
We see that the Plane S e p a r a t i o n Postulate says two things
about t h e t w o half-planes into which a line separates a plane:
(1) If two points lie in t h e same half-plane, then the seg-
ment between them lies in t h e same half-plane, and so never lnter-
s e c t s t h e line.
( 2 ) If two points lie in different half-planes, then the
segment between them always intersects t h e l i n e .
If we do not r e s t r i c t our attention t o a single plane we can
have many half-planes w l t h the same edge. The p i c t u r e

[ s e c . 3-31
illustrates f i v e o f t h e infinitely many possible half-planes having
line L f o r edge. Note that p o i n t s P and Q, a l t h o u g h they l i e in
d i f f e r e n t half-planes, cannot be said t o be on opposite sides of L.
This can o n l y be said of p o i n t s l i k e P and R which a r e coplanar
with L.
A p l a n e separates space, in e x a c t l y t h e same way, into two
convex s e t s c a l l e d half-spaces.
P

S
In the figure, HI is t h e half-space above E and H2 I s t h e half-
space below E. P and Q lle In HI, and so also does t h e segment V&.
P and S are in different half-spaces, so t h a t t h e segment PS i n t e r -
s e c t s E in a p o i n t X. R and S a r e in t h e same half-space Hz, and
so a l s o is t h e segmentz.
 Thls s i t u a t i o n i s described I n the following p o s t u l a t e .

P o s t u l a t e 10. (The Space Separation P o s t u l a t e . )

The p o i n t s of space that do not l f e in a given plane
form t w o s e t s such that (1) each of the s e t s is convex
and (2) i f P is in one s e t and Q is in t h e other, then
t h e sement intersects the plane.

Definitions. The two s e t s d e t e r m i n e d by P o s t u l a t e 10 a r e

-
c a l l e d half-spaces, and t h e given plane is called the f a c e of each
o f them.
Note that while a line is an edge of infinitely many half-
planes, a plane I s a f a c e of only two half-spaces.

--
Problem S e t 3-3

In answering t h e following questions u s e your i n t u i t i o n a l

understanding of planes and space in situations not covered by our
postulational structure.
1. Be prepared t o discuss the following questions orally.
a . Is a l i n e a convex set? Explain,
b. Is a s e t consisting of only two points convex? Why?
c. Is a ray a convex s e t ?
d. If one p o i n t is removed from a line, do t h e remaining
p o i n t s f o r m a convex s e t ? Why?
e . Is t h e s e t of points on the surface of a sphere convex?
Why?
f . Is the space enclosed by a sphere a convex s e t ?
g . Does a point separate a plane? space? a l b e ?
h. Does a ray separate a plane? Does a line? Does a line
segment?
i. Can two l i n e s in a plane separate t h e plane I n t o t w o re-
gions? Three regions? Four regions? Five regions?
j. I n t o how many parts does a plane separate space? What are
these parts called?

Csec. 3-31
2. Every point on P& is contained in the s e t
shown. Does t h i s meam t h a t t h e s e t is
convex? Explain.
Which of the r e g i o n s indicated by
Roman numerals are convex s e t s ?
Give reasons f o r your c h o i c e .

Is every plane a convex set? U p l a i n . Which p o s t u l a t e is

essential i n your explanation?
The I n t e r i o r s of c l r c l e s A and B
are each convex sets.
a. Is t h e i r intersection a convex
set? Illustrate.
b . Is their union a convex set? I l l u s t r a t e .
If one p o i n t I s removed from a plane, is t h e s e t formed con-
vex? Why?
If L is a line in a plane E, is t h e set of all p o i n t s of E on
one side of L a convex s e t ?
Draw a plane quadrilateral ( a figure with f o u r sides ) whose
i n t e r i o r is convex. Draw one whose i n t e r i o r is not convex.
Is the s e t of points containing all p o i n t s on t h e surface and
a l l p o i n t s in the i n t e r i o r of a sphere convex?
Is t h e s e t of p o i n t s in a t o r u s (a doughnut shaped figure)
convex?
Is the union of two half-planes which are contained in a plane
the whole plane if
a. the half-planes have the same edge? Explain.
b. t h e edge of one half-plane I n t e r s e c t s the edge of t h e
o t h e r half-plane in exactly one p o i n t ? Explain, using a
diagram if necessary.
a . I n t o how many parts does a p o i n t on a l i n e separate t h e
l i n e ? What name would you suggest giving to each of these
part s?
b. Using t h e terminology you developed in part ( a ) , write out
a Line Separation Statement simllar t o P o s t u l a t e s 9 and 10,
13. How does a r a y d i f f e r from a half-line?
14. Can three l i n e s in a plane ever separate the p l a n e into three
regions? f o u r regions? five r e g i o n s ? s i x r e g i o n s ? seven
regions?
15. Into how many parts do two intersecting planes separate space?
Two parallel planes?
16. What is t h e g r e a t e s t number of parts i n t o which space can be
separated by three d i s t i n c t planes? What is the least number?
"17. Write a c a r e f u l explanation of why t h e following statement is
true. The i n t e r s e c t i o n of any two convex s e t s which have at
least two p o i n t s i n common is convex. (Hint: L e t P and Q be
any t w o p o i n t s belonging to the intersection.)
*18. S k e t c h any geometrical solid bounded by p l a n e surfaces such
t h a t t h e s e t of p o i n t s in t h e interior of the figure is not
convex.

R e v i e w Problems

1. Each of 3 planes i n t e r s e c t s each of t h e o t h e r s . May t h e y

i n t e r s e c t in one l i n e ? Must a l l t h r e e i n t e r s e c t in one l i n e ?
Explaln.
2 How many p l a n e s w i l l contain the t h r e e g i v e n p o i n t s A, B, and
C if no line c o n t a i n s them?
3. Write each oi' the following statements in t h e "if -thent' form.
a . Zebras with p o l k a d o t s a r e dangerous.
b. Rectangles whose sides have e q u a l l e n g t h s are squares.
c. There will be a c e l e b r a t i o n if Oklahoma wlns.
d . A plane is d e t e r m i n e d by any two intersecting lines.
e. Cocker spaniel dogs a r e sweet tempered.
)I. S u p p l y t h e following information a b o u t t h e p o s t u l a t e s in t h e
chapter.
khat p r o p e r t y of each of t h e half-planes is mentioned in t h e
P l a n e Separation P o s t u l a t e ?
Do t h e half-spaces of t h e Space Separation P o s t u l a t e have
t h e same p r o p e r t y ?
C r i t i c i z e t h e following statement:
"The t o p of the table is a plane."
L i s t a l l the s i t u a t i o n s we have studied which determine a sin-
gle plane.
A s e t is convex i f f o r every pair of points in it, a l l p o i n t s
of the sewent joining the t w o polnts l i e

Given t h a t plane E separates space i n t o half-spaces R and S ,

and t h a t p o i n t A is in R and p o i n t B I s in S, does have to
intersect E?
L1 intersects plane E in P but does not l i e in E. L2 liea.in
plane E but does not c o n t a l n p o l n t P. Is it possible for L1
and L2 to intersect? Explain.
a . A s e t of points is collinear if

b. A s e t of points 1s coplanar if

c, May 5 points be collinear?

d. Must 2 points be collinear?
e. May n point a be collinear?
f. Must 5 points be coplanar?

-
g . May n points be coplanar?
P o i n t s P and Q l i e In both planes E and F which intersect in
line AB. Would it be correct to say t h a t P and Q l i e on AB?
Explain.
e

Is the union of a half-plane and a ray on i t s edge convex?

 Chapter Q
ANGLES AND TRIANGLES

4-1. --
The Basic Definitions.
An angle is a f i g u r e that looks l i k e one of these:

To be more exact:
Definitions. A n angle is t h e union of t w o rays which have
t h e same end-point b u t do not lie i n t h e same l i n e . The two
r a y s are called the s l d e s of t h e angle, and their common end-
point is called t h e vertex.
+ +'
The angle which is the union of AR and AC Is denoted by
/BAC, or by /CAB, or simply by /A if it 1 s c l e a r which rays
are meant. N o t i c e that /BAC can be equally well described by
means of A and any two points on d i f f e r e n t s i d e s o f t h e angle.

+
In the above f i g u r e /DAE I s the same as /BAC, because AD i e t h e
+ +
same as AB and AE is the same a s 8.
Notice t h a t an angle goes out I n f i n i t e l y far i n t w o d i r e c -
t i o n s , because i t s sides are rays, rather than segments. The
figure on t h e l e f t , below, determines an angle u n i q u e l y , but is
not a l l of the angle; to g e t a l l of the angle, we have to extend
a +
the segments AB and getting rays AB and AC, a s on t h e r i g h t .
 Definitions. If A, B, and C are any three non-collinear
pbints, t h e n the union of the segments and z, is called
a triangle,

and is denoted by AABC; the points A, B and C are called i t s

- - -
v e r t i c e s , and the segments AB, BC and AC are called its sides.
Every t r i a n g l e determines t h r e e angles; AABC determines the
angles /BAC, /AX and /ACB, which are called the ang;les
--
of AABC. For s h o r t , we w i l l often write them simply as
/A, /B, and LC.
Note that w h i l e AABC determines these three angles, it does
n o t actually c o n t a i n them. Just as a school does n o t c o n t a i n
i t s own graduates, so a t r i a n g l e does n o t contain i t a own angles,
because the a i d e s of a triangle are segments, and the sides of
an angle are rays. To d r a w t h e angles of a triangle, we would
have t o extend the aides of the t r i a n g l e to g e t rays, l i k e t h i s :

There usually is n o t much point In doing t h i s , however,

because it is plain what t h e angles of a triawle a r e supposed
to be.
 The i n t e r i o r o f an angle consists of a l l p o i n t s t h a t l i e
i n s i d e t h e angle; and the exterior o f an angle consists of a l l
the points t h a t l i e outside, l i k e this:

Exterior

Exterior
Exterior

We can s t a t e t h i s more exactly as f o l l o w s :

D e f i n i t i o n s . L e t ~ B A Cbe an angle l y i n g in plane E.
A p o i n t P of E l i e s I n the Interior of /BAC if (1) P and
B are on the same side o f the line 8 and a l s o (. 2 ). P and C are
e
on the same side of the line AB. The exterior of /BAC is t h e
set of a l l points of E that do not l i e i n t h e i n t e r i o r and do
n o t l f e on t h e angle i t s e l f .
You should check carefully to make sure t h a t t h i s really s a y s
what we want it t o say. In the f i g u r e , P is in the i n t e r i o r ,
f3
because P and B a r e on the same side of AC and a l s o P and C are
e'
on the same side of AB. Q is in the exterior, because Q and C
e
are not on t h e same side of AB. H is in the exterior, because
# #
-
R is on t h e "wrong sidett of both of t h e llnes AB and A C .
e-
S id in
the exterior because it i s on the "wrong s i d e " of AC.
Notice that we have defined the interior of an angle a s the
intersection of two half-planes , The ha lf-plane2 1 ook like t h f s:
Here one of the half-planes is cross-hatched horizontally, the
o t h e r is cross-hatched vertically, and the i n t e r i o r of /BAC is
cross-hatched both ways.
The I n t e r i o r of a triangle consists of the points that l i e
i n s i d e it, l i k e t h i s :

More p r e c i s e l y :
Definitions. A p o l n t lies i n t h e i n t e r i o r of a t r i a n g l e if
it lies in the i n t e r i o r of each of t h e angles of t h e triangle.
A point lies in t h e exterior of a t r i a n g l e if it lies in t h e
plane of t h e triangle but is n o t a p o i n t of the triangle or of
i t s interior.
You s h o u l d check c a r e f u l l y to make s u r e that t h i s really
says what we want It to s a y .
 Problem S e t 4-1
Complete this definition of angle: An angle is the
of t w o which have the same end-
point, but do n o t l i e in the same
Complete t h i s definition of triangle: A t r i a n g l e I s t h e
o f the three joining each
pair of three points. C
A r e t h e sides AC and AB of
AAEC the same as the sides
of /A? Explain.

A B
Is the union of two of the angles o f a t r i a n g l e the same
as the triangle itself? Why?
I n t o how many regions do the angles of a trlangle separate
the plane o f the triangle?
Complete:
/P = /NPS - /MPR

Name the angles in the f i g u r e .

How many angles are determined

by t h e f i g u r e ? Name them, How
many may be named using the
vertex l e t t e r only?

A B
10. Name a l l t h e triangles In the
f i g u r e . h here are more than
eight).

11. a. Name the p o i n t s of t h e *D

figure which are In t h e i n -
.F
t e r l o r of /CBA. OM
b. Name t h e points o f the
f i g u r e in the exterior
of /3. G
. B
-
'H
A
- --

I s t h e vertex of an angle In the i n t e r i o r o f the angle?

in the e x t e r i o r ? Explain.
Is t h e i n t e r l o r of an angle a convex s e t ? is t h e exterior?
I s a t r i a n g l e a convex s e t ?
Is t h e i n t e r i o r o f a t r i a n g l e a convex s e t ? is the e x t e r i o r ?
a. Can a p o i n t be in t h e e x t e r l o r o f a t r i a n g l e and in t h e
i n t e r i o r o f an angle of t h e triangle? I l l u s t r a t e .
b , Can a p o i n t be in t h e exterior of a triangle and not
in t h e i n t e r i o r o f any angle of the t r i a n g l e ? I l l u s t r a t e .
Given nABC, and a p o i n t P. P i s i n the i n t e r i o r of /BAC
and a l s o in the i n t e r i o r of /ACB. \?:hat can you conclude
about p o i n t f ?
Given AABC and a p o i n t P. P and A are on the same s i d e of
. P and 8 are on the same side of E.
 a. Is P in t h e i n t e r i o r of /ACB?
b. Is P in t h e i n t e r i o r of A ABC?
19. C a r e f u l l y explain why the following statement is true:
If a llne rn i n t e r s e c t s two sides C
of a triangle ABC in points
D and E, not t h e v e r t i c e s of the
t r i a n g l e , then line rn does n o t
I n t e r s e c t the t h i r d s i d e .
(Hint: Show that A and B are
in t h e same half-plane.)
A

4-2. Remarks On Angles.

What we have presented in t h i s chapter Is the simplest form
of the idea of an angle. According to o u r definition, an angle
is simply a s e t which is t h e union of two non-collinear r a y s ,

Angles, in t h i s sense, wlll be q u i t e good enough f o r the purposes

of t h l s course. Later, y o u w l l l see the idea of an angle I n var-
i o u s o t h e r forms. Here we explain these other forms b r l e f l y ,
merely i n order to a v o i d confusion i n case you may have heard of
them a l r e a d y ,
( 1 ) I n t h e f i r s t place, we sometimes think of an angle as
being obtained by r o t a t i n g a ray from one position t o a n o t h e r .
In t h i s case, one r a y Is t h e i n i t i a l s i d e , and the o t h e r is the
terminal side. Thus we would conalder the t w o angles below as
belng d l f ferent, becsuse the r o t a t i o n s are in two d i f f e r e n t
The f i r s t is c a l l e d a p o s i t i v e angle; the r o t a t i o n is counter-
clockwise. The second is a negative angle; the r o t a t i o n is
clockwise.
(2) People sometimes speak of s t r a i g h t angles, which look
l i k e this:

H e r e the rays & and 8 are considered to f o m an angle, even

though A, 8, and C are collinear.
(3) F i n a l l y , we sometimes distinguish between an o r d i n a r y
angle and a r e f l e x angle having the same r a y s a s Its a i d e s . The
double-headed arrow below Is supposed to i n d i c a t e a reflex angle:

These complications, and v a r i o u s o t h e r s of the same s o r t ,

w i l l not be used in t h i s book, because they will not be needed.
For example, the angles of a triangle are never reflex angles,
and there I s no reasonable way t o decide in which d i r e c t i o n t h e y
should be considered t o g o . Not until we get t o trigonometry do
theae f a n c y angles become necessaq and important.
 -
4 3. Mea su remenl - Of Angles.
Angles are usually measured in degrees, w i t h a p r o t r a c t o r .
With the p r o t r a c t o r placed a s In the f i g u r e below, w i t h its edge
on t h e edge of the h a l f - p l a n e H, we can read off t h e measures of
a large number of angles. A

Figure A.
The number o f degrees in an angle is called i t s measure. If
there are r degrees in t h e angle /XAY, t h e n we w r i t e
/ XAY = r.
m -
For example, in the f i g u r e we read off t h a t
m /PAB = 10,
m- / QAB = 40,
m- / RAB = 7 5 ,
m -/ SAB = 90,
m /TAB = 105,
a n d so on, Of course, t h e r a y s t h a t a r e drawn form more angles
than t h i s . By s u b t r a c t i o n , we can see t h a t
- -
m / QAP = 4 0 10 = 30,
LSAR -
m = 90 75 = 15,
and so on.
 S l n c e rn LQAB
40,5 we speak of L Q A B a s a '01 angle, and
we i n d i c a t e i t s measure in a figure l i k e thls:

But we donrt need to use the degree sign when we write = 40, rnm~
because as we explained a t t h e o u t s e t , m LQAB mean8 the number
of degrees in the angle.
Notice that in F i g u r e A there is no such thing as the angle
LCAB, because t h e rays 3 and 2 are colllnear. But we notice
t h a t the r a y corresponds to t h e number 180 on the number-scale
of the protractor, and t h e r a y a
corresponds to the number 0 .
Theref ore we can f i n d m /CALI by w r i t i n g
m LCAU = 180 130,-
= 50.
Similarly,
m /CA& = 180 - 40,
= 140.
The following postulates m e r e l y summarize the f a c t s about
p r o t r a c t o r s that we have just been discussing. Each of them is
i l l u s t r a t e d by a f i g u r e .

P o s t u l a t e 11. ( The Angle Measurement P o s t u l a t e . )

To every angle /BAC there corrqsponda a real number
between 0 and 180.

D e f l n i t l o n . The number s p e c i f i e d by P o s t u l a t e 11 l a
c a l l e d t h e measure of t h e angle, and w r i t t e n as rn /BAC.
 P o s t u l a t e 12. ( T h e Angle C o n s t r u c t i o n P o s t u l a t e . )
kt 8 be a ray on t h e edge o f t h e half-plane H. For
every number r between 0 and 180 there is exactly one
ray 8, with P I n H, such t h a t rn LPAB= r.

P o s t u l a t e 13. h he Angle Addition ~ o s t u l a t e . )

1 If D I S a p o i n t i n t h e I n t e r i o r o f L B A C , then I

In was on t h i s basis t h a t we computed the measures of angles

by subtraction, l ~ ~ i a t h p r o t r a c t o r placed with i t s edge on the
4
r a y AB. (TILDAC = m/ BAC - -~LBAD.)
Two angles form a l i n e a r pair If they look l i k e t h i s :
That I s :
3 + +-
a n d AC are opposite rays, and A D is
Definition. If
a n o t h e r ray, then LBAD and /DAC fo m a linear p a i r .
D e f i n i t i o n . If the sum of t h e measures of two angles Is 150,
then the a n g l e s a r e c a l l e d supplementary, and e a c h .is called a
supplement o f t h e o t h e r .
Hence t h e name of t h e following postulate.

P o s t u l a t e 14. h he Supplement P o s t u l a t e . )
If t w o angles form a l i n e a r p a i r , then they are
supplementary.
1. Using the figure, find :he value of each of t h e following:
a . m /PAB. g . m LEAD.
b . m /EAB. h. m /FAG + m /GAH.
C. m /MAC. I. ~ / G A F + ~ / F A E .
d. m /FAE. j. m /MAB -
m /FAB
e. m /GAE. k . m /HAB -
rn /DAB.
f. MAN. 1. ~ / N A E -
~/NAH.
2. With continued practice y o u s h o u l d be able t o estimate t h e
s l z e of angles fairly a c c u r a t e l y w i t h o u t u s i n g a p r o t r a c t o r .
-
Do not use a protractor to decide which of t h e angles shown
have measures w i t h i n the indicated ranges.

Lsec . 4-3 1
 Match t h e corresponding pairs:

3. Uslng o n l y a s t r a i g h t e d g e and not a p r o t r a c t o r , sketch angles

whose measures are approximately 30, 150, 45, 60, 135, 90.
Then u s e your p r o t r a c t o r to check y o u r sketches.
4. On the edge of a half-plane, take a segment AB about 3 inches
long. At A draw ray 3 in the half-plane forming LBAC of
58'. A t B draw ray in the same h a l f -plane forming / ABD -
of 72'. Measure the remaining angle of the triangle formed.
5 In the f i g u r e ,
a, m / ~ r n + m / ~ m = m L ?
b. ~/GF-
H+~/BF
? B = ~ L

6. In the figure,
a. m/
k.
C.

d.
m/
-XZK + m/-KZR + m/ YZR = m/
-
-XZR - m/ RZK = m/ ?
m/-XZY - ~ L X= Z mL_K ? -
-
--
If Y, R, K and X are collinear,
-YRZ + m/-ZRX = ?
t h e n m/
-
-
-
?

Y
dX
 In t h e figure, 3 and 8
Intersect forming f o u r angles.
Using the IndLcated measure,
find a, b and c.

8. Determine the supplement of each of '$he following:

1 1 0 ~go0,
~
0
- -
36', l g . ~ ' , n , (180 n)", ( 9 0 .')n
9. If one o f t w o supplementary angles has a measure 30 more
than the meaaure of the other, what is the measure of each
angle?
10. If the measure o f an angle is twice the measure of i t s
supplement, find the measure of the angle.
11. The measure of an angle is f o u r times the measure of i t s
supplement. F i n d the measure of each angle.
+
12. a. G i v e n a r a y AC l y i n g on t h e edge of a half-plane H, and
a number r between 0 and 180. In how mny ways can you
+
c o n s t r u c t a r a y AB i n H s u c h t h a t m P A C = r? Why?
a
b . Given a ray AC lying I n a plane E, and a number r between
0 and 180. 3
In how many ways can y o u construct a r a y
in E such that m p ~ =C r? Why?

4-4. Perpend i c u l a r i t y , Right Angles, and Congruence of Angles.

If the two angles of a linear pair have t h e
Definitions.
same measure, then each of t h e angles l a a r1g;ht angle.

Esec. 4-41
 Since r + r = 180, by t h e Supplement Postulate, we see t h a t
-a right angle - an a n g l e of go0. This can be regarded
is - a s an
a l t e r n a t i v e d e f f n i t i o n of a r i g h t angle; it is equivalent to o u r
first definition.
In terms of r i g h t angles it is e a s y to define perpendicularity
o f any combination of l i n e , my o r segment. I n applying the
following definition remember that a ray or a segment determines
a u n i q u e line which contains it.
D e f i n i t i o n . Two intersecting s e t s , each o f which i s either
a line, a ray o r a segment, are perpendicular if the two lines
which c o n t a i n them determine a r i g h t angle.
Definition. If the sum of t h e measures of t w o angles is
90, t h e n the angles are called complementary, and each of them
is called a complement of the other. (Compare t h i s w i t h the
definition of supplementary angles, just before t h e statement
o f t h e Supplement P o s t u l a t e . )
An angle w i t h measure less than 90 is c a l l e d -' a c u t e and an
angle w i t h measure greater t h a n 90 is called obtuse.

D e f i n i t i o n . Angles w i t h t h e same measure a r e c a l l e d

congruent angles,
-
T h a t i s , / BAC and /PQR are congruent if m/-BAC = ~LPQR.
In t h i s case we w r i t e
-
/ BAC 2 / PQR.
CI

-BAC = m/-FQR and t h e congruence

N o t i c e t h a t the e q u a t i o n m/
-
,/ BAC 2 /FQR are completely equlvalent; we can replace one by
the o t h e r any time we want t o .
 The following theorems are easy to prove, if we remember
c l e a r l y what the words mean:
Theorem 4-1. If two angles are complementary, then hoth
of t h e m are a c u t e .
Theorem 4-2. Every angle is congruent t o itself.
T h e o r e m 4-3. Any two right angles are congruent.
Theorem 4-4. If two angles are both congruent and supple-
mentary, then each of them is a right angle.
( ~ i n t : Let r be the number which is the measure of each of the
t w o angles, and then find out what r must be.)
Theorem 4-5. Supplements of congruent angles are congruent.
Restatement: If (1) /B 2 /D, ( 2 ) /A and /B are
supplementary and ( 3 ) L C and /D are supplementary, then

B A 0 C
?roof: The statement t h a t /B 2 /D means that and ~LB
-
m/ D are the same number r, as in t h e figure. Since / A and -
/B

For the sane reason,

LA -
are supplementary, it f o l l o w s that
- ~ L B180
180 ;P -. r.

m L C = 150 - m L D = 180 - r.
-A =
Therefore m/ ~Lc,which means that /A 2 LC.
You must not conclude f r o m the above p i c t u r e that supplement-
ary angles must necessarily be placed beside one another in a way
that makes it evident t h a t their measurns add up
t o 180.
 The f o l l o w i n g p l c t u r e a l s o serves to i l l u s t r a t e Theorem 4-5.

In drawing p i c t u r e s to i l l u s t r a t e theorems or problems you s h o u l d

realize that the figure in t h e book is not t h e only c o r r e c t one,
and you s h o u l d t r y to make y o u r p i c t u r e d i f f e r e n t from t h e one
given i n the book,
~ h e o r e m 4 - 6 . Complements of congruent angles are congruent.
The proof of the theorem is exactly analogous to the pre-
ceding proof, and you should write it out f o r yourwelf.
When t w o l i n e s i n t e r s e c t , they form f o u r angles, l i k e this:

/1 and /3 are called v e r t l e a l angles, and / 2 and /_4 are a l s o

c a l l e d v e r t i c a l angles. More p r e c i s e l y :
Definition. Two angles are v e r t i c a l arqles If t h e i r sides
form two p a i r s of opposite rays.
It l o o k s a s if t h e s e pairs of vertical angles ought to be
congruent, and in fact t h i s is what always happens:
Theorem 4-7. Vertical angles are congruent.

Proof: Given tha nd and are8 8

l
opposite rays, so t h a t /1 and /_2 are v e r t i c a l angles. Then
L1 and /3 a r e supplementary, and /2 and /3 are supplementary .
Since /3 is congruent t o itself, t h i s means that /1 and - / 2
have congment supplements. By Theorem 4-5, /1 2 o,
whlch
was t o be p r o v e d .
Theorem 4-8. If t w o intersecting lines form one r i g h t

+
angle, t h e n they form f o u r r i g h t angles.

t
You s h o u l d be able to s u p p l y t h e p r o o f .

Problem S e t 4-4
1. a. In a plane, how many perpendiculars can be drawn t o a
line at a g i v e n p o i n t on t h e line?
b. In space, how many perpendiculars can be d r a w n t o a line
at a g i v e n p o i n t on t h e l i n e ?
3 -+
2. If OR and OS are opposite r a y s and 5 is a ray such t h a t
*.*
m LRON = rn LSON, what can you conclude a b o u t 8
4
and RS?
Explain.
3. In half-plane H, & and are
opposite rays, m /RXB = 35 and
rn LRXS = 90.
a. Name a p a i r of perpendicular
rays, If any occur in the
figure .
b, Name a p a i r of complementary x
angles, if any o c c u r in the
fl g u r e.
c . N a m e a pair of v e r t i c a l angles,
if any o c c u r in the figure.
d. Name t w o pairs of supplementary 1
angles in the f i g u r e .
4. Determine the measure of a complementary angle for each of
the following:
a. .'01 d. x
0
.
b. 80'. e. (90 - x)'.
C. 44.5O. f. ( 1 8 0 - x ) ' .
5. a. If two angles w i t h the same measure are supplementary,
w h a t is t h e measure of each?
b. If two angles with the same measure are complementary,
what is the measure of each?
6. a. If t w o lines intersect, how many pairs of vertical angles
are formed?
b. If the measure of any one of the angles in (a) is 70,
what Is the measure of each of the others?
c. If a l l of the angles in ( a ) are congruent, w h a t i a the
measure of each?
7. If one of a pair of vertical angles has a measure of r,
write the formulas f o r the measures of the other three
angles f omed .
8. I n half-plane H, & and & are opposite rays,
m /AGB = m /BGc, and
m /CGD = rn /DGE.
Find m /BGD.

9. Prove Theorem 4-1. A G E

10. Prove The orem 4-4.
+ -*
11. Given: In the f i g u r e f o r Problem 8, & I& and QA and QE
are opposite mys.
Prove: /AGB and /DGE are complementary,

Csec. 4-41
12. Given: In plane E, lines fi,
H
, , MP i n t e n e e t a t 0.
%L 25.
Prove: b +g+ d 3 a.

+
13. If bA and & and OC are three d i f f e r e n t rays in a plane,
no two of them opposite, indicate true o r false f o r each

b. ~ / A O B + rn /BOC
~/AOC,
m /AOC
-+
of' the following statements and explain your answer.
a. m/~013 + ~ / B O C
= 360.
14. The measure o f an angle is nine times that of its supplement.
What l a the measure of the angle?
15. A l a y o u t drawing is a plane drawing which can be folded t o
form t h e boundary of a given solid. Below is pictured a
cube and a layout d r a w i n g for It.

( ~ o t t e dlines i n d i c e t e folds.)
Use your imagination, y o u r ruler and your p r o t r a c t o r to
make a l a y o u t drawing f o r each of the f i g u r e s below. Then
c u t out your drawing, fold on d o t t e d l i n e s , s n d tape to-
gether. Use cardboard or heavy paper for a r i g i d flgure.
a. A pyramid whose base l e
a aquare w i t h 2" sides
and whose other faces
are Isosceles triangles
with 60' base angles,
( Problem 15 c o n t i n u e d )
b. A prf sm whose bases a r e
pentagons w i t h 1 inch
s i d e s and 108' angles,
and whose h e i g h t is
2 inches.

Re view Problems
What tool is uaed to measure angles?
To every a n g l e there corresponds a real number between
and , c a l l e d t h e measure of t h e angle.
An angle with a measure o f less than 90 is
Two angles formed by the union of two o p p o s i t e r a y s a n d a
t h i r d ray a l l w i t h the same end p o i n t are a
of angles.
If the sum o f the measure of t w o angles is 90, then each is
called a of t h e o t h e r .
A n angle with a measure greater t h a n 90 is called
Angles w i t h the same measure a r e
If t w o angles are b o t h congruent and supplementary, then each
of them is a
Supplements of congruent angles are
If t w o angles are complementary, t h e n each of them is

An angle i s the of two which have a common

en3 point,
If X, Y, Z are three points, t h e union of the three
segments connecting them i n p a i r s is a
A p o i n t X is in t h e i n t e r i o r of RST if points R and
lie on the same s i d e of and if points X and
lie on t h e same s i d e of
I f the sum of the measvres o f t w o angles is they a r e
called complementary and if the sum I s they are
called
Two opposite angles formed by t w o intersecting lines a r e
angles. They are always congruent.
and opposite rays. The p o l n t s E, F, and H are
on t h e same side of 3. Points E and H a r e on opposite
sides of %'. Pointa A and H are on the same s i d e of
. 3 is12 and Z I ~ .m/-FBE = 20. Draw the
f i g u r e and f lnd :
a. m - / EBA. b. -
m / FBH. C. m /ERC.

Given: Find :

If one of two supplementary angles has a measure of 50 more

than t h e measure of the o t h e r , what I s the measure of each
angle?
The measure of an angle is five times that of Its complement.
Find the measure of each angle.
Under what c o n d i t i o n s are the angles of a linear p a i r
congruent?
Is there a point in the plane of a triangle such t h a t the
p o i n t is n e i t h e r In the exterior nor the i n t e r i o r of a
t r i a n g l e and n e l t h e ~in the i n t e r i o r n o r t h e exterior
of any of l t a angles?
Is the measure of an angle added t o the measure of an angle
t h e measure of an angle? Explain.
23. Could the i n t e r i o r of a t r i a n g l e be considered as t h e
i n t e r s e c t i o n of three h a l f planes? Illustrate.
C
24. How many triangles are in t h i s f i g u r e ?

25. Does m /3AC = m LBAE?

26. Does /BAC = LBAE?
27. Is /ABE supplementary to /EBC?
28. How many angles are Indicated in the
drawing?

Problems 24 - 28.
29. Explain c a r e f u l l y why t h e f o l l o w i n g statement is tme:
If a line m intersects 2 sides of a triangle ARST in
p o i n t s U and V, not t h e vertices of t h e triangle, then
line m does not i n t e r s e c t the third aide.

30. Given in t h e f i g u r e /x 2 /y . Prove: / z 2 /a.

31.
=
B
As C
-
-

-
If you were g i v e n t h a t /a 2 / b and t h a t / x is supplementary
t o /a and that /y is supplementary to L b , what theorem or
postulate would you use to prove t h a t /x 2-/ y?
32. The Angle Measurement Postulate places what limitation on
angle measures?
33, Is t h e following a correct restatement of the Angle
C o n s t r u c t i o n Postulate: Given a ray 8
and a number k
+
between 0 and 180 there is exactly one m y XP such that
m /FXY = k? Explain.
34. By giving i t s name, or by stating it in f u l l , give the
postulate which seems to you to be most appropriate In each
of t h e following cases, i s B reason f o r the statement.

- - -
m / DAC = m / BAC BAD. r+ s = 180.

35. 13 the following statement always t m e ?

If and 8 intersect at 0, then LAOC 2 /-BOD.
 Chapter 5
CONGRUENCES

5-1. - The - of a Congruence.

- -Idea
Roughly speaking, t w o geometric f i g u r e s are congruent if
t h e y have e x a c t l y the same size and shape. For example, in t h e
f i g u r e below, a l l t h r e e triangles are congruent.

One way of d e s c r i " i n 2 t h e situation is t o say that any one of

t h e s e triangles can be moved o n t o any o t h e r one, in s u c h a way
that it fits exactly. T h u s , to show what we mean by saying that
two triangles are c o n g m e n t , we have t o explain what p o i n t s are
sv.pposed t o go where. For example, to move AABC o n t o A DFE,
we should p u t A on E, B on F, and C on D. We can
write down the pairs of corresponding v e r t i c e s l i k e this:
A-E
B-F
C - D.
To d e s c r i b e the congru.ence of t h e first triangle and t h e third,
we should match u p t h e v e r t i c e s like t h i s :
A-G
B-H
c -1,

How would you match up t h e v e r t i c e s to d e s c r i b e the congr\,Ience

o f t h e second triangle w i t h t h e third?
A matching-up scheme of this kind is c a l l e d a one-to-one
correspondence between t h e v e r t i c e s of' t h e two triangles. If
t h e matching-up scheme can be made to work - - that is, if t h e
triangles can be made to fit when the vertices are matched up in
the p r e s c r i b e d - w a y -- then the one-to-one correspondence is
c a l l e d a c o n p u e n c e between the two triangles. For example, the
correspondences that we have j u s t given are congruences. On t h e
other hand, if we write
A-F
B-D
C -E,
t h i s does give us a one-to-one correspondence, but does&n give
us a congruence, because the f i r s t and second triangles cannot be
made to c o i n c i d e by t h i s particular matching-up scheme.
We can write down one-to-one correspondences more b r i e f l y , in
one line, For example, the correspondence
A-E
B-F
C -D,
which is t h e f l r s t example t h a t we gave, can be written in one
line l i k e this:
A E - EFD.
Here it should be understood t h a t the f i r s t letter on the l e f t
corresponds to t h e f l r s t l e t t e r on t h e right, t h e second corres-
ponds t o the second, and t h e t h i r d to the third, l i k e this:
ABC

d
L e t us take one more example.
These t w o f i g u r e s are of the same s i z e a n d shape. To show how one
can be moved o n t o the o t h e r , we s h o u l d match up the v e r t i c e s l l k e
this:
A-H
3-G
C-F
D - E.

These t w o figures are congruent, because the correspondence t h a t

we have w r i t t e n down is a congruent.e, t h a t is, the figures can be
made to fit if the vertices are matched In the given way. For
s h o r t , we can write the congruence In one l i n e , like t h i s :

Notlce t h a t the o r d e r in whlch the matching pairs are written

does not matter. We could have w r i t t e n o u r list of matching
p a i r s t h i s way:
D-E
B-G
C- F
A- H;
and we could have described our one-to-one correspondence in one
line, like t h i s :
DBCA - EGFH,
A l l that matters is which p o i n t 1s matched w i t h which.
It Is quite p o s s i b l e f o r t w o f i g u r e s to be congruent in more
than one way.
Here t h e c.orrespondence
A X - FDE

I s a dil'ferent
-
i s a congruence, and t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e
ABC FED
congruence between the same two figures.
Obviously AABC c o i n c i d e s w i t h i t s e l f . If we agree to match
every v e r t e x w i t 1 1 i t s e l f , we g e t the congruence
A X - A E .
T h i s is called the i d e n t i t y congruence. There i s a n o t h e r way of'
matching u p t h e v e r t i c e s of tllis triangle, however. We can use
t h e correspondence
A X - ACB.
Under t h i s correspondence, the f i g u r e i s made to c o i n c i d e with it-
s e l f , w i t h the v e r t i c e s 3 and C linterchanged. T'Ys is not
p o s s i b l e f o r a l l t r i a n g l e s by any means; it won't work unless at
least two s i d e s of' tiie triangle are o f the same l e n g t h .

--
Problem S e t 5-1

In the p r o b l e m s of this sectlon, t h e r e a r e no t r i c k s in t h e

way t h a t t h e f f g u r e s are dravm. That is, correspondences t h a t
l o o k l i k e congruences when t h e f l g u r e s are measured w l t h r e a s o n -
able c a r e r e a l l y a r e supposed to be congruences. In this s e c t i o n
we are n o t t r y i n g to p r o v e t h i n g s . We a r e merely t r y i n g t o learn,
informally, what the idea of a congruence is all a b o u t ,
1. E e l o w there a r e s i x f i g u r e s . Write down a s many congmences
a s you c a n , between t h e s e figures. (knot c o u n t the iden-
t i t y congruznce between a f i g u r e and i t s e l f b u t r e c a l l t h a t
t h e r e is a congruence between a t r i a n g i e h a v i n g t w o congruent
s l d e s and i t s e l f t h a t is not t h e i d e n t i t y . ) You s h o u l d g e t 6
congruences in a l l . (one congruence i , s DEF -SUT. )

[see. 5-11
2. Answer as in Problem 1: P

3. Answer as in Problem 1:
4. Answer as in Froblem 1:

5. Kame the figures t h a t do n o t have a matching flgure.

6. Which p a i r s o f t h e foilowing f i g u r e s a r e congruent?
7. The trlangle below Is equilateral. That is, AB = AC = BC,
 For t h e triangle on t h e preceding page, write down a l l
congruences between the triangle and I t s e l f , starting w i t h
t h e I d e n t i t y congruence ABZ - A = . (YOU s h o u l d g e t more
than f o u r congruences. )
8. Write down all of the congruences between a square and itself.

9. a. If two figures are each congruent to a t h i r d , are t h e y

congruent t o each other?
b. Is a figure congruent t o i t s e l f ?
c . Can a triangle be congruent t o a square?
d . Are t h e t o p and bottom faces of a cube c o n g r u e n t ?
e . Are two adjacent f a c e s of a cube congruent?
f . Are the t o p and bottom faces of a rectangular b l o c k , such
as a b r i c k , congruent?
g. Are two adjacent faces of a b r i c k congruent?
10. P i c k out t h e pairs of congruent f i g u r e s .
11. Write down t h e four congruences of this f i g u r e with Itself.

12. Suppose A , B, and C are t h r e e p o i n t s of a line as shown with

AB = BC.

a. Describe a motion of t h e line t h a t takes A to where B

was. Does it necessarily take B t o C ?
b. Describe a motion o f the line t h a t interchanges A and C.
13. Under what conditions can the following pairs of figures be
made t o coincide by moving one in space without changing I t s
,size and shape? (1t is understood that this moving is done
a b s t r a c t l y in the mind. One figure can move t?-rough another
so t h a t a s o l i d can be moved onto another s o l i d of the same
size and shape. For example, one segment can be moved to
c o i n c i d e w i t h a n o t h e r if they have the same length. One
sphere can b e moved to c o i n c i d e w i t h another if t h e i r radii
a r e the same length. )
a . Two segments.
b. Two angles.
c. Two r a y s .
d . Two c i r c l e s .
e . Two c u b e s .
f. Two points.
g . Two lines.
14. Given a clrcle containing three p o i n t s A , B, C as shown, with
t h e a r e from A to B the same length aa t h e a r c from B

a. D e s c r i b e how t h e c i r c l e may be moved to take A to where

B w a s and B to where C was,
b, Describe how the c i r c l e may be moved t o leave B f i x e d
but t o interchange A and C,
15. Suppose that the following ornamental f r i e z e extends infln-
i t e l y in b o t h directions, as a line does.

a. Describe motions of two different types that induce con-

gruencea of t h e frieze with i t s e l f . How many such con-
gruences are there a l t o g e t h e r ?
b. Do the same f o r t h i s f r i e z e .
6 Which o f the following figures can be f i t t e d onto each o t h e r ?
For each m a t c h e d p a i r , t e l l whether you must t u r n t h e f i g u r e
o v e r in space as well as slide and r o t a t e it in a plane t o
make it f i t on the o t h e r so t h a t all segments f i t .

The f i g u r e below is a five-pofnted s t a r .

Wrlte down all o f the congruences between t h e star and itself.

To save time and paper, l e t u s agree t h a t a congruence f o r
t h i s figure is sufficiently d e s c r i b e d if we say where the
p o i n t s A, B, C, D, E of t h e s t a r are supposed t o g o . F o r ex-
ample, one of the congruences t h a t we are looking f o r can be
w r i t t e n as ABCDE -BCDEA.
5-2. Conqruences between T r i a n g l e s .
I n t h e preceding s e c t i o n , w e have explained the basic i d e a of
what a congruence is. L e t u s now g i v e some mathematical d e f i n i -
tions so t h a t we can t a l k about congruence in a c a r e f u l way, in
terms of distance and angular measure, instead of having t o talk
loosely about things falling on each o t h e r .
For angles and segments, It is easy t o say e x a c t l y what we

Deflnltions. Angles are congruent if they have t h e same

measure. Segments are congruent if t h e y have t h e same length.
The f i r s t definition above is merely a repetition from S e c t i o n

Analogous t o Theorem 4-2 f o r angles we have a theorem f o r

Theorem 5-1. Every segment is c o n g m e n t t o i t s e l f .

We sometimes r e f e r to t h e s e two theorems by t h e term i d e n t i t y
congruence.
J u s t as we lndlcate that L A and L B are congruent, by
writing L A 2 LB, so we may write
B2cD
to
-
i n d i c a t e t h a t the segments AB and CD a r e congruent. In the
t z b l e below, the equation on t h e ieft and t h e congruence on t h e
r i g h t i n each line may be used interchangeably:
1. m L A = m LB. 1. L A 2 LB.
-+-
2 . AB = CD. 2. AB = CD.
Each of t h e e q u a t i o n s on the l e f t is an equation between numbers.
The f i r s t says that rn L A and m L B are exactly t h e same
number. The second says t h a t the distance AB and the d i s t a n c e
CD a r e e x a c t l y t h e same number.
Each of t h e conaruences on t h e r i g h t is a congruence between
geometric figures. We do not write = between two geometric f i g -
u r e s unless we mean that t h e f i g u r e s are exactly t h e same, and
110

o c c a s i ~ n swhen we mean this are r a r e . One example is this:

Here it I s c o r r e c t t o write
L B A C = LEAD,
because LBAC and LEAD a r e n o t merely congruent, t h e y are ex-
- -
act1 -
2 the same
- angle. Similarly, AB and are always exactly
t h e same segment, a n d so it is correct t o write AB = m.
Consider now a correspondence
A X DEF -
between t h e vertices o f two triangles AABC and ADEF.

This automatically g i v e s us a correspondence between t h e sides of

-
t h e t r i a n g l e s , l f k e this:
- -
---
AB
-
AC
-
DE
DF
BC -EF
and it g i v e s us a correspondence between t h e angles of t h e two
triangles, like thls:
LA-LD
LB
LC
-
- LE
LF.
 We can now s t a t e t h e definition o f a congruence between two
triangles.
Definition.
-
Glven a correspondence
ABC DEF
between t h e v e r t i c e s of t w o triangles. If every p a i r of corres-
ponding sides are congruent, and e v e r y p a i r of corresponding
angles a r e congruent, then t h e correspondence ABC-DEF is a
congruence between -- t h e two t r i a n g l e s .
You s h o u l d read t h i s definition at l e a s t t w i c e , very care-
f u l l y , to make s u r e t h a t it says what a d e f l n i t i o n of t h e Idea of
a congruence between triangles ought to say.
T h e r e is a shorthand f o r writing congruences between triangles.
When we write
L A 2 LD,
t h i s means t h a t t h e two angles LA and LD are congruent. h hat
is, rn L A = m L D.) Similarly, when we write
AAX 2 ADEF,
this rr~eanst h a t the correspondence
ABC - DEF
Is a congruence. Notice t h a t this is a very e f f i c i e n t s h o r t h a n d :
t h e single expression AABC 5 ADEF t e l l s us s i x things at once;
name ly,
AB = DE
-AB 2
AC = DF
-AC 2 DF
BC = EF ZgEF
mLA = mLD L A 2 LD
m L B = mLE L B 2 LE
m L C = mLF. L C 2 LF.
In each of t h e s e s i x I l n e s , the e q u a t i o n s on the l e f t and t h e con-
gruences on the r i g h t mean t h e same thing, and we can choose
elther notation at any t i m e , according t o convenience. U s u a l l y
-*-
we will write AB = DE, i n s t e a d of AB = DE, simply because It is
easier t o write. F o r the same reason, we will usually write
L A ~ L Dinsteadof mLA=mL:D.
 It Is sometimes convenient to i n d i c a t e a congruence graph-
i c a l l y by making marks on t h e corresponding sides and angles,
like t h i s :

AABC 2 ADEF
We can a l s o u s e t h i s method t o i n d i c a t e that certain corresponding
p a r t s of two f i g u r e s a r e congruent, whether or not we know about
o t h e r parts.

The marks in t h e f i g u r e i n d i c a t e t h a t (1) AB = DE, (2) AC = DF

and ( 3 ) m L A = m L D .
Question: Would it be correct to write AB 2 DE, or
L A = LD? Wny o r why n o t ?
It seems pretty c l e a r , in t h e above f i g u r e , t h a t the congru-
ences we have i n d i c a t e d a r e enough t o guarantee t h a t t h e c o r r e s -
pondence ABC-DEF is a congruence. That is, If these t h r e e
pairs o f corresponding parts are congruent, t h e triangles must
a l s o be congruent, In f a c t , this is the content o f t h e basic con
gruence postulate, t o be s t a t e d in the next s e c t i o n .
 P r o b l e m Set 5-2

AABF 2 A NRQ. Complete the following list by telling what

s h o u l d go in the blanks. M-Q
LA 2 L M .
-
AF = -.
?r

DABR 2 AFBFI. L i s t t h e s i x pairs of corresponding, con-

gruent p a r t s of t h e s e two triangles.
?r
3. A2.M = AF1IW. L i s t t h e six pairs of corresponding, con-
gruent p a r t s of the;e triangles. (1t is not necessary to have
a picture b u t you may make a s k e t c h if you w i s h . )
. ARQF 2 AABX. List the six palrs of corresponding congruent
p a r t s of t h e s e t r i a n g l e s . Do not use a figure.
5. AAZW 2 ABZW. List the s i x pairs of corresponding, con-
gruent p a r t s o f t h e s e t r i a n g l e s .
6. Here is a list of the SIX pairs of corresponding parts o f two
congruent t r i a n g l e s . Give t h e names of the two t r i a n g l e s t h a t
would fit in the blanks be low.
-*-
AB = MK. L A 2 LM.
rn ZKF, d B 2 LK.
rn m.
2 L W2 L F .
I,
- A .
A-
7. If AABC 2 AXYZ and ADEF 2 AXYZ, what can be s a i d about
t h e relationship of AABC t o ADEF? S t a t e a theorem gener-
alizing t h i s situation.
8.

A
3 in

a. Using r u l e r and protractor, draw a triangle ABC in which

AB is 3 i n c h e s long, J X is 2 inches long and angle
B 1 s 50'. Compare your t r l a n g l e with those of o t h e r mem-
bers of the class.
b. Draw AABC In which AC is 3 inches long, PC is 4
i n c h e s l o n g and angle C is 70°, Compare triangles.
c . Draw AABC w i t h AB 3 inches long and BC 2 i n c h e s
long. Make LB any size that s u i t s your fancy, Compare
triangles.
d. If these t h r e e exercises suggest t o you an idea concerning
a congruence between two triangles, try to s t a t e or write
this :dea for t r i a n g l e s In general.
9. a. Given that A A E and ADEF do n o t i n t e r s e c t , and that
X is a p o i n t between B and C. Tell which of the sym-
'
I,
b o l s =, = may be iilled in t h e b l a n k s to make the s t a t e -
m e n t s meaningful and possibly t r u e .
1. bABG - ADEF .
2. m L A - m L D.
- -
DE.
3. AB -
4. IX - EF .
5. . B - LC.
L
6. LABX- LAX.
7 . m L ABX -m L EDF.
b. Which of t h e blanks c o u l d have been filled with e i t h e r =
or = ?
c. If
-
had been the same segment a s DE but, if C were
a different p o i n t than F, which b l a n k c o u l d have been
f i l l e d by = t h a t should otherwise have been filled by 2 ?

5-3. -- Congruence P o s t u l a t e .
The Basic
To g e t a t the facts on congruences o f triangles, we need one
new p o s t u l a t e . In t h e name o f t h i s postulate, S.A.S. s t a n d s f o r
Side Angle Slde.

1 Postulate a. he S . A . S . ~ o s t u l a t e r ) Given a (
correspondence between t w o triangles (or between a
t r i a n g l e n a n d itself). If two s i d e s and the included
angle o f the f i r s t t r i a n g l e are congruent t o the
corresponding p a r t s of the second triangle, then t h e
correspondence is a congruence.
To i l l u s t r a t e t h i s , we repeat t h e previous figure.
The postulate means t h a t if
-I*-
A3 = DE,
-
AC = I r -
DF
and
LA- 2 LD,
as i n d i c a t e d i n the figure, then
AABC 2 ADEF;
that is, the correspondence ABC-DEF is a congruence.
It is very i m p o r t a n t t o n o t l c e t h a t in t h e S . A . S . P o s t u l a t e ,
t h e given angle is t h e angle included between t h e t w o given sides,
l i k e this:

Under these conditions, the S.A.S. P o s t u l a t e says that the c o r r e s -

pondence AX-DEF is a congmence. If we h e w merely t h a t some -
one angle and some two s i d e s , o f the first triangle were congruent
t o t h e corresponding p a r t s o f the second triangle, then it would

-
not necessarily follow t h a t t h e correspondence was a congruence.
For example, c o n s i d e r t h i s figure:

Here AB DE, L A 2 L D , BC = EF. Note that LA and L D a r e

=

n o t included by t h e pairs of congruent s i d e s , This-

correspondence
I s certainly n o t a congruence, because it matches AC w l t h E,

Esec. 5-31 I
 L B with LE, and L C with L F . Since these are not congruences,
the definition of congruence between triangles is not s a t i s f l e d .

5-4. Writing Your Own Proofs.

You now have enough basic material to be a b l e to write r e a l
geometric p r o o f s o f your own. From now on, writing your own
proofs wlll be a very important part of your work, and the chances
are that it will be more f'un t h a n r e a d i n g o t h e r peoplets p r o o f s .
Let US t a k e a c o u p l e of examples, t o suggest how we go a b o u t
finding p r o o f s a n d writing them up.
Example - 1. If two segments bisect each o t h e r , the segments join-
i n g t h e e n d s or the g i v e n sements are congruent.
-
Given: AR and bisect each o t h e r a t F.

B
S t a r t i n g to work on a problem l i k e t h i s , we should f i r s t draw
a f i g u r e and l e t t e r it, u s i n g a capital letter for e a c h v e r t e x .
Then, s t a t e t h e hypothesis and conclusion in terms of the l e t t e r -
ing of t h e figure.
Next, we d i v i d e the page into two columns as shown, and write
in t h e headings S t a t e m e n t s and Reasons.
All t h i s , o f c o u r s e , isn't going t o do u s a b i t of good un-
l e s s we c a n t h i n k o f a proof to write down.
Since our o b j e c t i s t o prove two segments congru-ent, we must
r e c a l l what we know about congruent segments. Looking b a c k we can
f i n d the definition of congruent segments, of congruent trlangles,
and the S . A . S . P o s t u l a t e . These are the a v a i l a b l e weapons about
congruent segments In o u r arsenal, and a t this point t h e search is
short, because o u r arsenal is small.
 To a p p l y t h e postulate, we have to s e t up a correspondence
b e t w e e n t w o triangles, in such a way t h a t two s i d e s and t h e i n -
c l u d e d angle of t h e f i r s t t r i a n g l e a r e congruent t o t h e corres-
ponding p a r t s of t h e second t r i a n g l e . From the figure, this
correspondence looks as if it ought t o be
AFB-RFH .
Two pairs o f sides are congruent, because we have from t h e g i v e n
d a t a and the d e f i n i t i o n of b i s e c t that
AF = RF and BF = HF.
How about the i n c l u d e d angles, LAFB and LRFH? We need to b o w
t h a t t h e y are congruent, t o o . And they are, because they are v e r t i -
c a l angles. Tnerefore, by t h e S.A.S. P o s t u l a t e , o u r correspondence
is a congruence. The sides AB and
- are corresponding s i d e s ,
and so they a r e congruent. This is what we wanted t o prove.
Written down in t h e double-column form, our proof would l o o k
like this:
-
Given: AR and b i s e c t each other
at F. A
- ? r -
TO prove: AB = R H .
R+ B

Statements Reasons
1. AF = RF Deflnition of bisect.
1.
2. EF = HF. 2. D e f i n i t i o n of b i s e c t .
3. L A F B ~LRFH. 3. V e r t i c a l angles a r e
congruent .
11. A A F B Z ARFH. 4 . The S . A . S . P o s t u l a t e .
-*-
5. AB = RH. 5 , D e f i n i t i o n of a congruence
between triangles.
This is g i v e n merely as a sample o f how your work might look.
There is a limit to how "standard" we can expect the form of a
proof t o be. For example, in this p r o o f we have i n d i c a t e d con-
gruences between segments by writing AF = RF and BF = HF, and
SO
- Ir- - I r e
on. We c o u l d j u s t as w e l l have wrltten AF = RF, BF = HF, a n d
so o n , because in e a c h case t h e congruence between t h e segments
and the equation between t h e d i s t a n c e s mean t h e same thing,
 There a r e o n l y two really important things in writing proof's.
F i r s t , what you rvrite should szy what you r e a l l y mean. Second,
t h e t h f n g s that you r e a l l y mean should form a c o m p l e t e logical
explanation of why t h e theorem is t r u e .
By now, you should have t h e idea, and so we give our second
example in sn incomplete i'orm. Your problem is to fill in t h e
blank spaces in such a way as t o g e t a p r o o f . H
Example 2 .
-,I,-
Given; AH
d
= FH.
HS bi sec t s LAHF.
To p r o v e : LA 2 LF.

Statements lieason s
-
-

1.
---
AH = FH.
I
1. Given.
2. 2. Definition of t h e b i s e c t o r
o f an a n g l e .
--"-
3. HB = HB. 3. E v e r y segment is congruent
to i t i s e l f .
4.
5. L A 2 LJ?.

A mistake o f t e n made. in p r o o f s i s t h a t t h e s t u d e n t assumes a s

true the v e r y thlng he is trying t o prove t o be t r u e . A n o t h e r
common mistake is t o use a s a reason in his p r o o f a theorem which
is actually a consequence o f t h e f a c t t h a t he i s trying t o p r o v e .
Such argume~tsare c a l l e d c i r c u l a r arguments, and are worthless
as l o g i c a l p r o o f s .
A p a r t i c u l a r l y bad k i n d of' circular argument is t h e u s e of
t h e theorem we a r e t r y i n g to p r o v e as a reason f o r one o f t h e
s t e p s In i t s " p r o o f " .
 Problem -- S e t 5-4
-
(Note: In some of t h e following problems we make use of a square.
A s q u a r e ABCD is a p l a n e figure t h a t is t h e u n i o n of f o u r con-
g r u e n t segments AB, E,
- m, DA such t h a t L A X , L E D , LCDA,
L D A B are r i g h t angles. The s q u a r e w i l l be d i s c u s s e d in a l a t e r
c h a p t e r of t h e t e x t ; . )
1. In each p a i r of triangles, if l i k e markings indicate congruent
p a r t s , which t r i a n g l e s c o u l d be p r o v e d congruent by S . A . S . ?
2, In the f i g u r e it is ~ i v e n
-
t h a t AE i n t e r s e c t s BD a t
C, that AC = DC and EC -: GC.
Show ( i . e . , prove) t h a t
LB 2 LE. Copy the follow- B E
ing proof and s u p p l y the missing reasons.

Statements Reasons

1. AC=CD. 1. Given.
2. PC = EC.
3. LACB: LEE. 3. angles are
congruent.
4. AACB 2 ADZE. 4. . [Note t h a t
Statement 3 r e f e r s t o anales
and Statement 4 t o t r i a n g l e s ,
so t h a t your r e a s o n here
should refer to triangles].
5. LB 2 LE. 5. Corresponding p a r b o f con-
g r u e n t t r i a n g l e s are ,

3. Suppose in t h i s f i g u r e
-+-
RB = HB, Lx 2 ~y and
-
3 is the m i d p o i n t of AF.
Show that LRZ LH.

Copy and complete t h e f o l l o w i n g proof

1.
---
RB =
Statements
HB.
Reasons

2. L X = Ly. 2. Given.
3. From the d e f i n i t i o n of mid-
point.
4. S.A.S.

Csec. 5-41
122 D C

4. a. If is a square and
ABCD
-
R is the m i d p o i n t o f AB,
prove t h a t RC = RD. ( s e e
note preceding Problem 1.)
b. What pairs o f congruent
acute angles appear In t h e A B
R
f i g u r e ? Prove your answer.
5. In this f i g u r e AB = FH and
rn L x = m L g .
Show that rn L A = m L F.

A
6. In t h i s f i g u r e it is g i v e n
that m L A B H = m L FBH,
AB = FB. P r o v e AH = FH.
A F
7. P r o v e t h a t if segments m, bisect e a c h o t h e r at p o i n t F,
then A F A B Z AFHR.

8. Prove: If the l i n e segments

-
AD and bisect each o t h e r ,
then AB = IX: and AC = DB. A

9. a, Given: Square ABCD, R is

-
the m i d p o i n t o f AB, F is a D
p o i n t between A and D, Q F-
is a p o i n t between C and B,
DF = CQ. To prove: RF = RQ.
b. Are t h e r e two o t h e r p o i n t s
F ' , 4' of square ABCD not on
-
AD or such t h a t RF.' = R Q ' ?
A R
Wnere a r e t h e y ?

10. Suppose in this f i g u r e t h a t

AB = AH and t h a t AT b i s e c t s
LHAB. Prove t h a t FH = FB.

A
5-5. Overlapping Triangle a . Using -
the F i g u r e -
in Statements.
Frequently in geometric f i g u r e s , the triangles that we need
to work with a r e n o t e n t i r e l y separate but overlap, l i k e AAFTI
and AFAH in t h e f i g u r e below.
R

The e a s i e s t way t o a v o i d getting mixed up, and making mistakes, in

d e a l i n g w i t h s u c h cases, is t o write down congruences in a stand-
ard f o r m , l i k e t h i s ,
AAFM 2 AFAH,
Check t h a t the correspondence AFM-FAH r e a l l y is a congruence,
and t h e n later refer back to AAFM 2 AFAH when we want t o con-
c l u d e that two corresponding s i d e s (or corresponding angles) a r e
congruent.
Of course, if you don't see the congruences between t h e over-
lapping t r i a n g l e s , you w i l l have nothing to c h e c k and nothing to
apply l a t e r . To practice u p , w r i t e all t h e congruences t h a t you
can between triangles c o n t a i n e d I n t h e flgure above, if it is
given t h a t AR = FR and M, H, B are t h e m i d p o i n t s o f t h e r e s -
pective sides,
L e t us now look a t a c a s e In which this s o r t o f t h i n g comes
up in the proof of a theorem.
Given: HA = HF.
HM = HQ.
Toprove: F N = A Q .

A F
 A very common way to prove t h a t t w o segments a r e congruent i s
t o show t h a t t h e segments are corresponding sides of c o n g m e n t
triangles. If t h i s way can be used successfully h e r e , then t h e
-
first t h i n g t o do is locate the t r i a n g l e s which c o n t a i n FM a n d
-
AQ. These are AHMF and AHQA, and t h e s e triangles o v e r l a p
q u i t e a b i t . Now t h e problem becomes one of proving the t r i a n g l e s
c o n g r u e n t . The proof in t h e double-column form goes l i k e this:
Statements Reasons
1. HA = HF. I. Given.
2. LH LH. 2. An angle is congruent t o
itself.
3. HM=HQ: 3. Why?
4. AHMF 2 AHQA. 4. Why?
5. F'M = A&. 5. Why?
A s t r i c t l y logical proof must n o t depend on a figure b u t must
f o l l o w f r o m the postulates, t h e definitions, and t h e previously
proved theorems. But geometers in p r a c t i c e use figures as a matter
of convenience, and readily accept many observable facts without
a t e d i o u s restatement in words, unless such a restatement is essen-
t i a l t o clarifying the p r o b l e m at hand.
To illustrate, let us look at a restatement o f Example - 1 used
previously.
Example 1. Let A, B , F, H and R be five non-collinear
p o i n t s l y i n g in a p l a n e . If (1) F i s between A and R, ( 2 ) F
is between B and H, ( 3 ) AF = FR, and (4) BF = FH, t h e n ( 5 )
AB = RH.
T h i s conveys all the Information conveyed by t h e f i g u r e on t h e
left and the notation on t h e r l g h t below.

Given:
-
AR and BH b i s e c t each
o t h e r at F.
To prove: iTE 2 RH.
 4 d

Notice t h a t (1) tells u s t h a t FA and FR are o p p o s i t e rays, and

4 a
( 2 ) t e l l s us t h a t FB and FH are o p p o s i t e rays. These two
things, taken t o g e t h e r , mean t h a t LAFB and LRFH a r e vertical
angles. ( s e e definition o f vertical angles.) This is the s o r t o f
information that we normally read from a figure.
In stating problems in t h i s t e x t we will frequently avoid
t e d i o u s r e p e t i t i o n by r e f e r r i n g to a f i g u r e . You -
can use the f i g -
u r e t o give the collinearity of points, the o r d e r of points on a
line, the location o f a p o i n t in t h e i n t e r i o r or exterior o f an
angle o r in a certain half-plane, and, in general, the relative
position of points, lines, and p l a n e s . Things you cannot assume
because "they look that way" to you are the congruence of' segments
or angles, that a certain p o i n t is a m i d p o i n t of a segment, t h a t
two lines are p e r p e n d i c u l a r , nor t h a t two angles are complementary.

Problem S e t 5-5
If in t h i s f i g u r e
AC = DB,
LACF 2 LDBE and
FC = EB,
prove that AF = DE.
2. In this f i g u r e IX = ED
AC = AD and C
LACE 2 LADB.
prove AACE ?%DB. A

Proof: ( ~ f l lin the b l a n k s . ) 0

Statements
E
1. ==ED. 1. Given.
2.
3. Addition, from statements
1 and 2 .
4. AC = AD.
5. LACE 2 LADB.
6.

Csec. 5-51
3. P r o v e t h a t t h e diagonals of a
square are of equal length.
( S e e n o t e preceding Problem 1
o f Problem S e t 5 4 .)
Given: AEFH is a square.
To p r o v e : A F = BH. A 8

4. In this f i g u r e LAHW 2 LRHQ

and F i s the midpoint o f m.
Can you p r o v e AWEF 2 AQHF?
Explaln.
5. a . If ABFH i s a square and AX,
-
-
BY are congruent segments on
4 4-
t h e rays AH, BF respectively,
-
show t h a t AY, a r e congruent
Restatement :
Given: ABFH is a s q u a r e .
+ +
X, Y are p o i n t s of AH, RF,
respectively.
-% -
AX = EY.
-* -
To p r o v e : AY = BX.
b . In t h e f i g u r e , X is between A and H, and Y is between
B and F. Would t h e p r o o f be affected if H were between
A and X, and F were between 3 and Y?
6. Suppose it is g i v e n in t h i s
f Fgure t h a t AH = BF, r = m
and x = y . Prove t h a t HB = FA. H
H

A B

A
7.
-If in the f i g u r e AR lm,
BRLm, AR = RX and BR = RY,
prove t h a t AB = XY. B

Esec. 5-51
 ,-
5-0. -The I s o s c e l e s Triangle Theorem. The Angle B i s e c t o r Theorem.
A t t h e end of S e c t i o n 5-1 we mentioned t h e case o f matching
up t h e v e r t i c e s of a triangle AABC in which at l e a s t two sides
o f t h e triangle a r e of t h e same l e n g t h . This, in f a c t , is t h e
case t h a t we d e a l w f t h i n o u r f i r s t formally s t a t e d congruence
theorem:
Theorem 5 - 2 , If two s i d e s o f a triangle are congruent, then
t h e a n g l e s opposite t i * se sides are congruent.
Restatement: G i v e n a triangle A A E . If AB = AC, t h e n
LB 5 L C .

C o n s i d e r t h e correspondence
Proof:
ABC ACB, -
between A ABC and itself. Under this correspondence, we see t h a t
m-
-
AC
L A
AC,
-
AB,-
- LA.
Thus t w o sides and t h e i n c l u d e d angle o f A ABC a r e congruent t o
the p a r t s t h a t c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e m . By t h e S.A.S. P o s t u l a t e , t h i s
means t h a t
AAEC 2 AACB,
t h a t is, t h e correspondence AX-ACB is a congruence. By t h e
d e f i n i t i o n of a congruence between t r i a n g l e s a l l pairs of c o r r e s -
ponding p a r t s a r e congruent. T h e r e f o r e
LB 2 L C ,
because t h e s e angles a r e corresponding parts.
We now show how t h e above proof loolrs in t w o - c o l m form.
The same f i g u r e is used.
 Theorem 5 - 2 . If two s i d e s of a t r i a n g l e are congruent, then
the angles opposite t h e s e s i d e s a r e c o n g r u e n t .
Given: A A B C w i t h ABzAC.
TO prove: LB 2 LC.
Proof:
Statements Reasons
-n,
1. A 3 = E. 1. Glven
- *-
AC = AB.
2. LA2 LA. 1 2. I d e n t i t y congruence.
3. S t e p s 1 a n d 2 and the S . A . S .
Postulate.
! . 1B 2 L C . 4. Definition of a congruence
between triangles.

Usually, we will s t a t e theorems In words, as we have s t a t e d

Theorem 5-2, and t h e n restate them, u s i n g n o t a t i o n which w i l l be
the n o t a t i o n of the p r o o f .
DefinitJons. A t r i a n g l e w i t h two congruent s5des 1s cailed
i s o s c e l e s . The remaining side is t h e base, The t w o angles that
i n c l u d e t h e base a r e base angles,
In t h e s e t e r m s , we can s t a t e Theorem 5-2 in t h l s form:
"The base angles of an i s o s c e l e s triangle are congruent."
Definitions. A triangle whose t h r e e sides are congruent is
c a l l e d equilateral. A triangle no two of whose sides a r e congru-
e n t is c a l l e d s c a l e n e .
D e f i n i t i o n . A t r i a n g l e is equiangular if a l l three of i t s
angles a r e congruent.
Using t h e term equiangular we s t a t e a theorem which r e a d i l y
follows from Theorem 5 - 2 . We denote this theorem as C o r o l l a r y
5-2-1. A corollarx is a theorem which I s an easy consequence of
another theorem. The proof of Corollary 5-2-1 is l e f t f o r you t o
do.
Corollary 5-2-1. Every e q u i l a t e r a l triangle is equiangular,
In p r o v i n g theorems f o r yourself, you will need to make your
own figures. It i s important to draw figures in such a way t h a t
they remind you o r what you h o w , without suggesting more t h a n you
h o w . For example, t h e f i g u r e g i v e n in t h e proof of Theorem 5-2
l o o k s l i k e an i s o s c e l e s t r i a n g l e , and this is as it s h o u l d b e ,
because the hypothesis of t h e theorem says t h a t t h e triangle h a s
t w o congruent s i d e s . In t h e figure for the S.A.S. P o s t u l a t e , it
l o o k s a s if A A E 2 ADEF, and t h i s is as it s h o u l d b e , because
t h i s is t h e sltuation d e a l t with in t h e p o s t u l a t e . But it would
n o t have been good t o draw i s o s c e l e s triangles t o illustrate t h e
S .A.S. P o s t u l a t e , because t h i s would suggest t h i n g s t h a t t h e pos-
tulate doesn't say.
-+
D e f i n i t i o n . A ray AD b i s e c t s , o r is a b i s e c t o r o f , a n
angle LBAC if D is in the i n t e r i o r of LBAC, and LBAD 2 L D A C .

4
Note that if AD bisects LBAC, then rn LBAD = m LDAC
-
- 2m LBAC.
Theorem 5-3. E v e r y angle has exactly one b i s e c t o r .
Proof: Given LA. I3y the P o i n t Plotting Theorem we can find
B and C, p o i n t s on the s i d e s of LA, such t h a t (1) AB = A C .

Let D be t h e mid-point of PC, so that (2) DB = DC. Since

AB = AC, i t follows by Theorem 5-2 t h a t (3) L B Z L C . h his
f o l l o w s even though t h e i s o s c e l e s t r i a n g l e A A E is "lying on its
s i d e . " ) From (I), (2) and ( 3 ) , and the S.A.S. P o s t u l a t e it
follows t h a t AABD 2 AACD.
T h e r e f o r e , LBAD 5 L C A D , and so rn L BAD = rn L CAD. Ry t h e d e f I-
n i t i o n o r b i s e c t o r o f a n angle, t h i s means t h a t 5
b i s e c t s LBAC.
To justify o u r u s e of t h e word "exactly" we must prove that
& is the only ray h a v i n g this p r o p e r t y . Suppose t h e r e is a ray
& a l s o a b i s e c t o r of L A . Then rn L C A D = ~ L C A E , s l n c e each of
1
I
t h e s e equals - m L B A C . Applying t h e Angle Constructlon P o s t u -
2 e
l a t e t o t h e h a l f - p l a n e w l t h AC a s edge shows t h a t we m u s t h a v e
2 = A?, t h a t is, 3 and 3 s t a n d f o r t h e same r a y . Hence,
there is exactly one b i s e c t o r .
The f o l l o w i n g d e f i n i t i o n s are u s e f u l In d i s c u s s i n g properties
of triangles .
D e f i n i t i o n . A median - of-a triangle Is a segment whose end-
p o i n t s a r e one vertex of t h e triangle and t h e mid-point o f t h e
opposite s i d e .
D e f i n i t i o n . An a n g l e b i s e c t o r -
of-a t r i a n ~ l eis a segment
whose end-points are one v e r t e x of t h e triangle and a p o i n t o f t h e
opposite s i d e which lies in the ray bisecting the angle at t h e
given v e r t e x .
Note t h a t every triangle has t h r e e medians and t h r e e angle
b i s e c t o r s . The flgure shows one median and one angle b i s e c t o r of
AABC. BM is
-

t h e median from
d k l
A

B, and
T M C

is the angle b i s e c t o r from B.

Problem S e t 5-6

1. In t h e f i g u r e AB = AC. We
start the proof that
Lrn 2 Ln. Complete this
p r o o f supplying reasons.
 Proof: Statements Reasons

1.
2. Lm
LABC 2 LACB.
I
is s u p p l e m e n t a r y t o 2 .
LABC.
L n is supplementary t o
L ACE.
3. Lrn 2 Ln. 3.

2. Given: In t h e f i g u r e FA = FD F
and AB .= DC.
Prove : AAFB 2 ADFC ,
AFBC 2 AFCB.

A B C D
E
- u -
3. If in the f i g u r e EB = EC,
prove t h a t LEBA 2 LECD.

- --
A B C 0
4. If' AB = AC and DB = DC in
the plane f i g u r e , show t h a t
LABD 2 LACD.

5. If AC = AB and CD = BD in
t h e plane f i g u r e , show
LACD 2 LABD.
6. Give a paragraph proof rather
than a two-column proof of t h e
following:
Given: X a n d Y are t h e mid-
points o f t h e congruent s i d e s
-
AC and of t n e isosceles
triangle ABC.
A B
TO p r o v e : LCXYz LCYX.
7. P r o v e Corollary 5-2-1. ( E v e r y equilateral triangle is
equiangular. ) A
8. Given e q u i l a t e r a l triangle
ABC with Q, R and P, the m i d -
p o i n t s of the sides a s shown.
Prove t h a t APW is e q u i l a t e r a l .

- C R B
9. Prclve t h e following: If median FQ o f AFAB is perpendicular
t o side
-
4B, then AFAB is i s o s c e l e s .

5-7. The Angle S i d e Angle Theorem.

Theorem 5 - h . he A . S . A . T h e o r e m . ) Given a correspondence
between two triangles, ( o r tetween a t r i a n s l e and i t s e l f ) . If two
angles and the i n c l u d e d side o f t h e first triangle are congruent
t o the co~respondingp a r t s of t h e second t r i a n g l e , t h e n the e o r r e s -
pondence is a congruence.
Zestatenent: L e t AK-D3F be a correspondence between two
triangles. If L A 2 LD,
.4B = DE,
LE: LE,
then AAX: ADEF.
#

A E
Proof: Statenents Reasons
+
1. On t h e ray DF t h e r e is a 1. The P o i n t P l o t t i n g Theorem.
point silcn t h a t DF1 = A C .
F1+ I
. A 5 = DE and m L A = m L D . 2. I Given.
3. AABC 2 ADEFI . 13. The S.A.S. Postulate.
4. L A X 2 LDEF', , D e f i n i t i o n of a congruence
between triangles.
5. LABC 2 LDEF. 5. Given.
6. LDSF' 2 LDEF, 6. S t e p s ! t and 5, and t h e
definition of congruent
angles.
' ,
3
EF and
+
E3" are t h e same 7 . S t e p 6 and P o s t u l a t e 1 P .
f, f,
8. F = F t . ray. 8. Two llnes (EF and DF) in-
1 t e r s e c t in at most one
potnt.
3. AAXZ ADEF. 13. Statements 3 and 8 .

The proofs of t h e followLng theorem and corollary a r e left

t o the s t y - d e n t . The p r o o f s are analogous t o t h o s e of Theorem 5-2
and Corollary 5-2-1.
Theorem 5-5. If two a n g l e s o f a triangle are congruent, t h e
s i d e s opposite t h e s e a n g l e s a r e congruent.
C o r o l l a r y 5-5-1. An e q u i a n g u l a r t r i a n g l e i s e q u i l a t e r a l .

Problem S e t 5-7

1. In some p a r t s of t h i s exercise there is not enough information

to e n a b l e you t o prove t h e two triangles are congruent even i f you
use a l l o t h e r facts t h a t you h o w , f o r example, t h a t " v e r t i c a l
a n g l e s a r e congruent". If it can be proved t h a t the two triangles
are congruent, name the statement (A.s.A. or S . A . S . ) supporting
your conclusion; if t h e r e is not enough information given to prove
t h e triangles a r e congruent, name a n o t h e r p a i r of c o n g r u e n t parts
that would e n a b l e you t o prove them c o n g r u e n t . I f t h e r e a r e two
possibilities, name both.
 Glven o n l y that
Given only that
Given o n l y that
and LC 2 Ld.

Given o n l y t h a t
Given o n l y t h a t

Given o n l y t h a t LXFY
Given only t h a t LXYF

2. In accordance w i t h t h e specifications a t t h e left, list t h e

data which vrould c o r r e c t l y f i l l the blanks.
a. S i d e , angle, s i d e o f AABH:
-
-, HB.
b. Angle, s i d e , angle of AABH:
-
-9 IlB, -
c. Angle, s i d e , angle o f ABFH:
LF, -, L HBF, F
d. S i d e , angle, side of ABFH: A

3. F o l l o w t h e directions of Problem 2 .
a. Angle, s i d e , angle o f AABF:
-
f BF, -.
b. Side, angle, s i d e of ARAF: R
-, LRY -.
c . S l d e , angle, s i d e of ARAE:
-' LB, -.
d. Side, angie, s i d e of ARAB:
- -
BR, -9 RA . A
e. Angle, side, angle o f ARAF:
L R , - L RFA.
f. A n g l e , s i d e , angle o f AAFB:
L FAB, m, -,
F o l l o w t h e d i r e c t i o n s of Problem 2 .
a. S i d e , angle, s i d e o f AI-IFB:
-, LEIRF, -.
b. Angle, sFde, angle o f AABFI:
-
' HR, --
c. Side, a n g l e , s i d e o i ' AHPB:
- -
HB, -, BF.
d. Angle, s i d e , a n g l e of A'l-IFB:
-
' BF, -.
e. Side, a n g l e , s i d e o f AABH:
- -
AH, -, AB.
If CB b l s e c t s
-
GF and L a 2 L b
-
in the f f g u r e , p r o v e t h a t GF G
-
b i s e c t s CB.
-A.
P r o v e TI-lcorcrn 5-5.(1fn two a n g l e s of' a triangle a r c c o n g m e n t ,

A
t h e s i d e s opposite t h e s e a n g l e s
are congruent. )
Restatement.: If in AABC,
L B Z LC, t h e n AB = A C .
ITint: Use c o n g r u e n c y of' t h e
triangle w i t h itsell'.
l3 C
Prove Corollary 5 - 5 - 1 . ( E v e r y equiangulzr t r i a n g l e '.s e q u i -
l a t e r a l . ) Use a paragraph proof.
If AABC is equilateral, p r o v e A A K 2 ACAB.

If t h e b i s e c t o r o f ' L G in A FGH is perpendicular to t h e

o p p o s i t e side a t K, then triangle FGH is isosceles.

Given : The f i g u r e w i t h
L-x L y and
-
HB 2 m.
- - A -
Prove : HF = HR.
:I. In t h e f i g u r e , 3
bblsects
LRMS and L RWK 2 LSWK.
Can it be proved t h a t
L R 5 LS? If so, do so.

-
12. Prove t h a t AN zm if AF
LA 2 LR and Lx 2 ~y
tile f i g u r e .

R F
13. a . I f , In t h e figure, X is
t h e midpoint of AB,
-
show t h a t
---
LA 2 LB and LAXR 2 LBXF,
AF = BR.
b. Do you need as a p a r t o f t h e
hypothesis that the f i g u r e A x B
lies in a p l a n e ? M

14. Glven: L a 2 Lb and

Lw 2 Ls in t h e figure.
- 2. -
Prove: GR = K H .

G H
Can t h e foilowing be proved
on the basis of t h e Informa-
t i o n given?
Given: LAOB w i t h OA = OB
and P, Q , points on r a y s
0 Q B
G , 66 w i t h AQ = BP.
Prove: OP = 0Q.
B
Prove t h a t RX = RY if it is
g i v e n t h a t in t h e f i g u r e : B& = TS,
m L B = rn LT and rn L Q = m L S .

S Y T
[sec. 5-71
5-8. -
The -
Side - Side Theorem.
Slde -
Theorem 5-6. ... .
(The S S S heo or em ) Given a correspondence
between two triangles ( o r between a trlangle and itself). If all
t h r e e pairs of corresponding s i d e s are congruent, then the c o r r e s -
pondence is a cong&nce.
Restatement: L e t AX-DEF be a correspondence between two
triangles . If AB = DE,
AC = DF,
BC = EF,
B then AABC 2 ADEF.

Proof : Statements Reasons

-

+
I. T h e r e i s a r a y AG such t h a t 1. The Angle C o n s t r u c t i o n
L CAG % L FDE , and such t h a t Postulate.
G are on o p p o s l t e s i d e
of
+
2. There is a point E1 on AG 2. The Point Plotting T h e o r e m .
such t h a t AEv = DE.
3. A A E ~ C % ADEF. P. The S.A.S. Postulate.
What we have done, so f a r , is to d u p l i c a t e ADEF on t h e
under s i d e of AABC, using the S,A,S. Postulate.
4, AB = DE by hypothesis;
and DE = A E ' , from S t a t e -
ment 2.
5. BC = EF, by h y p o t h e s i s ;
and EF = E ' C from S t a t e -
ment 3.
6.
-
The s e g m e n L BE' i n t e r s e c t s 6. By Statement 1, 3 and E'
t h e line AC i n a p o i n t H are on opp i t e s i d e s of
the line g.
 We shall now complete t h e proof f o r the case in which H is
between A and C, a s in the f i g u r e . The o t h e r possible c a s e s
will be discussed later.
. LABHZ LAEtH. 7. Statement 4 and Theorem 5-2.
8. LCBH 2 LCEIH. 8. ~ t a t e m e n ? t5 and Theorem 5-2.
9. mLABH + mLCBH = m L A I K : . 9. Tne Angle Addition P o s t u l a t e .
1 0 , m L A E I H + rrLCEtH = m LAEIC. 10. The Angle A d d i t i o n Postulate.
11. LAB2 LAEfC. 11. Statements 7, 8, 9 and 10.
12. LABC 2 LDEF. 12. Statements 3 and 11.
13. AABc ADEF. 13, Statement 12, t h e hypothesis,
and the S.A.S. P o s t u l a t e .
This completes the proof f o r t h e c a s e in which H is between
A and C. We r e c a l l that H is t h e p o i n t in which the line st
i n t e r s e c t s t h e line AC. If H = A, t h e n B, A and E t are col-
linear, an6 t h e f i g u r e l o o k s like this:

I n this case LB L E I , because t h e base angles of an isos-

c e l e s t r i a n g l e are c o n g r u e n t . T h e r e f o r e LB 2 LE, because
LE 2 L E T . The S.A.S. P o s t u l a t e a p p l i e s , a s before, to show
tnat AABC 5 ADEF.
If A is between H and C, then the figure looks l i k e this:
and we show t h a t LABC 2 L E by subtracting the measures of
angles, i n s t e a d of by adding them. T h a t I s ,
m L A E = rnLHBC - m L H B A
and m LAEIC = m LHEtC - m L H E I A ,
SO t h a t LABC 2 L A E ' C 2 LDEF,
as b e f o r e . The rest of the proof is exactly the same as in the
f i r s t case.
The t w o remaining cases, H = C and C between A and H,
zre slmilar to the two above.

Problem S e t 5-8
H
1. Given: AABF and AAHF with
-
A H Z Z and m = B F .
r y -

Prove : LHAF 2 LBAF.

A F

B
2. In the figure, 2 FH and
--"-
AH = FB. Show t h a t F Ls.
4. Consider the pairs of triangles pictured below. If on t h e
basis o f our information t o date t h e y can b e proved congruent,
t e l l which congruency statement you would u s e .

Consider ~ R W Mand AQHM. AW = XM, AB = XR, /A

h.
A
R U H w ~ Q
Consider: I. ARMW a n d

j. AWMX and
AWH.
AHMK.

F W ZQ
R
a
W X
5. a manufacturer for some p a r t s
A s u p p l i e r w i s h e s t o telegraph
in t h e form of triangular metal s h e e t s . In addition to t h e
t h i c k n e s s , klnd of metal, and number of p i e c e s wanted, what
is the least he can say in o r d e r t o s p e c i f y t h e s i z e and
shape of the triangles? (consider the possibility of more
t h a n one c h o i c e . )
6.

A
Prove the following t h e o r e m :
If t h e b i s e c t o r of t h e a n g l e
opposite the base in an-isos-
c e l e s t r l a n g i e Intersects t h e
base, it is p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o
the base.
A it B
Restatement:
Given: AABC w i t h AC = BC and
-
H a p o i n t on AB s u c h t h a t
LACH 2 L E H .
To prove: C H L A E .
7. Prove the theorem t h a t t h e
median frcm the v e r t e x of an
i s o s c e l e s t r i a n g l e is t h e bi-
s e c t o r o f the v e r t e x a n g l e . A B
0

8. Prove t h e theorem: The bisector of t h e v e r t e x angle of an

i s o s c e l e s triangle is t h e perpendicular b i s e c t o r of t h e base.
Restatement :
Given: A ABF w i t h AF = BF and
-
H a p o f n t on A 3 s u c h that FH
-
bisects L AFB,
- I r -
To prove: AH = BH and
FHLAB.

A H B

[ a e c . 5-81
9. a . Given: In t h e fiwre,

---
-,I,-
AF
AR
=

=
BR
BF.
and

Prove : LARF 2 LBFR.

-
h he gap in RB was l e f t there
so t h a t t h e f i g u r e wow-ld n o t RA ~
B
reveal whether or n o t RB
-
i n t e r s e c t s AF. )
b. BI you need a s p a r t of t h e
hypo t h e s i s that t h e f i g u r e
Lies in a p l a n e ?

10. a. Given: I n t h e figure,

AH = FB, AB = FH, and
- -
RQ bisects FIB in K .
Prove: Q.K = RK.
b. Is t h e f i g u r e n e c e s s a r i l y
planar? A Q

11. Given: square AECD with P ,

Q, R, S t h e m i d p o i n t s of
- - -
m,
RC, CD, DA, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Prove: APQS 2 A RQS.

[ s e c . 5-81
12. P o i n t o u t why the following argu-ment is circular, and t h e r e -

Theorem: The base angles of an i s o s c e l e s triangle a2e csngrmcat.

- r u -
Given: A Am with AB = AC .
To p r o v e : LB: L C .
Proof: Statements Reasons
- - - -

- ? , -
1. AB = AC. I. Given.
-*-
2. AC AB. 2. Given.
3.
- -
BC=CB.
5

%
I

3. Identity.
4. A A W Z DACD. 1 . S.S.S.
5. LBZ LC. 5. D e f i n i t i o n o f congruefit
triangles.
$:
13. PoLnt out why the following argument is c i r c u l a r .
Theorem: Given a correspondence between t w o triangles ( o r be-
tween a t r i a n g l e and i t s e l f ) . If t w o s i d e s and t n e included
a n g l e of t h e first trlangle are congruent t o t h e corresponding
parts of t h e second triangle, then the correspondence is a
congruence .
Given: ABC-DEF,
-I.-
A B = DE, == *-
EF, LABC 2 LDEF.
Prove : AABc 2 ADEF.

Proof : Statement Reasons

+
1. Let
the
ACt be t h e ray on
same side o f AB as
e 1I Angle-Construction
Postulate.
3 such t h a t L B A C t 2 L EDF ,
f ,
intersecting BC in C t ,
+
2. C1 is on ray BC, from
s t e p 1.
LABC 5 LDEF. Given.
LA=' LDEF. S t e p s 2 and 3.
-*-
AB = DE. Given.
dBAC1 2 LEDF. S t e p 1.
AAE' ADEF. A.S.A.
- +-
BC' = EF. Corresponding parts.
- ?I-
BC -= EF. Given.
BCt I=r -BC. Steps 8 and 9 .
C' = C. S t e p 10 and t h e r e a s o n
f o r Step 2.
12. AABC 2 ADEF. S t e p s 7 and 11.
3
14. If La 2 Lb and Lrn 2 Lw
in the figure, prove t i m t

If i n t!le f i g u r e 1 3 ~ ~ ' '

a t F, E A ~ at ZA , and
m L a = m L b , can y o u prove
t h a t FB AS? If so, do so
-;

16. In A H A F , points Band W a r e on

-
sides AF a n d m, r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
and , m l m , and
AW -. AE.
P r o v e : Fls' - HB. A B F

17. If in the f i g u r e
- mlz,
FQ b i s e c t s L A Q R ,
-
FQ b i s c c t s LA$F a n d
bisects LFm,
prove that
-= ?.-
fiQ.

18. In A A X and AHRE.1, AB HR,

=
- r u
AC = WcI and m e d i a H&.
AF = median
On t k e basis of theorems you have
h2d so f a r , can you show that
A AH4t\l? FI <
. R
If so, do so.
*
19. Use the dfagram for Problem 18 and suppose now it is g i v e n
-h
tilat AB = HR, EX = RW, and median AF = median Can you m.
p r o v e t h a t AASC 2 DHRW? If so, do s o .
x,
20. Given: P o l n t s A, R , S, and C lie on Line L.
R lies betv~een A and S .
S lies between R and C .
B a n d D do n o t l i e on L.
AI? = CS.
AB - CD.
ES = DR.
a. P r o v e t k ~ a t : L B S A Z LDRC.
b. Need t h e p o i n t s A, R, S, C, 3, D be coplanar?
7!

21. I n this figure D is the mldpoint

of
-
AG, a,and m.
Prove t h a t AEFG 2 ABCA. C F

_.
22. Does the proof f o r Problem
- - 21 h o l d even if t h e segments m,
AD, CD a r e n o t coplanar?
23.
--- -
Given:
RQ = SQ.
I
r
In t h e figure, A&L=.

RC = SC.
Prove t h a t : LRCA 2 LSCA.
 v
24, A t r i p o d w i t h t h r e e legs o f
equal lengths VA, VB, VC
s t a n d s on a p l a n e .
a . What can you say, if any-
t h i n g , about the distances
AB, AC, BC? About t h e six
angles LVAB, LVAC, LVBA, e t c ?
b. Answer p a r t (a) if you are
given also t h a t t h e tripod legs make congruent angles w i t h
each o t h e r ; t h a t is, LAVB 2 LBVC 5 LAVC.
*25. a. L e t AR and B& bisect each o t h e r at M. Prove t h a t
A 3 = RQ and A& = RB.
b. Now l e t CX also be b i s e c t e d at M. How many pairs of
congruent segments, a s in ( a ) can you f i n d ?
c.
-
You probably t h o u g h t of CX as lying in the same plane as
-
AR and B&. Is this n e c e s s a r y , or do your conclusions i n ( b )
h o l d even if CX s t i c k s o u t o f t h e plane o f AR and
- m?
Try t o visualize t?ie f i g u r e in t h e l a t t e r c a s e , and e i t h e r
draw a p i c t u r e or make a model.
26. Let AAIX: be any triangle and D a p o i n t - n o t In t h e plane of
this triangle. The s e t consisting of t h e union of six s ~ g -
ments AB,
- m, E , AD,m, we shall call a s k e l e t o n o f a
tetrahedron. Each of t h e six segments is c a l l e d an edge of
the tetrahedron, each of t h e f o u r p o i n t s A , B, C, D is a
vertex, e a c h t r i a n g l e formed by three vertices is a f a c e ,
e a c h angle of a f a c e is a f a c e angle. Edges and faces o f a
tetrahedron were c o n s i d e r e d in Problem 11 of Problem S e t 5 - l c .
a . How many f a c e s a r e there? How many f a c e a n g l e s ?
b. Two edges of a tetrahedron are opposite edges if they do
not intersect. They a r e a d J a c e n t if t h e y do intersect.
If each p a i r of opposite edges are congruent, are any of
t h e f a c e s congruent? If each p a i r o f a d j a c e n t edges a r e
c o n g r u e n t , what kind of triangles are t h e f a c e s ?
c . Construct an equilateral skeleton of a tetrahedron with
t o o t h p i c k s and quick-drying g l u e or w i t h soda straws by
threading string t h r o u g h them.
[see. 5-81
 Review Problems for Chapter 5
1. Complete:
If t h e v e r t i c e s o f t w o triangles correspond so that every pair
o f corresponding angles a r e and every pair o f cor-
responding are congruent, then t h e correspondence
is a between the two triangles.
2. Consf der t h e s e t of abbreviations A.S . A , , S,S , A , , S.A. S.,
S.S.S., A.A.A.
a. Which subsets are a b b r e v i a t i o n s of p o s t u l a t e s In t h i s
chapter ?
b. Which subsets are abbreviations of theorems proved in
this c h a p t e r ?
3. If ARST is i s o s c e l e s with AT = ST, what correspondences
are congruences between
the triangle and I t s e l f ?

. Given AF = BF and DF = EF,

what would be the final reason
in t h e m o s t d i r e c t proof t h a t
A AFD 2 ABFE? That AAEC 2 ABDC?

5. Given: I n t h e figure AR = RH
/"'+
A
F

and Ar" = BH.

Prove: RB = RT.

6. In ttle f i g u r e f o r Problem 5, if RB = RF and AB = HF, prove

t h a t AR = HR.
 --
7. A person wishes to
find the distance
across a river. He
- ---
-
does t h l s by sighting
a tree, T, on t h e o t h e r
s i d e opposite a p o i n t P,
such that mI'.
\
_c_yc_

y-
-
-
Marking t h e midpoint, M,
of x, -
he paces a path
perpendicular t o PQ at Q u n t i l \ I
\
he determines the p o i n t X where h i s
path meets line TM. What o t h e r segment
i n the figure has t h e same length a s TP?
-
What Is t h e p r i n c i p a l theorem used in show-
ing t h a t : ATPM: AXQM ?

8. Napoleon's forces, marching i n t o enemy territory, came upon a

stream whose w i d t h they did not h o w . Although t h e engineers
were in t h e rear, n e v e r t h e l e s s , the impetuous commander de-
manded of his o f f i c e r s t h e width of t h e river. A young
o f f i c e r immediately stood erect on t h e bank and pulled t h e
v i s o r of his cap down o v e r h i s eyes until his l i n e o f vision
was on the o p p o s i t e s h o r e . He t h e n turned and s i g h t e d along
the shore and noted t h e point where his v i s o r r e s t e d . He t h e n
paced o f f t h i s d i s t a n c e along the s h o r e . Was this distance
the width of the river? What two triangles were congruent?
Why?
 9. In ARST: P o i n t X lies between R
S and T, and SX = SR. Polnt
Q l i e s between R and T, and
-
SQ bisects LS.
-
63 is drawn
Find an angle congruent t o
L R , and establish t h e con- S
X T
gruenc e . I

Given: The f i g u r e with

-
A B ~ B H U, B H ,
Lx Z L y , QB = WH and
t h e midpofnt o f B.
Prove: ABFQ 2 A K W .

I
11. Given: I n t h e ffgure,
AB = AR and
LBAH 2 LRAH.
Frove: FB = FR.

R
12. In this figure g l v e n that:
AB = HF and
RB RF.
=

Prove: AAFR 2 AHBR.

13. Given: In t h e f i g u r e ,
AB = FB and blB = RB.
Prove: A AQR 2 A FQM.

14 I n this figure g i v e n R Q
t h a t B and F t r i s e c t * m,
L A 2 L H and AR = HQ.
Prove: BW = FW.
'~risect means t o separate
into three congruent p a r t s . A B H

15. In t h i s f i g u r e , given t h a t

-
4
HA
AF
BF
=

Prove:
HB,
b i s e c t s L H A B and
bisects L HEA.
AF = BF.

16. A polygon A K D E has five s i d e s

of e q u a l l e n g t h and f i v e angles
of e q u a l measure. Prove t h a t C
L DAB 2 L DBA.

17. Prove: If two medians of a triangle are p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o

t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s i d e s , t h e n t h e t r i a n g l e is equilateral.
 152
M
18. I n this f i g u r e

--
RB
2
=
HB and
m,
Prove : LA 2 LH and
--"-
AM = HM.

A H

19. Prove that t h e b i s e c t o r s of a pair o f corresponding angles of

two congnrent triangles are congruent.

I n this figure It
i s given t h a t :
xw = QR,
La 2 ~ b ,
LX 2 . L Q .
Prove: KA = KM.

21. In t h i s flgure it
is given that
L1 2 L 2 , L3 2 L4,
and J T = JB.
Prove: ~ 5 L6.
2

A
22. If PA = PB and QA =,QB t h e n
LAP& LBPQ. Will t h e same
proof h o l d regardless of whether
P Q
A is I n the same plane as P, 4,
and B ?

B
 A 153

23. a. Prove: If P A = PB, Q A = Q B

and R is on as shown in Q
the figure, then RA = RB.
b. Must t h e five points be
c o p l a n a r ? Will t h e proof hold B
whether o r n o t A is in the
same p l a n e as B, R, P, and Q?

*24. In thls f i g u r e , points F and

H trisect AT, and p o i n t s F
and B t r i s e c t MR. If AF = FB,
is A ABT 2 A MHR? Prove your M
answer.

e
25. If RS is p e r p e n d i c u l a r to each o f three d i f f e r e n t rays,
--* 3
RA, RB, RC at; R and RA = RB = RC, p r o v e t h a t SA = SB = SC.
( D r a w your own figure.)

*
26, L e t A PAB a n d A QAB lie in
d i f f e r e n t planes but have t h e
-
common s i d e AB. L e t h P A 3 2 A QAB.
Prove t h a t if X is any point i n
AB then A PQX is Isosceles. P
i. --
A

*
27. Complete Euclidls proof of the
theorem t h a t t h e base angles
of an i s o s c e l e s t r i a n g l e are
congruent.
Given: AB = AC.
Prove: L ACB L ABC.
Construction: Take a p o i n t F
with B between A and F, and
a point H w i t h C between A
and H so t h a t AH = AF. Draw
FF and 'BH.
"28. Given: The plane figure ABCD
AB = CD, AD = EC.
-
Prove: AC and bisect
each a t h e r .
A

*29. Given: The figure ABCD with

AB = AC, DB = DC, and
LBAX 2 L X A Y 2 L C A Y .
Prove: AX = AY.
 Review

C h a p t e r s 1 to 5
REVIEW EXERCISES
Vrite the numbers f r o m 1 to 80. Follow each w i t h a " t l 'o r
a I 1 -11
to i n d f c a t e whether you c o n s i d e r t h e statement t r u e or f a l s e .
T r u e will mean "true under all conditions".
1. Every two rays i n t e r s e c t .
2. AB deslgnates a line.
3. If m L Q = 100, t h e n L Q has no complement.
4. A l i n e and a p o i n t not on it determine a plane.
5. If a p o i n t is in the i n t e r i o r of two angles of a triangle it
I s in the i n t e r i o r of t h e triangle.
6 . If a l i n e i n t e r s e c t s a plane not containing it, then the l n t e r -
s e c t i o n is one p o i n t .
7 . The union of t w o half planes is a whole plane.
8. A p o i n t which b e l o n g s to the i n t e r i o r of an angle belongs to
t h e angle.
9. If' AB = m, t h e n e i t h e r A = C or A = D.
10. The intersection of every two h a l f planes Is t h e i n t e r i o r of
an angle.
11. The i n t e r i o r o f every triangle is convex.
12. It i s p o s s i b l e t o f i n d two.sets, neither of them convex, which
have a u n i o n which is convex.
13. A ray has two e n d - p o i n t s .
4 Experimentation is always t h e best way o f reaching a valid
conclusion.
15. Given f o u r d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s , no three of which are collinear,
there are exactly six d i f f e r e n t l i n e s determined by pairs o f
t h e s e points.
16. If m L R S T = m L X Y Z , t h e n L R S T ~ LXYZ.
17. In t h e figure the S e s t way to name
+ +
t h e angle formed by DA and DC is L D.

18. In this t e x t "between" f o r p o i n t s on a line i s an undefined

term.
The v e r t i c e s of a trlangle a r e non-collinear.
The i n t e r s e c t i o n of t w o sets is the s e t of a l l elements t h a t
belong t o one or b o t h of t h e m .
E v e r y statement a b o u t geometric f i g u r e s which is not a defini-
t i o n can be p r o v e d .
If A X Y Z Z A CAB, then L A 2 L X.
It is possible f o r two l i n e s t o i n t e r s e c t in such a way t h a t
t h r e e o f t h e angles formed h a v e measures 2 0 , 7 0 , and 20.
Each s i d e of an angle is a r a y .
A l l nouns which t h e text u s e s t h a t r e l a t e to geometry a r e
d e f i n e d in the t e x t .
The i n t e r i o r of an angle is a convex s e t .
If m L A E = 37 and m L DEF = 6 3 , t h e n L ABC and L DEF a r e
complementary.
If k is n o t between B and C, then C is between A and B.
Im) is n e v e r a n e g a t i v e number.
If p o i n t Q is in t h e e x t e r i o r o f L A=, then Q and C a r e
#
on t h e same s i d e of AB.
The distance between two p o i n t s is t h e absolute value o f t h e
sum o f t h e i r c o o r d i n a t e s .
T h e longest s i d e of? m y triangle is called its hypotenuse.
e
If ~ _ L C D a t p o i n t P ( d i f f e r e n t f r o m p o i n t s A, B, C, D ) ,
t h e n m L APC + m L CPB + m L B P D + m L DPA - 360.
Given a line, t h e r e is one and o n l y one plane containing it.
A r a t i o n a l number is one which Is t h e r a t i o o f two integers.
Given two p o i n t s on a l i n e , a c o c r d i n a t e system can be chosen
so t h a t t h e coordinate of one p o i n t i s z e r o and t h e coordinate
o f t h e other one is n e g a t i v e .
Two triangles a r e c o n g m e n t If angle of one
two sides and an
a r e congruent t o two s l d e s and an angle o f t h e o t h e r .
A collinear s e t of p o i n t s is a line.
The a b s o l u t e value of every real number e x c e p t zero is
positive.
If CD + CE = DE, then D is between C And E.
If in A A B C , r n ~ =A m L B = m L C , t h e n A B = BC = AC.
4 +
If, in a plane 2, P ~ L, P
T line ~ L, and P is on
Q line
f, @
L, t h e n PT = PQ.
From t h e statements (1) If q is false, then p is f a l s e ,
and ( 2 ) p is true, we can c o n c l u d e that q is t r u e .
The Ruler P o s t u l a t e s t a t e s t h a t eny unit can be reduced t o
inche s .
If R is a p o i n t in the i n t e r i o r o f L X Y Z , t h e n m L XYR
+ m L Z Y R = m L XYZ.
Tnere are c e r t a i n points on a number s c a l e which are n o t in
correspondence with any number.
Every line is a collZnear s e t of points.
I-nl = n.
The dlstance between two polnts is a positive number,
From t h e facts that rn L AOB = 20 and rnL BOC = 3 0 it can
be concluded that rn L A O C = 50.
A p o l n t on t h e edge of a half-plane belongs t o t h a t half-plane.
A line L in a plane E separates the plane Into two convex
sets.
The median o f a triangle bisects the side t o which it is drawn.
If two p o i n t s l i e in the same half-plane, then the line deter-
mined by them does not intersect the edge of t h a t half-plane.
If two supplementary angles a r e congruent, each is a r i g h t
angle.
The i n t e r i o r of an a n g l e i n c l u d e s t h e angle itself.
V e r t i c a l angles have equal measures.
The sides of a n angle a r e rays whose i n t e r s e c t i o n is t h e v e r -
t e x of t h e a ngle.

m L C -
If L C is supplementary t o L A and m L A = 6'1, t h e n
113.
I f two llnes i n t e r s e c t , t h e r e are e x a c t l y t w o points o f e a c k
which a r e c o n t a i n e d by the o t h e r .
If two angles have eqlral measures the angles must be congruent.
From tr-,e stateme~t ( I ) if is t r u e , t h e n q is t r v e , and
p
(2) F is n o t t r u e , we can conclude that q is f a l s e .
It has been proved Ln tile T i p s t f i v e c h a p t e r s o f thi:: t e x t
o r the neasures o f t h e a n g l e s of a triangle is
that t h e s;;::~
180.
The sides of a triangle a r e lines.
The m i d p o i n t a segment separates it i n t o t w o rays.
01,

If t w o lines i n t e r s e c t so t h a t t h e v e r t i c a l a n g l e s formed a r e
s u p p l e m e n t a r y , tiien the measure o f each a n g l e is 90.
If rn L E = 93, then L 9 is a c u t e .
F o r all numbers x, 1x1 = x.
-+ +
The intersection o f AB and BA is E.
-
In A ABC all p o i n t s of BC a r e in t h e interior of L A.
If'AABC 2 A E C A , then A PIE32 i s equilateral.
IY 1x1 = lYl, t h e n x2 = y 2 .
A ABC and A RFH which are in dif f ' e r t n t p l a n e s a r e congruent
if AB = RF, PC = FH and AC = RH.
A ABC 2 A LQT if AB = LpI, EC = TQ and L Q 2 L B .
-
Median A13 in A ACE bisects L A .
If x 2 = y2 , then 1x1 = I Y I .
If t h r e e p o i n t s a r e on t h r e e d i f f e r e n t l i n e s , t h e p o i n t s a r e
non-collinear.
There is no DABC i n w h i c h L A = L B.
Two p o i n t s n o t on a p l a n e are in o p p o s i t e half-spaces d e t e r -
mined by t h e p l a n e iF and o n l y if t h e segment joining t h e m
i n t e r s e c t s t h e plane.
 Chapter 6
A CLOSER LOOK AT PROOF

6-1. - How- A Deductive System Works.

In Chapter 1 we t r i e d t o e x p l a i n in g e n e r a l terms how o u r
s t u d y o f geometry was going t o work. After t h e experience t h a t
you have had s i n c e then, you ought to be in a much b e t t e r position
t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e explanation.
The idea of a s e t , the methods of a l g e b r a , and t h e process
o f logical reasoning, a r e t h i n g s that we have been working with.
The geometry i t s e l f is what we have been working - on. W e started
with p o l n t , l i n e and plane a s undefined terms; and so f a r , we
have used f i f t e e n postulates. Sometimes, new terms have been
d e f i n e d by an appeal to p o s t u l a t e s . ( F o r example, t h e distance
PQ was d e f i n e d t o be t h e p o s i t i v e number given by the D i s t a n c e
P o s t u l a t e . ) Sometimes d e f i n l t i o n s have been based o n l y on t h e
undefined terms. ( F o r example a s e t of points is c o l l i n e a r if
all p o l n t s o f t h e s e t l i e on t h e same l i n e . ) But a t e v e r y p o i n t
we have b u i l t o u r d e f i n i t i o n s w i t h terms t h a t were, in some way,
previously known. By now we have p i l e d d e f i n i t i o n s on t o p of
each o t h e r so o f t e n t h a t t h e list is very l o n g . And in f a c t ,
t h e l e n g t h of t h e list Is one of t h e m a i n reasons why we had t o
be c a r e f u l , a t the o u t s e t , t o keep the r e c o r d straight.
I n t h e same way, a l l t h e statements t h a t we make a b o u t
geometry a r e b a s e d ultimately on t h e postulates. Sometimes we
have proved theorems d i r e c t l y from p o s t u l a t e s , and sometimes we
have based o u r proofs on theorems t h a t were a l r e a d y p r o v e d . But
in every c a s e , the c h a i n o f reasonlng can b e t r a c e d backward t o
the postulates.
You might find it a good i d e a , a t this p o i n t , to r e r e a d t h e
second h a l f o f C h a p t e r 1. It will seem much clearer t o you now
t h a n i t did t h e first time. It i s much e a s i e r t o look b a c k ,
and understand what you have done, t h a n t o understand an ex-
planation of what you a r e about t o do.
6-2. Indirect Proof.
We remarked in Chapter 1 t h a t t h e best way t o l e a r n about
logical reasoning is by doing some of i t . There is one kind of
proof, however, t h a t may r e q u l r e some additional discussion. For
Theorem 3-1, we used what is c a l l e d an indirect p r o o f . The
theorem and i t s proof were as f o l l o w s :
"Theorem z. Two d i f f e r e n t l i n e s i n t e r s e c t in a t most
one p o i n t .
Proof: It is impossible for two different lines t o i n t e r -
s e c t in two d i f f e r e n t points P and &. T h i s i s impossible
because by P o s t u l a t e 1 t h e r e i s only one line that contains both
P and Q."
Probably t h i s was the first time t h a t you had seen t h i s kind
o f reasoning used in mathematics, b u t you must have encountered
t h e same s o r t of t h i n g , many times, i n o r d i n a r y c o n v e r s a t i o n .
Both of t h e f o l l o w i n g remarks are examples of i n d i r e c t p r o o f s :
( 1) "It must be r a i n i n g o u t s i d e . If it were n o t raining,
t h e n those people coming i n t h e door would be d r y , b u t they
are soaklng wet I ' .
( 2 ) " ~ o d a ymust n o t be t h e right day f o r the football game.
If t h e game were t o d a y , t h e n the stadlum would be full o f people,
b u t you and I a r e the only ones here."
In each o f these cases, the speaker wants to show t h a t h i s
f i r s t statement is t r u e . He s t a r t s his proof by supposing t h a t
the thing he wants t o p r o v e is wrong; and t h e n he observes t h a t
t h i s leads to a conclusion which c o n t r a d i c t s a known f a c t . In
t h e first c a s e , the supposition i s t h a t it i s n o t raining; t h i s
leads t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e people coming i n would be dry,
which contradicts t h e known f a c t t h a t these p e o p l e are wet; and
t h e r e f o r e i t i s r a i n l n g , a f t e r a l l . Similarly, i n the second
c a s e t h e assumption t h a t t h e game is today l e a d s t o a contradiction
o f t h e known fact of the empty stadium.
I n t h e proof of Theorem 3-1, the supposition is that some
two d i f f e r e n t l i n e s i n t e r s e c t in two p o i n t s . By P o s t u l a t e 1,
,

t h i s leads t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n that the l i n e s aren't d i f f e r e n t

a f t e r all. Therefore the supposition is wrong, and t h i s means
t h a t the theorem is r i g h t .

S --
P r o b l e m -- e t 6-2a

1. F o r t h e sake of argument accept each of t h e following assump-

t i o n s and t h e n give a l o g i c a l completion f o r e a c h conclusion.
a . Assumption: Only men are c o l o r b l i n d .
Conclusion: My mother --------.
. Assumption: A l l men a r e left-handed.
Conclusion: My b r o t h e r --------.
c . Assumption: The only t h i n g that makes Jane ill is h o t
chocolate. J a n e Is ill.
Conclusion: Jane --------.
2. Which of t h e f o l l o w i n g arguments are Indirect?
a . The temperature o u t s i d e must be above 32' F. If the
temperature were n o t above 32', then t h e snow would
n o t be melting. But I t i s melting. T h e r e f o r e , the
0
temperature must be above 32 .
b. T h a t movie must be v e r y entertaining. If it were n o t
v e r y entertaining, t h e n o n l y a f e w people would go t o
see it. But l a r g e crowds a r e going to see it. There-
f o r e , it must be very entertaining.
c. The air-condit~onlngin t h i s b u i l d i n g must not be
working correctly. If it were working correctly,
then the temperature would n o t be so h i g h . But t h e
temperature is uncomfortably h i g h . T h e r e f o r e , the
air-conditioning is n o t working correctly.
3. Mrs. Adams purchased a s e t o f k n l v e s , f o r k s , and spoons
advertised as a s t a i n l e s s s t e e l p r o d u c t . A f t e r using t h e
s e t f o r s e v e r a l months, she found that t h e s e t was beginning
t o rust. She thereupon decided t h a t t h e s e t was not s t a i n -
less s t e e l and r e t u r n e d it f o r refund.
In this example of indirect proof identify (1) t h e
statement to be p r o v e d , ( 2 ) t h e supposition made, ( 3 ) t h e
conclusion r e s u l t i n g from the supposition, and (14) the
known f a c t contradictory to ( 3 ) .
162
4. What conclusions can you draw from the f o l l o w i n g hypothesis
in which x, y and z stand f o r d i f f e r e n t statements?
If x is true, then y is true.
If y is t r u e , then z is t r u e .
x I s true.
5 Suppose you have the following data:
If w Is t r u e , then v I s true.
If u is t r u e , t h e n w Is t r u e .
If x I s t r u e , then u is t r u e .
v is n o t t r u e .
What conclusions can you draw? Did y o u use i n d i r e c t reason-
ing at any point?
6. What conclusion f o l l o w s f r o m the f o l l o w i n g d a t a ?
(1) Nobody is a l l o w e d t o j o i n t h e swimming club unless he
can play t h e p i c c o l o .
( 2 ) No turtle can p l a y t h e p i c c o l o .
( 3 ) Nobody is a l l o w e d t o wear striped t r u n k s In t h e c l u b
pa01 u n l e s s h e i s a member of the swimming club.
( 4 ) 1 always wear s t r i p e d trunks in t h e c l u b p o o l .
(Hint: T h i s problem becomes easler if you c o n v e r t it
t o if-then form, a s In several preceding problems. For
example, l e t A b e "someone is a member o f t h e swirnrning
c l u b " , let B be "someone can p l a y the p i c c o l o " , e t c . )
If A is green, then B is r e d .
If A is b l u e , then B is b l a c k .
If B is r e d , then Y is white.
a. A Is green, so B is a n d Y is
b. B is black. Is it possible to draw a c o n c l u s i o n con-
cerning A? If so, what conclusion?
8. Prove t h a t t h e bisector of any angle of a s c a l e n e t r i a n g l e
cannot be perpendicular t o t h e o p p o s i t e s i d e .

L e t us now p r o v e t h e o t h e r theorems of Chapter 3 . For

convenience, we first restate the postulates on which these
p r o o f s are based:

P o s t u l a t e 1. Given any two different p o i n t s , t h e r e is

exactly one line which contains b o t h of t h e n .
 P o s t u l a t e 5. a. Every plane contains a t l e a s t three non-
collinear points. b. Space contalns at l e a s t f o u r non-
coplanar points.

Postulate 6 . If two points l i e in a plane, then the line

containing these points l i e s In t h e same p l a n e .

Postulate 7 . Any t h r e e p o i n t s l i e in a t l e a s t one plane,

and any three non-collinear points I l e in exactly one
plane. More b r i e f l y , any t h r e e points are c o p l a n a r , and
any t h r e e non-collinear points determine a plane.

Theorem 3-2. If a l i n e intersects a plane not containing

it, then the intersection is a single point.
Proof: By hypo thesis, we have a l i n e L and a plane E, and
(1) L intersects E in at least one point P, and
( 2 ) E does not contain L,

We a r e g o i n g to g i v e an indirect proof of the t h e o r e m and

therefore we start by supposing that the conclusion is f a l s e .
Thus our supposition Is t h a t
( 3 ) L intersects E in some o t h e r point Q.
To give an i n d f r e c t proof, we need to show t h a t our suppo-
sition contradicts a known f a c t . And it does: If P and Q
l i e in E, it follows by Postulate 6 that the l i n e containing
them l l e s In E. Therefore
(4) L l i e s in E.
This contradicts (2). Therefore the supposition ( 3 ) is
i m p o s s i b l e . Therefore Theorem 3 - 2 is true.
 Notfce that the figures that we use to illustrate indirect
proofs look peculiar. In the figure for Theorem 3-2, we have
i n d i c a t e d a point Q, m e r e l y t o remind ourselves of the notation
of the proof. The proof i t s e l f shows that no such p o i n t Q can
possibly exist. In fact, the figures for Indirect proofs always
look ridiculous, for a good reason: they a r e pictures of impos-
sible situations. If we had drawn a figure f o r Theorem 3-1, it
would have looked even worse, perhaps like this:

This is a p i c t w e of an impossible situation in which two

d l f f e r e n t l i n e s intersect In two different points.
Theorem 3 - 3 . Given a line and a p o i n t not on t h e l i n e ,
t h e r e i s exactly one plane containing both of them.

Proof: By hypothesis we have a line L and a p o i n t P

not on L. By the Ruler Postulate we know that every line
contains infinitely many points, and so L contains t w o p o l n t s
Q and R . By P o s t u l a t e 7 there exists a plane 6 which contains
P, Q, and R. Since by Postulate 6 , E contains L, we have
shown t h a t t h e r e exists a plane E containing both L and P.
At this point we actually have proved only h a l f of the
theorem, s i n c e Theorem 3-3 says t h e r e i s exactly -
one such p l a n e .
It remains to prove that no o t h e r plane containing L and P
[sec, 6-21
e x i s t s . We do this by i n d i r e c t proof
Suppose that there is another p l a n e El containing L and
P. S i n c e by P o s t u l a t e 1 L is t h e only l i n e containing Q and
R , we know t h a t Q and R, a s well a s P, l i e In E t This
c o n t r a d i c t s P o s t u l a t e 7 which says t h a t e x a c t l y one p l a n e c o n t a i n s
t h r e e non-colllnear points S i n c e E was established a s a p l a n e
containing P, Q and R, E 7 can not exist, and E is the
o n l y plane c o n t a i n i n g L and P .
The two p a r t s o f t h e proof of Theorem 3 - 3 b r i n g up the
d i s t i n c t i o n between existence and uniqueness. The f i r s t half
o f t h e proof shows the existence of a p l a n e E containing L
and P. This leaves open the possibility that there may be more
t h a n one such p l a n e . The second half of t h e proof shows the
uniqueness of the plane. When we prove existence, we show t h a t
there is at Least one object of a c e r t a i n k i n d . When we prove
uniqueness we show that t h e r e is at most one. If we prove both
existence and uniqueness, t h i s means t h a t t h e r e i s e x a c t l y - one.
For example, for the f l e a s on a s t r a y dog, we c a n usually
prove existence, but not uniqueness. (It is z v e r y lucky dog
t h a t has only one f l e a . ) For the e l d e s t daughters o f a g l v e n
woman, we can obviously prove unlqueness, but not necessarily
exlstence; some women have no daughters a t a l l . For the points
comr~on to two different segments, we don't necessarily have
e i t h e r existence or uniqueness; the intersection may contain
many p o i n t s , o r exactly one p o i n t , o r no points a t a l l .
The phrase "one and only one" i s o f t e n used i n s t e a d of
tt
e x a c t l y one1' s i n c e it emphasizes the d o u b l e n a t u r e o f the
statement.
The following theorem breaks up i n t o two parts in exactly
the same way:
Theorem 3-4. Given two Intersecting l l n e s , there is exactly
one plane containing them.
For v a r i e t y we give the proof in double-column form. Note
t h e t w o p a r t s and t h e way we handle t h e indirect proof in the
second p a r t .
 Proof: We have given t h e l i n e s L1 and L2, intersecting
i n the p o i n t P.
Statements Reasons

1. ' contains a point

d i f f e r e n t from P.
Q, 1. By t h e R u l e r Postulate,
every line contains In-
f i n i t e l y many points.
2 Q is n o t on L2. 2. Theorem 3-1.
3. There is exactly one 3. Theorem 3 -3.
p l a n e B, containing
and Q. L2
4. E c o n t a i n s L1. 4 By P o s t u l a t e 6, s i n c e E
contains P and Q.
5. Suppose that another plane F also contains L1 and L2.
6. F contains Q. 6. & is on L1.
7 . E and F each c o n t a i n 7 . S t e p s 3 and 4, and 5 and 6.
L2 and Q .
8. E is t h e only plane con- 8. S t e p 7 contradicts Theorem
t a i n i n g L1 and L2. 3-3 -

P r o b l e m --
S e t 6-2b
1. Is a triangle n e c e s s a r i l y a plane f i g u r e ? Explain.
2.
A

K
V

Theorem 3-4 says, in e f f e c t , "Two intersecting l i n e s

determine a p l a n e " . How many d i f f e r e n t planes are deter-
mined by p a i r s of intersecting l i n e s in t h i s f i g u r e ?
A ~ s u m ethat the t h r e e l i n e s a r e not a l l in the same
 p l a n e . L i s t each plane by naming the two Intersecting
i i n e s t h a t determine it.
3. How many d i f f e r e n t p l a n e s are determined by pairs of the
# f , f , *
f o u r d i f f e r e n t l i n e s A&, BQ, CQ, and DQ, no t h r e e of
which lie in the same plane? L i s t the p l a n e s by naming
for each the two intersectlng l i n e s t h a t determine I t .
+
. If, in a p l a n c 2, PT 1 l i n e L and
u
1
l i n e L,
what conclusion can you draw regarding PQ and p?

As i n d i c a t e d in t h l s f i g u r e , A and B l i e in p l a n e P,
f-,
& l i e s above p l a n e P. D o e s line AB lie e n t i r e l y in P ?
Quote a p o s t u l a t e o r theorem t o s u p p o r t your conclusion.
There is a second plane implicit in t h e situation. Name
it by t h e three points whlch determine it, What is t h e
intersection o f these two p l a n e s ? A t what p o i n t w i l l
f,
QB intersect plane P?
6. If A, B, C, D a r e f o u r non-collinear points, list
a l l t h e planes determined by subsets of A, B, C, D .

6 - Theorems about Perpendiculars.

Some of t h e b a s i c theorems a b o u t perpendicular l i n e s a r e
good examples o f existence, uniqueness, a n d i n d i r e c t p r o o f s .
Theorem 6-1. In a g i v e n plane, t h r o u g h a given p o i n t of
z g i v e n line of t h e plane, t h e r e p a s z e s one and o n l y one l i n e
perpendicular t o t h e g i v e n l i n e .
Given: E is a p l a n e , L a l i n e in E, and P a p o i n t
of L.
To prove: (1) There i s a Line M in E, such that M
c o n t a l n v P and MI
L;
(2) T h e r e is a t most one l i n e i n E, containing
P and perpendicular t o L.
[see. 6-31
168

Proof of (1):

Let B be one of t h e E t h a t have L

two h a l f - p l a n e s in
a s an edge, and l e t X be a point of L, different from P. By
t h e Angle Construction Postulate, t h e r e 1s a point Y of H,
e
such that LXPY is a right angle. Let M be the l i n e PY.
--
Then M 1 L. Thus we have proved t h a t t h e r e is at l e a s t one
line satisfying the c o n d i t i o n s of t h e theorem.
Proof of ( 2 ) : We now need to prove that there Is at m o s t
one such line. Suppose that there a r e two of them, MI and
. L e t X be a p o i n t of L, different from P.

--3 +
Then the lines MI and M2 contain rays PY1 and PY2 lylng
in t h e same h a l f - p l a n e H having L au its edge. By definition
of perpendicular l i n e s , one of t h e angles determined by L and
PI1
is a r i g h t angle, and by Theorem 4-8 a l l four of these
angles a r e r i g h t angles. Thus m L X P Y l = 90. Similarly,
m L X P Y 2 = 90. But this contradicts the Angle Construction
Postulate, w h i c h says that t h e r e is only one ray z,with Y
in H, such t h a t m L X P Y = 90. This contradiction means t h a t
o u r assumption of two perpendlculars MI and M2 must be
f a l s e , which proves the second half of the theorem.
 The condition "in a given plane" is an important p a r t
of the statement of this theorem. If this condition were
omitted t h e f i r s t (existence) part of the theorem would still
be true b u t t h e second (uniqueness) p a r t would n o t . This is
e a s i l y seen by thinking of t h e r e l a t i o n between t h e spokes of
a wheel and t h e a x l e . Thus l e a v i n g out this condition would
give us an example of a geometric existence theorem with no
c o r r e s p o n d i n g uniqueness theorem. The opposite situation, a
uniqueness theorem w i t h no corresponding e x i s t e n c e theorem,
has already been considered in this c h a p t e r , Can y o u identify
it ?
Definition. The perpendicular bisector of a segment, in a
p l a n e , is t h e l i n e i n the plane which is perpendicuiar to the
sewent and contains t h e mid-point.
E v e r y sement has exactly one mid-polnt, and through the
mid-point there is exactly one perpendicular line in a g i v e n
p l a n e . Thus, f o r perpendicular b i s e c t o r s in a gfven plane,
we have both existence and uniqueness.
The following theorem gives a u s e f u l characterization of
the p o l n t s o f a perpendicular b i s e c t o r :
Theorem 0-2. The perpendicular bisector of a segment, in
a plane, is t h e set of all points of the plane that are equi-
distant from the e n d - p o i n t s of t h e sewent.
Restatement: Let L be the perpendicular b i s e c t o r of t h e
segment in a plane E and let C be the mid-point of
. Then
(1) If P is on L, then PA = PB, and
( 2 ) I f F is in E, and PA = PB, then P is on L.
Notice that the restatement makes it plain t h a t t h e proof
of the theorem w i l l consist of two p a r t s . I n t h e f i r s t p a r t we
prove t h a t every p o i n t of the perpendicular bisector satisfies
the characterization, that is, i s equidistant from the e n d - p o l n t s
of the segment. But t h e theorem says that the p e r p e n d i c u l a r
bisector is t h e s e t of - a l l such p o l n t s . To prove this, then, we
must a l s o show t h a t every such point, characterized by being
equidistant from the end-points of the segment, is on the
perpendicular b i s e c t o r . T h i s last is the second p a r t of the
restatement.
Proof of (1): Given a p o l n t P of L. If P l i e s on
e+
AB, then P = C, and this means that PA = PB by the definition
of mid-point of a segment. If P is w,
not on t h e l i n e then

PC = PC by identlty, and, by hypothesis, C A = CB and

L P C A Y LPCB. Hence by the S.A.S. Postulate,
A PCA APCB.
Therefore PA = PB, which was to be proved.
P r o o f of ( 2 ) : Given that P lies in t h e plane E and
P A = PB. If P is on B, t h e n P 1s the mid-point G of
++
m, and s o P is on L. If P is n o t on AB, let L' be
t*
t h e line PC:

[sec. 6-31
then PC = PC, CA = CB, and PA = PB. (Why?) By the S.S.S.
Theorem,
APCA Z A PCB.
Therefore L PCA Z L PCB. Therefore, by definition, LI 1
and s o L' is the perpendicular b i s e c t o r of m.
Therefore,
by Theorem 6-1, L f = L, and P is on L, which was to be
proved.
Next we prove the analog of Theorem 6-1 f o r t h e case In
which the given p o i n t 1s n o t on t h e given line. S i n c e the
proof I s considerably more complicated than t h a t of Theorem 6-1,
we w i l l s t a t e and prove the existence and t h e uniqueness parts
as separate theorems. Because it is t h e s i m p l e r , we start with
uniqueness.
Theorem 6 - 3 . Through a given external p o i n t there is a t
most one line perpendicular t o a glven line.
P r o o f : Like most uniqueness p r o o f s , t h i s i s an indirect
one. Suppose L1 and L2 a r e distinct lines t h r o u g h p o i n t
P, each perpend

L e t L1 intersect L in A and L2 intersect

S l n c e the l i n e s are d i s t i n c t and b o t h go through P we must
have A f B (Theorem 3-1).
+
On t h e ray opposite t o AP take PQ = AP ( p o i n t P l o t t i n g
he or em). Then A& = AP, AB = AB, rnLPAB = m L Q A B = 90, and
so AQAB r A P A B by the S . A . S . P o s t u l a t e .
It f o l l o w s t h a t
mL&BA = m LPBA = 90 ,
 @
and s o BQ 1 L. This contradicts Theorem 6-1, which says t h a t
t h e r e is o n l y one perpendicular t o L at B l y i n g in the plane
containing L and L1. Hence our supposition that t h e r e could
be two perpendiculars t o L through P is false.
C o r o l l a r y 6-3-1. At most one angle of a t r i a n g l e can bp
a right angle.
For if in A ABC, L A and L B were b o t h r i g h t angles we
would have two perpendfculars from C t o G.
D e f i n i t i o n s . A r i g h t t r i a n g l e is a triangle one o f whose
angles is a r i g h t a n g l e . The s l d e opposite t h e r i g h t angle is
t h e hypotenuse; t h e s i d e s adjacent t o t h e right angle are the
legs.
Theorem 6-4. Through a given external p o i n t t h e r e is at
least one line perpendicular t o a given l i n e .
Restatement: L e t L be a line, and l e t P be a p o i n t n o t
on L. Then there i s a line perpendicular t o L and containing

F i r s t we w i l l explain how the p e r p e n d i c u l a r c a n a c t u a l l y be

constructed, on paper, u s l n g a ruler and a p r o t r a c t o r . From the
method of construction, i t w i l l be c l e a r how t h e theorem can be
p ~ o v e df r o m the postulates.
S t e p 1. L e t Q and R be any two p o i n t s of t h e l i n e L.
hleasure t h e a n g l e L PQR.
 Step 2. Using t h e protractor, c o n s t r u c t an angle L RQS,
with the same measure a s L PQR, t a k i n g S on t h e opposite side
of the l i n e L f r o m P.

+ S t e p 3 . Measure t h e distance QP. Take a p o i n t T on

QS, such t h a t QT = Q,P.
e
S t e p 4. Now draw t h e line TP. T h i s is t h e perpendicular
t h a t we were l o o k i n g for. For the reasons, s e e the p r o o f below.
First, however, you should t ~ this y construction wlth your r u l e r
and protractor, and try t o see for y o u r s e l f why it works.
Let us now write down the proof in t h e double-column form.
Each of t h e first few statements on the left corresponds t o one
o f t h e t h i n g s that we were doing with o u r drawing instruments.

Statements Reasons
1. L c o n t a i n s two points Q 1. The Ruler Postulate.
and R.
2. There is an angle L R Q S , 2 The Angle Construction
congruent t o L RQP, w i t h Postulate.
S and P on different
s i d e s o f L.
3. There is a oint T o f 3. The P o i n t Plotting
the rag 8 such t h a t Theorem.

1 . T and P a r e on opposite 4. P and S are on opposite

sides o f L. s i d e s o f L, and S and
T are on t h e same s i d e of
-
5. TP i n t e r s e c t s L, in a 5. Definition o f opposite
point U. sides.
6. APQU ATQU. 6. statement 2 , statement 3 ,
and t h e S.A.S. Postulate.
7.

8.
LQUP LQUT.

LQUP is a r i g h t angle.
I 7.

8.
Definltion o f a congru-
ence between triangles.
Definition of r i g h t a n g l e .
+-+
9. PT I. L. 9. Definition of perpendicu-
lari ty ,

This p r o o f somewhat resembles t h e proof of t h e S.S.S.

Theorem h he or em 5 - 6 ) . L i k e this e a r l i e r theorem it has a e v e -
r a l cases, only one of which (that in whlch U and R lie on
t h e same s i d e o f Q) is completely covered by t h e above p r o o f .
The rnodiflcations necessary f o r the o t h e r two c a s e s (U = Q and
Q is between R and U) are l e f t as exercises f o r t h e s t u d e n t .

-
Problem S e t
1, If BC = DC and %?1 %8,
p r o v e without t h e use o f
congruent t r i a n g l e s that C
EB = ED.

shown i n t h e f i g u r e , w i t h
lengths o f segments as
indicated, f i n d x, y and

3. Given: PA = PB, M is t h e
m i d p o i n t o f m, and Q is
@
on line PM as shown in
t h e figure .
Prove: Q A = Q B .
(Use paragraph proof. )
6
4. Given: m is the perpendicular bisector of the
The line
segment m.
P is on t h e same side o f m as Q. R is
the intersection o f m and m.
T
Prove: PT = PR I- RQ.

Esec. 6-31
5 Copy t h e f i g u r e b e l o w . Following t h e steps outlined in the
text construct perpendiculars from A, B and X to line L.
X
-A

'B
6. Copy the figure. Using r u l e r and protractor construct
perpendiculars from A and F t o m.

7. Does Theorem 6-4 state existence of a unique perpendicular

the
to a line f r o m a point o f f t h e l i n e ? If we c o n f i n e o u r
thinking to a p l a n e , does Theorem 6-1 s t a t e the existence
o f a unique perpen6icular to a l i n e t h r o u g h a p o i n t on the
line?
*8. Given i s o s c e l e s triangle ABC w -i t h AC - = BC and bisectors
+ +
AD and BE of L A and L 3. AD and BE I n t e r s e c t a t
f3
p o i n t F. Prove t h a t CF is perpendicular to m. (1t is
n o t necessary to use any congruent t r i a n g l e s in y o u r p r o o f . )
*9. One diagonal of a quadrilateral bisects t w o a n g l e s of t h e
q u a d r i l a t e r a l . Prove t h a t it b i s e c t s t h e o t h e r d i a g o n a l .
In t h i s figure given:
RC = SC,
Q is midpoint of
LRCA L SCA.
Prove: l. RS.
6 Introducing Auxiliary -- Sets Into Proofs.
You probably noticed t h a t in p r o v i n g some theorems, most
r e c e n t l y , Theorems 6-2 and 6-4, we introduced c e r t a i n points,
rays and segments into the figure in addition to those speci-
fied in t h e theorem. P o s s i b l y two questions concerned you:
1. How c a n we justify introducing such additional sets
into p r o o f s on t h e basis of our postulates?
2 . How do we know which of these s e t s , If any, should b e
i n t r o d u c e d Into t h e proof of a theorem?
The first question is easy to answer. In working with
theorems we usually are concerned with various relationships
among certain p o i n t s , lines, planes and subsets of these, and
as a practical matter in proving theorems, we choose c e r t a i n
planes o r lines and certain points on them. Frequently we do
n o t concern ourselves with justifylng this procedure. For
example, if we a r e glven a l i n e we may immediately name it x.
When asked to give a reason, however, we can r e f e r to the Ruler
P o s t u l a t e , which says that a l i n e contains inffnitely many
points, and thereby the two points P and Q exist. Similarly,
w
g i v e n two points A and 3 we may talk about AB w i t h complete
confidence since it stands for a line whose existence and unique-
ness are guaranteed by P o s t u l a t e I. (see Section 6-2. )
The c a r e f u l concern over justifyfng existence and uniqueness
becomes especially important when we introduce into the proof
certain points, lines, segments, and so on, n o t accounted f o r by
t h e theorem being proved. C e r t a i n l y we can not have these sets
in our proofs if they do n o t exist under the conditions of o u r
geometry, except, of course, in an indlrect proof, where the
o b j e c t is t o show they can't exist.
 In the table below we list t h e postulates and theorems
occurring so far which may be used, appropriately, t o i n t r o d u c e
auxiliary s e t s i n t o proofs,

Geometric Set Existence Uniqueness

1. Point. l~ostulatesJ and 5. Theorems 2 - h , 3-1, 3-2.
a . Midpoint. I he or em 2 -5. Theorem 2-5.
2. Line. l~ostulates1 and 8. P o s t u l - a t e s 1 and 8.
a . Perpendicular Theorem 6- 1. Theorem 6-1.
a t p o i n t on
l i n e , in a
plane.
b. Perpendicular Theorems 2-5 and Theorems 2-5 and
b i s e c t o r , in 6-1 6-1.
a plane.
c. Perpendicular Theorem 6-4. Theorem 6-3 .
from pofnt
not on l i n e .
. Plane. Postulate 7 . Postulate 7.
Theorems 3-3 and Theorems 3-3 and
T-!. 3-4.
. Ray a s used in P o s t u l a t e 12. Postulate 12.
angle measure.
a. Bisector of Theorem 5-3.
an angle.
5. Segment. P o s t u l a t e 1 and I P o s t u l a t e 1 and
Definition of Deflnition o f
segment. segment.

From t h i s table you may see t h a t you already know a lot a b o u t

t h e n a t u r e o f o u r three b a s i c u n d e f i n e d terms,
The answer t o t h e second question presents a problem quite
d i f f e r e n t from the answer t o the first. Getting t c know when to
introduce auxiliary s e t s i n t o a proof is l a r g e l y p a r t of t h e
process o f l e a r n i n g t o r e a s o n l o g i c a l l y . It r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r -
a b l e practice. L e t t s t r j an example t o see how this worke.
 Fxample 1.

Given: The p l a n e figure w i t h AD = AE and CD = CE.

To prove: L D Z L E .
A

S i n c e all of our postulates and theorems concerning con-

gruence have d e a l t with triangles, it seems reasonable t h a t o u r
f i g u r e should show some triangles. We can accomplish t h i s e a s i l y
by i n t r o d u c i n g either or m.
Suppose we i n t r o d u c e so that our f i g u r e l o o k s like t h i s :

T h i s allows us t o complete the p r o o f , since m L A D E = rnLAED

and m L C D E =: m L C E D g i v e s us m L A D C = mLAEC by the Angle
Addition Postulate.
 Had we introduced instead of m,
o u r p r o o f , in two-
column form this time, would have looked like this:

Proof:
Statements Reasons
-
1, Introduce AC. 1.
of semen t .
P o s t u l a t e 1 and Definition

2. AC = AC. 2 . Identity.
3. AD = A E and CD = C E . 3 Given.
4. A A D C n AAEC. 4. S.S.S. Theorem.
5. L D g LE. 5. Definition of congruent
triangles.

Each of the solutions to Example 1 is c o r r e c t , T h e choice

of which one you use Is up to you. But it is w o r t h noting t h a t
in many problems where a c h o l c e exists, t h e c h o i c e you make will
determine t h e degree o f difficulty of t h e p r o o f . It is h e l p f u l
t o think through each solution before writing one down formally.
An important aspect of l e a r n i n g what t o introduce In a
proof can be illustrated if we remove from the hypothesis of
Example 1 the condition t h a t the f i g u r e is a plane figure. If
D is not coplanar with A, E, and C, at l e a s t one o f the
solutions does n o t h o l d . Does either s o l u t i o n h o l d ? If one
does, which one?
One final word of warning before you begin t o i n t r o d u c e
auxiliary s e t s into your p r o o f s . In answering Question 1
we were c a r e f u l to say t h a t each such s t e p must be j u s t i f i a b l e ,
that is, that every point, line, plane, and so on must exist
under o u r postulates. Students o f t e n make t h e mistake o f not
recognizing this. For example, you might t h i n k you could p r o v e
the statement " A l l angles are congruent" by t h e following argu-
ment. A
Example 2 .
Given any A A B C , prove that
LB = LC.
Proof: In AABC introduce
AD, bisecting L A and perpendi-
c u l a r to BC.
-
Then L BAD L CAD by de f5 -
nition of the b i s e c t o r of an
a n g l e , AD = AD by identity, and L BDA LCDA by t h e d e f i n i t i o n
of perpendicular and t h e f a c t t h a t a l l right angles are congruent.
Therefore A BAD A C A D by A . S . A . , making L B E L C.
It d o e s n o t t a k e long to see t h e serious e r r o r of this so-
c a l l e d p r o o f . The segment m, - t h e per-
as angle b i s e c t o r and
pendicular t o t h e base, does not exist under o u r postulates.
Moreover, t h e f i g u r e makes h ABC appear t o be i s o s c e l e s and
-
thus makes AD appear as introduced above. Were the figure
l i k e this,

you c e r t a i n l y would n o t consider using as it 3.s used. This

leads us o n c e rnore t o s a y t h a t the figure i s merely a convenience
t o a l d you in thinking through your reasoning in l o g i c a l and
c a r e f u l l y chosen words.
 Problem --
S e t 6-11

I. G i v e n : A , B, C and D are 13
coplanar. AD = CD.

~(1).
m L A = mLC.
P r o v e : AB = CB.
Does t h e proof work if A ,
8
B , C, D a r e n o t coplanar?

2. Given: XY = AB, AY = XB.

Prove: A X O Y r AAOB.

3. Given: E, A, S and Y are

coplanar. I, E r L A ,
YE SA.
Prove: L Y E: L S .

4 D e v i s e a second s o l u t i o n to Problem 3 above by introducing

a u x i l i a r y segments d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e ones you used in
t h e solution of Problem 3 .
5. If AC = AB and CD = B D in
t h e p l a n e figure, Show L ACD E L ABD.
Devise a proof t h a t works if the
f i g u r e does n o t lie in t h e p l a n e .

C B
6-5. Betweenness - and Separation,
Critical students may have discovered two p l a c e s in
C h a p t e r 5 where t h e g l v e n p r o o f s a r e not quite complete. These
d e f e c t s o c c u r in Theorems 5-3 and 5-6, and are similar in t h e
t w o places, consisting or a f a i l u r e to show why a c e r t a i n p o i n t
l i e s in t h e i n t e r i o r o f a c e r t a i n a n g l e . In Theorem 5-3 we
must know t h a t D is In the i n t e r i o r of L B A C b e f o r e we can
-+
conclude t h a t AD bisects this a n g l e . And in s t e p s 7 and 10
of Theorem 5-6 we must know t h a t H is I n the i n t e r i o r of
LABC and o f L A E I C b e f o r e we can a p p l y the Angle Addition
Poetulate.
In these p l a c e s it is n o t enough to observe t h a t i n the
figure t h e points lie in t h e p r o p e r p l a c e s . Remember f i r s t
t h a t a drawing 1 3 o n l y an approximation t o the t r u e g e o m e t ~ ~ i c a l
situation, and s e c o n d l y t h a t this is o n l y o n e f i g u r e and the
t h e o r e r ; ~is supposed t o be p r o v e d f o r a l l c a s e s ,
You p r o b a b l y wonder why an incomplete proof s h o u l d be
p r e s e n t e d in a t e x t - b o o k . The reason is t h a t t h e p r o o f s of
of such separation properties a s this one a r e often l o n g , comp-
l i c a t e d , and uninteresting, and t h a t they c o n t r i b u t e l i t t l e o r
n o t h i n g to t h e essential i d e a o r t h e p r o o f . If you understand
the p r o o f o f these theorems as g i v e n b u t d i d n o t notice t h e
incompleteness of t h e s e particular s t e p s , you need n o t worry
a b o u t your competence i n geometry. F o r many c e n t u r i e s l e a r n e d
x e n disputed whether steps like t h e s e needed a n y Justification.
However, m a t h e m a t i c i a n s now agree t h a t e v e n such I t obvious"
s t e p s r e q u i r e a l o g i c a l p r o o f , and so we p r e s e n t here two
theorems and some problems t o f i l l t h e gaps in these ( a n d l a t e r )
 Theorem 6-5. If M is b e t w e e n A and C on a line L,
t h e n M and A are on the same side o f any o t h e r l i n e t h a t
contains C.

Proof: The proof w i l l be indirect. If M and A are on

opposite s l d e s of L 1 (in t h e p l a n e t h a t contains L and L')
t h e n some p o i n t D of L 1 l i e s on t h e segment AM.
- Therefore
D is between A and M, by d e f i n i t i o n of a segment. But D
lies on both L and L'. T h e r e f o r e D = C. Therefore C is
between A and M . This iz impossible, because M is between
A and C. ( S e e Theorem 2 - 3 . )
We can now prove a theorem which completes t h e proof o f
Theorems 5-3 a n d 5-6;
Theorem 6-6. If M is between A and C, and B is any
f--,
point not on the l i n e AC, then M is in the i n t e r i o r o f L A B C .

P r o o f : By t h e preceding theorem, we know that M and A

a r e on t h e same side of . By another application of t h e
preceding theorem ( i n t e r c h a n g i n g A and C) we know t h a t M
and C are on the same s i d e o f By definition o f t h e i n t e r l o r
o f an a n g l e , these two statements tell us t h a t M is I n t h e
i n t e r i o r of L A B C , which was to be proved.

Problem Set 6-5

Note: On t h i s problem s e t no information is to be r e a d from a
figure .

Given A ABC with F between A and C, X between A

and B and Q in the i n t e r i o r o f A ABC. Complete the
following statements, and give reasons t o justify your
answers.
a. F lies in t h e i n t e r i o r of I
b. X l i e s in t h e i n t e r i o r of L
c. Q lies In t h e i n t e r i o r of L L J

and L
2 The f o l l o w i n g f a u l t y argument t h a t an obtuse a n g l e is con-
gruent t o a r i g h t angle emphasizes t h e Importance of knowing
the s i d e of a line on which a ~ o i n tlies

Suppose t h a t ABCD is a r e c t a n g l e as shown and t h a t the

-
side BC is swung outward s o that BC7 = BC and L A E G i is
obtuse. L e t t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r b i s e c t o r o f i n t e r s e c t the
perpendicular b i s e c t o r of DC
- at X. If X I s below AB
H

a s shcwn, we have A A X D E A BXC' by the S.S.S. Theorem, and

hence m L D U =- m L C 8 B X . A l s o , A EAX E A EBX by S.S.S., and
so m L E A X = m L E 3 X . It follows by s u b t r a c t i o n that
m L D A E = mLC8BE.
w
In case X lies above AB, as in the f i g u r e below,

A E 0
we g e t , e x a c t l y a s before, m L D A X = m L C f B X , m L E A X = mLEBX,
and t h e d e s i r e d e q u a l l t y , m LDAE = m L C ' B E Pollows by
addition.
What is wrong w i t h t h e above argument?
 C
*3. Suppose ABC is a t r i a n g l e
and D is a point between B
and C. Show t h a t if L is
a l i n e in the plane of A ABC
which i n t e r s e c t s
-
a t D,
*L

then L i n t e r s e c t s m,or H,
(Hint: If L contains B, A 0
t h e n L intersects , If L
does not c o n t a i n B, then let
H1, F$ be t h e two half-planes i n t o which L separates the
t h e plane of AABC, K1 being the one that contains B.
Since A belongs to e i t h e r L, H1, or H z , there are
t h r e e c a s e s to consider. )
"14, A theorem whose t r u t h appears obvious is o f t e n d i f f i c u l t
t o prove. The following such theorem is assumed in the
proof of Theorem 7-1 of t h e next chapter.
Suppose ABC is a t r i a n g l e , D is a p o i n t between
+
A and C and E is a p o i n t of BC beyond C, Then each
+
point F of BD beyond D Is in the i n t e r i o r of LACE.
The thing t o be proved is that F I s on t h e same side
w
o f BC as A and that F I s o n the same side of AC as E.
*
a . Bow do we know t h a t A and A
D are on t h e same side of
w
BG? What theorem implles
t h a t b and F are on
thls same side?
b. Prove t h a t i f H I , H2 are
t h e two h a l f p l a n e s I n t o
#
which A C s e p a r a t e s the
0 C

-
plane o f t h e figure and B
belongs t o H1, then e a c h
of E, F belong t o H2. This shows that E and F
a r e on t h e same side of AC.
*5. Another theorem whose truth I s f r e q u e n t l y accepted without
proof is the following: If D i s a p o i n t i n the interior
of L ABC, then intersects
We suggest below a !Itrickyt'proof In which we consider
A EAC, where E is a p o i n t of 3 beyond B. This
I

enables us to apply t h e r e s u l t s of Problem 2. Parts a and

b below a r e used t o show t h a t %8 does not i n t e r s e c t E.
a . Suppose HI, H2 a r e t h e
two h a l f -planes into which
M
BC divides t h e plane of
A EAC w i t h A in HI.
Why Is D i n HI? What
t h e o r e m implies t h a t each
-3
point of BD o t h e r than
B i s i n HI? W h y i s E
i n Hz?
What theorem i m p l i e s t h a t e a c h p o i n t of
C is in H2? Why does
b . Why does
c.
+
Why does BD intersect AC?
-
+
+
f a i l t o I n t e r s e c t BD?
f a i l to i n t e r s e c t t h e ray o p p o s i t e BD?
-
o t h e r than

-
d . Why does the ray opposite BD fail to i n t e r s e c t AC?

*6.
b
-
The f o l l o w i n g theorem may be used I n s t e a d of P a r t s
of P r o b l e m 5 to show t h a t A and C
sides of BD.
a and
l i e on d i f f e r e n t

Theorem: If point D is in the i n t e r i o r of L A B C ,

then A is n o t in the interior of L DBC n o r i s C
in t h e i n t e r i o r of L ABD.
P r o v e t h l s theorem
*7. There a r e studies of geometry t h a t u s e o t h e r systems of
postulates than t h e o n e s we have a d o p t e d . A postulate
taken from one such system i s the f o l l o w i n g :
If A , 3, C, D, E are points s u c h that A , B and C
a r e non-collinear and B is between A and E and D is
between B and C, then there is a p o i n t X such t h a t X
I s between A and C while D is between E and X .
This statement can be proved in o u r system of p o s t u -
lates. C
a. Why are A, B, C, D, E
coplanar?
b. Show from the Plane
Separation P o s t u l a t e
w
t h a t ED i n t e r s e c t s
a t a point X be-
f
E
t w e e n A and C. 4 B
c . It c a n be shown t h a t D
is between E and X by showing t h a t E and X a r e
on opposite s i d e s of some l i n e . What line?
Given points P and Q on p
opposite sides o f p l a n e E i,
w i t h P& intersecting E in
M. Identify the following
statements a s t r u e or f a l s e .

a. If L is a line in
-
I,
E p e r p e n d i c u l a r to PQ, then P
and Q are on opposite s i d e s of L in t h e plane
determined by P and L.
b. If L is a line in E through M, then P and Q a r e
on opposite sides of L in t h e plane determined by
P and L.
c. If L i s a line in E, then P and Q are on opposite
s i d e s of L in t h e plane determined by P and L.
d. P and Q a r e on opposite s l d e s of every plane through
M
M not containing PQ.
 Chapter 7

GEOmTRIC INEQUALITIES

7-1. Making Reasonable ConJectures.

Up to now, in our study of t h e geometry of the triangle, we
have been dealing o n l y with conditions under which we can say that
t w o segments are of equal length, o r two angles are o f equal
measure. We will now proceed ~ study conditions under which we
can say that one segment is longer than another, (that is, has a
greater length), o r one angle is larger than another, (that is, has
a g r e a t e r measure).
We shall not s t a r t , however, by p r o v i n g theorems. L e t us
start, r a t h e r , by making some reasonable conjectures a b o u t t h e
s o r t o f statements t h a t ought t o be t r u e . ( ~ h e s estatements
should not be c a l l e d theorems unless and until t h e y a r e proved. )
An example: Given a triangle w i t h two sides of unequal
length, what can we say a b o u t the angles o p p o s i t e these s l d e s ?
Notice that this problem is naturally suggested by Theorem
5-2, which says t h a t if t w o a i d e s of a trlangle have t h e same
length, then the angles opposite t h e m have the same measure.
You can investigate this s i t u a t i o n by sketching a triangle
wfth two sides of obviously unequal lengths, like this:

Here BC: I s g r e a t e r than AB, and rn L A i s g r e a t e r t h a n m L C .

A f t e r sketching a few more triangles, you will become p r e t t y w e l l
convinced t h a t t h e following statement ought t o be t r u e :
-----
If t w o sides of a trianqle -- are of unequal l e n g t h , t h e n t h e
angles opposite --- them are of unequal measure, and t h e larger angle
-
is opposite - the longer side.
Now t r y the same s o r t of procedure w l t h t h e following p r o b -
lems.
 Problem --
Set 7-1

H e r e are some experiments for you to try.

1. Consider triangles w i t h two angles of unequal measure. Write
a statement which you t h f n k may be true concerning t h e s i d e s
o p p o s i t e t h o s e angles.
2. Consider several triangles Am. How does AB + E compare
w i t h AC? BC c AC compare w i t h AB? A 3 + AC compare w i t h
E? These responses suggest a general conclusion. If you
think this conclusion is t r u e f o r ali triangles3 w r i t e it as
a proposition.
3. C o n s i d e r a quadrilateral RSTQ. How does RS + ST + !I'Q com-
pare w i t h RQ? Write a p r o p o s i t i o n suggested by your answer.
4. Draw s e v e r a l triangles in which t h e measure o f one angle is
successively greater but t h e adjacent sides remain unchanged
in l e n g t h . What happens t o t h e l e n g t h of t h e t h i r d side?
5. Draw h DEF and A XYZ such that DE = XY, FE = ZY, and
rn & DEF > m L XYZ. Compare DF and X Z .
6. Regarding A PIX and h J U N such that m LPIQ = m t JUN,
PD > JU, and QD = NU, a hasty person might conclude t h a t
PQ > JN. Draw a f i g u r e showing t h a t t h e conclusion is n o t
justified.
7. A is a p o i n t in p l a n e E, ,B
is a ray n o t lying in E, and
+
AC is a ray lying in E. Con -
sidering different positions
+
o f AC, d e s c r i b e a s accurately
+
a s you can t h e position of AC
which makes L BAC as small as possible; as l a r g e a s possible.
N o p r o o f is expected b u t you a r e asked to guess the answer on
t h e basis of your knowledge o f space.
8. O n t h e basis of drawings decide whether o r n o t an angle can be
t r i s e c t e d by the following procedure:
L e t A A X be an i s o s c e l e s triangle
-
with congruent sides A 3 and E .
-
T r i s e c t side BC with p o i n t s D,
E so t h a t BD = DE = E C .
Is L BAD L DAE Z L EAC?

-.
1-2. -
A l g e b r a o f 1-nequalities.
B e f o r e considering geometric inequalities we r e v i e w some of
t h e facts concerning i n e q u a l i t i e s between real numbers. Note first
t h a t a < b and b > a a r e merely t w o ways of writing t h e same
t h i n g ; we u s e whichever is more c o n v e n i e n t , e . g . 3 < 5 or 5 > 3 .
D e f i n i t i o n s . A real number is positive If it i s greater t h a n
z e r o ; it is negative If it is less t h a n z e r o .
We now r e s t a t e t h e o r d e r p o s t u l a t e s , giving examples of their
use.
0-1. (uniqueness of order.) For every x and y, one and
only one of t h e following r e l a t i o n s h o l d s : x < y, x = y, x > y.
0-2. (Transitivity o f o r d e r . ) If x < y and y < z, then
x < 2.
Example 1. 3 < 5 and 5 < 9, hence, 3 < 9.
Example 2 . If we know t h a t a < 3 and b > 3 , we can
conclude t h a t a < b. Proof: If a < 3
and 3 < b, t h e n a < b.
Example 3 . Any p o s i t i v e number is greater than any
negative number.
Given: p is p o s i t i v e , n I s n e g a t i v e .
TO prove: p > n.
Proof:
1. p is p o s i t i v e . 1. Given.
2. p > 0. 2. D e f i n i t i o n of positive.
 3. 0 < p. 3. Relation between < and >.
4. n < 0. 4. Definition of n e g a t i v e .
5. n < p. 5 Postulate 0-2.
6 p > n. 6. Relation between < and >.
0-3. ( ~ d d l t i o nf o r inequalities.) If x < y, then
x + z < y + z, f o r every z .
Example 4. Since 3 < 5 it f o l l o w s t h a t 3 + 2 < 5 + 2,
or 5 < 7 ; t h a t 3 + (-3) < 5 + ( - 3 1 , or
0 < 2; t h a t 3 + ( - 8 ) < 5 + (-8), or -5 < - 3 .
Example 5. If a < b then -b < -a. P r o o f : a + (-a-b)<
b + ( - a - b ) , o r -b < -a.
Example 6 . If a + b = c and b is positive, then
a < c.
Proof:
1. b is positive, 1. Why?
2. b > 0. 2. Why?
3. 0 < b. 3. my?
4. a < a + b . 4, Why?
5. a < c . 5 Why?
Fxample 7. If a + b < c t h e n a < c - b. Proof left
to t h e s t u d e n t .
Example 8. If a < b, t h e n c - a > c - b f o r e v e r y c .
Proof l e f t t o t h e s t u d e n t .
0-4. ( r u l t i p l f c a t i o n for 1ne~ualities.1 If x < y and
z > 0 , then xz < y z .
Example 9 . From 3 ( 6 we can conclude that 3000 <
1 1
1
6000; a l s o , t h a t % 3 < 6, Or 5 < 7. .
Example 10. If x ( and z < 0 , t h e n
y xz > yz.
P r o o f left to t h e student.

0-5. ( ~ d d i t i o nof ~ n e q u a l i t i e s . ) If a < b and x < y, then

a + x < b 4 - y .
This is n o t a p o s t u l a t e b u t a theorem; i t s proof is g i v e n
in S e c t i o n 2 - 2 . However, it is convenient t o list it, f o r
r e f e r e n c e , along w i t h the postulates.
' 3 --
The P a s i c
Inequall ty Theorems.
In the ffgure below, t h e angle L E D is called an exterior
angle o f h A B C . More precisely:

D e f i n i t i o n . If C is between A and D, t h e n L E D is an
e x t e r i o r angle of A ABC .
Every triangle has six exterior angles, a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e
double-headed arrows in t h e f i g u r e below:

Tnese six angles form t h r e e pairs of congruent angles, because

t h e y f o r m t h r e e p a i r s of v e r t i c a l angles.
Definftion. L A and LB of t h e t r i a n g l e s are c a l l e d t h e
remote i n t e r i o r angles o f t h e e x t e r i o r angles L E D and L A C E .
S i m i l a r l y , L A and L C of A ABC a r e t h e remote i n t e r i o r
angles of the e x t e r i o r angles L ABF and L C E G .
Theorem 7-1. h he E x t e r i o r Angle Theorem.) An exterior
a n g l e o f a trlangle is larger than e i t h e r remote i n t e r i o r angle.
Restatement: Note f i r s t that t h e two e x t e r i o r angles at
vertex C, above, have equal measures ( v e r t i c a l angles), and so it
doesnlt matter which of them we compare w i t h L A and L 3. It
t u r n s out t o be easiest to compare m L E D w i t h m L B and
m L ACE with m L A , S i n c e t h e proofs of t h e s e two c a s e s a r e
exactly similar we need prove only one.
Given triangle A A X . If C I s between A and D, t h e n
m L BCD > rn L B.

Proof :
Statements Reasons
I
1. Let E be the m i d - p o i n t of E. 1. By Theorem 2-5 t h e r e is
such a mid-point.
2. Let F be a o nt of t h e ray 2. By Theorem 2-4, there is
opposite t o
EF = EA.
@ such t h a t such a p o i n t .

3. Vertical angles are con-

gruent.
4. Statements 1, 2, 3 and
t h e S.A.S. P o s t u l a t e .
5. m L B = m L ECF. 5. Corresponding parts of
congruent t r i a n g l e s .
6. m L B C D = m L ECFt m L FCD. 6, Postulate 13 h he Angle
A d d i t i o n Postulate.)
7. m L E D = m L B + m L FCD. 7. Statements 5 and 6.
8. r n L = D > r n L ~ , 8. By algebra f r o m s t e p 7 .
(since m L FCD is a
p o s i t i v e number, Example
6 of Sectlon 7-2 applies.)
 Problem Set 7-3a
I. a. Name the remote interior
angles of t h e e x t e r i o r
angle L ABE in t h e f i g u r e .
b. L A X and L B A C a r e t h e
remote i n t e r i o r angles oi E
w h i c h e x t e r i o r angle?

2, a. In the f i g u r e , which angles

a r e e x t e r i o r angles of the
triangle?
b. What i s t h e relationship of
m L D E t o m L A? Why?
c. What is the r e l a t i o n s h i p of
m L DBC to m LC? Why?
d. What is the r e l a t i o n s h i p of
m L DE to m L CBA? Wny?

3. Using the f i g u r e , complete t h e following:

a . If x = 40 and y = 30, t h e n m L BCE >
b. If x = 72 and y = 7 3 , then

c. If y = 54 and z = 68, then

m L BCE
d. If r n L B C E = 1 1 2 , t h e n x ,

e. If rn L BCE = 150, then z

f. If x = 25 and z = 90, then
m L BCE
g. If x = 90 and y = 90, t h e n
 D
4. The accompanying f i g u r e is a n
illustration of t h i s statement:
An e x t e r i o r angle of a quadri-
l a t e r a l is greater t h a n each of
the remote i n t e r i o r angles. Is
t h i s a true statement? Explain. A B E

"5. P r ~ v et h e following theorem:

The sm o f t h e measures of any
t w o angles o f a triangle is
l e s s t h a n 180.
Given: A A X With angle
measures as In t h e
figure.
Prove: a + b < 180.
b + c < 180.
a + c < 180.

*6. Prove the following theorem: The base angles of a n i s o s c e l e s

triangle a r e z c u t e . ( H i n t : Base your proof on t h e statement
of t h e p r e v i o u s p r o b l e m . )

Theorem 7-1, while p e r h a p s not v e r y exciting in i t s e l f , is

extremely u s e r u l i n proving o t h e r theorems. ( A theorem of t h i s
type is sometimes called a lemma. ) For example, t h e following is
a u s e f u l corollary.
Corollary 7-1-1. If a t r i a n g l e h a s a r i g h t angle, t h e n t h e
o t h e r two angles a r e a c u t e .

[aec. 7-31
 Proof: If m L A = 9 0 , then m L BCD > 9 0 , and t h e r e f o r e ,
m L BCA ( 9 0 . In a s i m i l a r way we can prove m L A B C < 90.
We next use Theorem 7 - 1 to prove two more congruence theorems.
Theorem 7 - 2 . h he S .A. A . he or em) Given a correspondence
between two t r i a n g l e s . If two angles and a side o p p o s i t e one of
them in one triangle a r e congruent t o the corresponding parts of
the second t r i a n g l e , t h e n t h e correspondence is a congruence.
Restatement: L e t ABC-DEF be a correspondence between two
triangles. If
L A ~ L D ,
LB 2 L E,
and
-
AC 2 m,
then A ABC 2 A DEF.

Proof:
Statements Reasons
+
1. On AB t a k e X so t h a t 1. Point P l o t t i n g Theorem.
AX = DE.
2. A A X C ~ A DEF. S.A.S. Postulate.
3. m L A X C = m L DEF. 13. D e f i n i t i o n of congruence.
4. m L A X C = m L ABC. I k . S t e p 3 and g i v e n .
Now suppose t h a t X is n o t the same point as B.
5. Either X Is between k 5. S t e p 1 and definition of ray.
and B or B is between
A and X.

6. i n either case one of L AXC 6. D e f i n i t i o n of exterior a n g l e

and L A X i s a n e x t e r i o r and remote i n t e r i o r angle.
angle of A BXC and the
o t h e r is a remote i n t e r i o r
angle.
7. m LAXC # m L AEC. 7. Step 6 and Theorem 7-1.
8. X = B . 8. Step 7 contradicts Step 4 .
9. 4 A B C Z A DEF. 9. S t e p s 2 and 8.

Although i t was p o i n t e d o u r i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e S.A.S.

Postulate t h a t an S.S.A. theorem cannot in general be p r o v e d ,
t h e r e is one s p e c i a l case; namely, the c a s e in which the angle I s
a r i g h t angle, t h a t f o l l o w s f r o m Theorem 7 - 2 ,

Theorem 7 - 3 . (The Eypotenuse-Leg Theorem.) Given a corres-

pondence between two r i g h t triangles. If the hypotenuse and one
l e g o f o n e t r i a n g l e are congruent to the corresponding p a r t s of
t h e second triangle, t h e n t h e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i s a congrJence.

Restatement: In A A B C and A DEF l e t m L A = mL D = 90.

Let ABC-DEF be a correspondence such that

8C = EF and AB = DE.

Then A A B C 2 A DEF.

[ a e c . 7-31
 C
Proof: On t h e ray opposite t o DF take Q such that
DQ = AC. Then A D E Q z h ABC by t h e S.A.S. P o s t u l a t e , and so
EQ = BC. A E Q F is thus an isosceles t r i a n g l e , and soLEQD ~ L E F D .
In A DEQ and A DEF we thus have
-
EQ * -
= EF, L EQD 2 L EFD and L EDQ Z L EDF.
Hence, by the S . A . A . Theorem, A DEF 2 A DEQ. Since we have already
established A DEQ 2 A A B C we conclude that A DEF 2 A A X , which
is what we wanted.

Problem Set 7-3b

1. If In this figure AQ = EQ and

Given that ElE, HQlQB,

AB = HF, AK = HQ.
Prove t h a t KF = QB.

If AX = FH in this f i g u r e ,
prove that FB = AB.
4. I f two altitudes of a t r i a n g l e are congment, the t r i a n g l e is
isosceles.

5. In this f i g u r e : L C 2 L a .
AQ = AF.
Prove: QB = FK.

B
6. I n this f i g u r e i f L a 2 L c,
- - --
A B ~ A H and F B ~ F H , A
prove t h a t AH = FH. \ I /

Theorem 7 - 4 . If two s i d e s o f a triangle are not congruent,

then the angles opposite t h e s e t w o s i d e s are not congment, and
the l a r g e r angle is o p p o s i t e the longer side.
Restatement: Given A ABC . If AB > AC, t h e n rnL C > mL B.
A

F r o o f : Let D be a p o i n t of 2, such that AD = AB.

(By the P o i n t P l o t t i n g Theorem, t h e r e is such a p o i n t . ) Since t h e
base angles of an isosceles t r i a n g l e are congruent, we have
 (11 m L ABD = m L D.
Now AD > AC, since AD = AB and AB > AC, and so C i s between
A and D by Theorem 2-1, By Theorem 6-6, C is in t h e i n t e r i o r
of ABD, and so
( 21 m L ABD = rnL ABC + rnL CBD
by the Angle A d d i t i o n P o s t u l a t e . Since m L CBD > 0 it f o l l o w s
that
(31 m L ABD > m L ABC.
Therefo r e
(4) mL D >m L A X , f r o m (1) and ( 3 ) .
Since L ACB is an e x t e r i o r angle of A E D , we have
(5) m L ACB > m L D.
By ( 4 ) and (51,
mL ACB >mL AX,
t h a t is,
mf C >mL B,
w h i c h was t o be p r o v e d .
Theorem. If two angles of a triangle a r e not c o n g r u e n t ,
then the s i d e s opposite them are not congruent, and t h e longer
s i d e is opposite the larger angle.

Restatement: In any triangle A A B C , if mL C > rn L B, then

AB > AC.
Proof: We want t o prove that AB > AC. Since AB and AC
a r e numbers, t h e r e are o n l y t h r e e possibilities: ( I ) AB = AC,
(2) AB ( AC and (3) AB > AC. The method of t h e proof Is t o show
t h a t t h e f i r s t two of t h e s e "possibilities" a r e in f a c t impossible.
The only remaining possibility will be ( 3 ) , and this will mean
t h a t t h e theorem is true.
(1) If AB = AC, then by Theorem 5-2 it f o l l o w s t h a t
L B 2 L C; and this is false. Therefore, it I s Impossible that
AB = AC.
(2) If AB < AC, then by Tneorem 7-4 it follows that
rn L C < m L B; and this is f a l s e . Therefore, it is impossible
t h a t AB < AC.
The only remaining possibility is t h a t AB > AC, which was
to be p r o v e d .
The proof o f Theorem 7-5, as we have g i v e n it, I s merely a
handy way o f stating an i n d i r e c t p r o o f . I t could have been
written more formally, like this:
u up pose t h a t Theorem 7-5 is false. Then e l t h e r AB = AC o r
AB < AC, It is impossible t h a t AB = A C , because . . . . And i t
i s impossible that A 3 < AC, because . .. . T h e r e f o r e , 7-5 I s
n o t false."
The p r o o f is p r o b a b l y easier t o r e a d , however, t h e way we
gave it t h e f i r s t time. We will be using t h e same s o r t o f scheme
a g a i n . That i s , we will list t h e possibilities, i n a g i v e n situ-
ation, and t h e n show t h a t a l l b u t one of these " p o s s i b i l i t i e s " are
i n f a c t i m p o s s i b l e ; i t will then f o l l o w that t h e last remaining
possibility must repre s e n t what actually happens.
"That p r o c e s s starts upon the supposition that when you have
eliminated a1 L which is impossible , t h e n whatever remains, however
improbable, must L? t h e t r u t h . I ' ( S h e r l o c k Holmes in " T A ~ A d v e n t u ~
of t h e Elanched ~ o l d i e r " ) .
Tneorems 7-1!a n d ' ( - 5 a r e r e l a t e d in a s p e c i a l way; t h e y are
c a l l e d c o n v e r s e s of' one another. To g e t one from the o t h e r , we
i n t e r c .iange t h e n y p o t h e s is and t tle conclusion . We c a n e x h i b i t
t h i s f a c t by r e s t a t i n g t r ~ etheorems t h f s way:
Theorem 7-4. Glven A A X . I f A B > AC, then rn L C > rn L B.
Tilecrern 7 - 5 . Given A A E . If mL C > m L 13, t h e n AB > A C .
We have seen lots of p a i r s of theorems t h a t a r e r e l a t e d this
way. F o r example, we showed t h a t i f a t r i a n g l e i s i s o s c e l e s , t h e n
its base angles are c o n g r u e n t : and l a t e r we showed t h a t if t h e
uase a n g l e s of a t r i a n g l e are congruent, t h e n t h e triangle is

[ s e c . 7-31
i s o s c e l e s . Each of t h e s e theorems is the converse of t h e o t h e r .
We showed t h a t ?very equilateral triangle is equiangular; and
l a t e r we proved t h e c o n v e r s e , which s t a t e s t h a t every equiangular
triangle i s equilateral.
It is very important to remember t h a t t h e converse of a true
theorem is not necessarily t r u e at all. F o r exaiple, the theorem
It
vertical angles a r e congruent'' is always t r u e , but t h e converse,
"congruent angles a r e v e r t i c a l " is c e r t a i n l y not t r u e in a l l cases.
If t w o t r i a n g l e s are congruent, then they have the same a r e a , but
if t w o t r i a n g l e s have the sane area, it does n o t f o l l o w that they
are congruent. If x = y, t h e n it follows t h a t r2 = y 2 ; b u t if
2 2
x = y , I t does n c t f o l l o w t h a t x = y . (The other possibility
is t h a t x = -y.) It is true t h a t every physicist is a s c i e n t i s t ,
but it is not true t h a t every scientist is a physicist.
If a theorem and its converse are both t r u e , they can be con-
v e n i e n t l y combined into a s i n g l e statement by u s i n g t h e phrase "if
and only if". Thus, if we say:
Two angles of a triangle a r e congruent if and only if t h e
opposite s i d e s are congruent;
we are i n c l u d i n g in one statement b o t h theorems on i s o s c e l e s t r i -
a n g l e s . The f i r s t half of this d o u b l e statement:
Two angles of a t r i a n g l e are congruent if the opposite s i d e s
are c o n g r u e n t ;
is Theorem 5-2; and t h e second half:
Two angles o f a triangle a r e congruent only i f the o p p o s i t e
s i d e s are congruent;
is a restatement of Theorem 5-5.

Problem S e t 7 - 3 c
1. In A G H K , GH = 5 , HK = 1 4 , KG = 11. Name t h e largest angle.
Name t h e smallest angle.
2. In A ABC, m L A = 36, mL B = 74, and m L C = 7 0 . Name the
longest side. Name t h e s h o r t e s t side.

[sec. 7-31
3. Glven t h e f i g u r e w i t h HA = HB,
m L H 3 K = l h O , and m L ABB = 100,
Y

A-
fill in t h e blanks below:
a. m L A = - - -
b. m L R H B = - - -
A
C . - - - is the longest s i d e B K
o f A ABH.

-
4. What c o n c l u s i o n can you reach a b o u t the length of ML in
A KLM if:
a. m L K > m L M?
b. rnLK<mLL?
c. m L M > m L K > m L L?
d. mLM>mLL?
e. m L K > m L 14 and
m L K > m L L?
f. m L K 2 m . L L and
m L M L m L L?

5. If the f i g u r e were c o r r e c t l y
drawn whlch segment would be
t h e longest?

6. Name the sides o f t h e f i g u r e

in order o f i n c r e a s i n g l e n g t h .
A C

-
7. If in the f i g u r e AF is t h e
shortest s i d e and CB i s t h e
l o n g e s t side, p r o v e t h a t
m L F > rn L E. ( ~ i n t : u s e
diagonal FB.)
-
4
*8. If t h e base o f a n i s o s c e l e s triangle is e x t e n d e d , a segment
tthich joins t n e v e r t e x of t h e t r i a n g l e with any p o i n t in t h i s
extension is g r e a t e r than one of t h e congruent s i d e s of t h e
triangle.
F

3. Write the c o n v e r s e of each statement. Try to d e c i d e whether

each s t a t e m e n t , and each c o n v e r s e , is t r u e or f a l s e .
a . If a team has some spirit, it can win some games.
b. I f two angles a r e r i g h t angles, they are c o n g r u e n t .
c. Any t w o congruent angles a r e supplementary.
d. The interior o f a n a n g l e i s t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n o f two
half - p l a n e s ,
e. If Joe has scarlet f e v e r , he is s e r i o u s l y i l l .
f. If a man l l v e s in Cleveland, Ohio, i ~ el i v e s in Ohio.
g. If the three angles of one t r i a n g l e are congruent t o t h e
corresponding angles o f a n o t h e r triangle, t h e t r i a n g l e s
are congruent.
h. If two angles a r e complementary, t h e sum of t h e i r measures
i s go.
10. men asked t o g i v e the converse of t h l s statement, "If I h o l d
a l l g h t e d m a t c h t o o long, 7 will be burned", J o h n s a i d , "I
will be burned if' I h o l d a l i g h t e d match too l o n g . " Was
John's s e n t e r ~ c et h e c o n v e r s e o f the o r i g i n a l statement?
Disc;iss.
11. a . Is a converse of a t r u e s t a t e ~ ~ e nalways t t!=ue? Which
p a r t s of Problem 9 illustrate y o u r answer?
b. May a converse of a f a l s e statement be true? Wk-~ichparts
of Problem 9 illustrate your answer?
Isec. 7-31
 Theorem 7-6. The s h o r t e s t segment joining a point t o a line
is the perpendicular segment,

Restatement: Let Q be the f o o t of the p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o

the line L through t h e point P, and l e t R be any o t h e r p o i n t
on L. Then PQ < PR.
Proof: L e t S be a p o l n t o f
L, such that Q is between
S and R. Then L PQS is a n e x t e r f o r angle of A PQR. Therefore,
m L PQS > mL PRQ. B u t m L PQS = m L PQR = 90, and so m L PQ,R >
m L PRQ. By Theorem 7 - 5 it follows that PQ < PR, whlch was t o be
proved,
D e f i n i t i o n . The d i s t a n c e between ---
a line and a p o i n t not on
it i s the length of the p e r p e n d i c u l a r segment from the p o i n t t o the
l i n e . The distance between a line and a p o i n t on the l i n e is de-
fined t o b e zero.

Theorem 7-7. ( ~ n eTriangle Inequality. ) The sum of t h e

l e n g t h s of any two s i d e s o f a t r i a n g l e i s g r e a t e r than t h e length
of the third s i d e .
Restatement: In any triangle A A X , we have AB + BC > AC.
 +
Proof: Let D be a p o i n t of the ray opposite to BC such
that DB = AB. Since B is between C and D
I
X = D B + B!2.
(1) X = A B + B C .
( 2 ) m L DAB < m L DAC,

because B is in the I n t e r i o r of L DAC.

Since A DAB is i s o s c e l e s , w i t h AB = DB, it follows t h a t
(3) m L ADB = rn L DAB.
By ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) we ilave
rn L ADB < mL DAC.
Applying T,leorem 7-5 t o A ADC, we see t h a t
(4) Dc > AC.
Ey (1) 2nd ( 4 ) i t follows t h a t
AB + E ) AC,
which was t o be p r o v e d .

Problem -
Set

1. Here AH < and AH < .

m<- and BT < , State
the theorem invo 1ved .
 3. With angle measures as shown
in the f i g u r e , i n s e r t H A , HF,
H3 below in c o r r e c t o r d e r .
-<-<-.
S t a t e theorems t o s u p p o r t
y o u r conclusion.

3. Suppose t h a t you w i s h t o draw a triangle with 5 a s the l e n g t h

of one s i d e and 8 as the length of a second side. Ygur t h i r d
s i d e must have a l e n g t h greater t h a n , and l e s s t h a n .

4. Suppose t h a t you w i s h t o draw a t r i a n g l e w l t h J as t h e

length of one s i d e and k as the l e n g t h of a second s i d e ,
It is known that j < k . Indicate, as e f f i c l e n t l y a s you can,
t h e restrictions on the l e n g t h , x, o f t h e t h l r d s i d e .

5. Prove t h a t the sum of the l e n g t h s

of the diagonals of this quadri-
l a t e r a l is l e s s t h a n the sum o f
the lengths o f i t s s i d e s .
0
Given: Q u a d r i l a t e r a l A X D .
To p r o v e : DE!+ C A C A B + BC + C D + DA,

*6. Let A, B, C, be p o i n t s , n o t n e c e s s a r i l y different. Prove

that AB -t EC -
) AC and t h a t AB + BC = AC i f and only if
3 is on t h e segment
-
AC.

[ s e c . 7-31
*7. Prove t h a t t h e shortest polygonal p a t h from one p o i n t to
a n o t h e r i s t h e segment joining them.

Given: n points A1, A2, ......, *n '

Prove: A A
1 P + A2A3+ . . . . . ' *n-1A n -> A IA n.
*8. Given two segments
-
AC and intersecting at P.

Prove t h a t if X is any p o i n t in the plane of ABCD o t h e r

than P , then XA + XB + XC 4- XD > PA c PB t PC + PD.
Will this r e s u l t be t r u e if X is n o t in t h e plane of ABCD?

"9. Given a line m and t w o points P, Q on t h e same side o f m.

Find t h e p o i n t R on m f o r which PR + RQ is a s small a s
possible.
 We will now prove a theorem w h i c h I s a l i t t l e like Theorem 7-5,
e x c e p t t h a t i t deals with two t r i a n g l e s instead of one.
Theorem 7 - 8 . If two sides o r one triangle a r e congruent
r e s p e c t i v e l y to two sides of a second triangle, and t h e i n c l u d e d
angle of t h e first triangle is l a r g e r t h a n t h e included angle of
t h e second, then the opposf t e s i d e o f t h e first t r i a n g l e i s longer
t h a n t h e o p p o s i t e s i d e o f t h e second.
Restatement: Given A A K andA DEF. If AB = DE, AC = DF
and m L A > m L D, then BC > EF.

P r o o f : S t e p 1. We construct A AKC, w i t h K in t h e interior

of L BAC, such t h a t A AKC 2 A DEF, like this:

To do this, we use the Angle C o n s t r u c t i o n P o s t u l a t e , t o get a r a y

z,
On
e
with Q o n t h e same s l d e o f AC a s B such t h a t L &AC 2 L D.
we take a p o i n t K such that AK = DE. 3y t h e S.A.S.
P o s t u l a t e , we now have A AKC 2 A DEF, which is what we wanted.
 S t e p 2. Now we b i s e c t L BAK, and l e t M be t h e p o i n t where
-
t h e b i s e c t o r c r o s s e s BC, like this:

The marks on t h e f i g u r e indicate t h a t AK = AB, and t h i s is t r u e ,

because AK = DE a n d DE = AB.
Ile a r e now a l m o s t done. By t h e S.A.S. P o s t u l a t e , w e have
A AH.1 2 A AKM. Tllerefore, MB = MK. By Theorem 7 - 7 , we h o w that
CK < CI\I + MK.
Therefo r e ,
CK < CM + MB,
because MI3 = Since CK = EF
MK. and GM + MB = PC, we get
EF < BC, which is what we wanted.
The converse of this theorem is a l s o true.
Theorem 7-9. If two s i d e s of one triangle are congruent
respectively to two sides of a second triangle, and t h e t h i r d s i d e
o f t h e first triangle is longer t h a n t h e t h i r d side o f t h e second,
t h e n the included a n g l e of the first triangle is l a r g e r than t h e
included angle of the s e c o n d .
The proof is similar t o that of Theorem 7-5, u s e b e i n g made
of Theorem 7 - 6 and the S . S . S . Theorem to e l i m i n a t e t h e two unwanted
cases. The s t u d e n t s h o u l d fill in t h e details.
 Problem --
S e t 7-3e

1. combination of Theorems 7-8 and 7-9 in t h e ''if and

S t a t e the
only if" form.
0
2 In this f i g u r e AC = BC,
and BD < AD.
Prove: mL x > r n L y.
. P C
A

3. RAF 'with
In i s o s c e l e s t r i a n g l e
RA=RF and
-
B a p o i n t o n AF
s u c h t h a t rnL ARB < rn L BRF.
Prove: AB ( BF.

4. Given A ABF w i t h median

-
RB
and m L ARB = 80.
P r o v e : m L A > m L F.

-
5. In A ABC, PC > AC and €2 is t h e midpoint of AB. Is ,L CQA
o b t u s e or acute? Explain.
[sec. 7-31
6. I n this f i g u r e FH = A&.
AH > FQ.
Prove : AB > FB.

7. A non-equilateral quadrilateral has two pairs o f congruent

adjacent s i d e s . Prove t h a t the measure of t h e angle i n c l u d e d
between the smaller s i d e s is greater t h a n the measure of the
angle between the larger s i d e s .

8. Prove the following theorem: H

I f a median of a t r i a n g l e is
n o t perpendicular to the s i d e
to which it is drawn, then t h e
lengths of the other two sides
of t h e triangle a r e unequal.
A F
8

C
9. Given AB > AC and FC = DB
in t h l s f i g u r e . Prove t h a t
FB > CD.

A P
0
7-4. Altitudes.
An altitude o f a t r i a n g l e is t h e perpendicular
Definition.
segment joining a v e r t e x of the triangle t o t h e line t h a t contains
the o p p o s i t e s i d e .

In t h e flgure - w
is c a l l e d t h e a l t i t u d e from -
3 to AC, o r
simply the a l t i t u d e - f r o-
m B, ( ~ o t i c ethat we say &t altitude
from B instead of - an altitude from B, because Theorem 6-3 t e l l s
us that t h e r e is only one. )
N o t i c e t h a t t h e foot of the perpendicular does not necessarily
l i e on t h e s i d e AC o f the triangle. The f i g u r e may l o o k like
this:
Notice a l s o t h a t every triangle has three altitudes, one from each
of t h e three v e r t i c e s , l i k e this:

Here AF is the altitude f r o m A,

-
BD is t h e a l t i t u d e from B
-
and CE is t h e altitude from C.
It is customary t o use t h e same word " a l t i t u d e " f o r two
other d i f f e r e n t , but r e l a t e d , concepts.
(1) The number which is t h e length o f t h e perpendicular seg-
ment is c a l l e d altitude; thus one may say "The altitude from B
I s 6 " , meaning t h a t BL, = 6 .
( 2 ) The line containing the p e r p e n d i c u l a r segment is a l s o
called a l t i t u d e ; a p r o p e r t y o f t h e above figure can be expressed
by saying that t h e t h r e e altitudes of t h e triangle i n t e r s e c t in
one p o i n t . his p r o p e r t y is t r u e f o r all t r i a n g l e s and will be
proved in Chapter 14.)
This t r i p l e use o f t h e one word could cause t r o u b l e b u t gen-
erally does not, since it is u s u a l l y e a s y to tell in any p a r t i c u l a r
c a s e which usage is being made.

Problem --
Set 7-4
1. Define: a. Altitude of a trlangle.
b. Medlan of a triangle.
2. Draw an obtuse triangle ( a triangle h a v i n g an o b t u s e angle)
and its t h r e e altitudes.
[sec. 7-41
3. In an e q u i l a t e r a l triangle a medlan and an a l t i t u d e are drawn
t o t h e same s l d e . Compare the lengths of these two segments.

4. Prove t h a t t h e perimeter of a triangle is greater than the

sum o f the t h r e e a l t i t u d e s .
5. Prove the following theorem: The altitudes of an equilateral
t r i a n g l e a r e congruent.

Review Problems
I. Three guy wires of equal length are belng u ~ e dto support a
newly p l a n t e d t r e e on level ground, If they a r e all fastened
t o t h e tree at the same height on t h e tree, will they be
pegged to the ground at equal distances from t h e foot of t h e
tree? Why?
2. If t h i s f i g u r e were drawn
c o r r e c t l y , which segment in
the f i g u r e would be the s h o r t e s t ?
Explain your reasoning.
0

no 9P
C E
3. P r o v e t h e following theorem:
If t w o oblique ( n o t perpendicular) line segments are
drawn t o a l i n e f r o m a p o i n t on a perpendlcular to t h a t line, i
t h e one containing t h e p o i n t mare remote from the foot of the 1
perpendlcular is t h e longer.
4. In this planar f l g u r e ,
AK = HQ, AF = HB, mlm, &Flm.
Prove LQ L K.
Does bisect
-
BF?
 5. In 4 A E , AC
- >between
p o l n t on PC
AB. Prove that
B and
any line segment from A
-
C i s s h o r t e r than AC.
to a

6. Segments drawn from a p o l n t in the interior of a t r i a n g l e t o

t h e t h r e e vertices have lengths r, s, t.
Prove that
r+ s + t Is greater than half t h e perimeter of t h e t r i a n g l e .
7. In t h i s p l a n a r f lgure is
the shortest side and
-
AB is
the longest s i d e . P r o v e
m L F > mLA.

8. Prove the following theorem: The length of t h e longest side

of t n c t r i a n g l e is less t h a n h a l f i t s perimeter. A H
*9. Given i s o s c e l e s A A B F wfth
FA = FB, AB < AF, and H on
C*
AF, so t h a t F is between A
and H. Prove no two sides of
A ABH are equal in l e n g t h ,

A 8
*lo. On the basis of t h e assumptions we have accepted and t h e
theorems we have proved in this course we are not able at
p r e s e n t t o prove that the sum of t h e measures of t h e three
a n g l e s of a triangle is 180 (an idea w i t h which you have been
I familiar for some t i m e ) . But, we can e a s i l y c o n s t r u c t a tri-
angle and prove t h a t t h e sum of t h e measures o f t h e angles of
t h i s triangle i s less t h a n 181.
Let L FCG have measure 1 ( ~ n g l e
+
.
C o n s t r u c t i ~ n P o s t u l a t e ) On CF
+
and C G take p o i n t s A and B B G
so that CA = CB ( ? o i n t P l o t t i n g he or em).
m y Is the sum of t h e measures of the angles of t h i s t r i a n g l e
less than 181~
"11. The sum of t h e measures of the t h r e e angles of a triangle is
l e s s t h a n 270.
2 In this figure:
L C is a right angle.
m L B = 2mL A .
Prove: AB = 2 CB,
(~int: I n t r o d u c e auxiliary
segments ) .

*13. Prove this theorem: The sum of t h e d i s t a n c e s from a p o i n t

-
w i t h i n a t r i a n g l e t o the ends of one s i d e is less than the
sum o f the lengths of t h z o t h e r t w o sides.
@
4 Suppose AC intersects BD a t a p o i n t B between A and C .
H
Perpendiculars are dropped from A and C t o BD striking
it at P and Q respectively, Show t h a t F and Q are n o t
on t h e same side o f B.
 Chapter 8

PERPENDICULAR LINES AND PLANES IN SPACE

8-1, T h e Basic D e f i n i t i o n .
In t h i s chapter we shall b e s p e c i f i c a l l y concerned with p r o p -
e r t i e s of figures that do n o t lie in a single p l a n e . The funda-
mental properties of s u c h figures a r e s t a t e d in Postulates 5 b , 6,
7 , 8 and 10, and in Theorems 3 - 2 , 3 - 3 and 3-4, It would be w o r t h
y o u r while to r e v i e w t h e s e ,
D e f i n i t i o n . A line and a plane are perpendicular if they
i n t e r s e c t and if every line l y i n g i n the plane and passing through
the p o i n t o f intersection is perpendicular to t h e g i v e n line.

If line L and plane E are p e r p e n d i c u l a r we write L ~ Eor ELL.

We have indicated, in t h e figure, three l i n e s in E passing
t h r o u g h P . Notice t h a t in a p e r s p e c t i v e drawing, perpendicular
lines d o n i t necessarily look perpendicular. N o t i c e a l s o t h a t if
we merely required t h a t E c o n t a i n - one l i n e through P perpendicular
to L, t h i s would mean v e r y l i t t l e ; y o u can fairly e a s i l y convince
yourself t h a t e v e r y plane through P contalns suck a line.
 Problem - 8-1
Set -

1. The f i g u r e a t the right

r e p r e s e n t s plane E.
a. l h any p o i n t s o u t s i d e t h e
q u a d r i l a t e r a l shown
belong t o p l a n e E ?
b. Is plane E intended t o include
e v e r y p o i n t outside t h e q u a d r l -
lateral?
2. a. S k e t c h a p l a n e perpendicular t o a v e r t i c a l line. (see
Appendix V ) .
b. Sketch a plane p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o a horizontal line.
c. Does e a c h of your s k e t c h e s represent a line p e r p e n d i c u l a r
t o a plane?
3. a. Repeat t h e sketch o f Problem 2b. Add to the sketch three
l i n e s in the p l a n e which pass through t h e p o i n t o f i n t e r -
section. What is t h e relationship between each of t h e
t h r e e lines and t h e original line?

4. Reread t h e definition of p e r p e n d i c u l a r i t y between a line and

a p l a n e and d e c i d e whether t h e following statement is true if
t h a t d e f i n i t i o n is accepted:
11
If a line is p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o a plane, then i t is perpen-
d i c u l a r t o every l f n e lying in t h e p l a n e and passing t h r o u g h
t h e p o f n t of intersection."

5. Given t h a t 3, R , S and T a r e
H
in plane E, and t h a t A D E, 1
which of t h e following angles
must be r i g h t angles:
L ABR, L ABS, L RBT, L TBA,
L SBR?
 6. If L PQH is a r i g h t a n g l e and Q
and H are in E, s h o u l d you i n f e r
from t h e d e f i n i t i o n of a line and
f,
a plane p e r p e n d i c u l a r that PQ 1
E?
Why o r why not?

7. In t h e flgure plane E contains

p o i n t s R , S, and P, but not T,
a . Do points R, S and T determine
a plane?
+
b. If SP is p e r p e n d i c u l a r to t h e
plane of R , S and T, which
angles in t h e figure m u s t be
r i g h t angles? I

8. a. If a p o i n t i s e q u i d i s t a n t from each of t w o o t h e r p o i n t s ,
are t h e t h r e e points coplanar?
b. If t w o points are each equidistant from each of two o t h e r
points, a r e the f o u r p o i n t s coplanar?

*9. a. Given: 0
Colllnear p o i n t s A, B and X
a s in the f i g u r e ; B e q u i d i s -
t a n t from P and Q; and A
e q u i d l s t a n t from P and Q.
Prove: X is equidistant
from P and Q.
b. Does t h e proof r e q u i r e t h a t
Q be In t h e plane of A, B, X
and P?

10. Look ahead to Theorem 8-1 and make a model f o r it from s t i c k s ,

wfre c o a t hangers, or straws.
8 --
The Easic Theorem.
The b a s l c theorem on perpendicularity in space says that if a
p l a n e E c o n t a i n s t w o l i n e s , e a c h perpendicular t o a l i n e L at t h e
same p o i n t of L, t h e n L 1 E. The p r o o f of this is e a s i e r if we
prove two p r e l i m i n a r y theorems (lemmas).
Theorem 8-1. If each of two points of a line is equidistant
from t w o g i v e n p o i n t s , t h e n every p o i n t o f the l i n e I s equidistant
from t h e g i v e n p o i n t s .

. P
L

Restatement: If P and Q a r e t w o p o i n t s and L is a line s u c h

t h a t two p o i n t s A, B o f L are each equidistant from P and Q, t h e n
e v e r y p o l n t X of L is equidistant f r o m P and Q. h he above figure
s h o w s t h r e e possible positions f o r X , Of course, X might be a t
A or B.)
P r o o f : F i r s t we consider t h e c a s e where X is on t h e same
s i d e of A as 2. X m i g h t be at X 8, o r X2 b u t f o r convenience
1'
in the figure we show it beyond B at X 1 ' In this case L, PAB = L P A X
and L QAB = L 3,AX. We t r e a t t h i s c a s e in 3 s t e p s .
-.
7 S i n c e AP = A& BP = ( g i v e n ) , and AB = AE ( i d e n t i t y ) ,
h ABP :A ABQ (s.s.S.). Hence, L PRB 2 L QAB,

2. L PAX Z L QAX. This is because L P A S Z L QAB by S t e p 1.

(we are considering t h e case where L PAX = L PAB and
L. &AX = L QAB.)

3. Using Step 2 and t h e f a c t s that AP = A& ( g i v e n ) , and AX = AX

(identity) we f i n d t h a t A PAX 2 A QAX ( s . A . ~ )Hence. PX = W.
Z
The case where X lies on t h e ray opposite AB is proved in a
sinilar fashion.
 Problem --
Set 8-2a
Q
1. A piece of paper AXEQ, as
p i c t u r e d here, is folded along
A 0
. Imagine A and 3 as both
being in the forewound of t h e
p i c t u r e and in the bachround.
Under these conditions wlll a
point K of a be e q u i d i s t a n t
from A and B? S t a t e a theorem
to support your answer. If x
AF = 6 , BF =

2. Here imagine plane AX13 obscur-

i n g part of plane AYB. It is
given that XA = XB and YA = YB.
T, W and Z are three other
@
p o i n t s of XY. Does TA = TB?
Does WA = WB? Does ZA = ZB?
S t a t e a theorem that supports
each conclusion.
 Theorem 8-2. If each of t h r e e non-collinear points of a
p l a n e is equidistant from two p o i n t s , then e v e r y p o i n t of the
plane is equidistant from these t w o points.
Given: Three non-collinear
. P

points A, B a n d C each equi-

d i s t a n t from P and 9.
Prove: Every p o i n t o f the 0
plane determined by A, B and
C is equidistant from P and Q . •Q

Proof: The proof is given in three steps.

1. Since A and 3 are each gl.ven J I

equidistant from P and Q, each

H
p o i n t of AB is equidistant f r o m
1 and Q. T h i s follows from
Theorem 8-1. Similarly each h
e
p o i n t of BC Is equidistant from •Q

P and Q.

2. L e t X be any o t h e r p o i n t of t h e
f,
WP
plane. If X i s on e i t h e r AB or

//
H
CB, X is equidistant f r o m P and
Q by S t e p I. If X i s on one
@
side of BC, choose Y, some p o i n t
of 3 ori t h e o t h e r side o f ?%,
The Plane S e p a r a t i o n Postulate

-
Q
assures us t h a t there is such a
@
p o i n t Y and t h a t XY will i n t e r -
'P
s e c t CB in some p o i n t 2 .
@
3. Since Z is o n CB it is equi-
d i s t a n t from P a Q by S t e p 1.
S i n c e Y is on %&it I s e q u i -
distant from P and Q by S t e p 1.
Therefore by Theorem 8-1 e v e r y .Q
point of YZ is equidistant from P and Q . X is one of t h e s e
points,
[ a e c . 8-21
 Since we have shown t h a t each point X of the plane determined
by A, B, C is equidistant from P and Q, Theorem 8-2 is established.
We are now ready t o prove t h e basic theorem.

Theorem 8-3. If a line is perpendicular t o each of two i n t e r -

secting l i n e s a t t h e i r p o i n t of intersection, then it is perpen-
dicular t o t h e plane of these lines.
Restatement: L e t L1 and L2 be l i n e s In plane E intersecting
a t A and l e t L be a line through A perpendicular t o L1 and L2.
Then any line L3 in E t h r o u g h A i s perpendicular t o L.

Proof :
Statement Reason
1. L e t P be a p o i n t on L,
5 a p o i n t on L1, B2 a
1 1. By the Ruler P o s t u l a t e , each
of these l i n e s has an
p o i n t on L2, and B3 a point
infinite number of points.
on L3, none of t h e s e p o i n t s
coinciding with A.
2. k t Q be the oint on t h e ray 2. P o i n t Plotting Theorem.
o p p o s l t e to &such that

3.
AQ = AP.

In the plane containing L and 3.

I D e f i n i t i o n of perpendicular
Ll, L1 is the perpendicular blsector (Section 6-3).
b i s e c t o r of n.
4. B is e q u i d i s t a n t from P 4. Theorem 6-2.
1
and Q .
[sec. 8-21
5. B2 i s equidistant rrom P and ( 5. Similar to 3 and 4.

7. B3 is equidistant from P 7. S t e p s 4, 5 and 6, and

and Q. Theorem 8-2.

8. In the plane c o n t a i n i n g L 8. Theorem 6-2.

and L3, L3 is t h e perpen-
dicular bisector of x.
9. L&. 9. D e f i n i t i o n of perpendicular
bisector.
10. D e f i n i t i o n of perpendicular-
ity of line and p l a n e , since
L3 is any l i n e in E t h r o u g h
A.

Problem --
S e t 8-2b

1, Suppose A, B and C a r e each

e q u i d i s t a n t from P and Q,
Explain in terrns o r a d e f i -
n l t r o n o r tneorem why each
p o i n t X of plane A X is e q u i -
distant from P and Q.
A
,
l
q I

41

t
P

Q
mx

2, Explain t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e line of intersection L of

t w o walls of your classroom and t h e plane o f the f l o o r . How
many lines perpendicular to L could be drawn on t h e f l o o r ?
Is L perpendicular t o every line that could be drawn on the
floor?
Figure FRHB is a square. 1, A is not in plane FRHB.
a, How m a n y planes are determined by pairs o f segments In
the figure? Name them.
b . At l e a s t one of t h e segments in this figure is perpendicular
t o one o f the planes asked f o r In Part (a). m i c h segment?
Lhich plane? A systematic approach to such a problem is
t o write down every p a i r of perpendicular segments you see
in the f l g u r e . Then you c a n observe whether you have one
l i n e perpendicular to two intersecting l i n e s .

A ABF is i s o s c e l e s w i t h B as vertex. AH = FH. 1m.

R is not in plane AFB.
a. How many d i f f e r e n t planes are determined by the segments
in the f i g u r e ? Name then.
b. Do you find a segnent t h a t is perpendicular t o a plane?
If so, tell what segment and what plane and prove your
statement.
 5.
-
I n t h i s f i g u r e , FB 1plane P, and i n A RAB, which lies i n
plane P , BR = BA. Prove A ABF 2 A RBF and L FAR Z L FRA.

*6. Given the cube shown, with BR = BL. Does KR = KL? Prove that
your answer is c o r r e c t .

(Since we have not yet given a precise d e f i n i t f o n o f a cube

we state here, f o r u s e in your proof, the essential properties
of the edges of a cube:
The edges of a cube c o n s i s t of twelve congruent segments,
related a s shown in the p i c t u r e , such that any two intersecting
segments are perpendicular. )
 -
t;t
I n the accompanying f i g u r e WX i s a line In p l a n e B. P l a n e E ' l
f,
WX at Q. In p l a n e F, 1 I.8?is t:le i n t c r s i c t i s n oi. 5
and F. P r o v e RQ E.1 b

For all we know up t o now t h e c o n r l i t i o n s s p e c i f i e d in t h e

definition of a l i n e and a p l a n e p ~ r p e n d i c u l a rmight be impossible
to a c h l e v e . To r e a s s u r e us, xc need zn e x i s t e n c e theorem. The
next theorem e n a b l e s us to see t h a t w~ are n o t t a l k i n g about things
t h a t cannot exist in speaking of' p e r p e n d i c u l a r i t y between l i n e s and
planes.

[ s e c . 8-21
 Theorem 8-4. Through a given p o i n t on a g i v e n l i n e there
passes a p l a ~ eperpendicular t o t h e l i n e .

Proof: L e t P be a p o i n t on a l i n e L. We show in six s t e p s

that t h e r e is a plane E through P p e r p e n d l c u l a r t o L.
1. Let R be a p o i n t not on L. That there is such a point
follows from P o s t u l a t e 5a.
2 . L e t M b e t h e plane determined by L and R . Theorem 3 - 3
tells us t h e r e 1 s s u c h a plane.
3 . L e t Q be a p o i n t n o t on M. Postulate 5b assures us t h a t
t h e r e is suCh a p o i n t .
4. L e t N be t h e plane determined by L and Q.
5 . In p l a n e M t h e r e is a line L perpendicular to L at P
I
(Theorem - 1 , and in plane N t h e r e is a llne L2 perpen-
d i c u l a r to L at P.
6. By Theorem 8-3, t h e plane E determined by L1 and L:, I s
p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o L at P,
If E 1 L a t P t h e n e v e r y l l n e in E and t h r o u g h P is perpendlc-
u l a r t o L, by d e f i n i t i o n . May t h e r e be some l i n e s not in E b v t
still p e r p e n d i c u l a r to L at P? Tlle next theorem says, "NO".
Theorem 8-5. If a line and a p l a n e are perpendicular, then
t h e p l a n e contains every line perpendicular t o t h e given line a t
i t s point of intersection with t h e g i v e n plane.
Restatement: If l i n e L i s perpendicular to plane E at point
P, and iT M is a l i n e p e r p e n d i c u l a r to L a t P , then M l i e s in E .
Proof : Statements Reasons
1. L and hl determine a plane F. ( 1. Theorem 3-4.
2. Planes F and E i n t e r s e c t in 2. Postulate 8.
a l i n e N.
3. D e f i n i t i o n o f perpendicu-
l a r i t y of l i n e a ~ dp l a n e .
5. MIL. 4. Given,
5. M = N. (This means M and M 5. M and M b o t h l i e in plane F
a r e the same l i n e . ) by S t e p s 1 and 2, are both
1 I: by Steps 3 and 4, b u t
Theorem 6-1 says t h e r e is
only one such perpendicular.
6, M -N by S t e p 5 and N l i e s
in E bg S t e p 2 .
This theorem enables u s t o prove t h e uniqueness theorem t h a t
g o e s w i t h Theorem 8 - h .

-.-
-
Theorem 8 - 6 . Through a given p o i n t on a g i v c n l i n e t h e r e I s
at most one plane perpendiculer to the line.,
Proof: S i n c e a perpendicular p l a n e contains - a l l perpendicular
l i n e s t h r o u g h the p o i n t , and since two d i f f e r e n t planes have o n l y
one l i n e in common co he or em 3 - b ) , t h e r e cannot be t w o such p l a n e s ,
-
J u s t a s in a plane where the characterization Theorem 6-2
f o l l o w e d t h e existence and uniqueness Theorem 6-1, so now we can
prove a similar characterization theorem for s p a c e .
Theorem 8 - 7 . The p e r p e n d i c u l a r bisecting plane o f a segment
i s t h e set o f a l l p o i n t s e q u i d i s t a n t from t h e end-points o f t h e
s e p e n t . Note t h a t t h i s theorem, l l k e Theorem 6-2, has t w o parts.
Restatement: L e t E be t h e perpendicular b i s e c t i n g p l a n e of
-
AB. L e t C be the mid-point of G. Then
(1) If P is i n E , then PA = PB, and
( 2 If PA = PB, then P is in E.
The proof I s left t o t h e s t u d e n t .

Set 8-2c
Problem --
a. At a point on a llne how many lines are perpendicular t o
the line?
b. A t a p o i n t on a line how many planes are perpendicular to
the line?
Planes E and F i n t e r s e c t in
e
KQ
-' as shown
M
in this f i g u r e .
A B E . ~ i3k lies in plane E.
C,
Plane ABR intersects F in BC.
IS M I W?
C, f,
Is AB 1 KQ.
C* H
Is AB 1 BC?

. ~ f Z l E at
c.)
P and QP
C*
1 FX,
why does PR lie in E?

As swning here t h a t
AX = BX,
AY = BY,
AWBW,=
AZ = BZ,
why are W, X, Y and Z
 Plane E is the perpend
bisecting plane of E,
in t h e f i g u r e .
a. AW 2
AK2
-
A3 2
rnLAFW =

LAKF 2
b. Does FW = FK = FR?

"6. Prove t h i s theorem: If L is a l i n e intersecting plane E at

point M, t h e r e is a t least one llne L 1 in E such t h a t L ' L. 1

The next theorem is a lemma which is u s e f u l in proving l a t e r

theorems.
Theorem 8-8. Two l L n e s perpendicular t o t h e same plane are
coplanar,
Proof: L e t l i n e s L1 and L2 be p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o plane E at
the points A and B r e s p e c t i v e l y . Let M be t h e mid-point o f s,
let 1, be the l i n e in E which is t h e perpendicular b i s e c t o r o f m,
and l e t P and Q be two p o i n t s on L s u c h t h a t PM = QM. Let C be
a p o i n t on L1 d i a t i n c t from A .
1. By t h e S.A.S. P o s t u l a t e , A AMP 2 A AM&, and so AP = AQ.
2. 1
S l n c e L, E , L CAP and L CAQ a r e r i g h t angles, and t h e S .A.S.
postulate gives A CAP 2 A CAQ, so t h a t GP = C Q ,
3, From AP = A& and CP = CQ it f o l l o w s , by Theorem 8-7, t h a t C
and A both l i e in t h e bisecting plane E 1 o f W. Hence, L1 l l e s
in El.
4. In exactly the same way we prove that L2 lies in E'. Hence,
L1 and L2 a r e coplanar.

8-3. Existence and Uniqueness Theorems.

The following theorems c o v e r all possible relations between
a p o i n t , a line and a perpendicular p l a n e . They a r e s t a t e d here
f o r completeness and f o r convenience in r e f e r e n c e ,
Theorem 8-9, Through a given p o i n t there passes one and o n l y
one plane perpendicular t o a given Line.
Theorem 8-10. Through a given p o i n t t h e r e passes one and o n l y
one l i n e p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o a given p l a n e ,
The proof of each of t h e s e theorems has two cases, depending
on whether or not the given p o i n t lies on t h e given line or plane,
and each case has two parts, one f o r proving existence and one f o r
proving uniqueness. This makes a total of eight p r o o f s r e q u i r e d .
Theorems 8-4 a n d 8-6 are two of t h e s e eight; the remaining s i x ,
some of w h i c h a r e hard and some easy, are g i v e n in Appendix TI.
Theorem 8-10 assures us of t h e existence of a unique perpen-
d i c u l a r t o a g i v e n p l a n e from an external point. Hence, we are
j u s t i f i e d i n giving the following definition, analogous t o t h e one
following Theorem 7-6,
D e f i n i t i o n . Tie d i s t a n c e to a p l a n e f r o m an external p o i n t is
t h e l e n g t h of the perpendicular segment f r o m the p o i n t t o t h e p l a n e .
Theorem 8-11. The shortest segment to a plane from an ex-
ternal point is t h e perpendicular segment.
The p r o o f I s similar to t h a t of Theorem 7-6.
 R e v i e w Problems
1 Use a drawing if necessary to h e l p you decide whether each
statement is true o r f a l s e .
a. The intersection of two planes may be a segment.
b. If a l i n e intersects a p l a n e in o n l y one p o f n t , t h e r e are
at l e a s t t w o lines in the plane perpendicular to the line.
c. For any f o u r p o i n t s , there is a plane containing them a l l .
d. If three lines intersect in pairs, but no p o i n t belongs
t o all t h r e e , the lines are coplanar.
e. It is p o s s i b l e for t h r e e lines t o i n t e r s e c t in a point, so
t h a t each is perpendicular to t h e o t h e r t w o ,
f. Only one l i n e can be drawn perpendicular to a given lfne
at a g i v e n p o i n t .
g. A t a p o i n t in a plane there i s only one line perpendicular
to the plane.
h. The greatest number of regions into which t h r e e planes can
separate space is eight.
2.
- 1 E and
From a p o i n t R o u t s l d e plane E, RE intersects the
p l a n e In B.
- any other segment from R, Intersecting 5
RA is
in A . Compare the lengths AR and RB, Compare the measures
of L A and L 3.

3. If the goal posts at one end of a football field are perpen-

d i c u l a r t o t h e ground, then they are coplanar even w i t h o u t a
brace between them. Which theorem s u p p o r t s this conclusion?
Can t h e goal p o s t s s t i l l be coplanar even if they are n o t
perpendicular to t h e ground? Could they fall t o be coplanar
even with a brace between them?
4. Do there always exist
a. t w o lines perpendicular t o a given line at a given p o i n t
on the l i n e ?
b. two planes perpendicular to a given l i n e at a given p o i n t
on t h e l i n e ?
c. two l i n e s perpendicular to a glven .plane at a given p o i n t
on t h e plane?
d. two planes perpendicular to a given l i n e ?
e. two intersecting lines each perpendicular t o a g i v e n plane?
5. T h e assumption that two l i n e s
L1 and L2 are perpendicular
to plane E and L1 and L2 I n t e r -
s e c t In p o i n t P not in plane E
can be shown t o be f a l s e by
proving t h a t t h e assumption
leads t o a contradiction of a
theorem about figures in a
plane. Which theorem?
e 0
6 . Given MQ 1 plane E, and WF 1

-
to plane E . How many d i f f e r e n t
planes are determined by
- u
PlW, MI? and QF? Explain.
3,

1
AABF is i s o s c e l e s w i t h v e r t e x at B. HF = HA. m.
R is not in the plane AFB.
a. How many d i f f e r e n t planes a r e determined by the segments
in t h e figure? Explain.
b. Locate and describe a l i n e that is perpendicular t o a
plane,
8. Given: P is in p l a n e E which
c o n t a i n s A , D, C ; P i s equi-
d i s t a n t 'rom A, B, C ; line L 1 E
a t P.
Prove: E v e r y p o i n t , X, in L is
e q u i d l stant from A , B, C.

9. Given: Line L 1 plane ABC al

Q; p o i n t F of L is equidistant
from A, B, C .
P r o v e : E v e r y p o i n t of L is
e q u i d i s t a n t from A, 3 , C . A C
(Hint: Consider any p o i n t
X # Q on L and show XA = XB = XC.)

Given : and AP
-
PC;

Prove :
t,
(~int: Take R on QC so that
QB = QR, m a w PB, PR. )
11. P r o v e t h e following theorem: If f r o m a p o i n t A outside a
p l a n e , a perpendicular AB and o b l i q u e (non-perpendicular )
segnents AF and AH are drawn, meeting t h e plane at unequal
distances from B, t h e s e w e n t which meets t h e p l a n e at t h e
g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e f r o m B has t h e g r e a t e r l e n g t h .
A

Given: AB
-1 plane E. F and
H are points of E such t h a t
SF > BH.
Prove: AF > AH,

--* + 4 +
12. Prove t h a t each of f o u r rays AE, AC, AD and AE cannot be
perpendicular t o the o t h e r t h r e e .
f* f* H
13. Given: XB and YB are two lines in plane E; m is a plane 1 XB
C* @
at B; n is a plane 1
YE a t B; AB f s t h e intersectton of rn and
n.
e
Prove: AB 1 E.
 Chapter 9

PARALLEL LINES IN A PLANE

- 1 -
Conditions Which Guarantee Parallelism.
Thus f a r in o u r geometry we have been mainly concerned w i t h
what happens when lines and planes intersect i n c e r t a i n ways. We
-
a r e now going to see what happens when they do n o t i n t e r s e c t . It
will turn out that many more i n t e r e s t i n g things c a n be proved.
We f i r s t c o n s i d e r the case of two lines. Theorem 3-3 g i v e s
us some information right away, since it says t h a t if two lines
intersect they l i e in a p l a n e . Hence, if two lines are n o t
coplanar they cannot i n t e r s e c t .
Definition: Two lines which a r e n o t coplanar a r e s a i d to be
skew.
You can e a s i l y f i n d examples of skew l i n e s in your classroom.
This still leaves open t h e question as t o whether two
coplanar lines must always i n t e r s e c t . In Theorem 9-2 we shall
prove t h e existence of coplanar lines t h a t do n o t intersect, b u t
are parallel, like t h i s :

L e t us f i r s t make a precise definition.

D e f i n i t i o n : Two lines a r e parallel if they are coplanar and
do n o t Intersect.
Note that f o r two l i n e s to be parallel two conditions must be
s a t l s f i e d : they must not i n t e r s e c t ; they must both l i e i n the
same plane.
 Theorems. Two p a r a l l e l lines l i e in exactly one plane.
Proof': I f LL and L2 are p a r a l l e l lines it follows from
t h e above definition that there is a plane E containing L1 and
L ~ . If P is any p o i n t of L2 it follows from Theorem 3-3 t h a t
there is only one plane containing L1 and P. Hence, E is the
o n l y plane c o n t a i n i n g L1 and L2.
We will use the a b b r e v l a t t o n L1 11 Lp t o mean that the
lines L1 and L2 a r e parallel. As a matter of convenience
we will say t h a t two segments a r e p a r a l l e l if the lines t h a t
contain them are parallel. We will speak slmllarly of a line and
a segment, o r a line and ray, and so on. For example, suppose we
have given that L1 11 L p , in the f i g u r e below:

+ -+
Then w e can also w r l t e I[=, AB 11 Lp, L1 1 1 CD, BA 11
--*
z,
and s o on. Each of t h e s e statements is equivalent to t h e s t a t e -
ment that L1 I I L2.
It does n o t seem easy t o tell from the definition whether
t w o lines which seem t o be p a r a l l e l r e a l l y are parallel. Every
lfne stretches o u t i n f i n i t e l y far in two d i r e c t i o n s , and t o tell
whether two lines do not intersect, we would have to look at all -
o f each o f the two lines. There is a simple condition, however,
which is sufficient to guarantee that two lines are parallel. It
goes like t h l s :

Theorem 9-2. Two lines i n a p l a n e are parallel if they a r e

both p e r p e n d i c u l a r to t h e same line.
 Proof: Suppose t h a t L1 and L2 are two lines in plane E,
each perpendicular t o a line L, a t p o i n t s P and Q.
There a r e now two possibilities:
(1) L1 and L2 i n t e r s e c t in a p o i n t R.
(2) L1 and L2 do n o t i n t e r s e c t .

In Case (1) we would have two lines, L1 and L2, each

perpendicular to L and each passing t h r o u g h R. T h i s is
impossible by Theorem 6-1 i f R l i e s on L, and by Theorem 6-3
i f R is n o t on L. Hence, Case (2) is t h e only possible one,
and so, by definition, L1 11 L2
Theorem 9-2 enables us t o prove the following important
e x i s t e n c e theorem.
 Theorem 3-3. L e t L be a l i n e , and l e t P be a p o i n t n o t
on L. Then t h e r e is a t least one llne through P, parallel t o

Proof: L e t L1 be a line through P, perpendicular to L.

(BY Theorem 6-1, there is such a llne.) L e t L:, be a line
through P, perpendicular t o L1 in the plane of L and P.
By Theorem 9-2, L2 11 L.
It m i g h t seem n a t u r a l , at this p o i n t , to t r y t o prove t h a t
the parallel given by Theorem 9-3 is unlque; that is, we m i g h t try
t o show t h a t in a plane through a given point n o t on a given line
there is only one p a r a l l e l to the given line. Astonishing as it
-
may seem, this cannot proved -the basis - t h e postulates
---
t h a t we have s t a t e d --
so f a r ; it must be taken as a new p o s t u l a t e .
We will d i s c u s s this in more d e t a i l in S e c t i o n 9 - 3 , In t h e mean-
time, b e f o r e we g e t to work on the basis of this new p o s t u l a t e we
shall prove some additional theorems which, like Theorem 9-2, t e l l
us when t w o llnes are parallel,
We f i r s t give some d e f i n i t i o n s .
Definition: A transversal of two coplanar Lines is a llne
which i n t e r s e c t s them in two d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s .
W e say t h e two lines a r e "cut" by the transversal.
 D e f i n i t i o n : L e t L be a t r a n s v e r s a l of L1 and L2,
intersecting them in P and Q, L e t A be a p o i n t of Ll and
B a p o i n t of Lg such t h a t A and S a r e on opposite s l d e s of
L. Then L PQB and L &PA are alternate i n t e r i o r angles formed
by the t r a n s v e r s a l to the two lines.

Notice t h a t in the d e f i n i t i o n of a transversal, the two lines

that we s t a r t w i t h may or may not be parallel. But if they I n t e r -
s e c t , then the t r a n s v e r s a l is n o t allowed to i n t e r s e c t them at
their common p o i n t . The situation in the f i g u r e below is n o t
allowed:

-
That is, in this figure L is not a transversal t o the lines L1
and L2.
Notice a l s o t h a t a common perpendicular to two lines in a
plane, as in Theorem 9-2, is always a t r a n s v e r s a l .
 Theorem -
9-4. IF t w o lines are c u t by a t r a n s v e r s a l , and if
one p a i r of a l t e r n a t e i n t e r i o r angles are congruent, t h e n t h e
other p a i r of alternate i n t e r i o r angles a r e a l s o congruent.

That is, if 1 a E L a t , then L b Z L b r . And if L b E 1 bt,

then L a ~1 a l . The p r o o f Is l e f t t o the student.
The following theorem is a generalization of Theorem 9 - 2 ,
that i s , i t includes Theorem 9-2 as a s p e c i a l case:
,Theorem -9-5. If two lines are c u t by a transversal, and if
a p a i r o f alternate i n t e r i o r angles are c o ~ g r u e n t , then t h e lines
are para1 l e l .
d

[ s e c . 9-11
 Proof: L e t L be a transversal t o L1 and L2, i n t e r -
secting them in P and &. Suppose that a p a i r of alternate
i n t e r i o r angles are congruent. There are now two p o s s i b i l i t i e s :
(1) L1 and L:, intersect in a polnt R.

(2) Li II L2.
In Case (1) the f i g u r e looks l i k e t h i s :

Let S be a p o i n t of L1 on t h e opposite side of L from R .

Then LSPQ is an exterior angle of A PQR, and L PQR I s one
of the remote interior angles. By Theorem 7-1, t h i s means t h a t

-
B u t we know by hypothesis t h a t one pair of a l t e r n a t e i n t e r i o r
angles a r e congruent. By-t h e preceding theorem, b o t h pairs o f
alternate i n t e r i o r angles are congruent. Therefore,
m LSPQ = m PQR.
Since S t a t e m e n t (1) leads t o a contradiction of o u r hypothesis,
Statement (1) is f a l s e . T h e r e f o r e Statement ( 2 ) is true.

[sec. 9-11
 Problem Set -9-I
1. a. Does the definition o f parallel l i n e s s t a t e that the
lines m u s t remain t h e same d i s t a n c e a p a r t ?
b, I f two g i v e n lines do n o t l i e in one p l a n e , can t h e
lines be parallel?
2. !I'wo lines in a p l a n e are parallel if , or if 9

o r if
3. If two l i n e s in a plane are intersected by a t r a n s v e r s a l ,
are t h e a l t e r n a t e i n t e r i o r angles always congruent?
4. In space, if two lines a r e perpendicular t o a third line, are
the two lines p a r a l l e l ?
5. a. If the 80' angles were .f
correctly drawn, would
L1 be parallel to L2
according to Theorem
9 - 57 Explain.
I
b. How many d i f f e r e n t
measures of angles
I
would occur in t h e
drawing? What measures?
6. In t h e figure, if t h e angles ALI L2 'L3

were o f the size indicated, 4 00.

90'
89.
+
which lines would be p a r a l l e l ?
M24 91

Ma'
V v 'Dl*

[sec. 9-11
7. Given a l i n e L and a p o i n t P not on L, show how p r o -
t r a c t o r and mlcr can be used t o draw a parallel to L
through P.
8. Suppose the following two definitions are agreed upon:
A vertical l i n e is one contafning t h e c e n t e r of t h e
earth.
A horfzontal line is one which is perpendicular to some
v e r t i c a l line.
a. Could two horizontal lines be parallel?

b. Could two v e r t i c a l l i n e s be parallel?

c. Could two h o r i z o n t a l lines be perpendicular?
d. Could two v e r t i c a l lines be perpendicular?
e. Would every v e r t i c a l l i n e a l s o b e horizontal?
E. Would every horizontal line also be v e r t i c a l ?
g. C o u l d a horizontal line be parallel to a v e r t i c a l line?

h. Would every line be horizontal?

9. Is it possible t o f i n d two lines in space which are neither
parallel nor intersecting?
0 C
10. Given: m m L CBA = 90,
1 DAB = \
andAD = CB.
Prove: m L ADC = m BCD. 1 '\.,
\
/
/ //

, '
'.
0
'\
Can you also prove m L ADC
= m L BCD = go?
I' \

A# \B
11. Given the figure with
AR = RC = PQ,
AP = PB = RQ,
BQ = QC = PR.
Prove :
rnL~+rnL~+mLC=180. B C
(~int: Prove m L a = m L A ,

12. Given: AB = AC, AP = A&.

e
#
Prove: PQ 1 BC .
(~int: L e t the b i s e c t o r of
L A i n t e r s e c t PQ at R
and at D.)

13. Given: The figure with

L A ~ B ,
AD = BC,

SD = SC.
Prove :
- -

ST
-
1 AB.
-

[ sec. 9-11
 9-2. Correspondfng Angles.
In the figure below, t h e angles marked a and a1 are
called corresponding a n g l e s :

Similarly, b and bt a r e corresponding angles; and the p a i r s

c, c1 and d, d' are also corresponding angles.
D e f i n f t i o n : If two lines are c u t by a transversal, if L x
' and 1 y a r e a l t e r n a t e i n t e r l o r angles, and if L y and L z
; are v e r t i c a l angles, then L x and L z are corresponding
; mules.

You should prove the following theorem.

 Theorem -
9-6. If two lines are c u t by a transversal, and if
one pair of corresponding angles are congruent, then the o t h e r
t h r e e palrs of corresponding angles have the same p r o p e r t y .
The proof is only a little longer than that of Theorem 9-4.

T h e o ~ e m9-7. If two lines are cut by a transversal, and I T

a p a i r of corresponding angles are congruent, then the lines a r e
p a r a l l e l . The p r o o f is left t o t h e s t u d e n t .
It looks as though the converses of Theorem 9-5 and Theorem
9-7 o u g h t to be t r u e . The converse of Theorem 9-5 would say that
if two parallel llnes are c u t by a t r a n s v e r s a l , then the a l t e r -
nate i n t e r i o r angles a r e congruent. T h e converse of Theorem 9-7
would say that if two parallel lines are c u t by a t r a n s v e r s a l ,
then corresponding angles ape congruent. These theorems, however,
cannot be proved on t h e basis of the p o s t u l a t e s that we have
s t a t e d so f a r . To prove them, we shall need t o u s e t h e Parallel
P o s t u l a t e , which w i l l be stated in the next section.
The Parallel P o s t u l a t e is essential t o t h e p r o o f s of many
o t h e r theorems o f o u r geometry as well. Some of these you are
already familiar with rrom your work in other grades. F o r example,
you have known f o r some time that t h e sum o f t h e measures o f the
angles of any t r i a n g l e is 180. Yet, without the Parallel
P o s t u l a t e I t is impossible t o prove this very important theorem.
L e t us go on, then, t o the P a r a l l e l P o s t u l a t e .

9-3. -
The Parallel Postulate.
-
-
P o s t u l a t e 16. he Parallel Postulate.) Through
a given e x t e r n a l p o i n t t h e r e is a t most one l i n e
p a r a l l e l t o a given line,

Notice t h a t w e don't need t o s a y , i n t h e p o s t u l a t e , t h a t t h e r e

is at least one such parallel, because w e already know this by
Theorem 9-3.
 It might seem n a t u r a l to suppose that we already have enough
p o s t u l a t e s to be able to prove anythlng t h a t is "reasonabletT;and
slnce t h e Parallel Postulate is reasonable, we might try to prove
it i n s t e a d of calling it a p o s t u l a t e . A t any rate, some v e r y
c l e v e r people felt t h i s way about the p o s t u l a t e , over a period of
a good many centuries. None of them, however, was a b l e t o find a
proof. Finally, in the last century, I t was discovered that no
such proof 1s possible. The point is that there are some mathe-
matical systems that are a l m o s t like t h e geometry t h a t we are
studying, but n o t q u i t e . In these mathematical systems, nearly
all of the postulates of ordinary geometry are satisfied, b u t t h e
P a r a l l e l Postulate is n o t , These "Non-Euclidean Geometries" may
seem strange, and in fact they are. (FOP example, in theae
It
geometries" ---- t h e r e is no such thing - as-a square.) N o t only do
they lead to i n t e r e s t i n g nathematical theories, b u t they a l s o have
, important applications t o p h y s i c s .
Now t h a t we have t h e P a r a l l e l P o s t u l a t e we can go on to prove
numerous important theorems we could n o t prove without it. We
s t a r t by p r o v i n g t h e converse of Theorem 9-5.
Theorem - 9-8. If two parallel lines are cut by a t r a n s v e r s a l ,
then a l t e r n a t e i n t e r i o r angles are congruent.
Proof: We have g i v e n parallel lines L1 and L2, and a
transversal L3, intersecting them in P and Q.
Suppose that, 1a -
and L b are not congruent. Let L be a line
through P -
f o r which a l t e r n a t e i n t e r i o r angles are congruent.

(BY the Angle Construction P o s t u l a t e , t h e r e is such a l f n e . )

Then L # I,,,
-
because Lb and L
are n o t congruent.
c
NOW l e t us s e e what we have. By hypothesis, L1 11 L2. And
by Theorem 9-5, we know t h a t L ) I L2. Therefore there a r e two
lines through P, p a r a l l e l t o L2. This is impossible, because it
contradicts the Parallel Postulate. Therefore L a L b, which
was t o be proved.
The p r o o f s of t h e following theorems are short, and you
s h c u l d write them f o r yourself:

Theorem 9_9. If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal,

each p a i r o f corresponding angles are congruent.
Theorem 9-10. If two p a r a l l e l lines are c u t by a t r a n s -
v e r s a l , i n t e r i o r angles on the same side of the t r a n s v e r s a l a r e
supplementary.
Restatement: Given L1 11 and T
Lp intersects L1 and
Lg. P m v e t h a t L b is supplementary to L d and L a is
supplementary to L e.
 -
meorem 9-11. In a plane, two lines parallel to the same
line are parallel t o each o t h e r .
Theorem 9-12. I n a plane, if a line is p e r p e n d i c u l a r to one
of two parallel lines it is perpendicular to t h e other.

Problem Set 9-3

I. Given:
r n L A = m L B = m L C = 9 0 .
Prove: m L D = 9 0 .

2. Prove that a line parallel to the base of an isosceles tri-

angle and intersectfng the o t h e r two sides o f the t r i a n g l e
forms another Isosceles triangle.
Given: In t h e f i g u r e ,
RT = RS, )I z.
Prove: PQ = PT.
4, Review indirect proof as Illustrated by t h e proof of
Theorem 9 - 8 . Give an i n d i r e c t proof of each of the following
statements, showing a contradiction of the Parallel P o s t u l a t e .
a. In a plane, i f a t h i r d
line M i n t e r s e c t s one
o f two parallel lines
L1 a t P, it also M
i n t e r s e c t s the o t h e r
T
L2

b. In a plane, if a line
R i n t e r s e c t s only one
of two other lines L1
and L2, then t h e
lines L1 and L2
intersect.

Given: R intersects L1 at P.
R does not i n t e r s e c t L2.
Prove: L1 Intersects L2

a. P r o v e : Two a n g l e s i n a plane which have t h e i r s i d e s

respectively parallel and extending both in t h e same
( o r both in o p p o s i t e ) directions a r e congruent.

Given: BA I( 5 ,
BE 1 1 YZ
Prove : LABC2
8
 b. P r o v e : Two angles in a plane which have t h e i r s i d e s
r e s p e c t i v e l y p a r a l l e l b u t h a v e only one p a i r e x t e n d i n g
in t h e same direction a r e supplementary.

Given : BA
+
1] , P----- Y7X
3 JIYZ.
Prove : In ( a )
In
LABC2 LXYZ .
(b) ~LABC+ ~&YZ = 180.
zr7 C

( ~ o t e : Only c e r t a i n c a s e s are illustrated and proved

here. A l l o t h e r cases can a l s o be proved easily. The
term " d i r e c t i o n " is undefined but should be understood. )
6. Make drawings of v a r i o u s p a i r s of angles ABC and DEF such
4 +
t h a t BA 1 ED and 3 1 3. State a theorem that you think
may be t r u e about the measures of such a n g l e s .
7. If Theorem 9-8 is assumed as a p o s t u l a t e , then t h e Parallel
P o s t u l a t e can be proved as a theorem. h hat is, it must be
shown t h a t there cannot be a second parallel t o a line
through a p o i n t not on it.)
Given: L1 and L2 are
two lines containing P,
and L1 11 M .
Prove: L2 n o t parallel
to M.
M
*8. Show t h a t if Theorem 9-12 (1f a transversal is perpendicular
t o one of two parallel l i n e s , I t is perpendicular to the
other.) is assumed as a p o s t u l a t e , the Parallel P o s t u l a t e
can be proved as a theorem.
Given: L1 11 M and L1 and
L2 contaln P . ( L ~ L1.)
Prove: L2 not parallel t o
M.

9-4. Triangles.
Theorem 9-13. The sum of the measures of t h e angles o f a
triangle is 180.
Proof: Given ABC, l e t L be the line through 8,
-
parallel to A C , L e t L x, / X I , L y, L y t and L z be as
in t h e figure.
 H
Let D be a point of L on the same s i d e of AB as C.
- H
Since AC I( %8, A is on the same side of BD as C. T h e r e f o r e
C is in t h e i n t e r i o r of L ABD ( d e f i n i t i o n of interlor of an
angle), and so, by the Angle Addition P o s t u l a t e , we have
m L A B D = m L z +mLyt.
By t h e Supplement P o s t u l a t e ,
rnL x1 + m1 ABD = 180.
Therefore
m L x ' + m L z + m L y T = 180.
But we know by Theorem 9-8 that m L x = m L xl and m 1 y =
rnL y l , because these are a l t e r n a t e i n t e r i o r angles. By sub-
stitutlon we g e t
m L x + m L z +mLy=180,
which was to be proved.
From t h i s we g e t a number of important corollaries:
C o r o l l a r y 9-13-1. Given a correspondence between two
triangles. If two pairs of corresponding angles are congruent,
then the t h i r d p a i r of corresponding angles are also congruent.

The corollary says that if A GL A t

L and 1
B EL B1,
then C S L C 1 . AS the figure suggests, t h e c o r o l l a r y applies
t o cases where the correspondence given is n o t a congruence, as
well as to cases where ABC =
A AIB1C' .

[aec. 9-41
 Corollary 9-13-2. The a c u t e angles of a right t r i a n g l e a r e
complementary.
Corollary 9-13-3. For any triangle, t h e measure o f an
e x t e r i o r angle is the sum of the measures of t h e two remote
I n t e r i o r angles.

Problem --
Set 9-4

1. If the measures of t w o angles of a t r t a n g l e are as follows,

what is the measure of the third angle?
a. 37and58. d. r and s.
b. 149 and 30. e. 45+a and 45-a.
c. n and n. f. 90 and $k.
2. To f i n d the distance from
a p o i n t A to a d i s t a n t
point P, a s u r v e y o r may
A
-.
measure a small d i s t a n c e
AB and also measure L A
and L B . From this in-
formation he can c o m ~ u t e
the measure of L P and
by a p p r o p r i a t e formulas
Dp
B

then compute AP. If

m L A = 87.5 and rn 1 B = 88.3,
compute m P.
3. Why I s the Parallel P o s t u l a t e essential to the proof of
Theorem 9-13?
On a drawing like t h e one
on the right fill in the
values of a l l of t h e angles.

Given: A Z LX and
B E LY, can you
correctly conclude t h a t :

4
Given: BD bisects
e
L EBC,
and % 11 AC.

Prove: AB = BC.

The bisector of an e x t e r i o r angle at the vertex of an

isosceles triangle is parallel t o t h e base. Prove this.
 8. Given: The f i g u r e .

Prove: s + r = t + u.
Draw

*9. Given : In the figure,

L BAC is a r i g h t angle
and QB = QA .
Prove: Q3 = QC.

*lo. Given: In ~ A B C , L C
I s a r i g h t angle,
AS = AT and BR = BT.
,-
Prove: m L STR = 45.
( ~ i n t : Suppoae m L A = a.
Write formulas in turn f o r
the measures of other angles
in t h e figure in terms o f a . ) A B
9-5. --
Quadrilaterals in Plane.
A quadrilateral is a plane figure with four sides, like one
of the following:

The two figures on the bottom illustrate what we might c a l l

the most general case, in which no t w o s i d e s are congruent, no
two s i d e s are parallel, and no two angles are congruent.
We can s t a t e the definition of a quadrilateral more precisely,
in the following way.
D e f i n i t i o n : L e t A, B, C and D be f o u r p o i n t s l y i n g in
the same plane, such t h a t no three of them a r e collinear, and such
t h a t t h e segments AB, BC, CD and DA i n t e r s e c t only in t h e i r
end-points. Then t h e union of these f o u r s e g n e n t s is a quadri-
lateral.
F o r s h o r t , we will denote this figure by ABCD. Notice t h a t
in each of t h e examples above, w i t h the exception of the l a s t one,
t h e quadrilateral plus its i n t e r i o r f o m a convex s e t , in t h e
senee which was defined in Chapter 3. This is n o t trme of t h e
f i g u r e a t t h e lower right, but this figure is still a quadrllater-
a1 under o u r d e f i n i t i o n . N o t i c e , however, t h a t under o u r
definition o f a quadrilateral, figures l i k e the following one a r e
ruled o u t .
[set* 9-51
- -
Here the figure is n o t a quadrilateral, because t h e segnents
BC and DA i n t e r s e c t in a point which is n o t an end-point of
e i t h e r o f them. N o t i c e a l s o , however, that a quadrilateral can
be formed, u s i n g t h e s e same f o u r p o i n t s as vertices, like this:

Here ABDC is a quadrilateral.

D e f i n i t i o n s : Opposite sides of a q u a d r i l a t e r a l a r e two s l d e s
t h a t do n o t I n t e r s e c t . Two of its angles are opposlte if they do
n o t c o n t a i n a common side. Two s l d e s a r e called consecutive if
they have a common v e r t e x . S i m i l a r l y , two angles a r e c a l l e d
c o n s e c u t i v e if t h e y contain a common s i d e . A diaeonal is a
segment joining two non-consecutive v e r t i c e s .
 a quadrilateral
In - - - mCD, - AB and-3 are -opposite sides,
=
as a r e 3C and AD. AD and CD or AD and AB are con-
secutive s i d e s . and % a r e the diagonals o f ABCD.
Which angles are opposite? Which consecutive?
Definition: a quadrilateral in which two, and
A trapezoid is
only two, opposite sides are parallel,

Definition: A parallelo~ram is a quadrilateral in which both

p a i r s of o p p o s i t e s i d e s are parallel.

You should n o t have much trouble in proving the basic

theorems on trapezoids and parallelograms:
Theorem 9-14. Either diagonal separates a parallelogram
into two congruent t r i a n g l e s . That is, if ABCD is a parallel
agram, t h e n ABC A CDA.
Theorem 9-35. In a parallelogram, any two opposite sfdes
a r e congruent.
 Corollary 9-15-1. If L1 11 Lg and if P and Q are any
t w o points on L1, then the distances of P and Q from L2
are equal.
Thls p r o p e r t y of parallel lines is sometimes abbreviated by
saying that " p a r a l l e l lines a r e everywhere equidistant".
Definition: The d l s t a n c e between two parallel Lines is the
d i s t a n c e from any p o i n t of one l i n e t o t h e other l l n e .
Theorem -
9-16. I n a parallelogram, any two opposite angles
are congruent.
Theorem 9-17.# In a parallelogram, any two consecutive
angles are supplementary.
Theorem 9-18. The diagonals of a parallelogram b i s e c t each
other.
In Theorems 9-14 through 9-18 we a r e concerned w i t h several
p r o p e r t i e s of a parallelogram; t h a t is, If we know t h a t a quadri-
lateral i s a parallelogram we can conclude certain f a c t s about it.
In the following three t h e o r e m we provide f o r the converse
r e l a t i o n s h i p ; that is, if we know c e r t a i n f a c t s about a quadri-
l a t e r a l we can conclude t h a t i t is a parallelogram.
-
Theorem 9-19. Given a quadrilateral in which b o t h p a i r s of
opposite sides are congruent. Then t h e q u a d r i l a t e r a l is a
parallelogram.

Theorem 9-20, Lf two sides of a quadrilateral are parallel

and congruent, then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.

Theorem 9-21. If the diagonals of a quadrilateral b i s e c t

each other, then the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
The following theorem s t a t e s t w o u s e f u l f a c t s , The proof of
this theorem is given in full,
 -
Theorem 9-22. The segnent between t h e mid-points o f t w o
sides of a triangle I s parallel to the third side and h a l f as
long as the t h i r d s i d e .

Restatement: Given A R B C .
L e t D and E be the mid-
points o f A8 and E. Then DE 11 A C , and DE =
1 AC.

Proof: Using the P o i n t P l o t t i n g Theorem, l e t

F be t h e
+
p o i n t of the ray opposite t o ED such t h a t EF = DE, We give
the rest of t h e proof in the t w o - c a l m form. The notation f o r
angles is t h a t of the f i g u r e .

Statements Reasons
1. EF = ED. 1. F was chosen so as to make
this true.
2. E is the mid-point of E.
3. Vertical angles are congruent,
4 The S . A . S . Postulate.
5. Corresponding p a r t a of con-
gruent triangles,
6. m e o r e m 9-5.
7. AD = FC. 7. AD = DB, by hypothesis and
DB = FC, by statement 4.
8. ADFC is a parallelogram. 8, Theorem 9-20.
-
9. DE 11 5. 9. D e f i n i t i o n of a parallelo-
gram.
10. DE = 21D F , by statement 1,
and DF = A C , by Theorem
9-15.
9-6. -
Rhombus, Rectangle and Square.

Definitions: A rhombus is a parallelogram a l l of whose sides

a r e congruent.

A rectan~leis a parallelogram all of whose angles are

n i g h t angles .
B ~ c

Finally, a square is a rectangle a l l o f whose s i d e s are cohgruent.

As b e f o r e , we l e a v e the proofs of t h e following theorems f o r
the s t u d e n t .

-If a parallelogram has one right angle, then

Theorem 9 - 2 3 .
it has f o u r right angles, and t h e parallelogram is a rectangle.
Theorem 9-24. In a ri.,ombu, the diagonals are perpendicular
t o one another.
Theorem 9 - 2 5 . If t h e d i a g o n a l s of a quadrilateral b i s e c t
each o t h e r and a r e perpendicular, then t h e quadrilateral is a
rhombus .
 --
Problem S e t 9-6

1. For which of the q u a d r i l a t e r a l s--

rectangle, square,
rhombus, parallelogram -- can each o f t h e following p r o p e r -
ties be proved?
a. B o t h pairs of opposite angles a r e congruent.
b. Both pairs o f o p p o s i t e s i d e s a r e congruent.

c. Each diagonal b i s e c t s two angles.

d. The diagonals bisect each other.

e. The diagonals are perpendicular.

f. Each p a i r o f consecutive angles is supplementary.

g. Each p a i r of consecutive sides is congruent.
h. The f i g u r e is a parallelogram.
i. Each p a i r of consecutive angles I s congruent.
j. The diagonals are congruent.
2. With t h e measures of t h e angles a s given In parallelogram
ABFH, g i v e t h e degree measure of each angle.

1
I
3. In t h i s figure ABHQ and
APRM are paralfelograms.
What is the relationship of
L
L M t o H? of L R to
& H? Prove your answer.
A 0 F
4. Would t h e f o l l o w i n g information about a q u a d r i l a t e r a l b e
s u f f i c i e n t t o prove it a parallelogram? a rectangle? a
rhombus? a square? Consider each item of information
separately,
a. Both pairs of its opposite sides are parallel.

b. Both p a i r s of i t s opposite sides are congruent.

c . Three of its angles are r i g h t angles.
d. Its diagonals b i s e c t each o t h e r .
e. I t s diagonals are congruent.
f. I t s diagonals are perpendicular and congruent.
g. Its diagonals a r e perpendicular b i s e c t o r s o f each o t h e r .
h. It is equilateral.
i. It is equiangular.
j . It is equilateral and equiangular.
k, Both pairs of I t s o p p o s i t e angles are congruent.

1. Each p a i r of its consecutive angles is supplementary.

5. Given: ABCD is a p a r a l l e l o -
-
gram with diagonal A C . 0 c
A P = RC.

Prove: DPBR is a p a r a l l e l -
ogram. A B

6. Given: Parallelograms AFED

and FBCE, as shown in t h i s
plane f Igure .
Prove: ABCD is a parallel-
ogram. C

A
 Ir lines a r e d r a m parallel to the legs of an isosceles
trfangle through a p o i n t in t h e base of the t r i a n g l e , then a
parallelogram is formed and its p e r i m e t e r i s equal t o the sum
of the lengths of t h e l e g s .
Given: Ln the f i m r e
- -
RS S RT, pX 11 $,
PY 11 RX.
Prove: a. PXRY is a
Parallelogram.

= RS + RT.

In this figure, if ABCD is

-
a parallelogram w i t h dfagon-
-
a l s AC and BD i n t e r s e c t -
-
ing in Q and EF is drawn
-
t h r o u m Q, prove that EP
is bisected by &.

9. Given t h e i s o s c e l e s trapezoid
ABCD in which AD = GB and
- -
CD
Prove
11 AB.
1 A L B.
A
/?y---i,
1'
X B
10. The median of a t r a p e z o i d is t h e segment joining t h e m i d -
p o i n t s of its non-parallel s i d e s .

a. Prove the foll~wlngt h e o r e m : The median o f a t r a p e z o i d

is parallel t o the bases and e q u a l in length t o h a l f
the sum of the l e n g t h s o f t h e bases.
Given: Trapezoid ABCD
-
with CD 1) %, P the
midpoint o f AD and Q
-
the mldpoint of BC.
-
Prove: PQ I I AB
PQ = 5
(AB + CD) .
H
( ~ i n t : Draw DQ meeting
e
A% at K.)
If A 3 = gin. and
DC = T i n , t h e n A
B

1
c. If D C = % and
AE=7, then
FQ =

11. A Tonvex quadrflateral with v e r t i c e s labeled consecutively

AEGD is called a kite if A 8 = BC and CD = DA. S k e t c h
some kites. S t a t e as many t h e o r e m s about a k i t e as you can
and p r o v e a t least one of them,

Glven: Quadrilateral ABCD

w i t h P, Q, R , S t h e
rnidpohts o f the sides,

Prove: RSPQ is a parallel-

-
ograrn, and PR and
b i s e c t each o t h e r .
- - -
(Hint: D r a w RQ, RS, SP,
-
DR and P&. )
 13. Given: In-the figure
AD < BC, DA E, 1
Prove: m C < m L D.

*14. Prove that t h e sum of the

l e n g t h s of the perpendiculars
C
drawn from any p o i n t in t h e
base o f an isosceles t r i a n g l e
t o t h e legs is equal t o the
l e n g t h o f the altitude upon
e i t h e r of the l e g s .

(~int: D r a w 1E. Then

-
t h e f i g u r e s u g g e s t s t h a t PX
B
and are congruent, and
that PY and are
congruent.)
1 . Prove t h a t t h e sum o f t h e lengths o f t h e perpendiculars drawn
f r o m any p o i n t in t h e i n t e r i o r o f an e q u i l a t e r a l t r i a n g l e t o
t h e t h r e e sides is equal to t h e length of an a l t i t u d e .
(~int: Draw a segment, per~endicular to the altitude used,
f r o m t h e i n t e r i o r point.)
Given a hexagon as fn t h e
-
f i g u r e w i t h AB 11 E ,

-
Prove: FA 1 1 E.
 17. a .
-
Given E l , B B 1 , C C 1
-
are p a r a l l e l and
- -
II=, BC ~ [ B T C ~
as in figure.
Prove: AC IIA'C'.
b, Is the f i g u r e necessarily
a plane f i g u r e . Will
your proof apply if it

18. Given ABCD is a s q u a r e

and the p o i n t s K , L, M
N d i v i d e the s i d e s as
shown, a and b being
l e n g t h s of the indicated
segments.
Prove: KLMN is a square.

*lg. Show t h a t if ABCD is a parallelogram then D is in the

i n t e r i o r of L ABC.
*20. Show that the diagonals of a parallelogram i n t e r s e c t each
other.
9-7. Transversals -
To Many Parallel Lines.
Definitions: If a transversal intersects t w o lines L1, L2
In p o i n t s A and B, then we say t h a t L1 and L2 i n t e r c e p t
t h e segment AB on the t r a n s v e r s a l .

Suppose t h a t we have given three lines L1, L2, L3 and a trans-

versal intersecting them in points A , B and C . If AB = BC,
then we say t h a t the t h r e e l i n e s i n t e r c e p t congruent segments on
the t r a n s v e r s a l .
We shall prove the following:

Theorem 9-26. If three p a r a l l e l lines i n t e r c e p t congruent

segments on one t r a n s v e r s a l , then t h e y i n t e r c e p t congruent seg-
ments on any other t r a n s v e r s a l .
P r o o f : L e t LI, L2 and L3 be parallel l i n e s , c u t by a
transversal T1 in p o i n t s A , B and C. L e t T2 be another
t r a n s v e r s a l , c u t t i n g these lines in D, E, and F . We have
given t h a t
AB = BC;
and we need t o prove t h a t
DE = El?.
We will f i r s t prove the theorem f o r the case in which T1
and T:, a r e not parallel, and A # D, as in-the f i g u r e :

L e t T3 be the line through A , parallel to T2, inter-

sec ting L2 and L3 in G and H; and l e t T4 be t h e line
through B, p a r a l l e l t o T2, intersecting L3 in I . L e t
L X, y, L w and L z be as i n d i c a t e d in the f i g u r e .
 S tatements Reasons
a

1. Lx 2. 1. Theorem 9-9.
2. AB=BC. 2. Hypothesis .
3. T3 II T q . 3 . Theorem 9-11.
4. LwzLy. 4 . Theorem 9-9.
5. AABG = A B C I . 5. A. S . A .
6. AG = BI. 6 . Definition of congruent
triangles.
7. AGED and BIFE are 7 . Definition of parallelograms.
parallelograms.
8. A G = D E and B I = E F . 8. O p p o s i t e sides of a parallel-
ogram a r e congruent,
9. S t e p s 6 and 8.

This proves t h e theorem f o r t h e c a s e i n which t h e two t r a n s -

v e r s a l s a r e n o t parallel, and intersect L1 in two different
p o i n t s . The other c a s e s are easy.

( 1 ) If the two transversals are parallel, like T2 and Tj

in t h e f i g u r e , then t h e theorem holds, because opposite sides o f a
parallelogram are congruent, (Thus, if AG = GH, i t follows t h a t
DE = El?.)

(2) If the t w o transversals i n t e r s e c t a t A, like T1 and

T3 in t h e f i g u r e , then the theorem h o l d s ; i n f a c t , we have a l r e a d y
proved t h a t if AB = BC, then AG = GH.
The following c o r o l l a r y generalizes Theorem 9-26.
Corollary 9-26-1. If t h r e e o r more parallel l i n e s intercept
congruent segments on one t r a n s v e r s a l , then t h e y i n t e r c e p t con-
g r u e n t segments on any o t h e r t r a n s v e r s a l .
 Tbat is, given t h a t
A A
1 2
= A A
2 3
= A 3A 4 = .."
it follows t h a t
BIB2 = B2B3 = B3B4 - ...,
and so on. This follows by repeated applications o f the theorem
t h a t we have j u s t p r o v e d .

D e f i n i t i o n : Two or more s e t s a r e concurrent if t h e r e is a

p o i n t which b e l o n g s to a l l of the s e t s .

In particular, three or m o r e lines a r e concurrent i f t h e y all

pass t h r o u g h one p o i n t .

The f o l l o w i n g theorem is an i n t e r e s t i n g application of

Corollary 9-26-1.
 Theoren 9-27. The medians of a triangle a r e c o n c u r r e n t in a
p o i n t t w o - t h i r d s the way from any vertex t o t h e mid-point of the
cppos 1t e side .
Given: I n AABC, D, E
and - F a r e the m i d - p o i n t s C
- -
of BC, C A and A 8 r e -
s p e c tively .
There is a p o i n t
To P r o v e : P
- -
which lies on AD, BE and
- 2
CF; and AP = 3 AD,
A F 8
2 2
BP = g BE, CP = T CF.

S k e t c h of p r o o f :

( 1)

Let L1, L2, L3, L, and L5, w i t h L3 = AD be five

-
parallel lines d i v i d i n g CB i n t o f o u r congruent segments. Then
(a) L3, Lq, L5 dlvlde i n t o t w o congruent segments,
and so E iies on L4.
(b) L1, L2, Lg, L4 divide BE into t h r e e congruent
segments, and s o if P is the point o f intersection of
-
AD and BE, then BP = BE.
 In the same way, w i t h lines parallel to %, we f i n d that
2
if P i is t h e intersection of BE and E , then BPI = 7 aE.
(3) From (1) and ( 2 ) and Theorem 2-4 it follows that PI = P,
and t h e r e f o r e the t h r e e medians a r e concurrent,

(4) S i n c e we now know that passes through P we c a n easily

2
get CP = CF f r o m the figure in ( I ) , and similarly g e t
AF =
3 AD f r o m the rigure in ( 2 ) .
Definition: The centroid o f a t r i a n g l e is the point of con-
currency of the medians.

Problem S e t 9-7

1. Given: AB = BC.
-
AR ]I )( E.
-
R x 11 su 1 1 TZ.
a. Prove ZY = YX.
w * t,
b. Do AC, TR and ZX
have to be coplanar t o
carry o u t t h e proof?
 The procedure a t t h e right
c a n be used t o rule a s h e e t
o f paper, B, i n t o columns
o f e q u a l width. If A is
an o r d i n a r y sheet of r u l e d
paper and B is a second
s h e e t placed over it as
shown, e x p l a i n why

3. Dlvide a given segment A3 into f i v e congruent p a r t s by t h e

following method:
+ -
(1) Draw ray AR (not collinear with AB.)

Use ruler-t o mark o f f congruent segments AN1,

-
2 - your- -
N1N2, 1112E13, N3N4 and NIIN5 of any convenient l e n g t h .
-
(3) Draw N5B
(4) Measure L
AMGB and use your protractor to draw c o r r e -
2

sponding angles congruent t o L AN B with v e r t i c e s at

5
Nb, N3, N2 and N1.
E x p l a i n why AB is divided i n t o ' congruent p a r t s .

4. The medians of AABCmeet

a t Q, as shown in this C
figure .
If BF = 18, AQ = 10,
CM = 9, then BQ = I

QH = , CQ =
 5. In e q u i l a t e r a l AABC if one median is 15 Inches long,
what is the -d i s t a n c e from-the c e n t r o i d to A? To the mid-
p o i n t o f AB? To side AC?

-
+6. Given: CM b i s e c-
ts at
M. BQ b i s e c t s CM at P.
B
Prove: Q is a trisection
-
point oi AC; that is,
A Q = 2QC.

( ~ i n t : On the ray o p p o s i t e
+
to CB take p o i n t E auch
A Q C
that CE = CB and show
t h a t BQ i s contained in a
median o f ~ A B E) .

"7. What is t h e smallest number

of congruent segments i n t o
which AC can be divl.ded by
some set of equally spaced
parallels which will include
t h e parallels
#
8, and
CT if:
a. AB = 2 and BC = l?
b. 1a n d
AB = l T BC = l?
c. AB = 21 and BC = 6?
d. AB = 1.414 and BC = l?
e. AB= fi and BC = l?

[sec. 9-7 1
*8, Prove t h a t the l i n e s through o p p o s i t e v e r t i c e s of a
parallelogram and t h e midpoints o f t h e opposite s i d e s
t r i s e c t a diagonal.
(Hint: Through an extremity of t h e d i a g o n a l , consider a
parallel to one of the lines.)
Given: ABCD is a parallelogram.
X and Y a r e midpoints.
Prove : AT = TQ = QC ,

Review Problems

1. I n d i c a t e whether each of t h e following statements is t r u e in

ALL c a s e s , true in SOME cases and f a l s e in o t h e r s , o r t r u e
in NO case, using the l e t t e r A , S or N:
a. Llne segments In t h e same plane which have no p o t n t In
common are parallel.
b. If two sides of a quadrilateral ABCD are parallel,
then ABCD is a trapezoid.
c . Two angles in a plane which have thelr s i d e s r e s p e c t i v e -
ly perpendicular a r e congruent.
d. If two p a r a l l e l l i n e s are c u t by a transversal, then 3
p a i r o f a l t e r n a t e exterior angles are congruent.
e. If t w o lines are cut by a t r a n s v e r s a l , then t h e rays
b i s e c t i n g a pair of alternate i n t e r i o r angles are
parallel.
f. In a p l a n e , if a Line is parallel to one of t w o parallel
l i n e s , it is p a r a l l e l t o t h e o t h e r .
g. In a plane two lines are e i t h e r p a r a l l e l or they
intersect.
In a parallelogram t h e opposite angles a r e supplementary.
The diagonals of a rhombus b i s e c t each o t h e r .
All three e x t e r l o r angles of a triangle a r e acute.
A quadrilzteral having t w o o p p o s i t e angles which a r e
right angles Is a rectangle.

The diagonals of a rhombus a r e congruent.

If a q u a d r i l a t e r a l is e q u i l a t e r a l , then a l l o f its
angles a r e congruent.
If two o p p o s i t e s i d e s of a quadrilateral are congruent
and the o t h e r two sides are parallel, the quadrilateral
is a parallelogram.
The diagonals o f a rhombus b i s e c t the angles of the
rhombus .

If t h e diagonals of a p a r a l l e l o g r a m are perpendicular,

t h e parallelogram is a s qtlare .
If a median to one s i d e of a trlangle I s n o t an altitude,
t h e o t h e r two s i d e s are unequal in length.
E i t h e r diagonal of a parallelogram makes two congruent
triangles with the sides.
If a diagonal o f a quadrilateral divides I t I n t o two
c o n p u e n t triangles, the quadrilateral is a parallelogram
If two lines a r e intersected by a t r a n s v e r s a l , the
alternate i n t e r i o r angles are congruent.
 u. All f o u r s i d e s of a rectangle are congruent.
v. A l l f o u r angles of a rhombus are congruent.

w . A square is a rhombus .
x. A square is a rectangle.

2. Would the followtng information about a quadrilateral be

sufficient to p r o v e it a parallelogram? A square? A
rhombus? A rectangle? Consider each i t e m o f information
separately.
a. I t s diagonals b f s e c t each o t h e r .
b. Its diagonals are congruent,
c . It is e q u i l a t e r a l .
d. It is equilateral and equlangular.
e. A diagonal bisects two angles.

f. Every two o p p o s i t e sides are congruent.

g. Some two consecutive sides a r e congruent and perpendicu-
lar.
h. The diagonals are perpendicular.

i. Every two opposite angles a r e congruent.

J. Each diagonal b i s e c t s two zngles.
k. Every two consecutive angles are supplementary.
1. Every two consecutive sides a r e c o n g r u e n t .
3. LA and LB have t h e i r sides r e s p e c t i v e l y parallel.
a. If only one pair of corresponding sldes extend in t h e
same direction the angles a r e

b. If corresponding sides extend in o p p o s i t e directfons,

then the angles a r e
 In Problems 4, 5 and 6 below s e l e c t the one word or phrase
t h a t makes t h e statement true,
4. The b i s e c t c r s of the opposite angles of a non-equilateral
parallelogram ( a ) coincide, ( b ) are perpendicular,
( c ) intersect b u t a r e n o t perpendicular, ( d ) a r e p a r a l l e l .

5. The f i g u r e formed by joining the consecutive mid-points of

t h e sides of a rhombus is ( a ) a rhombus, (b) a rectangle,
(c) a square, (d) none of these answers.
*6. The figure f o m e d by joining t h e consecutive m i d - p a i n t s of
the s i d e s o f quadrilateral ABCD is a square ( a ) if, and
ofily if, the d i a g o n a l s of ABCD a r e congruent and perpen-
dicular, (b) if, and o n l y if, t h e d i a g m a l s of ABCD a r e
congruent, ( c ) i f , and only if, ABCD I s a square,
(d) if, and o n l y if, t h e diagonals of ABCD are perpen-
dicular,
7. In the left-hand c o l ~ u n nbelow, c e r t a i n conditions a r e speci-
f l e d . In t h e r i g h t - h a n d column, some deducible conclusions
are l e f t f o r you t o compiete.
-
Given: MW and KR are
diagonals of HKWR.
 Conditions : Conclusions:
a. MKWR is a parallelogram, rnLd = and rn@K =
rnLa = 3 0 , and
n
r w = 110.
b. MKWR
mLa =
is a rectangle and
30.
mLd = -and mfi =

c. MKWR is a rhombus, rnk = and RK =

mLa= 30 and M = 6 .
A

8. Given: In the figure

AE = EB, GF = 8 ,
@ @
C F = FB, DE 11 CB.

Find: DG. C F

9. If t h e perimeter (sum of l e n g t h s of s i d e s ) of a triangle is

18 i n c h e s , what is the perimeter of the t r i a n g l e formed by
J o i n i n g t h e mid-points of sides of the f i r s t t r i a n g l e ?
10. a. If rnL A = 30and
m L C = 25, what is
t h e measure of
L CBD?
b. If m L A = a and
a
mL C = F, what is
mL CBD? mL ABC?

A
11. Show t h a t the measure of
L E, formed by t h e
b i s e c t o r of L ABC and E
the blsector o f e x t e r i o r
L ACD of A ABC, is
equal to 1 rnL A.
 # + 8
12. In the figure AB )I
CD, EG
b i s e c t s L BEF, rnL G = 90.
G
If the measure of L GEF = 25,
what is the measure of L GFD?
D
< w

1
$F
- -
13. Given: AB and CD which
b i s e c t each o t h e r at 0 .
- -
Prove: Ac (1 BD.

C B

14. Given: ABCD is a

parallelogram with C
-
diagonals AC and
-
/I
1
DB. AP = RC <2 AC.

Prove: DPBR is a
parallelogram.

15. Prove o r d i s p r o v e :
If a quadrilateral has one pair of parallel s i d e s and one
pair of congruent a i d e s , then the quadrilateral is a
parallelogram.
- -
*16. In ~ A B C , median is congruent to
AM MC. Prove that
~ A B C is a right triangle,

17. Prove: If the b i s e c t o r s of two consecutive angles of a

parallelogram I n t e r s e c t , they are perpendicular to each other.
 Given: ABCDE is a pentagon
C, f,
as shown. AE 1) CD. AE = CD
-
P is mid-point o f AB
- .
K is mid-point o f BC .
EM = TIE D .
-
Prove: bisects

19. When a beam of l i g h t is r e f l e c t e d from a smooth s u r f a c e , the

angle between t h e incoming beam and t h e surface is congruent
to t h e angle between the reflected beam and the surface.
I n t h e accompanying figure, mL ABC = 90, m L BCD = 75, and
the beam of light makes an angle of 35' w i t h E . Copy
the figure and complete t h e p a t h of t h e l i g h t beam as it
-
r e f l e c t s from AB, from z, f r o m E, - and from again.
At what a n g l e does t h e beam r e f l e c t from AB the second
time?
20. Given triangle ABC with AR and CS medians. If AR is
-
extended its own length to D, and CS Is extended its own
length to F, prove that F, B and D as shown are
collfn e a r .
 Chapter 10

PARALLELS IN SPACE

19-1. Parallel Planes,

Definition: Two planes, or a plane and a line, are parallel
i f t h e y do n o t I n t e r s e c t .
If planes El and E2 are p a r a l l e l we write El 11 E2; i f
line L and piane E are parallel we w r i t e L / I E o r 3, 1 1 L .
As we will soon s e e , parallels In space behave in somewhat the
same way as parallel lines in a p l a n e . To study them we do n o t
need any new p o s t u l a t e s .
However, in s p i t e of t h e similarities It is necessary, in
studying theorems and t h e i r p r o o f s in this chapter, to distinguish
carefully between parallel lines and p a r a l l e l-. Two
p a r a l l e l planes such as E and F in t h e first Figure below
contain l i n e s such as LI and L2 which are - not parallel. And
the second Figure shows parallel lines MI and M2 iying i n
intersecttnq planes G and H.
 The following theorem d e s c r i b e s a common s i t u a t i o n in which
parallel planes and parallel lines occur in the same F l g u r e .
Theorem 10-1. If a plane i n t e r s e c t s two parallel planes,
t h e n it i n t e r s e c t s them in two parallel lines.

Proof: Given a plane E , intersecting two p a r a l l e l planes

El and E2. By P o s t u l a t e 8, the i n t e r s e c t i ~ n sa r e l i n e s L1 and
L2. These lines a r e in the same p l a n e E; and they have no p o i n t
i n common because El and E 2 have no point in common. There-
f o r e , they are parallel by the definition of parallel l i n e s .
Theorem 10-2. If a line is perpendicular t o one o f two
parallel p l a n e g i t is perpendicular t o the o t h e r .
 Proof: Let planes El and E2 be p a r a l l e l and l e t line L
be perpendicular to El. In E2 take a point A not on L, and
l e t E be the plane determined by L and A . By the p r e c e d i n g
theorem E I n t e r s e c t s El and E2 In parallel lines L1 and
Lp. L 1 1
L1 since L El, and so by Theorem 9-12 ( l o o k it up)
L 1 L2. Now take a point A t i n Ep not on L2 and r e p e a t t h e
process. We thus obtain two lines in E2 each perpendicular to
L, and so L 1
Eg, by Theorem 8-3.
Theorem 10-3. Two planes perpendicular t o the same line are
parallel.

Proof: The figure on t h e l e f t shows what happens when

El 1L at P and E2 1
L at Q : we wish to show El 1 1 E2.
If El and Eg a r e n o t parallel, they i n t e r s e c t . L e t R b e a
e
common point. Cons lder the lines PR and . Then L1 and
L 1 because L is perpendicular to e v e r y line in El through
P and every l i n e i n E 2 t h r o u g h Q. This g i v e s two perpendicul-
ars to a line from an e x t e r n a l p o i n t , which is impossible, by
Theorem 6 - 3 .
 Corollary 10-3-1. If two planes a r e each parallel t o a t h i r d
plane, they are parallel to each other.
Proof: L e t El 11 E3, E p 1 1 E3. L e t L be a l i n e perpen-
dicular t o E3. By Theorem 10-2 L 1
El and L E g . Thus El 1
and E p are each perpendicular to L and El 11 Ep by the
Theorem 10-3.

Theorem 10-4. Two l i n e s perpendicular t o the same plane a r e

parallel.

Proof: By Theorem 8-8 two such lines are coplanar. Since

t h e y a r e perpendicular to t h e given plane, say at p o i n t s A and
&
B, they a r e p e r p e n d t c u l a r t o AB. Hence by Theorem 9-2 t h e y are
parallel.
C o r o l l a r y 10-4-1. A plane perpendicular to one of two
p a r a l l e l lines is perpendicular to t h e o t h e r .

Proof: Let L~ (1 L2, L1 1 E . Let Lj be a line perpendi-

c u l a r to E through any p o i n t A of L2. L3 e x i s t s by Theorem
8 - 9 . Then by Theorem 10-4 1, I
1 1 Lj. Hence, by the Parallel
P o s t u l a t e L3 = L2, and so Le E- 1
Corollary 10-4-2. If two lines a r e each parallel t o a third
t h e y are parallel to each other.

P r o o f : L e t L1 11 L2, L1 I( Lg. Let E be a plane p e r -

pendicular t o L1. By the above corollary E 1 L2 and E 1 L3,
and s o by t h e above theorem L2 1) L3.
 Theorem 10-5. Two parallel planes a r e everywhere e q u i d i s t a n t .
T h a t is, all segments perpendicular to t h e two p l a n e s and h a v i n g
t h e i r end p o i n t s in the planes have t h e same length.

Proof :L e t P& and be perpendicular segments between

the parallel p l a n e s El and Ep. By Theorem 10-2, each of t h e
segments is perpendicular to each of t h e planes. By Theorem 1 0 - 4 ,
# f3 e P
PQ 1 1 RS; and t h i s means, in particular, t h a t PQ and %? l i e
w
in the same plane E3. By Theorem 10-1, QR 11 PS .t,
Therefore,
P&RS is a parallelogram. Opposite s i d e s o f - a parallelogram a r e
c o n g r u e n t . T h e r e f o r e , PQ = RS, which was to be proved.
(Obviously P W is a rectangle, b u t t h i s f a c t does n o t need t o
be mentioned in the p r o o f . )

[sec. 10-11
 Problem --
S e t 10-1

Draw a small s k e t c h t o illustrate t h e hypothesis of each o f

the following statements. Below each sketch indicate whether
t h e statement is t r u e or f a l s e .

a. If a l i n e is perpendicular to one o f two p a r a l l e l planes

it is perpendicular to the other.
b. Two l i n e s p a r a l l e l t o the same plane may be perpendicular
t o each o t h e r .
c. Two planes perpendicular t o t h e same line may i n t e r s e c t .
d. If a p l a n e i n t e r s e c t s two i n t e r s e c t i n g planes, t h e l i n e s
of i n t e r s e c t i o n may be parallel.
e. If two p l a n e s a r e both perpendicular t o each of t w o
parallel l i n e s , t h e segments of t h e two l i n e s I n t e r c e p t e d
between t h e p l a n e s a r e congruent.
f . If two p l a n e s , perpendicular t o the same line, a r e
i n t e r s e c t e d by a t h i r d plane, the lines of intersection
a r e parallel.
g. If a line lies in a plane, a perpendicular to the l i n e
is perpendicular to t h e p l a n e .
h. If a l i n e l i e s in a p l a n e , a perpendicular t o the plane
at some p o i n t o f t h e line I s perpendicular to the line.
i. If two lines a r e parallel, every plane containing o n l y
one o f them is p a r a l l e l t o t h e o t h e r l i n e .
J. If two l i n e s a r e parallel, every line intersecting one
of them i n t e r s e c t s the o t h e r .
1 I f two planes are parallel, any line in one of them is
parallel to t h e other.
1. If two planes a r e parallel, any line in one o f them is
parallel t o any line i n t h e other.
 Given lines L1 and L2
intersecting parallel
planes rn, n, and p
at points A, B, C,
and X, Y, 2, with
B the mid-point of E.
Prove: XY = YZ .

A
Given: plane s
-
11 plane r,
AB 1r. CX = CY in
plane s .
Prove: AX = AY. Y

4. Given: A, C in rn;

Prove: n L-EE.
5. Given: In the
- figuxle m 11 n ,
AB 1 n, cD 1 n.
Prove: AD = CB.

Planes E and F a r e
e
perpendicular t o AB.
e w
Lines BK and BH, in
p l a n e F, determine
*
w i t h AB t w o p l a n e s
whlch i n t e r s e c t E in
++ * I
AD and AC. C e r t a i n
lengths a r e given, as
in the f i g u r e .

Are BKDAand BACH parallelograms? Can you give a f u r t h e r

description of them? Is ~ B H K2 CAD? Can you g i v e the
length of G?

-
In t h e f i g u r e h a l f planes
n and m have a common
edge AB and intersect
parallel planes s and t
# H #
in l i n e s AD, AE, BG,
and as shown.

F rove that 1 DAE L GBF.

*8, Show how to determine a plane containing one of two skew
lines and parallel to the o t h e r . Prove your c o n s t r u c t i o n .
-
*9. Given: PL and lie
in plane 13. E L F ,
1
fi. RL ) ( SM.
Prove: R L ~ E , SMIE.
( ~ l n-
- t: A t P draw
BP II RL at P.)

10-2. D i h e d r a l Angles, Perpendicular Planes.

We have cons idered p e r p e n d i c u l a r l ty between two lines , and
between a line and a plane, We have y e t to define perpendicular-
i t y between two planes. T h f s can be done in various ways, and
we choose the one t h a t has the c l o s e s t analogy w i t h the d e f i n i t i o n
of perpendicular l i n e s .
Definitions: A dihedral angle is t h e union of a line and
t w o non-coplanar half-planes having this l i n e as t h e l r common edge.
(compare with the definftion of angle in C h a p t e r 4.) The line is
called the edge of the dihedral angle. The union of the edge and
e i t h e r half-plane is c a l l e d a face, or s i d e , of the dihedral
angle.
*
If PQ I s the edge, and A and 3 p o i n t s on d i f f e r e n t
s i d e s , we denote t h e d i h e d r a l angle by LA-PQ-B.
 Analogous to the d i s c u s s i o n on page 88 we see that two
intersecting planes determine four d i h e d r a l angles.

T e r m s such as v e r t i c a l , interior, extericr, e t c . can be applied to

d i h e d r a l angles. Definitions of these terms can be considered an
exercise for the s t u d e n t .
To d e f i n e right d i h e d r a l angles, however, we need to talk
about the measure of a d l h e d r a l angle. One m i g h t at f i r s t think
that we must introduce f o u r new p o s t u l a t e s , analogous to t h o s e in
S e c t i o n 4-3. However, t h i s is n o t necessary, f o r we can r e l a t e
each d i h e d r a l angle w i t h an o r d i n a r y angle, as f o l l o w s :

Definition: Through any p o i n t an t h e edge of the dihedral

angle pass a plane p e r p e n d i c u l a r to t h e edge, intersecting each
of t h e s i d e s in a ray. The angle formed by these rays is called
a p l a n e angle of the dihedral angle.
The s i d e s of the plane angle a r e perpendicular to t h e edge
o f the d i h e d r a l angle, s o another way o f d e f i n i n g the p l a n e angle
would be t h e a n g l e formed by two rays, one in each side o f t h e
d i h e d r a l angle, and perpendicular to its edge a t t h e same point.
 It l a natural a t t h i s p o i n t t o use the measure o f the plane
angle a s a measure of the dihedral angle, b u t b e f o r e we do this
we must prove t h a t any two plane angles o f a dihedral angle have
the same measure.
Theorem 10-6. Any two plane angles of a given dihedral angle
a r e congruent.

Figure A . F i g u r e B.

Proof: Let V and S be the v e r t i c e s of two p l a n e angles

of LA-PQ-3. ( ~ i g u r eA . ) On the sides of 1 V take p o i n t s U
and W d i s t i n c t f r o m V . On the s i d e s of L S take p o i n t s R
and T such that S R = W , ST = V W . ( ~ i g u r eB.) W and SR
-
-
a r e coplanar and perpendicular to PQ; hence they a r e parallel
by Theorem 9 - 2 . Hence by Theorem 9-20 (look it up) WRS Is a
parallelogram and UR = VS and 11 %. Similarly, WT = VS
and Hence UR = WT and 11m, the latter f a c t
following from Corollary 10-4-2. URTW I s thus a parallelogram,
and UW = RT. It follows from the S . S . S . Theorem t h a t
AUVW E A RST, and s o mL UVW = rnL RST.
Thus we can make the following definitions.
Definitions: The measure of a d i h e d r a l angle is the real
number which is the measure of any of i t s p l a n e angles. A d i h e d r a l
angle is a right dihedral angle if I t s plane angles a r e r i g h t
angles. Two planes a r e perpendicular if they determine right
dihedral angles.
 The f o l l o w i n g are some Immediate consequences of' these
definitions. Their p r o o f s a r e l e f t as exercises.
C o r o l l a r y 10-6-1. If a line is perpendicular t o a plane,
then any plane containing this l i n e is perpendicular t o the given
plane.
Given: ;B I, F contains
e
.
-
AB

Prove :
f3
Take BC 1 PQ in

C o r o l l a r y 10-6-2. If two planes a r e perpendicular, then any

l i n e in one of them perpendicular to t h e i r line of i n t e r s e c t i o n ,
is perpendicular to the o t h e r plane.

e
( ~ i n :t I n t h e above figure ; given F 1 E, 1; prove
AB 1 f,

E. Take BC as b e f o r e . )

Problem --
S e t 10-2

1. ~ > m e the s i x dihedral angles

in t h i s three d i m e n s i o n a l
figure .
2. Eachof z, and
Fs perpendicular t o the
o t h e r two. a = b = c = 4 5 .
What is t h e measure of
L C-PA-B? of L CAB?

3. D r a w a small s k e t c h to i l l u s t r a t e the hypothesis of each of

t h e following statements. Then Indicate whether e a c h is
True (1) or False ( 0 ) .
a. If a plane and a line n o t 4n it a r e both perpendicular t o
t h e same line, t h e y are p a r a l l e l to e a c h o t h e r .

b. If a plane and a line n o t in it a r e b o t h parallel t o t h e

same l i n e they a r e parallel t o each o t h e r .
c. If parallel planes E and F a r e c u t by p l a n e Q, the
l i n e s o f intersection are p e r p e n d i c u l a r .
d. If t w o p l a n e s a r e p a r a l l e l t o the same l i n e t h e y are
p a r a l l e l to each other.
e. Two llnes p a r a l l e l to t h e same plane a r e parallel t o
each other.
f. Segments of p a r a l l e l lines i n t e r c e p t e d between two

-
parallel planes are c o n g r u e n t .
H
g. If planes E and F a r e perpendicular t o AB, then
they intersect in line HQ.
h. Two p l a n e s perpendicular to the same p l a n ? a r e parallel
t o each o t h e r .
i. Two lines p e r p e n d i c l ~ l a r t o t h e same line at t h e r,a.me
p o i n t are perpendicular t o each o t h e r .
j. A plane perpendicular to one o f t w o intersecting p l a n e s
mus t i n t e r s e c t the o t h e r .
 k. If two intersecting planes a r e each perpendicular to a
t h i r d plane, t h e i r line of intersection is perpendicular
to the t h i r d plane.
4. Prove: I f two i n t e r s e c t -
i n g planes are each per-
pendicular to a t h i r d
p l a n e , their i n t e r s e c t i o n
is p e r p e n d i c u l a r to that
t h i r d plane.
--

Given: Planes r and s

i n t e r s e c t in PQ (P being
chosen f o r convenience on
plane E). r 1
E and

-
Prove: QPLE.
- ( ~ i n t : I n plane E, draw XPlDC
-
and
YP 1E , and u s e Corollary 10-6-2.)
f3 @
5. CD and are perpendicu-
l a r t o plane E. Other ?
given information is as
shown in the figure.
x = ? ; m = ? ;
y = 9. .
Which two segments have
t h e same l e n g t h ?
*6. P m v e t h e following theorem: If t h r e e planes El, Ep and
E3 i n t e r s e c t in p a i r s and determine t h r e e lines LIP, L13
and Lg3, t h e n e i t h e r t h e t h r e e l i n e s are concurrent or each
p a i r of the lines are p a r a l l e l .
( ~ i n t : Tile figure shows
El and E2 meeting i n LIZ.
I f Eg 11 L12 will t h e t h r e e
lines LIP, L13 and LP3,
be concurrent or parallel?
Give p r o o f . I f E3 inter-
s e c t s LIP in some p o i n t P
w i l l the t h r e e lines b e con-
c u r r e n t or parallel? Give
proof. )
"7. Desarsues' Theorem. If two triangles lying in non-parallel
p l a n e s a r e such that the l i n e s joining corresponding vertices
are concurrent, then if corresponding side-lines i n t e r s e c t ,
t h e i r points o f i n t e r s e c t i o n are collinear.

[sec. 10-21
 Restatement .
at U . L e t the lines
* f3
C,
non-parallel planes such that A A 1 ,
--
Given the triangles ~ A B C and
and

C q A r meet at Y, and AB and AIBt meet at 2. Prove

4Ab
and C 1 B T meet a t X, CA and

that the p o i n t s X, Y , 2 l i e on a line.

1P-3. Projections .
You a r e familfar with a slide projector which p r o j e c t s each
p o i n t of a s l i d e onto a s c r e e n . Each f i g u r e in the slide is pro-
jected as an enlarged figure on the s c r e e n . In t h i s section you
will notice c e r t a f n differences and c e r t a i n similarities between
this familiar k i n d of projection and t h e kind of geometric pro-
j e c t i o n which is p r e s e n t e d .
D e f i n i t i o n : The p r o j e c t i o n -
of-a p o i n t into a plane is t h e
foot o f t h e perpendicular from the point to the p l a n e . (BY
Theorem 8-10 t h i s perpendicular e x i s t s and is unique. )
I n t h e figure, Q is t h e projection of P into E.

Definition: The projection - o f-a- line into a plane is the s e t

of p o l n t s which a r e projections i n t o the plane o f t h e p o i n t s of
t h e line .

[ s e c . 10-31
 In the f i g u r e , PI is t h e projection of is t h e p r o -
P, Q'
jection of Q, and so on. It looks as if the projection of the
line is a line; and in f a c t this is what always happens, except
when the line and t h e plane are perpendicular.
Theorem 10-7. The projection o f a line i n t o a plane is a
l i n e , unless t h e line and the plane are p e r p e n d i c u l a r .

Proof: Let L be a line n o t perpendicular t o plane E.

Case 1. L lies in E, Then each p o i n t of L lies in E
and is i t s own p r o j e c t i o n . h hat I s , a line through such a p o i n t
P, perpendicular to E , i n t e r s e c t s E In P.) Thus, t h e pro-
jection of L is j u s t L i t s e l f , and s o is certainly a line.
Case 2. L does n o t l i e In E . Let P be a p o i n t of L
t h a t is n o t in E , l e t PI be the proJection of P into E , and
let F be the plane determined by the intersecting lines L and
w
P P a , F and E have p o i n t PI in common, and so, t h e y i n t e r s e c t
in a line which we call L t . ( p o s t u l a t e 8.) We want t o show t h a t
L1 is the p r o j e c t i o n of L.
To do t h i s we must show t w o things:
(1) If R is a p o i n t of L, then i t s projection is a p o i n t
of L 1 , This will show t h a t the projection o f L l i e s
on L f , but it will n o t assure us that the prodection
of -
L c o n s t i t u t e s a l l of L t . To show the latter we
m u s t prove
(2) If Sl is any polnt of Lj t h e r e is a point S of
L whose p r o j e c t i o n is 2 . 9 .
 We c a n grove t h e s e two p a r t s of Case 2 as follows:

P r o o f of (1): If R = P, then R t = PI and so R1 lies on

L1. So suppose Ris d i f f e r e n t from P. Then and
are coplanar, by Theorem 5-8. Since F Is t h e o n l y
plane c o n t a i n i n g P, R and P' ( p o s t u l a t e 7 . 1 , R 1 is
in F. R' IS a l s o in E. T h e r e f o r e R f is on Ll, since
L 4 , being th? intersection of E and F , contains - all
p o i n t s common t o E and F.
Proof o f ( 2 ) : If ST is any p o i n t of LT,
M t h r o u g h S 1 perpendicular to E is coplanar w i t h P P'
( o r coincides with it if S ' = PI) and s o lies i n F .
-
then the l i n e

T h e r e f o r e M i n t e r s e c t s L (why?) at some p o i n t S .
S T is the projection of S . This completes the proof of
Theorem 10-7.
If a line is perpendicular to a p l a n e its projection i n t o
the plane is a single p o i n t .
The i d e a of projectlon can be d e f i n e d more g e n e r a l l y , f o r
any s e t of p o i n t s . If A i s any s e t of p o i n t s , t h e n the pro-
jection of A i n t o t h e plane E is simply the s e t of a l l pro-
jections of p o i n t s of A. F o r example, t h e projection of a tri-
angle is u s u a l l y a t r i a n g l e , although in c e r t a i n exceptional c a s e s
it may be a segment.
Q
O n t h e l e f t , t h e projection of APW is ASTU.On the right,
t h e p l a n e t h a t contains ~ P Q R is perpendicular to E, so t h a t
-
the projection o f nPQ,Ris simply t h e segment ST.

Problem S e t 10-3

1. Using the k i n d o f projection explained in S e c t i o n 10-3

answer t h e following:
a. Is the projection of a point always a p o i n t ?
b. Is t h e projection o f a segment always a segment?
c. Can t h e projection of an angle be a ray? A line?
An angle?
d. Can t h e projection of an acute angle be an o b t u s e angle?
e. Is the projection o f a right angle always a right angle?
f. Can t h e length o f the projection o f a segment be greater
than t h e length of t h e segment?
2. a. If two segments a r e congruent will their projections be
congruent?
b. If t w o iines i n t e r s e c t can t h e i r projections be two
p a r a l l e l lines?
c. If two lines do n o t i n t e r s e c t can their projections be
two i n t e r s e c t i n g lines?
d. If two segments a r e parallel and congruent, will their
projections be congruent?
 -
3. Given t h e figure w i t h AB
not in plane m, XY t h e
-
projection of AB into
plane m, M t h e m i d -
point o f AB, and N the
projection of M, prove
N is t h e mid-point of XY.

Top Vie

/ / m/
 In rnechanf cal drawing the t o p view o r "plan" o f a s o l i d may
be considered the projectton of the v a r i o u s segments of t h e s o l i d
i n t o a horizontal plane m, as show1 in p e r s p e c t i v e a t t h e l e f t .
The t o p view as I t would actually be drawn is shown at t h e right.
(NO a t t e m p t is made here to give dimensions to t h e segments.)
a. S k e t c h a f r o n t view of the s o l i d shorn1 above - t h a t Is,
s k e t c h the r e s u l t of projecting t h e segments of the
s o l i d into any plane parallel to i t s front f a c e .
b. S k e t c h the right s i d e view of t h e solid.

5. The projection of a tetrahedron

( triangular pyramid) i n t o the
plane of its base may look l i k e
t h e figure a t the right. How
else m a y it appear?

6. Given: BD is the projection

- -
of BC into plane m. AE
lies in p l a n e m and L ABC
is a r i g h t a n g l e .
Prove: L AED is a right
angle.
- B A
( ~ i n t : L e t BE be perpendicu-
lar t o plane 1 1 . )
 +
*7. Given: A& has projection
+ 3
AR In plane rn. AP fs
any other r a y from A in
p l a n e m. ( ~ o t e : L QAR
is called t h e angle t h a t
+
A & makes w i t h plane m.)

Prove: mL QAR < m L QAP.

( ~ i n t : Let Q' be the
projection of Q i n t o m.
On AP
choose X s o t h a t

- - -
Draw QQ1, QIX and QX.)

*8. If the diagonal of a cube is perpendicular t o a given plane,

s k e t c h the projection i n t o the plane of a l l t h e edges o f the
cube. (NO proof r e q u i r e d . )

Review Problems

1. Suppose R-AB-S is an
a c u t e d i h e d r a l angle w i t h
P a p o i n t on its edge.
+ +
Can rays PX and PY be
chosen in t h e t w o faces
s o that

a. L XPY is a c u t e ? ,
b. LXPY Is o b t u s e ?
c. L XPY is r i g h t ?
2, Planes r and s i n t e r s e c t
C,
in TQ. B is a p o i n t between
T and Q. l s i n r.
mi TBA = 40. is i n s .

plane angle of d i h e d r a l
1 TQ? Can you determine
m L ABF? If so, s t a t e a
theorem to s u p p o r t your
conclus i o n .

3.
-
Planes x and r i n t e r s e c t
Pn &K. B is a p o i n t between
K and Q. BA is in r. 3
+#

is in x . rnL ABK = 9 0 ,
mL QBF = 90. Is F3A a
plane angle o f d i h e d r a l
L W? If your answer is
" ~ e s,
" s t a t e a theorem o r
d e f i n i t i o n t o support y o u r
conclusion. If mL ABP = 80,
Is r 1x? If r x, what
is rnL ABF?

4. Indicate whether each o f the following statements is t r u e in

-
a l l cases ( A ) , t r u e i n some cases and f a l s e in others (S),
or true in no case (N) .
a. Two lines parallel to t h e same plane are perpendicular
to each o t h e r .
b . If a plane i n t e r s e c t s each of t w o intersecting planes ,
t h e l i n e s of i n t e r s ec tlon are parallel.

c. If a line l i e s in a plane, a perpendicular t o the llne

is perpendicular to the plane.
 If two planes are parallel, any line in one of them is
parallel t o the o t h e r .
I f two planes are parallel t o the same l i n e $hey a r e
parallel to each o t h e r .
Two l i n e s perpendicular to the same l l n e at t h e same
point are perpendicular to each o t h e r .
If two i n t e r s e c t i n g planes are each perpendicular to a
t h i r d plane, t h e i r l i n e of i n t e r s e c t i o n i s perpendicular
t o the t h i r d p l a n e .

The p r o j e c t i o n of a segment is a segment.

The projection of a right angle i s z right a n g l e .

Congruent segments have congruent projections,
Two lines are parallel if t h e y a r e b c t h perpendicular
t o t h e same line.
I f a p l a n e is p e r p e n d i c u l a r to each o f t w o l i n e s , t h e
two l i n e s a r e coplanar,
If a plane i n t e r s e c t s two o t h e r planes f n parallel
llnes, then the two p l a n e s are p a r a l l e l .
If a p l a n e i n t e r s e c t s t h e faces of a d i h e d r a l angle,
the i n t e r s e c t i o n is called a plane a.ngle o f t h e d i h e d r a l
angle.

Given: F Is t h e projection
of p o i n t X into p l a n e E.
-
BH lies in p i a n e E . L FBH
is a right a n g l e .
Prove: L ABH I s a right
angle.
6. Given: P l a n e s X, Y and
Z a r e parallel as shown,
w f t h CE in 2 , and A
in X. AC
c u t s Y in B
and AE
c u t s Y in D.
AB = BC. AC = CE.
Prove: BD = BA.

7. Given: R , 2 , Y, X a r e
t h e mid-points of t h e r e - A
- -
s p e c t i v e s i d e s CB, BA,
AD, of t h e non-planar
quadrilateral CBAD.
Prove: RZYX is a parallelo-
gram.

In the following incomplete statement it is possible t o fill

in t h e s o l i d blanks with " l i n e " o r "plane" and t h e d o t t e d
b l a n k s w i t h 1 1 or 1
in e i g h t ways s o as t o make t h e complet-
ed statement true: Give f i v e of these ways.
If A is- - - - - - - - to C, and B is
------ to C, t h e n A and B a r e - - - - - - - -

Given: ABCD is a p a r a l l e l o -
- - -
gram. Each of AE, BF, XY,
-
DH and fi
are perpendicular
t o L, L is in the plane o f
parallelogram ABCD.
Prove: AE + CG = BF + DH.
 Appendix I

A CONmNIENT SHORTHAND

T h e r e was a time when a l g e b r a was a l l written o u t in words.

In words, you m i g h t s t a t e an algebraic problem in t h e following
way :
"If you square a c e r t a i n number, add f i v e times t h e number,
and then s u b t r a c t six, t h e r e s u l t is z e r o . What are p o s s i b i l i t i e s
f o r t h i s number?"
T h i s problem can be more b r i e f l y s t a t e d in t h e following form:
" ~ l n dt h e r o o t s o f t h e equatlon xP + 5x - 6 = 0 . "
The n o t a t i o n of algebra i s a very convenient s h o r t h a n d . A
similar shorthand has been i n v e n t e d f o r t a l k i n g a b o u t s e t s . It
saves a l o t of t i m e and space, once you g e t used to it, and it is
a l l right t o use it in y o u r written work, unless your t e a c h e r
objects.
L e t u s s t a r t w i t h a p i c t u r e , and say v a r i o u s things a b o u t it
f i r s t in words and t h e n in shorthand. t

Here we see a line L, which separates t h e plane E

into
two half-planes H and H2. Now l e t u s say some t h i n g s in two
1
ways.
I n Words In Shorthand
1. The segment
-
PQ lies inH1. 1. WC HI.
2. The i n t e r s e c t i o n o fa and 2.
-
RS n L=T.
L is T.
 The shorthand expression PGC H1 is pronounced in exactly
t h e same way a s t h e expression on t h e l e f t o f it. In g e n e r a l ,
when we w r i t e A C B, this means t h a t t h e s e t A i i e s in t h e
set B.
An expresslon of the t y p e A fl B denotes t h e intersection of
the s e t s A and B. The symbol " n " 1s pronqunced " c a p , " be-
cause i t looks a l i t t l e l i k ec a p . Notice that t h e s e t s
a and
-
RS do n o t i n t e r s e c t . If we
agree t o write 0 f o r t h e empty s e t ,
then we can express t h l s f a c t by writing
-
PQ n RS = 0.
Similarly,
-
P Q L~ = O
and

- mn H, L
.= 0.
Of course, PQ I s a s e t which lies In H , . But the p o i n t P
A

above is a member of HI. We w r i t e t h i s in shorthand l i k e t h i s

P E H1'
T h i s is pronounced " P belongs t o H, ."
I

The u n i o n o f two sets A and B is written a s A B. This

is pronounced " A cup B." Ir, the same way, we w r i t e A U 3 U C
f o r t h e union of t h r e e s e t s . For example, i n t h e f i g u r e a b o v e , t h e
plane E is the unlon o f HI, H2 and L. We can t h e r e f o r e write
E = H I U H 2 U L.
Notice t h a t here (as everywhere e l s e ) , a formula involving
t h e sign " = I 1 means t h a t t h e things on the l e f t and r i g h t o f "="
are t h e same thing. The sign "='I is simply an a b b r e v i a t i o n o f t h e
word "is", as in t h e expresslon 2 + 2 = 4, which says that two
p l u s t w o is f o u r .

Problem Set

Consider t h e sets, A, B, C, and so on, d e f i n e d in the follow-

ing way:
A is t h e s e t of all d o c t o r s .
B is t h e s e t of all l a w y e r s .
C is the s e t of all tall p e o p l e .
 D I s the s e t of 311 p e o p l e who can p l a y the v i o l i n .
E is the s e t of a l l people whc make a l o t Gmoney. I'
F is t,he s e t of all b a s k e t b a l l players.
Write s h ~ r t h a n de x p r e s s i o n s f o r the following statements:
1. A l l b a s k e t b a l l p l a y e r s a r e tall.
2. No d o c t o r is a lawyer.
3 . No v i o l i n i s t makes a l o t of money, u n l e s s he l s t a l l .
4. bJo b a s k e t t a i l player is a vlollnist.
5. Everyone who is b o t h a d o c t o r and a lawyer can a153 p l a y
tlle v i o l l n .
6. E v e r y basketball p l a y e r who can p l a y t h e v i o l i n makes a
l o t of money.
7. Tne man X is a tall v i o l i n i s t .
8 . The man Y is a pllosperous lawyez7.
. 9 , The man Z is a tall basketball p l a y e r .
 Appendix 11
POSTULATES OF ADDITION AND MULTIPLICATION

The methods of m a n i p u l a t i n g real numbers by means o f t h e oper-

a t i o n o f a d d i t i o n and multiplication, and the related operations
of s u b t r a c t i o n and division, are all determined by t h e following
e l e v e n postulates. In t h e statement o f t h e s e postulates and t h e
p r o o f s of t h e following theorems it is t o be understood t h a t all
the letters a r e real numbers.
A-1. ( C l o s u r e under A d d i t i o n . ) x + y is always a r e a l
number.
A-2. ( ~ s s o c i a t i v eLaw f o r ~ddition.) x + (y + z ) = ( x + y ) + z ,
A-3. (commutative Law f o r Addition. ) x + y = y + x.
A - (~xistenceof 0 . ) There is a unique number 0 such
t h a t x + 0 = x f o r every x.
A-5. (Existence of N e g a t i v e s . ) F o r e a c h x there is a
unique number -x such t h a t x + (-x) = 0.
M-l. ( c l o s u r e under ~ u l t i ~ l i c a t i o n . )xy is always a real
number .
M-2. (~ssociativeLaw for ~ultiplication.) ~ ( ~ =2 (xy)z, )

M-3. ommu mutative Law f o r Multiplication. ) xy = yx.

- 4 . ( ~ x i s t e n c eof 1.) There Is a unique number 1 such
t h a t x - 1 = x f o r every x.
M-5. (~xistenceof ~eciprocals.) For each number x o t h e r
1
t h a n 0 there is a unique number - such t h a t x.- = 1.
X X
D. (Distributive Law.) x ( y + z) = xy + xz.
The following basic theorems will illustrate how t h e s e pos-
t u l a t e s a r e used in simple cases.
Theorem 11-1. If b = - a , t h e n -b = a .
P r o o f : By A-5, b = -a means t h e same a s a + b = 0. By
A - 3 t h i s is the same as b + a = 0 . By A-5, this is the same a s
a = -b.
A n o t h e r way of stating t h i s theorem is that -(-a) = a.
 Theorem 11-2, For any a, a.0 = 0.
Proof : a - a.1 04-41
= a(1 + 0) (A-4)
= a.1 -t a.0 (Dl
= a + a.0 (M-4 >
Hence by (A-b), a . 0 = 0 .
Theorem 11-3. a(-b) = - ( a b ) .
Proof:
ab + a(-b) = a[b + (-b)] ( D>
= a.0 0-51
= 0 ( ~ h .11-3)
Hence by A - 4 , a(-b) = - ( a b ) .
As a s p e c i a l case of' this t h e o r e m we have a(-1) -a.=

D e f i n i t i o n . x - y s h a l l mean x -t (-y) . Note that by t h i s

d e f i n i t i o n a - a = 0.
Theorem 11-4. If a + S = c, t h e n a = c - b,
Proof: If a t b = c , then
(3 f b) - (-b) = c + (-bj
(a + b ) t ( - b ) = a +- [b + (-b)] {A-2)
= a 4 - O . (A- 5I
= a ( A-LI )
Hence a =c + (-b) = c - b by definition.
Theorea 11-5. If ab = 0 , t h e n eit:?er a ; 0 or b = 0.
P r o o f : To p r o v e the theorem it will b e enough t o show t h a t
1
if a # 0 then b = 0 . 50 suppose a # 0 . Tnen a
exists, b y
M-5. Therefore,

also,

[A-11 J
 Theorem 11-6. (cancellation L a w . ) If ab = ac and a # 0
then b = c.
Proof: If a b = ac then ab - ac = 6. By Theorem A-11-3
this is t h e same as ab + a ( - c ) = 0 , o r , by D, as a ( b - c ) = 0 .
S i n c e a # 0 we g e t , by applylng Theorem 11-5, t h a t b - c = 0 .
Hence b = c .

These a r e j u s t a Pew examples o f the use of' t h e p o s t u l a t e s in

proving b a s i c a l g e b r a i c t h e o r e m s . Ordinarily we d o n T t use t h e
postulates d i r e c t l y but make use of s u c h p r o p e r t i e s as t h o s e
stated in Theorems 11-4 and 11-6 in our algebraic work.

Problem -
S e t-
I1
1. Prove e a c h of the f ' o l l o w i n g theorems.
a. ( - a ) (-b) = a b .
b. a(b-c) = a b - a c .
c. I f a - b = c, t h e n a = b i c .
d . (a + b) ( c + d ) = a c + a d c bc -I- b d , ( ~ i n t : As a f i ~ s t
s t e p a p p l y D, regarding ( a + b ) a s a single number, )
2 Given t h e d e f i n i t i o n s :
2
X = X-X,

prove t h a t
(3 + b)* = a2 + 2ab + b
2
.
2 2
3. Prove: (a + b) ( a - b ) = a - b .

Prove each o f t h e following:

-1
a.
-1
(ab)-l=aLb .
b* -.-
a c = ac
b d bd'
-
a ac
C . E = E m
-1
d. (-a)-1 = - ( a 1.
e . -a5 = -a a

f. a zq--
c - a + c
B

g.
a
z+a= c ad + bc
bd
 Appendix I11
J A T I O N A L AND IRRATIONAL NUMBERS

111-1. -----
How to Show -
T h a t a Number is Rational.
By d e f i n i t i o n a number is rational if i t is t h e ratio of t w o
Integers. T h e r e f o r e , it we want t o p r o v e t h a t a number x is
rational, we have to produce t w o i n t e g e r s p and q, s u c h t h a t
= x. Here are some examples:
q
The number rational, because
(1)
x = ? + 7is

Y
(2) The number x = 1.23 is r a t i o n a l , because

which is the r a t l o of t h e two i n t e g e r s 123 and 100.

(3) If t h e number x is rational, t h e n so is t h e number 2x.
( T h a t is, twice a rational number is always rational.) For if
x=r
9'
where p and q are integers, then

where t h e numerator 2p and the denominator q a r e b o t h i n t e g e r s .

4 If t h e nwnber x is rational, t h e n so is the number
x + 3. For if

then

where the numerator and denominator a r e b o t h i n t e g e r s .

( 5 ) IS x is a rational number, then so is x' + x. For if

then

where t h e mmerator and denominator are Integers.

 --
P r o b l e m S e t 111-1

Show t h a t .2351 is a rational numbel'.

2
Show t h a t 7 5
+- is rstional.
7
Shcw t h a t i f x is a r a t i o n a l number, then so 1 s x - 5.
Show t h a t if x i s r a t i a n a l , trlen so is 2x - 7.

Show t h a t 1
3
+
1 -
17 is r a t i o n a l .
Show t h a t the surn of any t w o r a t i o n a l numbers 2s a
rational numwr.
Show t h a t (-1119' (v)
23
is rational.
Show t h a t t n e product of 3 two rational numbers is a
rational number.
Show t h a t - 23 is rational.
17 +7
S~IOW that the quotient of two rational numbers is a
rational number, as long as t h e d i v i s o r is n o t z e r o ,
Given that f i is irrational, shnw t h a t is a l s o
irratlonal. (~int: T h i s p r o b l e m is a l o t e a s i e r , now
t h a t you u n d e r s t a n d a b o u t i n d i r e c t p r o o f s . )
TT
Given t h a t T is irrational, show t h a t - is also
5
irrational.
Show that t h e r e c i p r o c a l o f e v e r y r a t i o n a l number d i f -
f e r e n t rrom zero is rational .
Show t h a t t h e reciprocal of every irrational number dif -
ferent f'rorn z e r o is irratlonal .
Is it true t h a t the sum of a ratlonal numoer and an ir-
rational number is always irrational? Why or why n o t ?
Is it t r u e t h a t t h e sum o f two irrational numbers is
always irrational ? IJhy o r why n o t ?
How a b o u t t h e p ~ ~ o d u coft a rational number a n d an Ir-
rational number'?
111-2. Some Examples - of I r r a t i o n a l Numbers.
I n t h e previous section, we p r o v e d t h a t u n d e r c e r t a i n condi-
tions a number must be r a t i o n a l . In some oT t h e p r o b l e m s , you
shawed t h a t start in^ -- w i t h a n irrational nurnQer we c o u l d g e t more
irrational numbers in v a r i o u s ways. In a l l t h i s we l e f t one v e r y
i m p o r t a n t question unsettled: are t h e r e any irrational numbers?
We s h a l l settle t h i s q u e s t i o n by showing t h a t a particular number,
n a m e l y f i cannot be expressed a s the r a t i o of any two i n t e g e r s .
To p r o v e t h i s , we r'irst need t o e s t a b l i s h some of t h e facts
a b o u t squares of odd a n d even integers. E v e r y i n t e g e r is e i t h e r
even or odd. If n is even, t h e n n is twice some integer lc,
and we can write
n = Zli.
I f n is o d d , t h e n when we d i v i d e Gy 2 we g e t a q u o t i e n t k and
a remainder 1, so t h a t

Therefore, we can write

Tnese a r e t h e t y p i c a l formulas f o r even numbers a n d odd numbers

respectively. F o r example,
6 = 2.3 n = 6 , k = 3
7 = 2 . 3 -t 1 n=7,k = 3
8 = 2.4 n = 8 , k = 4
9 = 2.!1 + 1 n = 7, k = 4,
and so on. The f o l l o w i n g theorem is e a s y to p r o v e :
Theorein 111-1. The square of e v e r y odd number is cdd.
Proof: If n is odd, then we can w r i t e
n = 2k -t 1,
where k is an i n t e g e r . Squaring b o t h s i d e s , we g e t
P
n = (21i12 + 2.2k + 1
= :!k2 + Ill< -t 1.

Ttle r-ight-hand s i d e must b e o d d , b e c a u ~ eit is written i n t h e form

2.[2k2 + 2 k ] + 1;
that i s, i t i s t w i c e an integer, p l u s 1. T h e r e f o r e , n2 is o d d ,
w h i c h was to be p r o v e d .
 From Theorem 111-1 we can q u i c k l y g e t another theorem:
Theorem 111-2. I f n2 i s even, t h e n n is even.
Proof: If n were odd, then n2 would be a6d, which is
false. Therefore n is even.
N o t i c e t h a t t h i s is an i n d l r e c t p r o o f .
We are now ready to begin t h e proof of
Theorem 111-3. f i is i r r a t i o n a l .
Proof: The proof will be i n d i r e c t . We begin by making t h e
assumption t h a t & is rational. We will show that this l e a d s t o
a contradiction.
Step 1. Supposing that f i is r a t i o n a l , it follows that 2
can be expressed as

where t h e fraction E is in lowest terms.

9
The reason fs t h a t if f i can be expressed a s a f r a c t l o n at
all, then we c a n reduce the fraction to lowest terns by dividing
out any common f a c t o r s of t h e numerator and denominator.
We t h e r e f o r e have
f i = e4 '
in Lowest terms. This gives
p2
2 = 3 ,
which in turn g i v e s

S t e p 2. 'P is even.
Because p2 is twice an i n t e g e r .
S t e p 3. p is even.
By Theorem 111-2.
We t h e r e f o r e s e t p = 2k. Substituting in t h e formula a t t h e
end of S t e p 1, we g e t
2
(2k) = a2 1

which means t h a t
bk
2
= 2q
2
.
Therefore
q2 = 2k2 .
 Step 4. q 2 is even.
Because q2 is twice an Fnteger.
S t e p 5 . q is even.
By Theorem 111-2.
We started by assuming t h a t & was rational. From t:?is we
got = E in l o w e s t terms. From t h i s wc have p r o v e d t h a t p
q'
and q were both even. Therefore 2 was n o t in lowest terms,
q
a f t e r all, This contradiction shows t h a t o u r initial a s s u - m p t i o n
m u s t have b e e n wrong, t h a t is, f l m u s t n o t be rational.

--
Problem S e t 111-2

T h e s e problems are h a r d e r t h a n most o f t h e problems in t h e

text.
1. Adapt t h e proof t h a t 6 is irrational, sa as t o g e t a
p r o o f t h a t 6 is irrational. ( H i n t : S t a r t w i t h t h e f a c t that
e v e r y i n t e g e r has one o f the forms
n = 3k

a n d t h e n prove a theorem c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o Theorem 111-2. )

2. Obviously nobody can prove t h a t f l is irrational, be-
cause f i = 2. If you try to "prove" this by a d a p t i n g t h e proof
f o r fl? at what p o i n t does t h e Ttproofl'b r e a k dorm?
3 . Show t h a t 3f l is irrational.
Actually, the square r o o t of an integer is e i t h e r another
i n t e g e r o r an irrational number; t h a t is, 6 e i t h e r "comes o u t
v e r y even" or "comes o u t very uneven." The proof of this fact,
however, r e q u i r e s more mathematical t e c h n i q u e than we now have at
o u r d i s p o s a l . P r o b l e m s l i k e t h i s a r e s o l v e d in a branch of mathe-
n l a t i c s c a l l e d t h e Theory o f Numbers.
 Appendix I V
SQUARES AND SQUARE ROOTS

Everybody h o w s what it means t o square a number: you multiply

t h e number by i t s e l f . The f a c t s about square r o o t s , however, a r e
considerably trickier, and t h e language in which most p e o p l e talk
about them is v e r y confusing. Here we w i l l t r y t o s t a t e the f a c t s
and point out t h e pit-falls.
To say t h a t x - is-a square -- root o f a --
means t h a t
2
X = a.
F o r example,
2 is a square root of k,
3is a square r o o t o f 9,
-2 is a squaye root of 4,
-3 is a square r o o t of 9,
and so on. You may wonder why we d i d n o t a b b r e v i a t e t h e s e s t a t e -
ments by using radical signs. The reason ( a s we shall soon s e e )
is that r a d i c a l signs mean something slightly d i f f e r e n t .
The following is a fundamental f a c t a b o u t t h e real number
system:
Every p o s l t i v e number has exactly one positive
square r o o t .
For example, 22 = 4 , and no o t h e r p o s i t i v e number is a root
of t h e equatlon x2 = 4 . 4 2 = 16, a n d no o t h e r p o s i t i v e m b e r
is a r o o t o f the equation x2 = 16. And s o on.
Of c o u r s e , if x is a square r o o t of a, t h e n so is -x,
because (-x12 = x2. T h e r e f a r e e v e r y p o s i t i v e number h a s e x a c t l y
two square r o o t s , one p o s i t i v e and the o t h e r negative, Tile mean-
i n g of t h e radical sign is defined t h i s way:

If a
is p o s i t i v e , t h e n f i d e n o t e s t h e positive
square root o f -
a.
We p r o v i d e f u r t h e r t h a t f i = 0.
For example,

and so on. To i n d i c a t e t h e other square r o o t - - t h a t is, t h e

n e g a t i v e one - - we simply p u t a minus sign in f r o n t o f t h e radical
s i g n . F o r example:
4 has t w o square r o o t s , 2 and -2.
3 fias two square r o o t s , and -n.
'I has two square r o o t s , O and -fl,
The f o l l o w i n g two s t a t e m e n t s l o o k a l i k e , b u t I n f a c t they a r e
different:
(1) x is a s q u a r e r o o t o f a.
(2) x =-.
The f i r s t statement means n e r e l y that x2
The second
= a.
2
statement means n o t o n l y t h a t x = a, b u t also t h a t x 2 0 .
T h e r e f o r e t h e second statement is n o t simply a short-hand form of
the first.
L e t us now investigate t h e e x p r e s s i o n f l , where x I s not
e q u a l to zero. There are two possibilities:
I. If x > 0 , t h e n x is the p o s i t i v e square r o o t of x 2 ,
and w e can write

2
11. If x < 0 , t h e n x is t h e n e a a t i v e square root of x ,
2
and it is -x t h a t is the positive square root of x . T h e r e f o r e ,
f o r x < 0 , we have -
2/x2 = -x.
Tile e q u a t i o n f l = x
l o o k s so a p p e a l i n g t h a t it seems almost
like a law of nature. In fact, however, t h i s equation h o l d s t r u e
only half of t h e time: it i s always t r u e when x 2 0 , and it is
n e v e r true when x < 0 .

[A- L V j
 FittPng t o g e t h e r c a s e s I and 11, we see t h a t f o r every x
w i t h o u t exception we have
fl=1x1.
To see t l ~ i s ,you should check it against the definition of 1x1, In
Section 2-3,

Problem S e t IV

Which of t h e following statements are t r u e ? Why o r why not?

1. Jg = 3.

For what v a l u e s of t h e unknowns (if any) do the following

equatfons hold true? Whyv
7. J=. x - 1.
8. J(== 1 - x.
9. J(x= IX - 11.
0 . .J(TTj==-lx - 11.
11. JiX= (x + 312
12. d m = -(x+ 3)
i .
13. = + 3121.
14. J-= - J ( x + 3121.
 Appendix V
HOW TO DF.AW FIGURES IN 3-SPACE

V-1, Simple D r a w i n s .
A c c u r s e in mechanical drawing is c o n c e r n e d with precise r e p -
r e s e n t a t i o ~ ?o f physical objects seen f r o m d i f f e r e n t positions in
space. In geometry we a r e concerned w i t h drawing o n l y t o t h e ex-
t e n t that we u s e sketches to h e l p us do mathematical t h i n k i n g .
There is no one correct way t o draw p i c t u r e s in g e m e t r y , b u t
t n e r e a r e sorr:e t e c h n i q u e s h e l p f u l enough t o be in r a t n e r g e n e r a l
use. Here, f o r example, is a technically
correct drawing oi' an o r d i n a r y p y r a m i d ,
f o r a p e r s o n c a n a r g u e t h a t he is looking
at tile pyramid from directly a b o v e . f i t
cai-er'ul r u l e r cirawing is n o t as l i e l p f u l
as t h i s very c r u d e frse-hand :ketch.
f ' i r s t drawing does n o t s u g g e s t 3-space;
the s e c o n d one does.
The
/"p
The f i r s t p h r t of this d i s c u s s i o n o f f e r s suggestions for
sinpie wags to draw 3 - s p a c e f i g u r e s . The second p a r t introduces
t h e more e l a b o r a t e technique of drawing f'rom p e r 3 s p e c t i v e. The
d i r f e r e n c e between the two a p p r o a c h e s is suggested by t h e s e two
drawings of a rectangular box.

In t h e f i r s t drawing t h e base i s shown by an eaey-to-dre:: c?.??:.. -

elogram. In t!le second d r a w i n g , t h e f r o n t base edge a d tr'e k c -
base edge a r e parallel, but t h e tjack case edge i s E r a u n ssnsrt,e..r
under t h e b e l l e f t h a t the s h o r t e r l e n g t h will suggest "more remote".
 No matter how 3 rectangular box is d r a w n , some s a c r i f i c e s
must be made. A l l angles of a rectangular s o l l d are r i g h t angles,
b u t in each of t h e drzwings shown above two-thirds of t h e a n g l e s
do n o t cone c l o s e to i n d i c a t i n g n i n e t y degrees when measured w i t h
a protractor. We a r e willing to give up t h e drawlng of r i g h t
a-ngles that l o o k l i k e r i g h t angles in o r d e r t h a t we make t h e
f i g u r e as a whole more s u g g e s t i v e .
You a l r e a d y h o w t h a t a p l a n e i s g e n e r a l l y p i c t u r e d by a

L 3n
parallelogram.
It seems reasonable t o
draw a horizontal plane In e i t h e r
of tile ways shown, a n d t o draw a v e r t i c a l p l a n e l l k e t h i s .

If we want t o indicate two parallel p l a n e s , however, we can not

two " h o r i z o n t a l " planes. N o t i c e
be e f f e c t i v e i f we j u s t draw any
how the drawing t o t h e right below improves upon the one to t h e
left. Perhaps y o u p r e f e r s t i l l another kind of drawing.

Various d e v i c e s a r e used t o i n d i c a t e t h a t one part of a f i g -

ure passes b e h i n d another p a r t . Sometimes a h i d d e n part is
simply omitted, sometimes it is i n d i c a t e d by d o t t e d l i n e s . Thus
a l i n e p i e r c l n g a plane may be drawn i n e i t h e r of t h e two ways:
Two intersecting planes are i l l u s t r a t e d by each of these drawings.

The second is b e t t e r t h a n t h e f i r s t because t h e l i n e of inter-

s e c t i o n i s shorvn and parts c o n c e a l e d f r o m view are dotted. T h c
t h i r d and fourth drawings a r e b e t t e r yet because t ! ~ eline of in-
t e r s e c t i o n is visually t i e d in w i t h plane P a s w e l l as p l a n e Q
by t h e u s e of parallel l i n e s in the drawing.
Here is a drawing which has t h e advantage
A
of simplicity and t h e disadvantage of
suggesting one plane and one half-plane.
ln a:ly case a l i n e of i n t e r s e c t i o n is a
p a r t i c u l a r l y important part of a f i g u r e .
Suppose that w e wish t o draw two intersecting planes e a c i ~
perpendicular t o a t h i r d p l a n e . An e f f e c t i v e procedu.re 5 s sholtrl
by this s t e p - b y - s t e p development.

Notice how the l a s t two planes drawn a r e built on the line of

intersection. A complete dra.wing showing all the h i d d e n lines is
j u s t t o o i n v o l ved t o handle pleasantly. The p i c t u r e below is n i A c f :
more suggestiv' e ,

[A-V I
 A dime, f r o m d i f f e r e n t angles, l o o k s like this:

0
N e i t h e r t h e f i r s t nor t h e last is a good p i c t u r e of a c l r c l e in
3-space. Either o f the o t h e r s is satisfactory. The thinner o v a l
is p e r h h ~ sb e t t e r to u s e t o r e p r e s e n t the base o f a cone.

C e r t a i n l y nobody s h o u l d e x p e c t us t o i n t e r p r e t t h e f i g u r e shown

A few additional d r a w i n g s , w i t h verbal d e s c r i p t i o n s , are

shown.
-
A line p a r a l l e l to a pl-ane.

A cylinder c u t b y a p l a n e
parallel to t h e base.

A c y l i n d e r cu.t by a ?lane
n o t p a r a l l e l to t h e base.
 A pyramid c u t by a plane
p a ~ a l l e l ,t o t h e base.

It is important t o remember t h a t a drawing is n o t an e n d in

i t s e l f but simply a n a i d to o u r understanding of t h e geometrical
situation. We s h o u l d choose the k i n d of p i c t u r e t h a t will nerve
us b e s t for t n i s p u r p o s e , and one person's choice may be d i f f e r e n t
from a n o t h e r .

- 2 Perspective.
Tlle rays a , b , c , d , e, f 'in t h e left-hand f i g u r e bcluw
su.ggest c o p l a n a r 1ines intersecting at IT; the c o r r e s p o n d i n g r a y s
in the r i g h t - h a d f i g u r e s u g g e s t parallel l i n e s in a t:lree-dimen-
sional drawing. T h i n k of a r a i l r o a d t r a c k and telephone p o l e s as
you l o o k at t h e rig1;t-hand figure

The rtght -har,d figure s u g g e s t s certsin p r i r j c i p l e s whiz h a r e u s e f u l

In making perspective drawings.
1) A s e t of parallel l l n e s which recede from t h e viewe:. a r e
drawn as c o n c u r r e n t r a y s ; f o r example, r a y s a , b , c , d, e , l'.
The p o i n t , on t h e drawing, where tne rays meet is knoim n s t h e
"vanishlng p o i n t " .
3 ) C o n g r u e n t segments are drawn smaller when they a r e
f a r t h e r f r o m the viewer. ( ~ i n dexamples in t h e dr~wing.)
 3 ) Parallel l i n e s whlch are perpendicular t o the line o f
s i g h t of t h e v i e w e r are shown a s parallel l i n e s in t h e drawing.
( ~ i n dexamples in t h e drawing.)
A person d o e s not need much a r t i s t i c ability t o make u s e of t h e s e
three principles.
The s t e p s to f o l l o w in sketching a rectangular solid a r e
shown below.

D r a w the f r o n t f a c e a s a
rectangle,

S e l e c t a vanishing p o f n t and
d r a w segments f r o m it t o t h e
v e r t i c e s . Omit segments that
cannot be seen.

Draw e d g e s parallel t o t h o s e of
the f r o n t f a c e . Finally erase
lines of perspective.

U n d e r t h i s t e c h n i q u e a slingle h o r i z o n t a l plane c a n b e drawn

a s the t o p f a c e of tne s o l i d shown above.

0
A s i n g l e v e r t l c a l p l a n e can be r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e f r o n t f a c e o r
t!le right-hand face
of' tile s o l i d ,
0
A f t e r t h i s b r i e f a c ~ o u n tof two a ? p r o a c h e s t o t h e drawing of
f i g u r e s in 3-space we si-.auld once again recognize t h e f a c t t h a t
t h e w is no one c o r r e c t way to p i c t u r e geometric i d e a s . However,
t h e m o r e " r e & l t 1we want o u r picture t o a p p e a r , t h e more attention
we s h o u l d pay to perspective. S u c h an a r t i s t a s Leonardo &. V i n c i
paid great a t t e n t i o n t o perspective. 'lost of us f i n d tf.is done f o r
us when we u s e o r d i n a r y cameras.
See some books on drawing o r l o o k u p "perspective" in an en-
c y c l o p e d i a if you a r e i n t e r e s t e d I n a detailed t r e a t m e n t ,
 Appendix VI
PROOFS OF THEOREMS ON PERPENDICULARITY

In Section 8-3 two theorems a r e stated, w h i c h , between them,

c o v e r all cases of existence and uniqueness involved in t h e p e r -
p e n d i c u l a r i t y o f a line and a plane. As s t a t e d there, e l g h t
s e p a r a t e items must be proved to establish t h e p r o o f s of t h e s e
two theorems. Here we will s t a t e t h e s e ltems and p r o v e t h o s e
which have n o t already been proved.
We f i r s t r e s t a t e the two theorems.
Theorem 8-q. Through a g i v e n point t h e r e i s one and o n l y
one p l a n e perpendicular t o a g i v e n l i n e .
Theorem 8-10. Through a given point t h e r e is one and only
one Line perpendicular t o a g i v e n p l a n e .
We n o w consider t h e eight p r o o f s , i n a s y s t e m a t i c o r d e r .
Read the statements c a r e f u l l y , f o r there a r e only s l i g h t differ-
ences I n their wording: t h e presence o r absence o f a "not", t h e
substitution of "most" f o r " l e a s t " , or the i n t e r c h a n g e o f "line"
and "plane 'I .
Theorem VI-1. Through a given p o i n t on a given line t h e r e is
a t l e a s t one plane perpendicular to t h e l i n e .

This is Theorem 8-4, which is proved in the text.

Theorem VI-2. Through a given point on a given lir,e t h e r e is
a t most one plane perpendicular to the line.

This is Theorem 8-6, which is proved in the t e x t .

 Theorem VI-3. Through a given p o i n t not on a given line
t h e r e is at l e a s t one plane perpendicular t o the g i v e n line.
Given: Line L and p o i n t P n o t on L.
To prove: There is a plane E through P, with 6 1 L.

Proof:
1 ) There is a line M through P perpendicular t o L
h he or ern 6 - 4 ) . L e t M and L i n t e r s e c t at Q, and
lie in the plane F (meorem 3-41,
(2) mere is a point R ( ~ l g u r e2 ) not in I? (Postulate 5b).
Let G be the plane c o n t a i n i n g L and R (Theorem 3 - 3 ) .
(3) In G t h e r e is a line N p e r p e n d i c u l a r to L at Q
h he or em 6-11 .
(4) L e t be t h e plane c o n t a i n i n g
E PI and N. Then E 1L
by Theorem 8-3.

-
Theorem V I - 4 . Through a given point not on a given line t h e r e
is at most one plane perpendicular to t h e g i v e n line,
Proof: Suppose t h a t there a r e two planes El and E2, each
perpendicular to line L and each containing p o i n t F . If El
and E2 intersect L in t h e same p o i n t Q, we have two planes
perpendicular t o L at Q, and this contradicts Theorem VI-2.
On t h e o t h e r hand, i f El and
H -intersect L in distinct
p o i n t s A and B, then PA and PB a r e d i s t i n c t lines through
P perpendicular t o L, contradicting Theorem 6-4. Either way,
we get a c o n t r a d i c t i o n , and so we cannot have two planes through
P perpendicular to L.
This f i n i s h e s the proof of Theorem 8 - 9 . The next f o u r
theorems, which read like the previous f o u r with " l i n e " and
tt
lane" i n t e r c h a n g e d , will prove Theorem 8- 10.
Theorem VI-5. Through a g i v e n p o l n t in a given plane there
is at l e a s t one line perpendicular to t h e p l a n e .

Proof: L e t P be a p o i n t i n plane E. By P o s t u l a t e 5a
t h e r e is a n o t h e r p o i n t Q in E . L e t plane F be perpendicular
t*
to PQ at P (Theorem VI-1).
S i n c e F intersects E ( a t P) t h e i r intersection is a
line M, by P o s t u l a t e 8 . L e t L be a l i n e in F, perpendicular
to M h he or ern 6-1).
Since F 1W, and L l i e s in F and c o n t a i n s P, we
have, from the definitian of a line perpendicular t o a plane, that
w
L 1 PQ. A l s o , from above, L 1
M. Hence L 1
E , by Theorem 8-4.
Theorem 171-6, Through a g i v e n p o i n t in a given plane there
is at mos t one line p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o the given plane .
Proof: Suppose L1 and L2 are d i s t i n c t lines, each per-
pendicular to plane E a t p o i n t P. L1 and L2 determine a
plane F h he or em 3-4) which i n t e r s e c t s E in a l i n e L. In F,
w e t h e n have two perpendiculars t o L at the same polnt P, con-
tradicting Theorem 6-1.
EA-VT I
 Theorem VI-7. Through a g i v e n p o i n t n o t in a given plane
there is at l e a s t one llne perpendicular t o the given plane.

Proof: L e t P be a point n o t in plane E. L e t A be any

p o i n t of E , and M a line through A perpendicular to E
.
( heo or em VI - 5 )
If M contains P it is the desired perpendicular.
If M does not contain P let F be the plane containing
M and P h he or em 3-31, and N the line of intersection of F
and E, In F let B be the foot of a perpendicular from P
t o N (meorem 6-4).
L e t line L be perpendicular to E a t B (Theorem VI-5) .
By Theorem 8-8, L and M a r e coplanar, and hence, L lies in
F since M and B determine F.
In F, L 1
N, s i n c e L 1
E and N l i e a In E . S i n c e by
Theorem 6-1 there is only one line In F perpendicular to N at
t*
B, L and BP must c o i n c i d e . That is, L contains P and so
is the desired perpendicular.
Theorem VI-8. Through a given p o i n t n o t in a g i v e n plane
there is at most one line perpendicular to the given plane.
The proof is word f o r word the same as that of Theorem VI-6,
e x c e p t f o r t h e replacement of "at point P" by "from p o i n t PI'
and of "!Theorem 6-1" by h he or em 6-3".
 -
The Meaning ---
and Use o f Symbols

General.
=. A = B can be read a s "A equals B1', "A i s equal t o B1',
" A equal B" ( a s in " ~ e t A = B") , and p o s s i b l y o t h e r
ways t o f i t t h e structure o f the sentence in which the
symbol appears. However, we s h o u l d n o t use the symbol,
=, I n such forms as "A and B are ="; i t s proper u s e Is
between -t w o expressions. If two expressions are connected
by If=': it is to be understood that t h e s e two expressions
stand for t h e same mathematical entity, In our case e i t h e r
a real number o r a point s e t .
#. "Not equal to". A # B means t h a t A and B do n o t -
represent the same e n t i t y . The same variations and
cautions a p p l y t o the use o f as t o t h e u s e of =,

+, -, -, + . These familiar algebraic symbols f o r o p e r a t i n g

w i t h r e a l numbers need no comment. The basic postulates
about them are p r e s e n t e d in Appendix 11.
<, >, st 2. Like =, these can be read in various ways in
sentences, and A < B may s t a n d f o r the underlined p a r t
o f "If A is less than B", "Let A be less than B t t ,
"A less t h a n B Implies ", e t c .
S i m i l a r l y for t h e o t h e r
t h r e e symbols, read "greater than1', " l e s s t h a n or equal
to", "greater than or equal to ". These Inequalities a p p l y
only to r e a l numbers. T h e i r p r o p e r t i e s are mentioned
b r i e f l y i n SectAon 2-2, and in more d e t a i l in S e c t i o n
7-2.
, I A ~ ."Square root o f A " and "absolute value of A".
Discuased in S e c t i o n s 2-2 and 2-3 and Appendix IV.
Geometric.
P o i n t S e t s . A s i n g l e l e t t e r may s t a n d f o r any suitably d e s c r i b e d
p o i n t s e t , Thus we may speak of a point P , a l i n e m, a
h a l f - p l a n e H , a c i r c l e C, an a n g l e x , a segment b, e t c .
B. The line c o n t a i n i n g the t w o p o i n t s A and B (P. 30).
. The segment h a v i n g A and B as e n d - p o i n t s (p. 45).
. The ray w i t h A as i t s e n d - p o i n t and containing
point B (P. 45).
LABC. The a n g l e h a v i n g B as vertex a n d a and as
s i d e s ( P . 71).
~ A B C . The t r i a n g l e h a v l n g A, B and C as vertices (P. 72) .
1 A-BC-D. The d i h e d r a l angle h a v i n g %? a s edge and w l t h s i d e s
c o n t a i n i n g A and D ( P . 299).

-
Real Numbers.
AB. The p o s i t i v e number which is the distance between t h e two
points A and B, and also t h e length of t h e segment
( F * 34).
~LABc. The r e a l number between 0 and 180 which is t h e
degree measure of L ~ c
( P. 80) .
Area R . The p o s i t i v e number which is the a r e a o f the polygonal
region R ( P . 320).

Relations.
*
=. Congruence. A B is read ''A I.$ congruent t o B", but
w i t h t h e same p o s s i b l e variations and r e s t r i c t i o n s as
P = B. In the t e x t A and B may be two (not n e c e s s a r i l y
d i f f e r e n t ) segments (P. 1091, angles (P. l o g ) , or
t r i a n g l e s ( P . 111).
1 Perpendicular. A 1 B is read " A I s perpendicular t o B",
with the same comment as for 2. A and B may be e i t h e r two
l i n e s ( P . 86), two p l a n e s (P. 301 ) , or a l i n e and a plane
[P. 229).
11 . Parallel. A I I E :s read "A is parallel to B", w i t h the
same torment as for =. A and B may be e i t h e r two l i n e s
CI.

( P . 241), two planes ( P . 291) or a l i n e and a p l a n e

(P. 2 9 1 ) .
 --
List of Postulates

P o s t u l a t e 1. ( P . 30) Given a n y t w o d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s ,
t h e r e is e x a c t l y one line which contains both o f them.
Postulate 2. (P. 34) h he D i s t a n c e P o s t u l a t e .) To e v e r y
p a i r o f different points there corresponds a unique positive
number.
P o s t u l a t e 3 . (P. 36) h he Ruler p o s t u l a t e . ) The p o i n t s
of a l i n e can be p l a c e d in c o r r e s p o n d e n c e with the real numbers
i n s u c h a way t h a t
(1) To e v e r y p o i n t o f the l i n e there c o r r e s p o n d s e x a c t l y
one real number,
(2) To e v e r y real number there corresponds e x a c t l y one
p o i n t of t h e line, and
(3) The d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n two p o i n t s i s t h e absolute value
of the difference of t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g numbers.
P o s t u l a t e 4. (P. 40) h he Ruler Placement Postulate.)
Given two p o i n t s P and Q of a line, the c o o r d i n a t e system
can b e chosen i n such a way t h a t the c o o r d i n a t e o f P is zero
a n d t h e c o o r d i n a t e o f Q is p o s i t i v e .
Postulate 5 . (P. 54) ( a ) Every p l a n e c o n t a i n s a t least
three n o n - c o l l i n e a r p o i n t s .
( b ) Space c o n t a i n s at l e a s t f o u r n o n - c o p l a n a r p o i n t s .
Postulate 6. ( P . 56) If t w o p o i n t s l i e in a plane, then
the line c o n t a i n i n g these p o i n t s lies In the same p l a c e .
Postulate 7 . (P. 57) Any three points lie in at least one
p l a n e , and a n y t h r e e non-collinear points l i e in e x a c t l y one
p l a n e . Nore b r i e f l y , any t h r e e p o i n t s are coplanar, and any
t h r e e n o n - c o l l i n e a r points determine a plane,
P o s t u l a t e 8 . ( P. 9) If two different planes i n t e r s e c t ,
t h e n t h e l r intersection i s a l i n e .
P o s t u l a t e 9 . (P. 64) h he Plane Separation postulate.)
G i v e n a llne and a p l a n e c o n t a i n i n g it, t h e p o i n t s o f t h e p l a n e
t h a t do n o t l i e on t h e l i n e form two s e t s such t h a t
( 1 ) e a c h o f t h e s e t s is convex and
( 2 if P is in one s e t and Q i s i n the o t h e r t h e n t h e
-
segment PQ i n t e r s e c t s t h e line.
 P o s t u l a t e 10. ( P . 66) ÿ he Space S e p a r a t i o n P o s t u l a t e , )
The p o i n t s of space t h a t do n o t l l e in a g i v e n p l a n e form two
s e t s s u c h that
(1) each of the s e t s is convex and
( 2 ) if P is in one set and Q is in the other, then
t h e segment
-
PQ i n t e r s e c t s t h e p l a n e .
P o s t u l a t e 11. ( P , 80) h he Angle Measurement p o s t u l a t e . )
To e v e r y angle ~ A t h
C e r e corresponds a r e a l number between
0 a n d 180.
P o s t u l a t e 12. ( F . 81) h he Angle Construction Postulate.)
L e t 3 b e a ray cn t h e edge of the h a l f - p l a n e H . For e v e r y
number r between 0 a n d 180 t h e r e I s exactly one r a y 8,
with P i n H, such t h a t ~LPAB = r.
P o s t u l a t e 13. (p. 81) he Angle A d d i t i o n p o s t u l a t e . )
If D is a point in the i n t e r i o r o f ~ A c , then
~@AC= AD + ~LDAC.
P o s t u l a t e 14. ( P . 82) h he Supplement P o s t u l a t e . ) If t w o
angles form a linear p a i r , t h e n they are supplementary.
P o s t u l a t e 15. ( P . 115) h he S.A.S. Postulate.) G i v e n a
c o r r e s p o n d e n c e between t w o t r i a n g l e s (or between a t r i a n g l e
a n d i t s e l f ) . If t w o s i d e s and the included angle o f t h e f i r s t
triangle are c o n g r u e n t to t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p a r t s o f t h e second
triangle, then the c o r r e s p o n d e n c e is a congruence.
P o s t u l a t e 16. ( P , 2 5 2 ) h he Parallel Postulate. ) Through
a g i v e n e x t e r n a l p o i n t t h e r e is at most one Line parallel to a
g i v e n line.
P o s t u l a t e 17, (P. 3 2 0 ) TO e v e r y p o l y g o n a l region t h e r e
c o r r e s p o n d s a unique p o s i t i v e number.
P o c t u l a t e 18. I F , 3 2 0 ) If two t r i a n g l e s are congruent,
then t h e triangular regions h a v e t h e same area.
P o s t u l a t e 19. (P. 3 2 0 ) Suppose t h a t the r e g i o n R is t h e
u n i o n o f two r e g i o n s R1 and R2 . Suppose t h a t R1 and R2
i n t e r s e c t a t most in a finite number of segments a n d points,
T h e n t h e area o f R is t h e sum of t h e a r e a s of R1 and R2.
P o s t u l a t e 20. ( P , 3 2 2 ) The area o f a r e c t a n g l e is the
p r o d u c t o f the length o f i t s base and the l e n g t h of its a l t l t u d e .
 Postulate 21. (P. 546) The volume of a rectangular
parallelepiped is the product of t h e altitude and the area of
t h e base.
P o s t u l a t e 22. (F. 548) (Cavalierils Principle,) Given two
solids and a plane. If f o r every plane which i n t e r s e c t s the
s o l i d s and is p a r a l l e l to t h e g i v e n p l a n e t h e two i n t e r s e c t i o n s
have e q u a l a r e a s , then the two solids have the same volume.
 --
L i s t of -
Theorems and C o r o l l a r i e s

Theorem 2-1. ( P . 42) L e t A, B, C be t h r e e p o i n t s of a

line, w i t h coordinates x, y, z. If x < y < z , t h e n B is
between A and C.
Theorem 2-2. (P. 43) Of any three d i f f e r e n t , p o i n t s on the
same l i n e , one is between the other two.
Theorem 2-3. (P. 4 4 ) Of three d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s on the same
l i n e , only one is between the o t h e r two.
Theorem 2-4, (P. 4 6 ) h he Point P l o t t i n g he or em.) Let
--it
AB be a ray., and l e t x be a p o s i t i v e number. Then there I s
+
e x a c t l y one point P of AB such that AP = x.
Theorem 2-5. (P. 47) Every segment has exactly one mid-
point.
Theorem 3-1. (P. 55) Two d i f f e r e n t lines intersect in at
most one p o i n t .
Theorem 3-2, (P. 5 6 ) If a l i n e i n t e r s e c t s a plane n o t
containing it, t h e n t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n is a s l n g l e p o i n t .
Theorem 3 - 3 . (P. 57) Given a l i n e and a point n o t on the
l i n e , there is exactly one plane containing both o f them.
Theorem 3-4. (P. 58) Given two intersecting l i n e s , there
i s e x a c t l y one plane containing them.
Theorem 4-1. (P. 87) I f two angles are complementary, then
both of them a r e acute.
Theorem 4-2. ( P . 87) Every angle is congruent t o itself.
Theorem 4-3. ( P . 87) Any two right angles are congruent,
Theorem 4-4. (P, 87) If two angles are b o t h congruent and
supplementary, then each of them is a r i g h t angle.
Theorem 4-5. ( P . 87) Supplements of congrment angles are
congruent .
 Theorem 4-6. (P. 88) Complements of congruent angles are
congruent.
Theorem 4-7. (P, 88) Vertical angles are congruent.
Theorem 4-8. (P. 89) If two i n t e r s e c t i n g lines form one
r i g h t angle, then they form four rlght angles.
Theorem 5-1. ( P . 109) Every segment is congruent t o itself.
Theorem 5-2. (P. 127) If two sides of a triangle are
congruent, then the angles o p p o s i t e these sides are congruent.
Corollary 5-2-1. ( P . 128) Every equilateral triangle is
equiangular .
Theorem 5-3. (P . 129) Every angle has e x a c t l y one b i s e c t o r .
Theorem 5-4. (P, 132) h he A .S . A . Theorem.) Given a
correspondence between two tr5angles {or between a triangle and
itself) . If two angles and the included side of the f i r s t tri-
angle are congruent t o t h e corresponding p a r t s of t h e second
triangle, then the correspondence is a congruence.
Theorem 5-5. (P. 133) If two angles of a triangle a r e
congruent, the s i d e s o p p o s i t e these angles are congruent.
Corollary 5-5-1. (P. 133) An equiangular triangle is
equilateral.
Theorem 5-6. .
( P 137) h he S .S .S .
he or em.) G i v e n a
correspondence between two triangles (or between a triangle and
itself,) If a l l t h r e e pairs of corresponding s i d e s are congruent,
then the correspondence is a congruence.
.
Theorem 6-1. (P 167) In a given plane, through a given
point of a given line of t h e p l a n e , there passes one and only one
l i n e perpendicular to the given line.
Theorem 6-2. ( P . 169) The perpendicular b i s e c t o r o f a
segment, in a plane, is t h e s e t of a l l polnts of the plane t h a t
are equidistant from the end-points of the segment.
 Theorem 6 - 3 . (P. 171) Through a g i v e n external p o i n t there
is at most one l i n e perpendicular to a given l i n e .
Corollary 6-3-1. (P. 172) A t most one angle of a t r i a n g l e
can be a r i g h t angle.
Theorem 6-4. (P. 1 7 2 ) Through a given external p o i n t t h e r e
is at least one line perpendicular t o a given line.
Theorem 6-5. (P. 183) If M is between A and C on a
line L, then M and A are on t h e same s i d e o f any other line
that contains C.
Theorem 6-6. (F. 1 ) If M is between A and C, and
u
B is any point n o t on line AC, then M is in t h e i n t e r i o r of
L ABC .
Theorem 7-1. (P. 193 ) h he Exterior A n g l e he or ern. ) An
e x t e r i o r angle of a triangle is l a r g e r t h a n e i t h e r remote i n t e r i o r
angle.
C o r o l l a r y 7-1-1. (P. 1 9 6 ) I f a t r i a n g l e has a r l g h t angle,
t h e n t h e other two angles a r e a c u t e .
Theorem 7 - 2 . P 9 ) h he S . A . A . ~heorem.1 Given a
correspondence between t w o triangles. If two angles and a side
o p p o s i t e one of them in one t r i a n g l e are congruent t o t h e c o r r e s -
ponding p a r t s o f t h e second t r i a n g l e , then the correspondence is
a congruence.

Theorem 7-3. ( ~ . 1 9 8 ) h he Hypotenuse - Leg Theorem.)

Given a correspondence between two r i g h t triangles. If t h e
hypotenuse and one l e g o f one triangle are congruent to the
corresponding p a r t s of the second triangle, t h e n t h e correspondence
is a congruence.
Theorem 7-4. (P. 2 0 0 ) If two sides of a triangle are n o t
congruent, then t h e angles o p p o s i t e these two sides are n o t
congruent, and the larger angle is o p p o s i t e t h e longer side.
Theorem 7-5. (P. 201) If two angles o f a t r i a n g l e are not
c o n g m e n t , then the sides o p p o s i t e them are n o t congruent, and
t h e longer side is opposite t h e l a r g e r angle.
 Theorem 7-6. (P. 206) The s h o r t e s t segment j o i n i n g a p o i n t
t o a line i s the perpendicular s e m e n t .

Theorem 7-7. (P. 206) h he Triangle Inequality.) The sum

of the lengths of any two s i d e a of a triangle Is greater than the
of the t h i r d s i d e .
Theorem 7-8. ( P . 210) If two aides of one t r i a n g l e are
congruent r e s p e c t i v e l y to t w o sides of a second triangle, and
t h e included angle of the f i r s t triangle is l a r g e r than the
included angle of the second, then the o p p o s i t e side of the
f i r s t t r i a n g l e is longer than the opposite side of the second.
Theorem 7-9. (P. 211) If two s i d e s of one triangle are
congruent respectively to two sides of a second triangle, and
the t h i r d s i d e of t h e f i r s t trlangle is longer than the third
s i d e of t h e second, then t h e included angle of the first triangle
is larger than the included angle of the second.
Theorem 8-1. (P. 222) If each of two p o i n t a of a l l n e i s
e q u i d i s t a n t from t w o given p o i n t s , then every p o i n t of the l i n e
is e q u i d i s t a n t from the given pofnts .
Theorem 8-2. .
(P 225) If each of three non-collinear
p o i n t s of a plane i s e q u i d i s t a n t from two points, then every
p o i n t of the p l a n e is e q u i d i s t a n t from t h e s e two p o i n t s .
Theorem 8 - 3 . (P. 226)If a llne is perpendicular to each
of two intersecting l i n e s a t t h e i r p o l n t of intersection, t h e n
it is perpendicular to the plane of these lines.
Theorem 8-4. (P. 230) Through a given p o l n t on a given
line t h e r e passes a plane perpendicular to the line.
Theorem 8-5. (P. 231) If a line and a plane are perpendicu-
l a r , then the plane contains every line perpendlcular t o t h e
given l i n e a t i t s p o l n t of intersection with the given plane.
Theorem 8-6. (P. 2 3 Through a given p o l n t on a given
l i n e there is at most one plane perpendicular to the line.
 Theorem 10-2. (P. 2 9 2 ) I f a l i n e is perpendicular to one of
two parallel planes it is perpendicular to the other.

Theorem 10-3. (P. 2 9 3 ) Two planes perpendicular to the

same line a r e parallel.
Corollary 10-3-1. (P. 294) If two planes a r e e a c h parallel
t o a t h i r d p l a n e , they are parallel to each other.
Theorem 10-4. ( P . 294 ) Two lines perpendicular to the same
plane a r e p a r a l l e l .
C o r o l l a r y 10-4-1. ( P . 294 ) A plane perpendicular to one of
two parallel lines is perpendicular to the o t h e r .

Corollary 10-4-2. (F. 2 9 4 ) If two lines are each parallel

to a t h i r d they are p a r a l l e l to each o t h e r .
Theorem 10-5. (P. 295) Two p a r a l l e l planes are everywhere
equidistant .
Theorem 10-6. ( p . 3 0 1 ) Any t w o plane angles of a given
dihedral angle are congruent.
Corollary 10-6-1. (P. 302) If a line is perpendicular to a
plane, then any plane containing t h i s line is perpendicular to the
given plane.
C o r o l l a r y 10-6-2. ( P . 3 0 2 ) If t w o planes are perpendicular,
t h e n any line in one of them perpendicular t o their l i n e o f
intersection Is perpendicular to the o t h e r plane.
Theorem 10-7. ( p . 3 0 7 ) The projection of a llne i n t o a
plane is a line, unless the lfne and the plane are perpendicular.
Theorem 11-1. (P. 328 ) The area of a right triangle is half
t h e product of i t s l e g s .
Theorem 11-2. (P. 328) The area of a t r i a n g l e is h a l f the
product of any base and the altitude to that base.
Theorem 11-3. (P. 330) The area of a parallelogram is the
product o f any base and the corresponding altitude.
Theorem 11-4. (P. 334 The area of' a trapezoid is half the
product of its altitude and t h e sum of its bases.
 Theorem 11-5. (P. 3 3 2 ) If two triangles have t h e same
a l t i t u d e , then t h e ratio of their areas is equal to the ratio
o f t h e i r bases.
Theorem 11-6. (P. 332) If two triangles have equal altitudes
and equal bases, then they have equal areas,
.
Theorem 11-7. (P 339 ) h he Pythagorean Theorem. ) In a
r i g h t t r i a n g l e , the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum
o f the squares of t h e l e g s .

Theorem 11-8. (P. 3 4 0 ) If the square of one side of a

triangle is equal to the sum of t h e squares of the other two,
then the triangle Is a right triangle, with a right angle opposite
.
the f i r s t side
.
Theorem 11-9. (P 346) h he 30 - 60 Triangle Theorem. ) The
hypotenuse of a right triangle is twice as long as t h e s h o r t e r
l e g if and only if t h e a c u t e angles a r e 30' and 60'.
Theorem 11-10. (P. 346 ) h he Isosceles Right Triangle
he or em.) A r i g h t t r i a n g l e is isosceles if and only if the
hypoteAuse Is fi times as long as a l e g .
Theorem 12-1. (P 368 ). h he Basic Proportionality Theorem. )
If a line parallel to one side of a triangle intersects the other
two sides In distinct points, then it cuts o f f segments which are
proportional to these sides .
Theorem 12-2. ( P . 369 ) If a line intersects two sides of a
triangle, and c u t s o f f segments proportional to these two sides,
then I t is parallel to the third side.
Theorem 12-3. (P.3'(4 ) h he A . A . A . Similarity Theorem. )
Given a correspondence between two triangles. If corresponding
angles are congruent, then the correspondence is a similarity.
Corollary 12-3-1. (p.376) h he
A.A. C o r o l l a r y . ) Given a
correspondence between t w o trlangles. I f two pairs of correspond-
i n g angles are congruent, then the correspondence is a simflarlty.
 Corollary 12-3-2. (P. 376) If a line parallel t o one s i d e
of a t r i a n g l e i n t e r s e c t s t h e o t h e r two s i d e s in distinct p o i n t s ,
then it cuts off a triangle slmilar to t h e given triangle*
.
Theorem 12-4. (P. 376) (The S .A .S Similarity he or em.)
Given a correspondence between two triangles. If two corpespond-
i n g angles are congruent, and the including s i d e s are proportional,
P
then the correspondence is a similarity.
Theorem 12-5. (P 378) . .
h he S .S.S Similarity Theorem. )
Glven a correspondence between two triangles. If corresponding
sides are p r o p o r t i o n a l , then t h e correspondence is a similarity.
Theorem 12-6. (P . 391) In any right triangle, the altitude
t o t h e hypotenuse separates the triangle into two triangles which
a r e similar b o t h t o each o t h e r and t o the original triangle.
Corollary 12-6-1. (P. 392) Glven a right t r i a n g l e and the
altitude from the r i g h t angle t o the hypotenuse:
(1) The altitude is the geometric mean of the segnents into
which I t separates the hypotenuse.
b

( 2 E i t h e r leg is the geometric mean of the hypotenuse and

the segment of t h e hypotenuse adjacent to the l e g .
Theorem 12-7. ( P . J Y ~ ~ The
) r a t i o of the areas of two
similar triangles is the square of the ratio of any two corres-
ponding sides .
Theorem 13-1. (P . 410) T h e intersection of sphere with
3

a plane t h r o u g h its c e n t e r is a c i r c l e with tile same c e n t e r and

radius.
Theorem 13-2. (P. 414) Glven a l i n e and a circle in t h e
saqe p l a n e , Let F be the c e n t e r o f t h e c i r c l e , and let F be
the foot of t h e perpendicular from P to t h e l i n e . Then e i t h e r
(1) E v e r y point o f t h e i i n e is o u t s i d e t h e c i r c l e , o r
( 2 ) F is on t h e c i r c l e , and t h e l i n e is t a n g e n t t o t h e
c i r c l e at F, o r
( 3 ) F is inside t h e circle, and t h e l i n e i n t e r s e c t s t h e
c i r c l e in e x ~ t l ytwo p o i n t s , which a r e e q u i d i s t a n t from F.
 Corollary 13-2-1. ( 2 . 416) E v e r y l i n e t a n g e n t t o C is
perpendicular t o t h e r a d i u s drawn G o t h e p o i n t of c o n t a c t .
Corollary 13-2-2. (P. 416) Any l i n e in E, p e r p e n d i c u l a r
to a radius at i t s o u t e r end, is t a n g e n t to t h e c i r c l e .
Corollary 13-2-3 . .
( P 416) Any perpendicular from t h e
c e n t e r of C t o a chord bisects t h e c h o r d .
C o r o l l a r y 13-2-4. ( P . 416) The segment joining the c e n t e r
o f C to t h e m i d - p o i n t of a chord is p e r p e n d i c u l a r to t h e c h o r d .
Corollar:; 2 3 - 2 - 5 . ( P . 416) In the p l a n e of a c i r c l e , the
perpendicular b i s e c t o r of a c h o r d passes t h r o u g h t h e center of
the circle.

Corollary 13-2-6. ( P . 417) If a l i n e in t h e p l a n e of a

c i r c l e i n t e r s e c t s t h e i n t e r i o r of t h e c i r c l e , t h e n I t Intersects
the c i r c l e i n exactly two p o i n t s .

.
Theorem 13-3. (P 417) I n t h e same c i r c l e or in c o n g r u e n t
c i r c l e s , c h o r d s equidistant from t h e center a r e congruent.
Theorem 1 3 - 4 . ( P . 417) I n t h e same c i r c l e o r I n c o n g r u e n t
c i r c l e s , any two congruent chords are equidistant from t h e center.
Theorem 13-5. (P. 4 2 4 ) Given a plane E and a s p h e r e S
with c e n t e r P , Let F be the f o o t of t h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r sement
from P to E. Then e i t h e r
(1) Every point of E is o u t s l d e S , or
( 2 ) F is on S , and E is tangent t o S at F, or
( 3 ) F is i n s i d e S , and E inte?sects S in a c i r c l e
';ilth c e n t e r F.

Cora 1 - 5 - 1 (P. 426) A p l a n e tangent t o S is

perpendicular t o the r a d i u s drawn t o the point of c o n t a c t .
Corollary 13-5-2. ( P . 426) A plane p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o a
r a d i u s a t its outer end I s tangent t o S.
Corollary 13-5-3. ( P 426) . A perpendicular from P to a
c h o r d of S bisects the c h o r d .
 Corollary 13-5-4. ( P . 426) The segment j o i n i n g the c e n t e r
of S t o the midpoint of a c h o r d is p e r p e n d i c u l a r to t h e chord.
Theorem 13-6. ( P . 431) If' and are a r c s of t h e
same c i r c l e having only the point Y in common, and if t h e i r
union is an a r c G, then m B + me = rn2.

.
Theorem 13-7. ( F 434) The measure of an i n s c r i b e d h n g l e
is h a l f the measure of i t s i n t e r c e p t e d arc.
.
Corollary 13-7-1 (P + 437) An angle i n s c r i b e d t n a s e m i -
c i r c l e is a right a n g l e .
Corollary 13-7-2. (P . 437) Angles i n s c r i b e d in t h e sane
a r c are c o n g r u e n t ,
Theorem 13-8. ( P . 441) In the same circle or in congruent
c i r c l e s , if two chords a r e c o n g r u e n t , t h e n so a l s o a r e the
corresponding minor a r c s .
Theorem 13-9. ( P . 441) I n the same circle o r i n c o n g r u e n t
circles, if t w o arcs are congruent, t h e n s o are t h e corresponding
chords.
Theorem 13-10, (F. 442) Given an angle with v e r t e x on the
c i r c l e formed by a secant r a y and a t a n g e n t r a y . The measure of
the angle is h a l f t h e measure of the i n t e r c e p t e d a r c .
Theorem 13-11. ( P , 448) The two tangent segments t o a
c i r c l e from an e x t e r n a l point are congruent, and form congruent
angles with t h e l i n e J o i n i n g t h e external p o i n t to t h e center
of t h e c i r c l e .
Theorem 13-12. .
( P 449) Glven a c i r c l e C and an e x t e r n a l
p o i n t Q, let Ll b e a s e c a n t l i n e t h r o u g h 2, intersecting C
in p o i n t s R and S ; and let L2 'ce a n o t h e r secant l i n e through
Q, intersecting C in p o i n t s T and U. Then QR QS = 2U .
&T. .
Theorem 13-13. ( P . 450) Given a tangent segment to a
c i r c l e , and a secant l i n e t h r o u g h Q, intersecting t h e c i r c l e in
p o i n t s R and S. Then QR . QS = QT .
2
 .
Theorem 13-14. ( P 451 ) If two chords i n t e r s e c t within a
c i r c l e , t b c produc5 o f t h e lengths o f t h e segments of one equals
t h e product of t h e l e n g t h s o f t h e s e g ~ e n t sof t h e o t h e r .
Theoren 14-1. .
( P 467) The b i s e c t o r o f an a n g l e , minus its
e n d - p o i n t , L s the s e t o f p o i n t s in the i n t e r i o r of t h e a n g l e
e q u i d i s t a n t from the sides of t h e a n g l e .

Theorem 1 4 - 2 . .
(P 46.9) The p e r p e n d i c u l a r b i s e c t o r s of t n e
sides of a t r i a n g l e are c c n c u r r e n t in a p o i n t e c - u i d i s t a n t from
t h e t h r e e verXices of the triangle.
~ o r o l l a r14-2-1.
~ (P. 470) T h e r e is one snd only one c i r c l e
through t h r e e n o n - c o l l i n e a r p o i n t s .

Corollary 24-2-2. ( P . 470) Two distinct c i r c l e s can

i n t e r s e c t in at most Lwo pulnts.

Theoren
A
14-3. ( P . 4 7 0 ) The three altitudes of a triangle
are c o n c u r r e n t .
Theore,n 14-4. ( P . 471) The angle bisectors of a Lriangle
are c o n c u r r e n t in a p o i n t equidistant f r o m the t h r e e s i d e s .
.- (P. 1176) (The Two Circle ~ l l e o r - e m ) If 'iwo
circles have r a d i l a and b, and if c is t h e d i s t a n c e
Letween t h e i r c e n t e r s , then t h e c i r c l e s i n t e r s e c t in t w o points,
one on each side o f t h e line of c e n t e r s , p r o v i d e d each of of a,
b, c is l e s s t h a n t h e sum of t h e o t h e r two.

C o n s t r u c t i o n 14-6. ( P . 477) To copy a a v e n t r i a n g l e .

C o n s t r u c t i o n 14-7. (P. 479) To copy a given a n g l e .
C o n s t ~ u c ton 14-8. ( F . 481) To c o n s t r u c t the p e r p e n d i c u l a r
b i s e c t o r of a given segment.
Corollary 14-8-1. (P. 481) To b i s e c t a given semen-c.
.
Construction 19-9, (P 482) To construct a p e r p e n d i c u l a r
to a g i v e n l i n e 'cnhrougll a ~ i v e np o i n t .

Constru:tion 1&-10, ( F . !c8h) To c m s t r u c t a p a r a l l e l to a

given l l n e , through a g i v e n e x t e r n a l p o f n t ,
 G o n s t ~ - u c t l o n14-11. (F. 484) T c d:-vt:~e a f j e g p e n t I n t o a
g i v e n nurrker oi' conpruent se~nents.

ConstrucLion 14-12. (P. % 3 l ) T? c i r c u n s c r i b e a c i r c l e about

a glven t r:ar.sle .
Gonsiruction I)+-13. (P .1 ) To bisect a g i v e n a n g l e .
4.
C o n s t y j c ttor 1'1-1 ( p . 292) To i n c c r i k c a c i r c l e i n a
given L r l a n ~ l e .

Theorem 15-2. ( E , . 522) T3c ailed a2 a c i r c l e of r a d i u s r

Is rr 2
.
Theo:7er,~ 15-5. (: . 525) 11'L.?!L- L l ~ q c s;lave equal radii, t h e i r
lcn;',l:s x e rc-crt 'l>i?dl . o i;k!ci_l tnelsur.es.
rz;leoye:n 117-3 . (I . ' 2 ) An . 3 ~ t0:' -ly1e q and radius r
t;1e2~
has L e n s t h TT
42 .
Theoren 15-5. (F. 52'() The a r e a of a sector Ls h a l f t h e
p r o d u c t oi' i',s r a d i u s l-g 1fn~::rl of i t s a r c .
Theorem 13-6. ( F . 527) The area oi' a s e c t o r of r a d i u s r
and a r c ineasyre g is r*
2
7 0
.
Theorem 1.6-1, (P. 535) A ~ Ic r o s s - s e c t i o n s of a triangular

C l l - 1 - ( c , 536) The uppei' and l o w e r bases o r

3 triangular y ~ - ~ i s .,ire
.l con~ruen: .
,
I? I 1 . - (P. 536) ( ~ r i s xCross-Sectlon heo or em.) All

r,r30zs-sqction;: oi' 3 prism have % h e s m e area.

o r 1 1 1 - 2 - (P. 537) The 5x0 bases of a prism have

equ:il aress .
Theoren 16-3. (F . 537) The l a t e r a l faces of a prisn are
parallelogr~n1=egic!13, 3t1d t h e l a t e r a l f a c e s of a r i p h t prisrn
are rec'canpular ~ e ~ i a n s .
 Theorem 16-4. (P. 540) A cross-section of a triangular
p y r a m i d , by a p l a n e between the vertex and t h e base, is a
t r i a n g u l a r region similar to the base. If t h e distance from the
vertex t o the cross-section plane is k and t h e a l t i t u d e is h,
t h e n t h e r a t i o 0% the area of the cross-sectfon to the area of
the base is (i;) k .
Theorem 16-5. ( P . 542) In any pyramid, t h e ratlo f t h e
9
ales of a c~oss-sectlon and t h e area of the base is (g)
, where
h is t h e a l t i t u d e of t h e pyramid and k 9 s the d i s t a n c e from
t h e v e r t e x to t h e plane of t h e cross-section.

Theorem 16-6. (P . 543) (The Pyramid Cross-Sect i o n heo or em. )

Given t w o pyramids w i t h the same altitude. If t h e bases have t h e
same area, then cross-sec Lions equidistant from t h e bases a l s o
have t h e same area.
Theorem 16-7. .
( F 548) The volume of any prism is the
p r o d u c t of the a l t i t u d e and the area of t h e base.
Theorem 16-8. (P. 549) If t w o pyramids have t h e same alti-
tude and t h e same base a r e a , t h e n they have t h e same volume.
Theorem 16-9, (P, 550) The volume of a trfangular p y r a m i d
i s o n e - t h i r d t h e p r o d u c t of i t s a l t f t u d e and i t s base a r e a .

.
Theorem 16-10. ( P 551) The volume of a pyramid is one-third
the product o f i t s a l t i t u d e and i t s base a r e a .
.
Theorem 16-11. ( P 555) A cross-section o f a c l r c u l a r
cylinder Ls a c i r c u l a r r e g i o n congruent t o t h e base.
Theorea 1G-12. (P. 555) The area of a cross-section of a
c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r is e q u a l to t h e area of the b a s e ,
Theorem 16-13, (P. 555) A cross-section of a cone of
a l t i t u d e h, made by a plane at a d i s t a n c e k from t h e v e r t e x ,
is a c i r c u l a s r e g i o n whose area h a s a r a t i o t o the a r e a of t h e
base of (K)
k
.
.
Theorem 16-14. ( P 557) The volume of a c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r
is t h e p r o d u c t of t h e a l t i t u d e and t h e area of the base.
 Theorem 16-15. (P. 553) The volume of a c i r c u l a r cone I s
one-third the product of t h e altitude and t h e area of t h e base.
Theorem 16-16. (P. 559) The volume of a sphere of r a d i u s r
4 - 3 .
is p
Theorem. (P. 5 6 2 ) The surface area of a sphere of
radius r is S = 4m 2

Theorem 17-1. ( P . 577) On a non-vertlcal l i n e , a l l segments

have t h e same slope.
Theorem 17-2. (P . 584) Two n o n - v e r t i c a l l i n e s a r e p a r a l l e l
if and only if t h e y have t h e same s l o p e .
Theorem 17-3. .
( P 586) Two n o n - v e r t i c a l lines are perpen-
dicular if a n d o n l y if their s l o p e s a r e t h e n e g a t i v e reciprocals
of each o t h e r ,
Theorem. .
( P 589) (Tne Distance orm mu la. ) The
d i s t a n c e between t h e p o i n t s (xl,yl) and Is equal t o
2 2
- xl) + (y2 - yl) .
Theorem 17-5. (7. 593) (The Mid-Point Formula .)
L e t PI = ( x l , y l ) and let P p = (x2.y2). Then t h e mid-point
-
of PIP2 is t h e p o i n t P = ( 1
x + x
2 yl+Y2)
2 2
.
Theorvcm 17-6. (P 6 0 5 ) L e t L be a n o n - v e r t i c a l line w i t h
w i t h s l o p e m, and let ? be a p o i n t of L, with c o o r d i n a t e s
.
(xl,yl ) FOP every p o i n t Q = (x,y) of L, t h e e q u a t i o n
y - yl = m(x - xl) is s a t i s f i e d .

Theorem, (P. 6 0 7 ) The graph of t h e equation

y - yl = m(x - xl) IS the l i n e t h a t passes through the point
(xlT )
Y ~ and has s l o p e m.
Tneorem 17-8. (F . 611) The graph of the e q u a t i o n y = mx + b
is t h e l i n e with s l o p e m and y - i n k e r c e p t b .

m.(P. 613) Every l i n e i n t h e plane is the graph

of a l i n e a r equation in x and y.
 .
Theorem 17-10. ( P 613) The graph o f a l i n e a r e q u a t i o n
in x and y i s always a l i n e .
Theorem 17-11. (P . 623) The graph of t h e equation

(x - a)2 + (y - b12 = r2 is the c i r c l e w i t h c e n t e r at (a,~)

and r a d i u s r.
Theorem 17-12. (P. 624) Every c i r c l e is t h e graph of an
2
equation of the, f o m x + y2 + PLX + BY +c = 0.

Theorem, ( F . 625 ) Given t h e e q u a t i on

x2 + y2 + Ax + By C C = 0 . The graph of t h i s e q u a t i o n is
(1) a circle, ( 2 ) a p o i n t or ( 3 ) t h e empty s e t .
 --
Index of Definitions
F o r precisely d e f i n e d geometric terms t h e reference is t o
t h e formal definition. F o r o t h e r terms t h e r e f e r e n c e is to an
informal deflnltion or to t h e m o s t prominent discussion.
a b s o l u t e v a l u e , 27
a c u t e a n g l e s , 86
a l t e r n a t e i n t e r i o r angles, 245
altitude
o f p r i s m , 535
of pyramid,. 540 .
of t r i a n g l e , 214, 215
angle(s), 71
acute, 86
alternate i n t e r i o r , 245
bisector o f , 129
c e n t r a l , 429
complementary, 86
congruent, 86, 109
consecutive , 264
corresponding, 251
d i h e d r a l , 299
exterior, 293
exterior of, 73
i n s c r i b e d , 432
i n t e r c e p t s an arc, 433
i n t e r i o r o f , 73
measure of, 79, 80
o b t u s e , 86
o f p o l y g o n , 506
o p p o s i t e , 264
r e f l e x , 78
remote i n t e r i o r , 193
right, 85
right dihedral,. .301
s i d e s o f , 71
s t r a i g h t , 78
supplementary, 82
vertex o f , 71
v e r t i c a l , 88
apothem, 512
a r c ( s ) , 429
c e n t e r or, 437
c o n g r u e n t , 441
degree measure of, 430
end-points o f , 429
l e n g t h of, 525
major, 429
m i n o r , 429
of s e c t o r , 527
area, 320 ,,
c i r c l e , 521, 5 2 2
parallelogram, 330
polygonal r e g i o n , 3 20
rectangle, 322
right triangle, 328
s p h e r e , 562
trapezoid, 331
t r i a n g l e , 328
unit o f , 321
arithmetic mean, 364
auxiliary s e t s , 176
base of pyramid, 540
between, 41, 182
b i s e c t o r of an angle, 129
bisector of a segment, 169
b i s e c t s , 47, 129
Cavalierils P r i n c i p l e , 548
c e n t e r of
a r c , 437
c i r c l e , 409
sphere, 409
c e n t r a l a n g l e , 429
c e n t r o i d , 280, 621
c h o r d , 410
circle(s), 409
area o r , 521, 522
circumference of, 516
congruent , 417
e q u a t i o n o f , 623, 624, 625
e x t e r i o r o f , 412
g r e a t , 410
i n t e r i o r of, 412
segment or, 528
tangent, 417
circular
cone, 554
c y l i n d e r , 553
reasoning, 119
region, 520
area o f , 521
circumference, 516
circumscribed
c i r c l e , 490
t r i a n g l e , 490
collinear, 54
complement, 86
complementary angles, 86
concentric
c i r c l e s , 409
s p h e r e s , 409
conclusion, 60
 concurrent sets, 278, 469
cone,
circular, 554
right circular, 555
1 volume of, 557
congruence , 97
congruent
angles, 86, 109
a r c s , 441
c i r c l e s , 417
segments, 109
t r i a n g l e s , 98, 111
c o n s e c u t i v e angles, 264
consecutive sides, 264
I constructions, 477
converse, 202
convex polygon, 507
convex s e t s , 62
coordfnate system, 37, 571
coordinates of a point, 37, 569
c o - p l a n a r , 54
corollary, 128
correspondence, 97
corresponding angles, 251
cross-sec t l o n
of a prism, 535
of a pyramid, 540
cube, 229
cylinder
c i r c u l a r , 553
volume of', 557
d i a g o n a l , 264, 509
diameter, 410
dihedral a ngle, 299
edge of, 299
f a c e o f , 299
measure of, 301
plane angle o f , 300
d i s t a n c e , 34
d i s t a n c e between
a point and a line, 206
a p o i n t and a plane, 235
t w o p a r a l l e l lines, 266
distance formula, 589
edge of half p l a n e , 64
end-point ( s )
of a r c , 429
of r a y , 46
o f segment, 45
empty s e t , 18
equation
of c i r c l e , 623
of l i n e , 605, 611
e q u i a n g u l a r t r i a n g l e , 128
equilateral t r i a n g l e , 1 2 8
E u l e r , 327
e x i s t e n c e p r o o f s , 165
e x t e r i o r angle, 193
ejcse .-<G;P

05 a : r i a n s l e , 7;!
i ' x e of half-space, 66
frustum, 559
G a r f i e l d t s Froof, 3 4 4
geometric mean, 361
graph, 600
g r e a t c i r c l e , 410
h a l f -plane, 64
edge o f , 64
h a l f - s p a c e , 66
face o f , 66
horizontal lines, 576
hypotenuse, 172
hypothesis, 60
identity c o n g r u e n c e , 100, 109
if an6 o n l y if, 203
if-then, 60
inconsistent equatiohs, 618
indirect proof, 160
inequalities, 24
infinite ruler, 37
inscribed
a n g l e , 432
measure of, 434
circle,
polygon, ,511
quadrilateral, 438
triangle, 490
i n t e g e r s , 22
intercept, 275, 433
Interior
of angle, 73
of c i r c l e , 412
of t r i a n g l e , 73
i n t e r s e c t , 18
intersection of s e t s , 16, 18, 473
irrational numbers, 23
I s o s c e l e s t r i a n g l e , 127
k i t e , 272
lateral
edge, 537
f a c e , 537
surface, 537
lema, 196
length
of a r c , 525
of segment, 45
l i n e a r e q u a t i o n , 613
l i n e a r p a i r , 82
line(s), 10
o b l i q u e , 216
p a r a l l e l , 241
p e r p e n d i c u l a r , 86
skew, 2 4 1
t r a n s v e r s a l , 244
najor a r c , 429
mean
arithmetic, 364
geometric, 361
neasure
of a n g l e , 79, 80
of d i h e d r a l a n g l e , 301
o f d i s t a n c e , 3 0 , 34, 36
median
of t r a p e z o i d , 272
of triangle, 130
aid-point, 47
- formula o f , 593
minor a r c , 423
Non-Euclidean geometries , 253
n e g a t i v e real numbers, 191
numbers
i r r a t Tonal, 23
n e g a t i v e , 191
p o s i t i v e , 191
r a t i o n a l , 22
real, 23
whole, 22
o b l i q u e l i n e s , 216
obtuse angle, 86
on opposite s i d e s , 64
on t h e same s i d e , 64
one-to-one correspondence, 97
opposite
angles, 264
rays, 46
sides, 264
order, 24
o r d e r p o s t u l a t e s , 191, 1 9 2
ordered p a i r , 571
origin, 568
parallel
l i n e s , 241
slopes of, 584
l i n e s and p l a n e s , 291
planes, 291
p a r a l l e l e p i p e d , 538
parallelogram, 265
area o f , 330
perimeter
of t r i a n g l e , 287
of polygon, 512
perpendicular
l i n e s . 86
s l o p e s of, 586
line and plane, 219
planes, 301
perpendicular b i s e c t o r , 169
p i , a , 518
p l a n e ( s ) , 10
p a r a l l e l , 291
p e r p e n d i c u l a r , 301
plane a n g l e , 300
p o i n t , 10
p o i n t - s l o p e forn, 605
p o l n t of' '~angency
01' c i r c l e s , 413
o f spheres, 423
polygon, 506
angle o f , 506
apothem of, 512
convex, 507
diagonal o f , 509
i n s c r i b e d , 511
perimeter o f , 512
r e g u l a r , 511
s i d e s o f , 506
vertices of, 506
polygonal region, 317
p o l y h e d r a l regions, 546
p o s i t i v e r e a l numbers, 191
postulate(s), 9
o f o r d e r , 191, 192
power of a p o i n t , 451
prism, 534
a l t i t u d e o f , 535
c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f , 535
l a t e r a l edge, 537
l a t e r a l f a c e , 537
l a t e r a l surface, 537
lower base, 535
rectangular, 535
prism ( c o n t i n u e d )
r i m , 535
t o t a l s u r f a c e , 537
triangular, 535
u p p e r 'base, 535
p r o j e c t ion
of a l i n e , 306
of a p o i n t , 306
proof
c o n v e r s e , 202
double-column form of, 118
existence, 165
indirect , 160
uniqueness, 165.
writing o f , 117
p r o p o r t i o n a l sequences, 360
pyramid, 540
a l t i t u d e of, 540
base o f , 540
r e g u l a r , 544
v e r t e x o f , 540
volume of, 551
Pythagorean Theorem, 339
q u a d r a n t , 571
quadrilateral, 263
c o n s e c u t i v e a n g l e s of, 264
c o n s e c u t i v e s i d e s of, 264
c y c l i c , 473
diagonal o f , 264
inscribed, 438
opposite angles of, 264
radius, 409, 410
of sector, 527
r a t i o n a l numbers, 22
r a y , 46
e n d - p o i n t o f , 46
opposite, 46
r e a l numbers, 23
r e c t a n g l e , 268
a r e a of, 322
rectangular p a r a l l e l e p i p e d , 538
reflex angle, 78
region
c i r c u l a r , 520
p o l y g o n a l , 317
p o l y h e d r a l , 546
triangular, 317
regular
polygon, 511
pyramid, 544
remote interior angle, 193
rhombus , ,268
r i g h t angle, 85
right d i h e d r a l a n g l e , 301
right p r i s m , 535
right triangle, 172
s c a l e n e triangle, 128
s e c t o r , 527
a r c of, 527
radius of, 527
segment ( s ) , 45
b i s e c t o r , 169
c ongruent , 109
segment of a c i r c l e , 528
semi-circle, 429
s e p a r a t i o n , 182
3 e t ( s ) , 15
a u x i l i a r y , 176
c o n c u r r e n t , 278
convex, 62-
element of, 15
empty, 18
intersection of, 16, 473
member o f , I j
union o f , 17
side(s)
c o n s e c u t i v e , 364
of angle, 71
of dihedral angle, 299
of polygon, 506
of t r i a n g l e , 7 2
opposite, 264
srrnilarity, 365
skew lrnes, 2jt1
s l o p e , 577
of p a r a l l e l lines, 584
of perpendicular lines, 586
s l o p e - i n t e r c e p t form, 611
s p a c e , 53
s p h e r e , $09
exterior of, 423
i n t e r i o r of, 423
s u r f see area of, 562
volume of, 559
s q u a r e , 268
square root, 25
s t r a i g h t angle, 78
s u b s e t , 15
supplement, 82
supplementary angles, 82
tange nt
circles. 417
common external, 454
c ommon Lnt e r n a l , 45 4
e x t e r n a l l y , 417
internally, 417
l i n e and c i r c l e , 413
p l a n e and s here, 423
segment, 448
theorem, 9
total surface o f a prism, 537
t r a n s v e r s a l , 244
t r a p e z o i d , 265
area of, 331
t r i a n g l e ( s ) , 72
a l t i t u d e o f , 214
angle bisector of, 130
area of, 328
c e n t r o i d o f , 280
congruent, 98, 111
equiangular, 128
equilateral, 128
exterior o f , 74
i n t e r i o r of, 74
i s o s c e l e s , 127, 128, 346
median of, 130
overlapping, 123
perimeter of, 287
r i g h t , 172
scalene, 128
sides of, 72
sirgilag, 365
30 -60 , 346
v e r t e x o f , 72
t r i a n g u l a r region, 317
undefined terms, 9, 10
union of sets, 17
uniqueness p r o o f s , 165
vertex
of angle, 71
of polygon, 506
of pyramid, 540
of triangle, 1 2
v e r t i c a l angles, 88
v e r t i c a l l i n e , 576
volume
of cone, 557
of c y l i n d e r , 557
of prism, 548
of pyramid, 551
of sphere, 559
whole numbers, 22
x-axis, 568
y-axis, 568
y-intercept, 611