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Solar Cel Gen2 PDF
Solar Cel Gen2 PDF
www.iop.org/journals/physed
E-mail: steve.appleyard@environment.wa.gov.au
Abstract
Low-efficiency solar cells for educational purposes can be simply made in
school or home environments using wet-chemistry techniques and readily
available chemicals of generally low toxicity. Instructions are given for
making solar cells based on the heterojunctions Cu/Cu2 O, Cu2 O/ZnO and
Cu2 S/ZnO, together with a modified Grätzel cell.
and produced up to 250 µA of current in sunshine aqueous suspension of zinc hydroxy carbonate
(or about 6 µA cm−2 of electrode area). and bentonite used to soothe irritated skin) in
You may be able to change the behaviour vinegar. Filter to remove the residue and allow
of this solar cell by changing the way that the the solution to evaporate to dryness in the sun.
zinc oxide precipitate is prepared, which may Then dissolve the residue in methylated spirits
alter its properties as a semiconductor. For (denatured alcohol) and add a few pellets of
instance, try dissolving some calamine lotion (an household sodium hydroxide. This will cause
a cloudy suspension of zinc oxide to form. (djurteite), Cu1.8 S (digenite), Cu1.7 S (anilite) and
Alternatively, heat the dry zinc acetate in a crucible CuS (covellite) [4].
over a Bunsen burner/gas flame (preferably in a A brown to bluish-black precipitate with
fume hood or outdoors) to drive off carbon dioxide a metallic sheen containing Cu2 S and minor
and water and leave a white powder (yellowish amounts of other copper sulfides can be made
when hot) of zinc oxide. by reacting copper compounds with sulfides in
solution under reducing conditions. The most
accessible source of soluble sulfides for the home
Cuprous sulfide–zinc oxide solar cell
experimenter is likely to be ‘lime sulfur’ fungicide,
Cuprous sulfide (nominally Cu2 S, or chalcocite) a solution containing calcium polysulfides, CaSx
is a naturally occurring metal sulfide that is (where x = 2–5). This is usually sold in shops
being intensively studied as a possible component that sell garden supplies. Although sulfides can be
of thin-film solar cells, usually in combination hazardous to use under acidic conditions because
with cadmium sulfide (CdS). Cuprous sulfide of the risk of generating large amounts of toxic
is typically a p-type semiconductor [4] that hydrogen sulfide gas, this risk is negligible when
is often associated with other cuprous/cupric alkaline compounds such as calcium polysulfides
sulfides with similar properties including Cu1.95 S are used and strong acids are avoided.
cell normally used in school science programs [2] are illustrated in figure 6. The cell that I made
were the following: had a voltage of 0.15 V, and produced 1.5 mA in
bright sunshine (or about 40 µA cm−2 of electrode
• Replacing nanocrystalline titanium dioxide
area).
powder with a more readily available source
It is not immediately obvious why copper
of TiO2 particles—typing correction fluid.
sulfate should be a good electrolyte for this solar
Correction fluid contains up to 30% by
cell, but the addition of even a few crystals of
volume of TiO2 mixed with a plastic filler in
this compound immediately increased the current
suspension in the chlorinated solvent
output of the cell by a factor of 100. If you
trichloroethane.
only looked at the oxidation–reduction chemistry
• Replacing tin oxide-coated conducting glass involved in the reaction of cupric ions with
electrodes with copper wire electrodes. iodide ions, you would reasonably expect that
• Eliminating the need to bond TiO2 particles the efficiency of the cell would decline because
together and to a glass substrate by heating iodide is progressively lost from solution by the
on a hot plate. precipitation of cuprous iodide by the following
• Replacing potassium iodide with a more oxidation–reduction reaction:
readily available source of iodine, an
antiseptic containing the organo-iodine 2Cu2+ + 4I− → 2CuI + I2 . (7)
compound povidone (which releases I− 3 into
solution). Antiseptics containing about 10% However, CuI is also a p-type semiconductor [5],
of povidone are generally available in and it is likely that this chemical compound is
pharmacies or supermarkets. replacing at least part of the function of the I− /I−
3
mediator electrolyte in the solar cell. A number of
• Replacing the juice of crushed blackberries or
research groups are currently investigating p-type
raspberries (a source of natural anthocyanin
conductors like CuI as a possible replacement for
dyes) with a synthetic food colouring (food
an aqueous iodide electrolyte in so-called solid-
additive number 122, the azo-dye azorubine,
state dye-sensitized solar cells [6].
also known as carmoisine).
There are lots of avenues that could be
• Adding cupric ions to the electrolyte solution.
explored to change the behaviour of this version
The procedures used to make the solar cell are of a Grätzel cell. One avenue worth exploring is
outlined in box 4, and the components of the cell to change the source of the n-type semiconductor
(the TiO2 ) in the cell, because it is currently being such as raspberries, blackberries and blueberries,
delivered in an organic solvent, which makes it in red cabbage and in flowers such as roses,
difficult for this material to interact with aqueous hibiscuses and hydrangeas. Other vegetable dyes
electrolytes in the cell. It may be worth replacing you could try include chlorophylls, carotenes and
the titanium dioxide with zinc oxide made from curcumins (curcumins may be obtained by the
zinc acetate (see the section ‘Cuprous sulfide–zinc extraction of turmeric with alcohol—this is a
oxide solar cell’) as this would be in a much more major staining hazard, so be careful or your family
hydrophilic form. It may also be possible to obtain may completely disown you).
titanium dioxide in powdered form, which would
greatly improve its performance in an aqueous
medium. Using the solar cells in education programs
Another path worth exploring is to change Apart from their value as informal exploration
the dye in the cell. I used a synthetic food tools, one or more of the cells described here could
colouring dye because it was available in my be incorporated into existing science programs
kitchen, but there is a large range of naturally in secondary school. They could be useful
occurring dyes that can be used in place of the food aids for introducing concepts like oxidation–
colouring in the cell. For example, anthocyanin reduction chemical reactions, the relationship
dyes are commonly used as the sensitizing agents between light wavelength and energy, and
in Grätzel cells. These dyes occur in berry-fruit photosynthesis. Projects based around making,