DEPT OF GEOLOGY

JOGAMAYA DEVI COLLEGE

Chapter – 4

Groundwater Energy and Hydraulic Head

Groundwater possesses mechanical energy, thermal energy and chemical energy, of

which mechanical energy is most important. Mechanical energy has the dimension
L2MT–2 and its SI unit is joules. Three types of mechanical energy are required to be
considered in the study of water motion: gravitational potential energy, energy of water
pressure, and kinetic energy.

4.1 Gravitational potential energy and elevation head

It is the potential energy of a mass of water caused by the position of its centre of gravity
at an elevation above a reference plane. If mass of the water is m and its elevation above

a datum plane is z, then its gravitational potential energy Eg will be:

Eg  zmg
The gravitational potential energy per unit weight of the water is known as its elevation
head, he. It is measured as follows:

Eg zmg
he   z
mg mg
L.MLT 2
Its dimension is: 2
 L , and SI unit is metre. (Both same as elevation)
MLT

Year 3, Part - III, Paper 8, Unit – I, Group A

 GROUNDWATER ENERGY AND HYDRAULIC HEAD

4.2 Energy of water pressure and pressure head

It is the potential energy of a mass of water caused by the pressure exerted on it by

surrounding water masses. For a mass of water at pressure P and having volume V, the

energy of water pressure Ep will be:

E p  PV
The energy of water perssure per unit weight of the water is known as its pressure
head, hp. It is measured as follows:

Ep PV P P
hp    
mg mg m g ρ g
V
Here ρ is the density of the water.

MLT 2 .L2
The dimension of hP is: 3 2
 L , and SI unit is metre.
ML .LT

4.3 Kinetic energy and velocity head

The energy of a mass of water caused by the motion of water particles is its kinetic
energy. If mass of the water is m and its velocity is v, then its kinetic energy Ek will
be:

1 2
Ek  mv
2
The kinetic energy per unit weight of the water is known as its velocity head, hv. It is
measured as follows:

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1 2
mv
EK 2 v2
hv   
mg mg 2g
Its dimension is: (ML2T–2)/(MLT–2) = L, and SI unit is metre.

4.4 Total mechanical energy of a moving water and hydraulic head

The total mechanical energy of a mass of water, E, is the sum of its gravitational
potential energy, energy of water pressure, and kinetic energy.

E  Eg  E p  Ek
When the water particles move in straight, parallel paths, the flow is called laminar.
With increase of velocity, a certain condition is reached when the flow is no longer
laminar – the particles move along erratic, irregular paths. Such a flow is known as
turbulent flow. For a steady, laminar flow of and incompressible water, the total
mechanical energy of a mass of water is constant.

The hydraulic head of water, denoted as ht or h, is its total mechanical energy per unit
weight. It is the sum of elevation head, pressure head and velocity head:

P v2
h  he  hp  hv  z  
g 2 g
Another way to express hydraulic head is to measure the height to which water can raise
itself above a datum level due to its total mechanical energy. The water flows from the
places of higher hydraulic head to that of lower hydraulic head.

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4.5. Spatial variation of groundwater energy and hydraulic head:

groundwater flow

The amount of energy of groundwater in an aquifer may vary from place to place,
forcing groundwater to move from high energy zone to low energy zone. The
mechanical energy is the most important controlling factor of groundwater flow – the
lateral and vertical variations of hydraulic head in an aquifer gives rise to horizontal and
vertical flows of groundwater respectively. Since the hydraulic head of the aquifer at a
point is indicative of the total mechanical energy of groundwater at that point, field
measurement of hydraulic head at different locations and levels in an aquifer is
necessary for determination of the energy gradient and consequent groundwater flow.

A piezometer is used to measure the total energy and hydraulic head of groundwater in
the field. It consists of a hollow vertical casing with a short well screen or section of a
slotted pipe at the end (Fig. 4.1). Water from the aquifer enters into the piezometer pipe
at the bottom end, while the screen or slotted pipe prevents the entry of the aquifer
material (sand, silt, clay etc.) into the pipe. The top end of the piezometer is open, so
that water entering in the tube from the aquifer can rise freely into it. The water level in
the piezometer is directly proportional to the hydraulic head: higher is the total hydraulic
head at a point in the aquifer, higher is the water level in the piezometer. Thus the total
hydraulic head at any point in the aquifer can be measured from the piezometer water
level.

4.5.1. Measurement of energy gradient in an aquifer: (After Nielsen & Nielsen 2007)

Figure 4.1 illustrates a case where two piezometers A and B are used to measure the
hydraulic heads at a site in an aquifer at higher and lower elevations respectively. The
total hydraulic head in both cases has two components: elevation head and pressure
head.

For piezometer A, The elevation head (he in the figure) at point P is 7 m. Pressure head

(hp in the figure) at point P is 6 m. Note that hp is measured inside the piezometer and
corresponds to the distance between point P and the water level in the piezometer. Total

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 GROUNDWATER ENERGY AND HYDRAULIC HEAD

hydraulic head (ht in the figure) = the sum of elevation head and pressure head = 13 m
relative to the datum.

For piezometer B, The hydraulic head measured similarly is found to be 14 m.

Energy gradient: In this case, a downward vertical energy gradient therefore exists
between the shallower piezometer (B) and the deeper piezometer (A) because total
hydraulic head decreases from top to bottom.

4.6. Water level in wells: water table and potentiometric surface

When a well or bore hole taps or intersects an aquifer, the water level in them depends
on the total hydraulic head of groundwater in that aquifer: higher the hydraulic head,
higher the water level in the well or drill hole and vice versa.

In case of unconfined aquifers, the water level in the wells will be equal to the water
table (Fig. 4.2). (Some authors use the term water table aquifer as a synonym of
unconfined aquifer). On the other hand, when a tightly cased well taps a confined
aquifer piercing through its upper confining layer, the water level in the wells may rise
to an elevation higher than the upper boundary of the aquifer (Fig. 4.3). If the water
levels of all the wells tapping the confined aquifer are plotted in a map and contoured,
the surface obtained is called a potentiometric surface. It is defined as follows.

Potentiometric/piezometric/piestic surface: It is the imaginary surface extending

through the water levels of the wells tapping a confined aquifer. It is the map of
the hydraulic head of that aquifer, as it indicates the value of hydraulic head at
different points on the aquifer.

Where the potentiometric surface of an aquifer is above the upper boundary of the
aquifer, the well tapping a confined aquifer is an artesian well (Fig. 4.3). The water
level in such a well stands at some height above the top of the aquifer, but not
necessarily above the land surface (Fetter 2000, Poehls & Smith 2009).

It may be mentioned here that, some authors use the term artesian aquifer as a
synonym of confined aquifer.

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Where the potentiometric surface of an aquifer is above the ground surface, the well
tapping a confined aquifer is a flowing artesian well or flowing well in which water
reaches the surface from the well casing without the need of a pump (Fig. 4.3).

In many multi-layered aquifer systems, an unconfined aquifer may be underlain by one

or more confined aquifers (Fig. 4.4, 4.5). In such cases, the water table may be confused
with the potentiometric surface. The shallower wells in this system may have their bases
above the confining layers and tap the unconfined aquifers. Their water levels indicate
the water table. The deeper wells, on the other hand, may pierce through the confining
layers and intersect the underlying confined aquifers. Their water levels will represent
the potentiometric surfaces. If the shallower wells have higher water levels, as in the
case of Fig. 4.4, then the potentiometric surface underlies water table and the hydraulic
head of unconfined aquifer is greater than that of confined aquifer. If, on the other hand,
the deeper wells have higher water levels, as in the case of Fig. 4.5, then the
potentiometric surface overlies the water table and the hydraulic head of confined
aquifer is greater than that of unconfined aquifer.

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DEPT OF GEOLOGY
JOGAMAYA DEVI COLLEGE

Fig. 4.1. Hydraulic-head relationship at a field piezometer. (Nielsen & Nielsen 2007).

Year 3, Part - III, Paper 8, Unit – I, Group A

 GROUNDWATER ENERGY AND HYDRAULIC HEAD

Fig. 4.2. Water level in a well (shown by black colour) in an unconfined aquifer. (Fetter 2000)

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Fig. 4.3.Water levels in wells in a confined aquifer (shown by black colour) and flowing well. (Fetter 2000)

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 GROUNDWATER ENERGY AND HYDRAULIC HEAD

Fig. 4.4. Multilayered aquifer system with water table of unconfined aquifer at higher elevation than potentiometric surface of
underlying confined aquifer. Shallower wells have higher water levels. (Nielsen & Nielsen 2007)

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 GROUNDWATER ENERGY AND HYDRAULIC HEAD

Fig. 4.5. Multilayered aquifer system with water table of unconfined aquifer at lower elevation than potentiometric surface of
underlying confined aquifer. Deeper wells have higher water levels. (Nielsen & Nielsen 2007)

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