Filtration

Filtration process comes usually after flocculation. It is simply mean passing water
through porous media like sand through which large portion of impurities can be retained
in the media while water goes out more clarified. Most of (80 – 95%) colloidal particle
are removed in filtration, so as taste, color, and odor. The two major phenomena occur in
filtration (in filter media) are adsorption (particle adhere due to electrostatic charges) and
physical retention. As the filter works filtering water, its media get clogged with the
retained particles causing more head loss for water flow conditions that is reflected as
rising water level (pressure) in the upstream side of the filter media. To overcome this
head loss, filters have to be cleaned out of the impurities retained by back wash. There
are three major types of filters:-
1- Slow Sand Filter 2- Rapid Sand Filter 3- Pressure Filter
Properties slow sand filter rapid sand filter pressure filter

Head of the water above the bed of 0.9-1.6 (m) 0.9-1.6 (m)
sand (m)

Velocity water (m/hr) (rate of 0.1-0.4 (m) 4-6 (m) 12-6 (m)
filtration) .

Effective size of sand particles 0.25-0.35 0.45-0.55

(mm) (sieve size that permits

10% of sand by weight to
pass).
Uniformity coefficient (ratio 2-3  1.5
between the sieve size that will
pass 60% & the effective size
(D60/D10).
Thickness of sand bed. 1-1.5 m 80 cm

Thickness of gravel bed. 0.3-0.5 m 38-60 cm

Head loss > 1m >3 m

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  Slow Sand Filter
Usually successive six layers of sand over gravel to be installed. Its efficiency is very
good but it needs relatively large area and cannot be backwashed, its cleaning requires
removing about 0.5 – 5.
Rate (0.4-1.5)m/hr.
Run (40-60) day.
Depth of sand layer (1-1.4) m
Depth of rectangular layer (0.3 m)
Under drained pipes
Depth of water above sand layer (1.25-2 m) , thus we decide to clean the filter .
Time of cleaning (1-2 day).
Length of run (40-60) day.

 Rapid Sand Filter

Usually used for water pretreated with coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation.
Can be backwashed (easily cleaned).
Flow rate(5-10) m/hr (120-240) m/day or more .
Cleaning the bed is by reverse flow of filtered water .
Time of cleaning = (5-10) min

 Pressure Filter
It is a kind of Rapid Sand Filter but in closed container to subject a pressure more
than atmospheric pressure. It Works under pressures of 8 – 10 bars to cause water passes
under pressure to get relatively high velocity. Used usually for industrial proposes and in
cases of low capacities with land area minimization trends. It could be vertical or
horizontal.
Sand bed (60-75) cm, gravel bed (0.45-0.6) m
D10(0.45-0.55), (D60/D10) (1.25-1.35) as rapid sand filter
Rate of filtration  15 m/hr = 360 m/day .

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Properties slow sand filter rapid sand filter
(rate of filtration) (m/hr). (0.4-1.5)m/hr=(1-4) m/d. )5-10) (120-240) m/d
Length of run (40-60) day. )24-48)hrs
Effective size of sand (0.1-0.3)mm (0.45-0.55)mm
Uniformity coefficient (2-3) (1.25-1.35)
Area (size unit) (2000-6000)m2 (4*5 to 8*10) m2
Depth of sand layer (1-1.4) m )0.6-0.75) m
Depth of gravel layer (0.25-0.3)m (0.45-0.6) m
Effective size of G.L (5-50)mm
Under drained system Covered with blocks Manifolded lateral wheeler
open joined pipe bottom
Depth of water above sand (0.9-1.6), when depth is Diffuser plate (0.9-1.6)m
between (1.25-2) filter may
be cleaned.
Time of cleaning (5-10)min
Method of cleaning Scraping of washing of the Back washing
top layer of sand of thickness
about (12-50) mm.
Cost of operation higher Lower
Cost of construction Lower higher
Water required for (0.2-0.6) % of water filtered (2) % of water filtered
cleaning
Preparation treatment Plain sedimentation Flocculation & sedimentation
Loss of head (0.1-1) m. (0.2-3) m.

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 Back wash water
Inlet water

Air relief valve

Pressure gauge

500 mm

60 cm
sand

Filtered water
gravel
46 cm

Back wash water

Pressure filter

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Hydraulics of filter:
h
The earliest formula due to Darcy is : feed
h V
        (1)" Darcy' sLaw V
 K
Filter media
h  loss of head in bed of depth () 
  filter depth
V  velocity, k  coefficient of permeability
Filtered water

Rose (1945)
h V2 1
 1.067C D * 4 .......... .......... .......( 2)
 g .d . f
vol.of .voids
f  bed. porosity 
total.vol.
A0 surface..area..of ..sphere
  particals..shape.. factor    
A actual..surface..area..of .. partical
d  charecteristic..diameter..of ..bed.. particles
24 3
C D  Newton' sdrag..coefficient    0.34
Re Re

Carman – kozeny eq. (1937):

h 1 f V 3
E 3 . .......... .......... .......... ...(3)
 f g.d .

1  f 
E  150   1.75
 e 
R
 6V 
d  
 A  for..spherical.. partical

  1 

6V
for.other..shape....... d 
A

Then , from eq. (2)& eq.(3) ,the result is :

h V 2 A
 0.178.CD 4
.
 g. f V
h 1  f  V 2 A
 E
 f 3 
. g . 6V
  

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Typical values of () (practical shape factor):-

Material 
mica flaks ‫قشريات‬ 0.28
crushed glass ‫زجاج كسر‬ 0.65
angular sand ‫رمل مدور‬ 0.73
worn sand ‫شبة كروي‬ 0.89
spherical ‫كروي‬ 1
* Filter is normally used with graded sand of (0.5-4) mm so that, obtain:
 A
    non..uniformly..bed 
6 p
 V  ave.  d
P: portion of particles of size ( d) ( from sieve analysis)
h V2 p
 1.067. . C D .
 g . . f 4
d

Ex:
A filter bed is made of (0.4) mm size angular sand has an overall depth of (750) mm and
porosity of (42) percent, use the Rose formula to estimate the head loss of the clean bed
at a filtration rate of (120) m/day (kinematics viscosity ( )) of water =1.01*10-6 m2/s).

Sol:
Filtration rate =120 m/day =120 / (24*60*60) =1.39*10-3 m/s .
V .d 1.39 * 10 3 * 4 * 10 4
Re    0.55( La min ar.. flow)
 1.01 * 10  6
 24 3 
CD     0.34   48.01
 0.55 0.55 
V2
. 4 Rose.. formula.. for..uniform..bed 
h 1
 1.067CD
 g .d . f
h (1.39 * 10 3 ) 2
 1.067(48.01)  1.11
 9.81(4 * 10  4 )(0.73)(0.42) 4
h  1.11 * 0.75  0.833m

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Filter Media
Selection of filter media depends on filtration efficiency required and operation cost and
complexity (including media periodical cleaning). The optimum media tends to be that of less
head loss, retain as much as possible of impurities throughout its texture, as much as easy to be
cleaned with less amount of water. Grain size of filter media that influence the process is usually
expressed as (D10) effective size, it is related with the uniformity coefficient (Cu) as :-
uniformity coefficient=(D60/D10)
Although, there are many types of materials can be used as filter media, but the most
economic and extensive are sand (of Quartz or Garnet origin) and anthracite coal. More than one
material may be used as mixed filter media. In case of filter media of one substance, media
particles will be arranged according to their size with finest once at the top and the biggest at the
bottom when backwashed. For media particles with equal settling velocity and different mass
density, corresponding diameters may be determined as:-
2/3
d1    w 
 2 
d2  1   w
 

For example, consider particle diameter of anthracite coal and Alumina coal with
specific gravity of 1.5 and 4.2, respectively those have the same settling velocity of sand particle
of 2.6 specific gravity and 0.5 mm diameter.
2/3
d1  2.6  1
  d1  1.1mm  0.5 (for anthracite coal)
0.5  1.5  1 
2/3
d1  2.6  1
  d1  0.30..mm  0.5 (for Alumina coal)
0.5  4.2  1
Thus, anthracite coal particles with diameters less than 1.1 mm above sand particles of
0.5 mm diameters while, Alumina coal particles with diameters larger than 0.3 mm under.
In rapid sand filters, the gravel layer and under drain layer do not participate as filter
media, but just to support the media (sand) and uniformly distribute water stream flow through
the media while filtering and back washing. Gravel should be as much as rounded and free of
salts.
There are many types of under drain structures used to support gravel layer such as:-

1- Branched pipe system. Perforated lateral pipes (called laterals) with ports of (1.2-6)mm
connected into header (manifold) pipes.
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 Manifold (header) 3-5 cm

3-5 cm Lateral pipe

(75-200)mm

L=600 dia.
Max. strainer Dia 6- 12.5 mm

(75-200)mm 600 c/c=76-200

2- Concrete tiles, layer of perforated or slotted blocks of concrete

Concrete with slits Concrete with

holes

3- Wheeler system:
A A

By section A-A

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Filter units & back wash unit troughs :
Water treatment plants usually contain more than one filter unit (filter basin). This is to
provide working units and stand by units at the mean time. This method enables cleaning (back
washing) some filters without effecting plant efficiency and flow rate.
Back washing of Rapid Sand Filters (RSF) can be simply described as reversing water
flow direction to be from under drain structure up to sand layer and collected by troughs
installed on 0.6 – 0.9 m above sand layer, which in turn discharge wash water collecting channel
and eventually to drainage system. The troughs are channels (at most made of concrete) placed
(usually parallel) above sand layer on one level that permit sand layer to expand through
backwashing with 1.25 – 1.4 times its depth while filtering without escaping sand particles.
Troughs usually have vertical walls and (v-notch) shape base, but they can be considered as
rectangular to determine their depth as (assumed to be horizontal):-

QT2
y  1.73
g .b 2
QT = flow rate through the trough, m3/sec.
y= water depth in the trough, m.
g = gravitational acceleration, m/sec2 .
b= trough width, m.
However, as the trough has v-notch shape base, its dimensions (b) should be adjusted to
have the same cross-sectional area. A depth of 5-10 cm should be added to trough depth as free
board.

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Example:
V- notch trough receives wash water from section of filter bed (2m) wide , (3m) long. The
wash water rate is (0.6 m/min) , the trough width is approximately equal to its depth , find its
dimensions .
Sol.
Max. Flow in the trough = 2*3*0.6=3.6 m3/min=0.06 m3/sec.

b=0.29m

when ..b  y
Q T2 Q T2
y  1.73 3  1.733 y=0.29m
g.b 2 g.y 2
1

y  Q2 3
  T2 

1.73  g.y 
y3 Q T2
 b
(1.73) 3 g.y 2
5


1.73 * Q 2
3



1.73  * 0.06 
3 2
 y  0.29 m  29cm
y
g 9 .8 y=b

Use V-notch with 300 b/2

True area = 0.29*0.29= 0.084 m2 (sectional area)
 b 0 b  b  b
b b b *  b    
60   0.084
60  tan(30)  ?
 3  3002  2 3  2 3
0

2 2 3 2
b/2 b 2
tan( 60)  ?  0.288b b b2
? 2 tan 60 b2    0.084
2 3 4 3
b  0.313m0.313m
0.05m
y  0.313  0.05  0.363m

0.363m 0.223m
3m 3m 0.156

0.09m 600
300

2m

Back washing
Backwashing of RSF media requires passing clean water upward through the media causing the
media to expand with 1.25 – 1.4 times its depth while filtering. Backwashing cause media

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 particles to have boiling motion causing particles to impact each other hence removing
impurities. Backwashing usually carried out when head loss through the media ranged 1-3m.
Backwashing prolonged for 5 – 10 min. It may be enhanced by air injection or mechanical
steering.
0.3682( D60 )1.82  (  s   )
0.94

Vb 
 0.88

s= particle mass density

 = water mass density
Vb=washing velocity, (m/min)
=water dynamic viscosity, c.p
D60=D10*U.C , (mm)
Vb 0.3 m/min Or Vb10*D60 m/min
Thus 0.3Vb(Vt=10D60)
Vt setting velocity of sand particles
Thus, max. backwash flow velocity is Vb=0.1*Vt=D60

Vbf = Vt*4.5 , :( porosity of media) = void ratio = (volume of void)/ (total volume).

Vbf = Backwash velocity to fluidize all filter media

Vt=10D60 (some references consider Vt= 4.7D60)

Expansion

Trough
Le 1 f 1 f Le
 
L 1  f e0.22 V 
0.22

1   b 
 Vs 

Le/L : Filter media expansion factor

Le : Filter media thickness while backwashing
Le = (1.25 – 1.4) L
L : Filter media thickness before washing
ƒ : Porosity of filter media before washing
ƒe: increase in porosity of filter media while washing Wash water
Vb: Backwash flow velocity
Vs: Settling velocity of sand particles.

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