crystals

Article
Analysis of the Transmission Characteristic and
Stress-Induced Birefringence of Hollow-Core
Circular Photonic Crystal Fiber
Jingxuan Yang 1,2, *, Hu Zhang 1,3, * , Xiaoguang Zhang 1 , Hui Li 1 and Lixia Xi 1
1 State Key Laboratory of Information Photonics and Optical Communications, Beijing University of Posts
and Telecommunications, Beijing 100876, China; xgzhang@bupt.edu.cn (X.Z.); lihui1206@bupt.edu.cn (H.L.);
xilixia@gmail.com (L.X.)
2 College of Electrical Information, Langfang Normal University, Langfang 065000, China
3 School of Ethnic Minority Education, Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications,
Beijing 100876, China
* Correspondence: zhh309@sina.com (H.Z.); yangjingxuan@bupt.edu.cn (J.Y.)




Received: 21 January 2019; Accepted: 26 February 2019; Published: 2 March 2019


Abstract: Orbital angular momentum modes in optical fibers have polarization mode dispersion.
The relationship between polarization mode dispersion and the birefringence vector can be deduced
using an optical fiber dynamic equation. First, a mathematical model was established to formulate
mode dispersion caused by stress-induced birefringence. Second, in the stress-induced birefringence
simulation model, the finite element method was used to analyze the transmission characteristics of
the hollow-core circular photonic crystal fiber. Finally, mode dispersion caused by stress-induced
birefringence was obtained using theoretical derivation and simulation analyses. The results showed
that the new fiber type has good transmission characteristics and strong stress sensitivity, which
provide key theoretical support for optimizing the structural parameters of optical fiber and designing
stress sensors.

Keywords: orbital angular momentum; modal dispersion; stress-induced birefringence; finite

element method

1. Introduction
With the development of 5G—Internet of things, big data, and real-time data—optical fiber
communication systems, it is imperative to expand their capacity, improve transmission stability, and
network intelligence [1–3]. Current communication systems’ capacity expansion technologies, such
as time division multiplexing, frequency division multiplexing, polarization division multiplexing,
and high-order modulated, cannot meet future information communication demands [4,5]. Therefore,
space division multiplexing, a new capacity expansion technology, is emerging as a solution for this
problem both in free space communication and optical fiber communication. Moreover, mode division
multiplexing (MDM), a space division multiplexing technology, has been a hot area of research for
several years.
Orbital angular momentum (OAM) multiplexing is a MDM technology. When transmitting
information independently, it utilizes different modes as transmission channels based on the
orthogonality of different OAM modes, and it can therefore spread in the optical fiber at the same
time. In 1984, to obtain analytical solutions of some uniform geometrical shape, fiber birefringence—a
thermal elastic model of gradient function—was developed by Chu et al. [6]. For fiber composed of
uniformly-shaped stress zones, Tsai et al. [7] proposed the idea of superposition in 1991, whereby total
stress field distribution is obtained by stress zone superposition. In [8], Yu et al. studied stress field

Crystals 2019, 9, 128; doi:10.3390/cryst9030128 www.mdpi.com/journal/crystals

Crystals 2019, 9, 128 2 of 16

distribution and the size of birefringence from stress microelements, and concluded that stress size
and birefringence at the core’s center are completely unrelated to the shape and placement direction of
stress microelements. Since the first photonic crystal fiber (PCF) was successfully sketched in 1996,
nonlinear effects were found to effectively improve with the variety of the cladding structures [9].
In [10], Yang Yue et al. first proposed that PCF can be used for supercontinuum generation of optical
vortex modes, but PCF cladding of hexagonal symmetrical structures is only to support two groups
of OAM modes, which would cause the problem of large loss and dispersion. Subsequently, Wong
et al. twisted photonic crystal fiber to adjust dispersion and nonlinearity of OAM transmission [11].
Then a new type, C-PCF, designed by Zhang et al. was able to transmit OAM mode with low
transmission loss and flat dispersion [12]. PCF is of great potential in the optical fiber communication
field because it has the characteristics of low loss, small dispersion, and low nonlinear effect, especially
for long-distance communication systems. Compared with circular fiber, a series of C-PCFs proposed
by our research [13], can achieve a high refractive index difference of fiber cross-section without
a complicated doping process. Continuous progress in PCF design methods and manufacturing
processes are slowly perfecting it. Therefore, PCF is of great practical value for the future.
The fiber cross-section should be ideally a circle. The propagation constants of two degenerate
modes in the orthogonal direction are equal, and the two polarization directions are perpendicular
to each other, so that the OAM mode can stably transfer without a birefringence problem. However,
residual birefringence exists in optical fiber, which can be divided into two categories: intrinsic and
extrinsic birefringence [14]. Extrinsic birefringence is caused by fiber bending, external stress, torsion,
environmental temperature change, external electromagnetic field, and vibration, which may occur
during fiber cable manufacturing and laying. In the same OAM mode, propagation speeds of odd
and even modes are different, leading to the birefringence modal dispersion (MD) effect [15]. Recently,
in [16,17], Wang et al. analyzed the phenomenon of birefringence MD based on the polarization
mode dispersion of single-mode fibers in OAM fiber. Stress-induction is a key influential factor in
birefringence MD; however, to the best of our knowledge, it is rarely considered. Therefore, it is
necessary to further research the problem of stress-induced birefringence.
In view of most approaches addressing SMFs birefringence, it can still be used for birefringence
MD. The main contribution in this paper is that the transmission characteristics and stress-induced
birefringence of the new designed C-PCF. For multiple modes in the OAM fibers, an improved
method of dynamic equation is used to solve the problem for birefringence MD. In this article,
the solid mechanics module in the COMSOL Multiphysics software, which is based on the finite
element method [18], was used to analyze OAM modes the propagation properties supported by our
hollow-core C-PCF. The results indicate that the new type hollow-core C-PCF fiber can realize effective
segregation and stable transmission of OAM modes. The theoretical derivation of stress-induced
birefringence in this paper is based on the cross-section of the fiber with an irregular shape in the stress
region. Therefore, the designed hollow-core C-PCF in the application of MDM fiber communication
systems might greatly improve channel capacity and spectral efficiency.

2. Theoretical Model
With the rapid development of optical fiber communication networks, the communication capacity
of the existing SMFs is close to its Shannon limit, which gradually fails to meet the growing demand
for information. The OAM multiplexing technology can solve increasing channel congestion problems
of fiber communication. Due to the orthogonality of OAM modes with different topological charges in
space—it is theoretically considered that the number of topological charges is infinite—research
using OAM modes as information carriers in communication systems has aroused wide public
concern [2,3,19]. In this part, we first provide the electric field distribution of the OAM mode in
optical fiber. Then, the mode dispersion of birefringence is given. Finally, the mathematical formula on
the stress-induced birefringence model is obtained.
Crystals 2019, 9, 128 3 of 16

2.1. OAM Modes in PCF

According to [19,20], the OAM mode electric field distribution in optical fiber can be expressed
as follows: * *
E (r, φ, z, t) = E (r )e jlφ e j(ωt− βz) (1)

where e jlφ is the phase distribution of mode field in the radial direction, e j(ωt− βz) is the mode solutions,
*
and E (r ) is radial mode profile.
OAM modes in optical fiber are composed of the linear combination of vector eigenmodes [20].
The OAM mode in optical fiber is specifically expressed in the following configuration:
(
± even odd
OAM± l,m = HEl +1,m ± jHEl +1,m l>1
∓
OAM±l,m = EHleven odd
−1,m ± jEHl −1,m
(
± even odd
(2)
OAM± l,m = HEl +1,m ± jHEl +1,m l=1
∓
OAM± l,m = TM0,m ± jTE0,m

where “±” represents the polarization direction of the OAM mode. In OAM fiber, OAM mode can be
regarded as the superposition of even and odd modes of HE or EH, and there is π/2 phase difference
between the even and odd modes. When the value of l is larger than 1, there are four OAM modes
to compose a OAM mode group for a given l and m, but when l equals 1, only two OAM modes
form a OAM mode group. Because TE0,m and TM0,m modes have different propagation constants,
which cannot form OAM modes, only even and odd HE2,m modes could be used to form an OAM
mode. For the even and odd modes in the same OAM mode, the absolutes of topological charge
number are both degenerate. In other words, their effective refractive indices are almost the same,
and the electric field distribution of odd and even modes in Equation (2) can be expanded as

 HEeven = *

l,m E (r )e j(ωt− β e z) cos lφ
* (3)
 HEodd = E (r )e j(ωt− β o z) sin lφ
l,m

2.2. Birefringence Mode Dispersion

A dynamic equation is an effective method for analyzing the polarization mode dispersion (PMD)
vector with the variation of transmission distance [21,22]. For multiple modes of transmission in OAM
fiber, there exists not only inter-mode dispersion but also intra-mode dispersion. In order to facilitate
the analysis, we split the fiber into numerous segments, and each segment of birefringence can be
considered uniform, specifically
dŝ±|l |
(
dz = β̂±|l | × ŝ±|l |
dŝ±|l |
(4)
dω = τ̂ ±|l | × ŝ±|l |

where β̂±|l | is the birefringence vector, τ̂ ±|l | is the OAM-PMD vector, and ŝ±|l | is the polarization state.
Assuming that the frequency ω and distance z are invariable, we computed the input polarization state
ŝ partial derivatives about ω and z, respectively. The relationship between the PMD and birefringence
vectors can be simplified as:
dτ̂ ±|l | d β̂±|l |
= + β̂±|l | × τ̂ ±|l | (5)
dz dω
when fiber is disturbed by an external force or electromagnetic effect, its cross-section becomes slightly
deformed, and the propagation constant of two linear polarization modes changes. Meanwhile,
the state of the two polarization modes is not degenerate as before. The study on OAM-PMD vector τ
can be started with the birefringence vector β.
As birefringence exists in the OAM fiber, and the refractive index of odd and even modes is
different, and, therefore, the propagation constant is different. Generally speaking, stress-induced
Crystals 2019, 9, 128 4 of 16

birefringence is much larger than that caused by fiber core manufacturing errors of noncircular
deformation. Since fiber is a type of good elastic medium, and the photoelastic effect occurs under
the action of external force, which will cause refractive index changes. In order to study fiber stress
distribution under external forces, fiber stress distribution is obtained as follows:
As shown in Figure 1, stresses in each direction can be decomposed into the sum of the stresses in
the three axes. Hence, the stress distribution matrix under external force is as follows:
 
σx τxy τxz
(6)
 
 τyx σy τyz 
τzx τzy σz

According to the equivalent theory of shearing stress [23], the above matrix is symmetric. Optical fiber
changes are described by positive and shear strains. A positive strain is indicated by ‘ε’, shear strain is
indicated by ‘γ’, and the strain matrix is expressed as follows:
 
εx γxy γxz
(7)
 
 γyx εy γyz 
γzx γzy εz

Crystal the
where 2019,x6, component
x FOR PEER REVIEW
of strain εx is related to the x component of displacement u, and the 4 ofy16

component strain εy is related to the y component displacement v.

When fiber is disturbed by an external force or electromagnetic effect, its cross-section becomes
slightly deformed, and the propagation constant of two linear polarization modes changes.

ε x = ∂u
Meanwhile, the state of the two polarizationε y modes is not degenerate as before. The study(8) on

 ∂x
= ∂v
OAM-PMD vector τ can be started with theγ birefringence ∂v vector β.
∂y
∂u
xy = ∂y + ∂x
As birefringence exists in the OAM fiber, and the refractive index of odd and even modes is
different,
The size of zand, therefore,
direction the propagation
is considered constant
much larger is different.
than that Generally
of the other speaking,
two directions, andstress-induced
the vertical
external force on the cross-section of optical fiber. We only compute displacement vectorsofatnoncircular
birefringence is much larger than that caused by fiber core manufacturing errors all points
deformation.
parallel to the xSince
and Ifiber is a Since
planes. type of good
any elastic
optical medium,
fiber and the
cross-section photoelastic
that effectisoccurs
can be treated under
symmetric,
the action of external force, which will cause refractive
Equation (7) can be transformed into a plane strain problem. index changes. In order to study fiber stress
distribution under external forces, fiber stress distribution is obtained as follows:

τzy
σy τyz σz
τzx
τyx z
y τxy τxz
x σx

Figure1.1.Diagram
Figure Diagramofofstress
stressdecomposition.
decomposition.

As shown in Figure 1, stresses in each direction can be decomposed into the sum of the stresses
 ε x = ε x ( x,
in the three axes. Hence, the stress distribution
 y) under external force is as follows:
matrix
ε y = ε y ( x, y) (9)
 γ =σγ τ= γ τ ( x,

 y)
xy xyx xy xyxz
 
τ yx σ y τ yz  (6)
In the case of complete elasticity and isotropy,the above equation of physical properties is conformed
τ zx τ zy σ z 

to Hooke's law within the range of elastic response. 
According to the equivalent theory  of shearing
1+µ  stress [23], the  above matrix is symmetric. Optical
(1 − µ)σx − µσy
 ε x =andE shear
fiber changes are described by positive strains. A positive strain is indicated by ‘ε’, shear

1+ µ  
ε y = E (1 − µ)σy − µσx (10)
strain is indicated by ‘γ’, and the 
strain matrix is expressed as follows:
2(1+ µ )
γxy = E τxy

 ε x γ xy γ xz 
 
γ yx ε y γ yz  (7)
γ zx γ zy ε z 
 
where the x component of strain εx is related to the x component of displacement u, and the y
Crystals 2019, 9, 128 5 of 16

where E is the modulus of elasticity in stress direction, and µ is the ratio of Poisson, which indicates
the coefficient of shrinkage. We can introduce Airy's stress function F to solve this equation as follows:

∂2 F

 σx = ∂y2


2
σy = ∂∂xF2 (11)
 τ = − ∂2 F


xy ∂x∂y

where σx and σy are the x and y components of stress distribution in the homogeneous fiber, respectively.
The Airy stress function is the solution for the biharmonic Equation [23]:

∇4 F = 0 (12)

To achieve the calculation of the Airy stress function, we used Fourier series expansion of
polar coordinates to denote F, and the expansion coefficients an and bn were determined from
boundary conditions.
 
F = b0 r2 + a0 + ∑ an r n + bn r n+2 cos nθ (13)

The stress components of Equation (11) were transformed into polar coordinates as follows:
 
∂2 F
σr = 1−+Eµ 1r ∂F


 ∂r + r∂θ 2
 2
σθ = 1−+Eµ ∂∂rF2 (14)
  
 τ = E ∂ 1 ∂F

rθ 1+µ ∂r r ∂θ

The corresponding stress-induced birefringence B is given using the stress distribution formula:


B = C σx − σy (15)

where C is the stress-optic coefficient of the fiber, which depends on the wavelength and material.
The stress-optic coefficient is proportional to the difference in the material’s refractive index.
The electric field distribution depends on the normalized frequency, which can be defined as:

2π √
v= na 2∆ (16)
λ
where λ is the wavelength, n is the refractive index, a is the fiber core radius, and ∆ is the relative index
difference between core and cladding, respectively. Equation (15) can be rewritten as:
R 2π R ∞ 
σx (r, θ ) − σy (r, θ ) | E(r, θ, v)|2 rdrdθ

0 0
B=C R 2π R ∞ 2
(17)
0 0 | E (r, θ, v )| rdrdθ

where E(r, θ, v) is the electric field’s intensity distribution, while σx (r, θ ) and σy (r, θ ) represent
anisotropic stress distributions in the fiber. The stress-induced birefringence formula can be used to
calculate the cross-section of any photonic crystal fiber with an irregular shape.

3. Simulation and Analysis

Hollow-core circular photonic crystal fiber (C-PCF) can support 26 OAM modes, and the
numerical analysis shows that the proposed fiber possesses very good fiber parameter values.
In Reference [24], a novel ring-core photonic crystal fiber was fabricated, which supports four groups
of OAM modes with 2.13 × 10−3 minimum difference of effective indices at 1550 nm. The realized
fiber is expected to be a good platform for OAM mode transmission. In this section, we analyzed
the stress distribution of hollow-core C-PCF. Then, the transmission characteristics and the resulting
represent anisotropic stress distributions in the fiber. The stress-induced birefringence formula can
be used to calculate the cross-section of any photonic crystal fiber with an irregular shape.

3. Simulation and Analysis

Hollow-core circular photonic crystal fiber (C-PCF) can support 26 OAM modes, and6 ofthe
Crystals 2019, 9, 128 16

numerical analysis shows that the proposed fiber possesses very good fiber parameter values. In
Reference
birefringence[24],ofaOAM
novel modes
ring-core
were photonic
analyzedcrystal
usingfiber was
finite fabricated,
element whichFinally,
methods. supportsthefour groups
simulation
of OAM modes with 2.13 × 10 −3 minimum difference of effective indices at 1550 nm. The realized
results were obtained using the solid mechanics module in the COMSOL Multiphysics software.
fiber is expected to be a good platform for OAM mode transmission. In this section, we analyzed
the stress
3.1. Model distribution of hollow-core
of Stress-Induced Field C-PCF. Then, the transmission characteristics and the resulting
birefringence of OAM modes were analyzed using finite element methods. Finally, the simulation
We used [25,26] hollow-core C-PCF as the stress field model. The simulation parameters are
results were obtained using the solid mechanics module in the COMSOL Multiphysics software.
given in Table 1. This structure’s adjustable parameters in Figure 2(a) include: center air hole radius
r, the cladding inner radius R, outer air hole diameter dn (n = 2, 3, 4, 5. . .), the distance between
3.1. Model of Stress-Induced Field
two consecutive circles Λ, and the number of outer air hole rings N. In this paper, we set r = 4.4 µm,
R = 6Weµm,used [25,26]
Λ = 2.2 µm, Nhollow-core
= 4, dn /Λ =C-PCF
0.8, andasdthe stress
= 1.76 µm.field model.
Figure The simulation
2b,c indicate parameters
that hollow-core are
C-PCF
given in Table
deformed under 1. external
This structure’s
force, theadjustable
deformation parameters
not onlyin Figure 2(a)
included include:
air hole center
spacing but air
alsohole radius
change in
r, the
air cladding
hole inner radius
shape. Therefore, R, outercrystal
photonic air hole diameter
fiber symmetrydn (nchanged,
= 2, 3, 4, Figure
5. . .), the distance
2b,c between
are oriented two
toward
consecutiveanalysis
qualitative circles Λ , and
and thelittle
have number of outer analysis
quantitative on theN.deformation
air hole rings In this paper, we set
of the r = field
stress 4.4 µm, R=
[27,28].
6 µm,
Due to Λ = 2.2
fiber µm, N =only
symmetry, 4, dnthe 0.8, and d =characteristics
/Λ =propagation 1.76 µm. Figure 2(b) andresults
simulation (c) indicate thatinhollow-core
of stress the vertical
C-PCF deformed
direction are given. under external force, the deformation not only included air hole spacing but also

Table 1. Main
Table 1. Main parameter
parameter settings
settings in
in the
the simulation.
simulation.

parameter
parameter Value ValueUnits Units
Refractive index index
Refractive 1.444 1.444 — —
Young’sYoung’s
modulus modulus 7.8×1010 7.8×1010Pa Pa
Poisson's ratio ratio
Poisson's 0.17 0.17 — —
wavelength 1.55 µm
wavelength 1.55 μm

y
F

d5 d4 d3 d2 r R Λ x

F F

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.
Figure 2. (a) Hollow-core C-PCF
(a) Hollow-core C-PCF cross
crosssection
sectionwithout
withoutstress;
stress;(b)
(b)hollow-core
hollow-coreC-PCF
C-PCFdeformed
deformedunder
underx
x direction
direction external
external force;
force; (c) (c) hollow-core
hollow-core C-PCF C-PCF deformed
deformed under yunder y direction
direction externalexternal
force force

Effective Refractive Index

Considering the actual situation of pressure in the process of optical fiber production and laying,
we chose a 1–200 MPa pressure range in the simulation calculation. Figure 3a shows an effective
refractive index as a function of stress for different modes, and Figure 3b shows the effective index
difference between even and odd modes as a function of stress. Compared to the effective refractive
index difference of fiber under no stress, we obtained the effective refractive index difference of odd
and even modes due to stress. The effective refractive index increased with stress, as did the effective
index difference between even and odd modes. The difference of effective refractive index between
different modes was much larger than that between odd and even modes within the same mode with
different stress. When external stress was applied to fiber, the fiber’s cross-section was not symmetrical.
The index difference between even and odd modes in the lower order modes was larger than that
in the higher order modes. Electric field distribution of fiber depends on the normalized frequency
defined by effective index difference between even and odd modes.
stress in the y direction. Figure 4b shows that the effective refractive index difference between even
and odd modes changed with wavelength variation. The difference of effective refractive index
between different modes was much larger than that between odd and even modes within the same
mode with different wavelengths. The effective refractive index decreased with wavelength
variation, and the difference between even and odd modes in the lower order modes was larger than
Crystals 2019, 9, 128 7 of 16
those in the higher order modes. Although these changes were small, it may be very important that
Crystal
they impact 6, x value
2019,the FOR PEER REVIEWbirefringence.
of modal 7 of 16

3.1.1. Effective Refractive Index

Since the stress-optic coefficient of fiber was determined by the wavelength of the transmitted
beam, analyzed the change of effective refractive index with wavelength. Figure 4a shows that the
effective refractive index changed with wavelength variation for different modes under 100 MPa
stress in the y direction. Figure 4b shows that the effective refractive index difference between even
and odd modes changed with wavelength variation. The difference of effective refractive index
between different modes was much larger than that between odd and even modes within the same
mode with different wavelengths. The effective refractive index decreased with wavelength
variation, and the difference between even and odd modes in the lower order modes was larger than
those in the higher order modes. Although these changes were small, it may be very important that
they impact the value of modal birefringence.
(a) (b)
Figure 3. (a) Effective refractive index as a function of stress for different modes; (b) effective index
Figure 3. (a) Effective refractive index as a function of stress for different modes; (b) effective index
difference between even and odd modes as a function of stress.
difference between even and odd modes as a function of stress.

Since the stress-optic coefficient of fiber was determined by the wavelength of the transmitted
beam, analyzed the change of effective refractive index with wavelength. Figure 4a shows that the
effective refractive index changed with wavelength variation for different modes under 100 MPa stress
in the y direction. Figure 4b shows that the effective refractive index difference between even and
odd modes changed with wavelength variation. The difference of effective refractive index between
different modes was much larger than that between odd and even modes within the same mode with
different wavelengths. The effective refractive index decreased with wavelength variation, and the
difference between even and odd modes in the lower order modes was larger than those in the higher
order modes. Although these (a) changes were small, it may be very important that (b)they impact the value
Figure
of modal 3. (a) Effective refractive index as a function of stress for different modes; (b) effective index
birefringence.
difference between even and odd modes as a function of stress.

(a) (b)

Figure 4. (a) Effective refractive index as a function of wavelength for different modes; (b) effective
index difference between even and odd modes as a function of wavelength under 100 MPa stress in
the y direction.

3.2. Transmission Characteristics of OAM Modes

This section simulates the transmission characteristics of hollow-core C-PCF under longitudinal
pressure, including intensity, phase, polarization, and loss. There are two ways to compose an OAM
mode in Equation (2), which can be obtained by the linear superposition of the odd and even modes
of HE mode or EH mode. In Figure 3, the effective refractive index difference between EH mode and
HE mode that make up the same mode group is much larger than that between the odd and even
mode within the same mode, so we only consider the dispersion effect within the mode. Here we use
(a) (b)

Figure 4.
Figure 4. (a)
(a) Effective
Effective refractive
refractive index
index as
as aa function
function of
of wavelength
wavelength for
for different
different modes;
modes; (b)
(b) effective
effective
index difference
index differencebetween
betweeneven
evenand
andodd
oddmodes
modesasas a function
a function of of wavelength
wavelength under
under 100100
MPaMPa stress
stress in
in the
ythe y direction.
direction.

3.2. Transmission
3.2. Characteristics of
Transmission Characteristics of OAM
OAM Modes
Modes
This section
This section simulates
simulates the
the transmission
transmission characteristics
characteristics of
of hollow-core C-PCF under
hollow-core C-PCF under longitudinal
longitudinal
pressure, including
pressure, including intensity,
intensity, phase,
phase, polarization,
polarization, and
and loss.
loss. There
There are
are two
two ways
ways toto compose
compose an
an OAM
OAM
mode in Equation (2), which can be obtained by the linear superposition of the odd and even modes
mode in Equation (2), which can be obtained by the linear superposition of the odd and even modes of
of HE mode or EH mode. In Figure 3, the effective refractive index difference between EH mode and
HE mode or EH mode. In Figure 3, the effective refractive index difference between EH mode and
HE mode that make up the same mode group is much larger than that between the odd and even
mode within the same mode, so we only consider the dispersion effect within the mode. Here we use
Crystals 2019, 9, 128 8 of 16

HE mode that make up the same mode group is much larger than that between the odd and even
mode within the same mode, so we only consider the dispersion effect within the mode. Here we use
the transmission characteristics of HE mode to represent the transmission characteristics of an OAM
mode. When the pressure was less than 1 MPa, transmission characteristics changes are unobvious,
and the maximum pressure in the fiber’s practical application was less than 200 MPa. Therefore,
we exerted 1–200 MPa stress. The intensity distribution of each OAM mode transmitted in optical fiber
was annular, and the phase distribution was related to the topological charge. Here we only selected
the HE31 mode as an example to reflect the transmission characteristics of each mode.

3.2.1. Intensity and Phase

Figure 5 shows the normalized intensity distribution of HE31 under 1–200 MPa stress in the
y direction. The xy plane represents the fiber core’s cross-section, and the z-axis represents the
normalized intensity of the HE31 mode. Figure 6 illustrates the intensity distribution of the axis
cross-section in HE31 mode under the same situation. The intensity distribution of HE31 under the
different stresses were almost the same, but the peak value of intensity distribution in the middle
cross-section changed with increasing stress. Since the ringlike energy distribution changed with
increasing stress, the ringlike intensity distribution of any single-mode vortex beam was no longer
regular, and it generated distortion.
Figures 7 and 8 illustrate the normalized intensity distribution for even and odd modes of HE31
under
Crystal 1–200
2019, 6, MPa
x FORstress in the y direction. The intensity distribution for even and odd modes have
PEER REVIEW 8 of 16
the same shape for the one OAM mode, but the peak value in the middle of the even and modes’
the transmission
cross-section characteristics
changed in opposite of tendency
HE mode with to represent the stress.
increasing transmission characteristics
The strength lobes ofofodd
an OAM
and
mode.
even When
modes the complementary,
were pressure was lessthus thanthe1 MPa, transmission
strength distributioncharacteristics
of the OAMchanges
mode was are comprised
unobvious,
and
by the maximum
superposition, pressure
which in the fiber’s
presented practical application
a ring distribution. Figure 9was less the
shows thanintensity
200 MPa. Therefore, in
distribution we
exerted
the 1–200 MPa stress.
axis cross-section of HE31 Theunder
intensity distribution
the same of HE31e
situation, each OAM mode transmitted
and HE31o are even and inodd
optical fiber
modes,
was annular,
respectively. Theand the phase
abscissa distribution
represents was
the fiber’s corerelated to the
scale, and topological
the ordinate charge.mode
represents Hereintensity.
we only
selected
As stress isthe HE31 mode
impacted in theasvertical
an example to reflect
direction, HE31e the transmission
surface strengthcharacteristics
was no longer of each
flat. Themode.
quartered
petal-shaped distribution gradually separated with increasing stress, and the top of the quartered
3.2.1. Intensity
distribution becameand irregular.
Phase

1 1MPa 1 40MPa 80MPa

1

0.5 0.5
0.5

0 0
5 5 0
5 5 5
-6 0 -6 0 5
10 0 -6 10 0 -6
10 10 -6 0
-5 -5 -5 10 0 -6
-5 10
-5 -5

1
120MPa 1
160MPa 1
200MPa

0.5 0.5 0.5

0 0 0
5 5 5
5 5 5
-6 0 -6 0 -6 0
10 0 -6
10 0 -6
10 0 -6
10 10 10
-5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5

Figure 5. The normalized intensity distribution of HE31 under 1–200 MPa stress in the y direction.
Figure 5. The normalized intensity distribution of HE31 under 1–200 MPa stress in the y direction.
 0 0 0
5 5 5
5 5 5
-6 0 -6 0 -6 0
10 0 -6
10 0 -6
10 0 -6
10 10 10
-5 -5 -5 -5 -5 -5

Figure 5. The normalized intensity distribution of HE31 under 1–200 MPa stress in the y direction. 9 of 16
Crystals 2019, 9, 128

Crystal 2019, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 16

cross-section changed with increasing stress. Since the ringlike energy distribution changed with
increasing stress,
Figure 6. the distribution
Intensity ringlike intensity distribution
of the axis of in
cross-section any single-mode
HE31 mode undervortex beam
the 1–200 was
MPa no in
stress longer
Figure
regular,
the yand6. it
Intensity distribution
generated
direction. of the axis cross-section in HE31 mode under the 1–200 MPa stress in
distortion.
the y direction.
1MPa 40MPa 80MPa
Figure 5 shows the normalized intensity distribution of HE31 under 1–200 MPa stress in the y
direction. The xy plane represents the fiber core’s cross-section, and the z-axis represents the
normalized intensity of the HE31 mode. Figure 6 illustrates the intensity distribution of the axis
cross-section in HE31 mode under the same situation. The intensity distribution of HE31 under the
different stresses were almost the same, but the peak value of intensity distribution in the middle

120MPa 160MPa 200MPa

Figure 7. The normalized intensity distribution for the even mode of HE31 under 1–200 MPa stress in
Figure 7. The normalized intensity distribution for the even mode of HE31 under 1–200 MPa stress in
the y direction.
the y direction.
Figure 10a–f shows the phase distribution of HE31 mode under 1–200 MPa stress in the y direction.
As the pressure increases, the isophase line becomes gradually irregular. However, phase distribution
1MPa 40MPa
of HE31 satisfied phase characteristics of the OAM mode, and we concluded that the phase is insensitive 80MPa
to stress disturbances. Figure 11a–f shows the phase distribution of HE31 even and odd modes under
the same situation. The first row represents even mode phase results, and the last row represents odd
mode phase results. Figure 11 shows that phase distortion of HE31 even and odd modes worsened
with increasing stress, and the phase difference between odd and even modes was π/4. The isophase
lines in phase distribution were no longer smooth. With stress increase, the phase ambiguity of
optical fiber became gradually serious, indicating that phase distortion was more serious. The phase
distribution diagram shows that optical fiber can maintain stable OAM mode transmission within the
selected stress range.
120MPa 160MPa 200MPa
 Figure 7. The normalized intensity distribution for the even mode of HE31 under 1–200 MPa stress in
Crystals 2019, 9,the y direction.
128 10 of 16

1MPa 40MPa 80MPa

Crystal 2019, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 16

120MPa 160MPa 200MPa

Figure 8. The normalized intensity distribution for the odd mode of HE31 under 1–200 MPa stress in
Figure 8. The normalized intensity distribution for the odd mode of HE31 under 1–200 MPa stress in
Crystal 2019, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 16
the y direction.
the y direction.

Figure 9. The intensity distribution of the axis cross-section in even and odd modes of HE31 under 1–
200 MPa stress in the y direction.

Figures 7 and 8 illustrate the normalized intensity distribution for even and odd modes of HE31
under 1–200 MPa stress in the y direction. The intensity distribution for even and odd modes have
the same shape for the one OAM mode, but the peak value in the middle of the even and modes’
cross-section changed in opposite tendency with increasing stress. The strength lobes of odd and
even modes were complementary, thus the strength distribution of the OAM mode was comprised
by superposition, which presented a ring distribution. Figure 9 shows the intensity distribution in
the axis cross-section of HE31 under the same situation, HE31e and HE31o are even and odd modes,
respectively. The abscissa represents the fiber’s core scale, and the ordinate represents mode
intensity. As stress is impacted in the vertical direction, HE31e surface strength was no longer flat.
Figure 9. The9.intensity
Figure The distribution
intensity distributionofofthe axiscross-section
cross-section
thegradually
axis in even
in even andmodes
odd of
andincreasing
odd modes
HE31 of HE31
under under
The quartered petal-shaped distribution separated with stress, and the1–top of
1–200 200 MPa
MPa stress
stress in in the
the y y direction.
direction.
the quartered distribution became irregular.

Figures 7 and 8 illustrate the normalized intensity distribution for even and odd modes of HE31
under 1–200 MPa stress in the y direction. The intensity distribution for even and odd modes have
the same shape for the one OAM mode, but the peak value in the middle of the even and modes’
cross-section changed in opposite tendency with increasing stress. The strength lobes of odd and
even modes were complementary, thus the strength distribution of the OAM mode was comprised
by superposition, which presented a ring distribution. Figure 9 shows the intensity distribution in
the axis cross-section of HE31 under the same situation, HE31e and HE31o are even and odd modes,
respectively. The abscissa represents the fiber’s core scale, and the ordinate represents mode
intensity. As stress is impacted in the vertical direction, HE31e surface strength was no longer flat.
The quartered (a)petal-shaped
1 MPa distribution gradually separated with increasing(c)
(b) 40 MPa stress, and the top of
80 MPa
the quartered distribution became irregular.

(d) 120 MPa (e) 160 MPa (f) 200 MPa

(a)Figure
Figure 110.
MPa 10. Phase
Phase distributionofofHE31
distribution HE31 under
40 MPa1–200
(b) under 1–200MPa
MPastress in the
stress inythe
direction.
(c) y
80direction.
MPa

Figure 10a–f shows the phase distribution of HE31 mode under 1–200 MPa stress in the y
direction. As the pressure increases, the isophase line becomes gradually irregular. However, phase
and odd modes under the same situation. The first row represents even mode phase results, and the
last row represents odd mode phase results. Figure 11 shows that phase distortion of HE31 even and
odd modes worsened with increasing stress, and the phase difference between odd and even modes
was π/4. The isophase lines in phase distribution were no longer smooth. With stress increase, the
phase ambiguity of optical fiber became gradually serious, indicating that phase distortion was more
Crystals 2019, 9, 128 11 of 16
serious. The phase distribution diagram shows that optical fiber can maintain stable OAM mode
Crystal 2019, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 16
transmission within the selected stress range.
distribution of HE31 satisfied phase characteristics of the OAM mode, and we concluded that the
phase is insensitive to stress disturbances. Figure 11a–f shows the phase distribution of HE31 even
and odd modes under the same situation. The first row represents even mode phase results, and the
last row represents odd mode phase results. Figure 11 shows that phase distortion of HE31 even and
odd modes worsened with increasing stress, and the phase difference between odd and even modes
was π/4. The isophase lines in phase distribution were no longer smooth. With stress increase, the
phase ambiguity of optical fiber became gradually serious, indicating that phase distortion was more
serious. The phase distribution diagram shows that optical fiber can maintain stable OAM mode
transmission within the selected stress range.
(a) 1 MPa (b) 40 MPa (c) 80 MPa (d) 120 MPa (e) 160 MPa (f) 200 MPa

Figure
Figure 11.
11. Phase distribution of
Phase distribution of HE31
HE31 even
evenand
andodd
oddmodes
modesunder
underthe
thestress
stressfrom
from 1 MPa
1 MPa to to 200
200 MPa
MPa in
in
thethe y direction.
y direction.

3.2.2. Polarization
3.2.2. Polarization
Figure 12 shows the polarization distribution of HE31 mode under stress from 1MPa to 200 MPa in
the y direction. In Figure 12, ellipticity represents polarization intensity [29], and change of polarization
intensity in the vertical direction was faster than that in the horizontal direction. In Figure 12a,
the ellipse shapes were almost perfect circles, indicating that the OAM mode synthesized by HEe
(a) 1in
± iHEo MPathe fiber(b)was
40 MPa
almost only (c)LCP
80 MPa (d) RCP
light (or the 120 MPa (e) 160 MPathe ellipticities
light). However, (f) 200 MPa
of the
ellipses in Figure 12b were slightly larger, meaning that the light synthesized by HE31e
Figure 11. Phase distribution of HE31 even and odd modes under the stress from 1 MPa to 200 MPa
± iHE31o in
the fiber was
in the composed
y direction. of both LCP light and RCP light. Thus, this synthesized light contains SAM
(a) 1 MPa (b) 40 MPa (c) 80 MPa (d) 120 MPa (e) 160 MPa (f) 200 MPa
and OAM. Ellipticities in Figure 4c–f are obvious, and were even larger, meaning that polarization of
Figure 12. Polarization distribution of HE31 increased
mode under stress from 1MPa to 200 MPa in the y
3.2.2.
the Polarization
synthesized OAM mode in fiber gradually with stress.
direction.

Figure 12 shows the polarization distribution of HE31 mode under stress from 1MPa to 200
MPa in the y direction. In Figure 12, ellipticity represents polarization intensity [29], and change of
polarization intensity in the vertical direction was faster than that in the horizontal direction. In
Figure 12a, the ellipse shapes were almost perfect circles, indicating that the OAM mode synthesized
by HEe ± iHEo in the fiber was almost only LCP light (or the RCP light). However, the ellipticities of
the ellipses in Figure(b)
(a) 1 MPa 12b
40 were
MPa slightly(c) larger,
80 MPa meaning thatMPa
(d) 120 the light synthesized
(e) 160 MPa by HE31e(f) 200±MPa
iHE31o
in the fiber was composed of both LCP light and RCP light. Thus, this synthesized light contains
Figure 12.
12.Polarization
Polarizationdistribution
distribution of HE31
of HE31 mode
mode under
under stressstress from 1MPa MPa
from 1MPa to 200 MPa in the y
y direction.
SAMFigure
and OAM. Ellipticities in Figure 4c–f are obvious, and wereto 200 in the
even larger, meaning that
direction.
polarization of the synthesized OAM mode in fiber gradually increased with stress.
3.2.3. Loss Characteristics
Figure 12 shows the polarization
factor distribution of HE31
fiber mode under stress
signalfrom 1MPa which
to 200
3.2.3.Dispersion is an important
Loss Characteristics causing optical transmission distortion,
MPa in the y direction. In Figure 12, ellipticity represents polarization intensity
leads to communication quality decline and limited communication capacity. In optical fiber design, [29], and change of
Dispersion
polarization is an
intensity important
in the factor
vertical causing
direction optical
was fiber
faster transmission
than that in thesignal distortion,
horizontal
dispersion characteristics of optical fiber should be as flat as possible. According to [30], dispersion which
direction. In
leads
can betocalculated
Figure communication
12a, the ellipse quality
usingshapes
the decline
were
followingalmostand limited
perfect
formula: communication
circles, indicating that capacity. In optical
the OAM modefiber design,
synthesized
dispersion
by HEe ± iHEocharacteristics
in the fiberofwas
optical fiber
almost should
only LCP be as (or
light flatthe
as possible.
RCP light). According
However,tothe[30], dispersion
ellipticities of
can be calculated
the ellipses using
in Figure 12bthe following
were slightlyformula:
larger, meaning that the light synthesized by HE31e ± iHE31o
h i
2
λ d Re ne f f
in the fiber was composed of both LCPDlight = − and2 RCP2 light. Thus, this synthesized light contains (18)
dλ n 
SAM and OAM. Ellipticities in Figure 4c–fλare
c d Re
D= − 
obvious, eff  and were even larger, meaning that
(18)
polarization
Figure of the
13 shows synthesized
dispersion as aOAM modeofinwavelength
function d λ 2 for different
cfiber gradually increasedmodes
with stress.
under different stress
values. Dispersion of the new type C-PCF increased with stress variation, and the higher order
3.2.3. Loss
mode Characteristics
was larger than the lower order mode. Dispersion is insensitive to pressure changes (the same
colorDispersion
represent the same
is an mode under
important factordifferent
causingstress),
opticalsofiber
the designed optical
transmission fiberdistortion,
signal could keepwhich
good
dispersion properties.
leads to communication quality decline and limited communication capacity. In optical fiber design,
dispersion characteristics of optical fiber should be as flat as possible. According to [30], dispersion
can be calculated using the following formula:

λ d Re  neff 
2

D= − (18)
c dλ2
Figure 13 shows dispersion as a function of wavelength for different modes under different stress
values. Dispersion of the new type C-PCF increased with stress variation, and the higher order mode
was larger than the lower order mode. Dispersion is insensitive to pressure changes (the same color
represent
Crystals 2019,the same mode under different stress), so the designed optical fiber could keep 12
9, 128 good
of 16
dispersion properties.
Crystal 2019, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16

Figure 13 shows dispersion as a function of wavelength for different modes under different stress
values. Dispersion of the new type C-PCF increased with stress variation, and the higher order mode
was larger than the lower order mode. Dispersion is insensitive to pressure changes (the same color
represent the same mode under different stress), so the designed optical fiber could keep good
dispersion properties.

Figure
Figure 13.
13. Dispersion
Dispersionas
asaa function
function of
of wavelength
wavelength for
for different
different modes.
modes.

In
In the
the PCF
PCF structure,
structure, due
due to
to transverse
transverse distribution
distribution limitation,
limitation, there
there is
is confinement
confinement loss
loss in
in fiber
fiber
structure,
structure, which
which is
is mainly
mainly determined
determinedby bythe
theimaginary
imaginarypart
partof
ofthe
theeffective
effectiverefractive
refractiveindex
index[31,32].
[31,32].
The
The calculation
calculation formula
formula isis as
as follows:
follows:

2π2π 2020 1066 Im(

= LL = λ ln(10)10 e f f))((dB/m
Im(neff dB / m) ) (19)
(19)
λ asln(10)
Figure 13. Dispersion a function of wavelength for different modes.

Figure 14a shows confinement loss as a function of stress for different modes, and Figure 14b
In the PCF structure, due to transverse distribution limitation, there is confinement loss in fiber
shows confinement loss as a function of length for different modes under 100 MPa stress in the y
structure, which is mainly determined by the imaginary part of the effective refractive index [31,32].
- -
3 2
10 10
direction. Confinement loss increases with stress variation, and increases with wavelength variation.
The calculation formula is as follows:
The loss in the lower order mode was smaller than that in - higher order mode, indicating that the lower
HE11-0

2π 14,20
4
- 10

HE1110 Im( neff ) ( dB / m )

5
order 10
mode was more stable. In Figure the solid line shows fiber confinement loss without
HE21-0
stress,
= L 6
HE31-0
(19)
while the dotted line shows confinement λ ln(10)
lossHE21
under 100- 6MPa stress. Fiber has a low confinement loss
Confinement loss(dB/m)

EH11-0
Confinement loss(dB/m)

10 EH21-0
and can
10
- provide good quality OAM modes. HE31
7 HE41-0
EH11 HE11-100
EH21 -
- 8
- HE21-100
3 10 2
10 HE41 10 HE31-100
-
9 EH11-100
10
- EH21-100
10
-
10 4 HE11-0
HE41-100
-
5 10
10 HE21-0
- HE31-0
11 HE11
10
Confinement loss(dB/m)

-
1 50 12 EH11-0
100 150 200 HE21 10 - 6
Confinement loss(dB/m)

10 1.1 1.4 1.7 2.0 EH21-0

- Stress(MPa) HE31
10
7 Wavelength(μm) HE41-0
EH11 HE11-100
(a) EH21
10
-
8 (b) HE21-100
HE41 HE31-100
-
Figure
10
9
14. (a) Confinement loss as a function of stress for different modes, and (b) confinement loss
EH11-100
- EH21-100
as a function of length for different modes under 100 MPa stress in the y direction.
10
10 HE41-100

-
11
Figure1 14a 50shows confinement loss 200
as a function 10 of stress for different modes, and Figure 14b
10 -
12
100 150

shows confinement loss as a function of length for different modes under 100 MPa stress in the y
Stress(MPa) 1.1 1.4 1.7 2.0
Wavelength(μm)
direction. Confinement loss (a)increases with stress variation, and increases (b) with wavelength variation.
The loss in the lower order mode was smaller than that in higher order mode, indicating that the
Figure
lowerFigure 14.
order14.
mode(a) Confinement
(a) Confinement lossas
loss
was more stable. asaInafunction
function
Figure ofofstress
14, stress
forfordifferent
the solid different modes,
modes,
line shows and
fiberand
(b)(b) confinement
confinement
confinement lossloss
loss as
without
aasfunction
a function of length
of length forfor different
different modes
modes under
under 100100
MPaMPa stress
stress in the
in the y direction.
y direction.

Figure
The 14a shows
nonlinear confinement
effect loss isasalso
in optical fiber a function of stress
one of the for different
main factors modes,
affecting and Figure
the quality 14b
of mode
shows confinement loss as a function of length for different modes under 100 MPa stress in the y
transmission. A large effective mode field area is conducive to restraining the nonlinear effect in optical
direction.
fiber. Confinement
Therefore, loss increases
it is necessary with fiber
to generate stressstructure
variation, andaincreases
with with wavelength
large effective variation.
mode field area as far
The loss in the lower order mode was smaller than that in higher order mode, indicating that the
lower order mode was more stable. In Figure 14, the solid line shows fiber confinement loss without
 Crystals 2019, 9, 128 13 of 16

as possible, so as to improve the quality of mode transmission. The area of the effective mode field can
be obtained by the following formula [33]:

 2 !2
R R * 
 E ( x, y) dxdy
 
Ae f f =  4 (20)
R R * 
 E ( x, y) dxdy
 

The formula for calculating the nonlinear coefficient is:

2πn2
γ= (21)
λAe f f

Figure 15a shows effective mode area as a function of stress for different modes, and Figure 15b
shows an effective mode area as a function of wavelength for different modes under 100 MPa stress in
the y direction. Effective mode area decreased with increasing stress, and increased with increasing
wavelength. Compared to the higher order mode, the effective mode area of the lower order mode
was not sensitive stress. Figure 16a shows the nonlinear parameter as a function of stress for different
modes, and Figure 16b shows the nonlinear parameter as a function of wavelength for different
Crystal 2019, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 16
modes under 100 MPa stress in the y direction. Nonlinear parameter increased with increasing stress,
while it decreased with increasing wavelength. The variation trend of the nonlinear parameter was the
stress, while the dotted line shows confinement loss under 100 MPa stress. Fiber has a low
opposite to that of the effective mode area. Higher order modes were more sensitive to wavelength.
confinement loss and can provide good quality OAM modes.
38 40

38
)
)

2
2

36 HE11-0
HE21-0
36
HE31-0
HE11
Effective mode area(μm

EH11-0
Effective mode area(μm

34 HE21
34 EH21-0
HE31
HE41-0
EH11
32 HE11-100
EH21
32 HE21-100
HE41
HE31-100
30
EH11-100

30 EH21-100
28 HE41-100

26
28
1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
1 40 80 120 160 200
Wavelength(μm)
Stress(MPa)

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure15.15.(a)
(a)Effective
Effectivemode
modearea
areaasasaafunction
functionofofstress
stressfor
fordifferent
differentmodes,
modes,andand(b)
(b)effective
effectivemode
mode
area
areaasasaafunction
functionofofwavelength
wavelengthfor
fordifferent
differentmodes
modesunder
under100100MPa
MPastress
stressin
inthe
theyydirection.
direction.

3.3. The
Stress-Induced
nonlinear Birefringence
effect in optical fiber is also one of the main factors affecting the quality of mode
transmission.
The modal A large effective mode
birefringence field area isparameter
is an important conducivefor to reflecting
restrainingOAMthe nonlinear effect in
fiber performance.
optical
Figure fiber. Therefore,
17 shows it is necessary
the stress-induced to generateoffiber
birefringence structure
the vector with
modes asaa large effective
function mode
of stress. field
It shows
area as far as possible, so as to improve the quality of mode transmission. The area
that stress-induced birefringence increased with increasing stress. Birefringence in the lower orderof the effective
mode
modefield
wascan be obtained
larger than thatby inthe
thefollowing formula
higher order mode. [33]:The difference of effective refractive indices

(∫ ∫ )
between even and odd modes decides the stress-induced birefringence.
2 The higher order model
E ( x, order
y ) dxdy
2
had smaller birefringence compared to the lower model, so it had better stress resistance.
Birefringence curves of the same mode =
Aeff group were close to each other, while birefringence curves (20) of

E (the )
4
different mode groups were separated. Therefore, x, yeffectdxdy
of ∫∫
stress-induced birefringence should be
considered in MDM systems.
The formula for calculating the nonlinear coefficient is:

2π n2
γ= (21)
λ Aeff

3.4 5.5
 The formula for calculating the nonlinear coefficient is:

2π n2
γ= (21)
λ Aeff
Crystals 2019, 9, 128 14 of 16

/km) 3.4 5.5

/km)
Crystal
3.22019, 6, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5
HE11-0 14 of 16
1

1
HE21-0
HE31-0
Figure
3
15a shows effective mode areaHE11 as a function of stress for different modes, andEH11-0
HE21
Figure 15b
4.5
shows an effective mode area as a function of wavelength for different modes under 100 HE41-0 MPa stress
EH21-0
Nonlinear coefficient(w

Nonlinear coefficient(w
HE31
EH11
in the
2.8
y direction. Effective mode areaEH21decreased with increasing stress, and increased HE11-100
with
4 HE21-100
increasing wavelength. Compared to the higher order mode, the effective mode area ofHE31-100
HE41
the lower
order mode was not sensitive stress. Figure 16a shows the nonlinear parameter as a function of stress
EH11-100

2.6 EH21-100
3.5
for different modes, and Figure 16b shows the nonlinear parameter as a function of wavelength HE41-100
for
different
2.4
modes under 100MPa stress in the y direction. Nonlinear parameter increased with
3
increasing
1 stress,
40 while120it decreased
80 160 200 with increasing 1.2 wavelength.
1.4 1.6The variation
1.8 2.0 trend of the
Stress(MPa) Wavelength(μm)
nonlinear parameter was the opposite to that of the effective mode area. Higher order modes were
(a)
more sensitive to wavelength. (b)
Figure
Figure16.
16.(a)
(a)Nonlinear
Nonlinearparameter
parameterasasa afunction
functionofofstress
stressfor
fordifferent
differentmodes,
modes,and
and(b)
(b)nonlinear
nonlinear
3.3. Stress-Induced
parameter
parameter Birefringence
asasaafunction
function ofofwavelength
wavelengthfor
fordifferent
differentmodes
modesunder
under100
100MPa
MPastress
stressin
inthe
theyy direction.
direction.
-2
10

-4
10
Mode birefringence

-6
10

HE11
HE21
-8 HE31
10
EH11
EH21
HE41
-10
10
1 40 80 120 160 200
Stress(MPa)

Figure 17.17.Modal
Figure Modalbirefringence ofof
birefringence vector modes
vector asas
modes a function ofof
a function stress inin
stress the y direction.
the y direction.
4. Conclusions
The modal birefringence is an important parameter for reflecting OAM fiber performance.
Figure 17 shows
In this article,the stress-induced
a complete birefringence
numerical of the
dispersion vector
theory modes as a in
framework, function
relationof to
stress. It shows
processing
thatfiber
PCF stress-induced
birefringence birefringence
patterns, is increased
established. with
Weincreasing
deducted the stress. Birefringence
mathematical in the
model forlower
the OAM order
mode was larger than that in the higher order mode. The difference of effective refractive indices
mechanism, which can now be used to calculate stress birefringence of any irregularly shaped fiber
between
core. even andthe
Furthermore, odd modes
model wasdecides
simulatedthe stress-induced birefringence.
by structural mechanics The higher
and wave optics order
modules model
using had
smaller birefringence compared to the lower order model, so it had better stress resistance.
the COMSOL software. Considering that fiber core symmetry changed due to fiber force, conclusions
Birefringence
can curves of
be drawn through thethe sametheoretical
above mode group were close
calculation andtosimulation
each other,analysis,
while birefringence
and verifiedcurves
by theof
different mode
transmission groups were
characteristics separated. Therefore,
of hollow-core the effect
C-PCF. At first, of stress-induced
the intensity and phase birefringence
of the OAM modes should
be considered in MDM systems.
remain relatively stable within the range of actual stress. For another, this kind of new designed
hollow-core C-PCF could keep a low loss under stress. Modal birefringence for the hollow-core
4. Conclusions
C-PCF is sensitive to stress. The study of transmission characteristics provides basic theoretical
research for mode division multiplexing, and improves the quality and performance of optical fiber
In this article, a complete numerical dispersion theory framework, in relation to processing PCF
communication systems.
fiber birefringence patterns, is established. We deducted the mathematical model for the OAM
mechanism,
Author which can
Contributions: now be used
Methodology, to calculate
X.Y.; software, stress
H.Z.; birefringence
validation, of any
G.Z.; formal irregularly
analysis, shapedG.Z.
X.Y.; resources, fiber
core.
and H.Z.;Furthermore,
writing—originalthe draft
model was simulated
preparation, by structural
X.Y.; funding acquisition,mechanics
G.Z. X.X. andand wave
H.Z.; optics modules
writing-review and
usingX.Y.
editing, theand
COMSOL
H.L. software. Considering that fiber core symmetry changed due to fiber force,
conclusions can be drawn
Funding: This work was through
supported by thethe above Natural
National theoretical calculation
Science Foundationand of simulation
China (NSFC) analysis,
[61571057, and
61527820, 61575082].
verified by the transmission characteristics of hollow-core C-PCF. At first, the intensity and phase of
the OAM modes remain relatively stable within the range of actual stress. For another, this kind of
new designed hollow-core C-PCF could keep a low loss under stress. Modal birefringence for the
hollow-core C-PCF is sensitive to stress. The study of transmission characteristics provides basic
theoretical research for mode division multiplexing, and improves the quality and performance of
optical fiber communication systems.
Crystals 2019, 9, 128 15 of 16

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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