Creative Writing

Prince Edward Island
English Language Arts

Curriculum
Education and Early
CURRICULUM
Childhood Development
English Programs
English
E
Language
Arts
Writing 521A:
Creative Writing
Writing 521A
December 9, 2011
i
ii PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS CURRICULUM: CREATIVE WRITING 521A
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Acknowledgments
The Prince Edward Island Department of Education and Early Childhood Development gratefully
acknowledge the contribution of the Writing 521A curriculum committee on the development of this
curriculum guide.
Angie MacCorquodale Colonel Gray High School

Marie Nantes Bluefield High School
Sarah Charlton Colonel Gray High School
Tim Lea Montague Regional High School
Pam Walsh Three Oaks Senior High School
Kelly Gallant Kensington Intermediate High School
Jarmo Puiras Secondary Language Arts Specialist (2006 – 2010)
Jennifer Connell Secondary Language Arts Specialist (2010 – )
Additional recognition is due to the Saskatchewan Department of Education for allowing the use of content
from its English Language Arts Creative Writing 20 curriculum guide, and to the many pilot teachers who
provided feedback and suggestions throughout the process.
PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS CURRICULUM: CREATIVE WRITING 521A iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
iv PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS CURRICULUM: CREATIVE WRITING 521A
CONTENTS
Contents
Introduction Background ........................................................................ 1
Course Description ............................................................ 2
Course Overview ................................................................ 2
Core Elements .................................................................... 2
The Writing Teacher........................................................... 3
The Writing Student .......................................................... 3
Principles Underlying the Teaching of Creative Writing ..... 4
Contexts for Learning The Learning Environment ................................................ 9

Meeting the Needs of All Students ..................................... 10
and Teaching Gender Inclusiveness .......................................................... 10
Valuing Social and Cultural Diversity ................................. 11
English as an Additional Language (EAL) Students ............ 11
Technology and the Language Arts ..................................... 12
Links to Other Disciplines ................................................. 12
Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) .................. 12
Resource-based Learning .................................................... 13
Introduction to Project Based Learning .............................. 14
The Creative Process Introduction ....................................................................... 15

Tips for Teaching the Creative Process ................................ 15
The Role of Individual Perceptions in the Creative Process ... 18
The Writing Process Introduction ....................................................................... 19

Pre-writing ......................................................................... 19
Writing Topics and Pre-writing Strategies ........................... 19
Sample Image Cluster......................................................... 21
Idea Notebooks or Journals ................................................ 23
Free Writing................................................................. 23
Drafting ....................................................................... 24
Individual Differences in Working Style....................... 24
Teacher Writing Time .................................................. 25
Writing Folders ............................................................ 25
The Revision Process .......................................................... 26
Methods of Revising .................................................... 26
Editing and Proofreading ............................................. 27
Suggested Revision Guidelines for Student Writers ...... 29
Publishing.................................................................... 30
Formal Publication ...................................................... 31
Contests....................................................................... 31
Preparation of Manuscripts .......................................... 31
Conferencing ..................................................................... 32
Peer Conferences ......................................................... 32
Tips for Successful Peer Conferences ............................ 34
Guidelines for Peer Conferences .................................. 35
Student Guidelines to Peer Conferencing ........................... 35
Conferencing Guidelines for Writers............................ 35
Conferencing Guidelines for Responders ..................... 36
Student-teacher Conferencing...................................... 36
PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS CURRICULUM: CREATIVE WRITING 521A v
CONTENTS
Assessment and Overview ............................................................................ 38

Designing Effective Assessment .......................................... 39
Evaluation Reporting ........................................................................... 43
Guiding Principles.............................................................. 43
Program Design and Curriculum Framework ...................................................... 44

Essential Graduation Learnings (EGLs) .............................. 44
Components Planning, Assessing, Reporting, and Weighing in
Creative Writing 521A ................................................. 45
General Curriculum Outcomes for Creative
Writing 521A .............................................................. 46
Specific Curriculum Outcomes for Creative
Writing 521A .............................................................. 46
How to Use the Curriculum Layout ................................... 47
Sample of a Two-Column Spread ....................................... 47
Curriculum Outcomes Overview ....................................... 48
Creative Writing 521A Writing and Representing................................................... 51

Reading and Viewing ......................................................... 59
Curriculum Speaking............................................................................. 64
Listening ............................................................................ 68
Appendices Appendix A–Writing Poetry ............................................... 75

Appendix B–Reading and Discussing Fiction ..................... 87
Appendix C–Writing Drama .............................................. 103
Appendix D–Writing Nonfiction ....................................... 119
Appendix E–Independent Project ....................................... 137
Appendix F–Sample Creative Writing Assessment .............. 141
Appendix G–Sample Checklist or Rating Scale for
Assessing Creative Processes ......................................... 145
Appendix H–Sample Response Journal Assessment ............ 149
Appendix I–Sample Chart for Checking Off Notebook
or Journal Entries......................................................... 153
Appendix J–Sample Student Record of Conferencing ......... 157
Appendix K–Sample Teacher Record .................................. 161
Appendix L–Sample Self-assessment Form One ................. 165
Appendix M–Sample Self-assessment Form Two ................ 169
Appendix N–Sample Portfolio Assessment Form One ........ 173
Appendix O–Sample Portfolio Assessment Form Two ........ 177
Appendix P–Reading Comprehension Strategy .................. 181
vi PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS CURRICULUM: CREATIVE WRITING 521A
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
Background Creative Writing 521A is a provincially developed course, planned
collaboratively by a committee of Prince Edward Island teachers and
the Language Arts Curriculum Specialist of the Prince Edward Island
Department of Education and Early Childhood Development. It
is based on the vision provided by the Foundation for the Atlantic
Canada English Language Arts Curriculum (1996) for all courses in
English language arts, the vision of enabling and encouraging students
to become reflective, articulate, literate individuals who use language
successfully for learning and communicating in personal and public
contexts. It adheres to the premise that learning experiences in English
language arts should
• help students to develop language fluency not only in the school

setting, but also in their lives in the wider world;
• contribute toward students’ achievement of the essential graduation
learnings (See Foundation for Atlantic Canada English Language Arts
Curriculum, pp. 5-9).
The following chart shows core and elective senior high English
language arts courses offered in the public schools of Prince Edward
Island.
CORE SENIOR HIGH ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS COURSES

Academic General
English 421A English 431A
ELECTIVE SENIOR HIGH ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS COURSES
Writing 421A
Creative Writing 521A
Media 531A
Communications 801A
All senior high students must complete four language credits as part
of the minimum graduation requirements. Students who do not study
a second language will need to obtain an additional credit from the 2
elective language arts courses.
PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS CURRICULUM: CREATIVE WRITING 521A 1
INTRODUCTION
Course Description Creative Writing 521A is designed to encourage students to develop

creative ideas and express them through writing in a variety of forms
and genres. The four major genres featured are poetry, short fiction,
play writing, and nonfiction, although teachers may explore additional
creative forms to accommodate student interest. Students will compile a
portfolio of their writing.
Other regular features of the course include reading, peer and teacher
conferencing, and journal writing. As they reflect on and discuss their
own and others’ writing, students will have opportunity to develop
and practise the behaviours of effective readers, speakers, and listeners.
Regular mini-lessons involving language conventions and usage will
help students edit their own and others’ work.
The purpose of Creative Writing 521 is to provide multiple

opportunities, beyond those provided in the core English courses, for
students to refine their writing skills through experiences in creative
writing.
Course Overview This course focuses on writing as an art form. The curriculum guide is
designed to help teachers plan a program that encourages students to
develop creative ideas and express them through writing in a variety of
forms and genres.
The content of Writing 521A: Creative Writing can be summarized in

the following way:
• The course must be based on the general and specific learning

outcomes. In order to help students meet these outcomes, the
course must focus on the language processes of reading and writing,
although students will also be engaged in speaking and listening
and viewing and representing as they discuss their own writing,
their peers’ writing, and reading selections.
• The course must include the following four major genres of creative
writing: poetry, short fiction, plays, and nonfiction. Additionally,
an independent project module offers students an opportunity to
explore one of the above genres more thoroughly, or to consider
additional forms (such as children’s literature, for example).
Core Elements • silent (independent or teacher-directed) reading (15-20 minutes,

3-5 times a week)
• journalling/free-writing (15-20 minutes, 2-3 times a week)
• mini lessons in conventions (as necessary)
*Please note that these should be derived from students’ writing
• peer conferencing/teacher conferencing (as necessary)
• portfolios/eportfolios (formal or informal)
2 PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS CURRICULUM: CREATIVE WRITING 521A
INTRODUCTION
The Writing Teacher Creative Writing 521A is designed to be taught by teachers who have a
good understanding of the creative writing process as well as an interest
in writing. The Creative Writing 521A teacher will need to
• teach, as much as possible, through example and discussion;

• encourage students to be assessors of writing and to verbalize their
responses to their own and other students’ work;
• be a writer herself/himself, modeling steps within the writing process
and encouraging student response to teacher writing;
• encourage students to write across genres for a variety of purposes and
audiences;
• routinely extend discussion of writing samples by revising them;
• structure repeated opportunities for reading, writing, and reflection;
• model an enthusiasm for writing.
The Writing Student The student’s role in Creative Writing 521A includes
• working collaboratively and independently;

• producing original pieces of work through full engagement in the
writing process;
• publishing (sharing) their work through avenues with which they
are comfortable;
• maintaining a portfolio of work reflecting a variety of genres,
purposes, and audiences;
• modelling a positive attitude toward writing and toward activities
designed to achieve course outcomes.
INTRODUCTION
Principles The following principles and beliefs form the foundation for
teaching Writing 521.
Underlying the
Teaching of 1. Students learn language through experiences with language.
Creative Writing
Writing 521 is a "hands-on" course in which students experience
literary genres and various types of language use through their own
writing. Students learn about language processes, elements, and
conventions as they read, write, and discuss their own and others'
writing.
2. The focus of the creative writing program should be on ideas

and meaning.
The relevance of creative writing to students is in the exploration

and unique expression of their own ideas. Ideas can be expressed
directly or indirectly (through the use of imagery, for example).
They can express the students' opinion or point of view, pose a
question or paradox, or explore language or form. Writing and
other art forms are about meaning, whether that meaning has to do
with narrative, daily life, imagination, or language itself.
3. Discussion about the structure of writing genres and use

of language should be on how meaning is constructed
or revealed, rather than on rules or formulas.
There is no one method or formula for telling a story, no one

way to use creative language correctly, and no rule that cannot be
broken by a good writer. This is not to say that creative writing or
any other artistic endeavour is a free-for-all of self-expression, or
that a student can defend sloppy work by saying, "That's just how
I write". Rather, the focus should be on what the student has done
to develop and support meaning in his or her work.
Questions such as the following can be posed by the teacher:
• How does your use of language contribute to our

understanding of the characters or of your ideas about this
subject?
• How does the structure of your piece support your ideas or

contribute to the reader's understanding of the writing?
• What other pieces of writing do you know about that are

structured or written in this way? What did you learn about
writing from them?
INTRODUCTION
4. Reading is essential to students’ development as writers.
The connection between reading and writing cannot be overstated.

Literature provides students with the language and tools to write.
By examining the writing of others, students see the wide range
of possibilities for the use of creative and expressive language. By
finding writers who inspire them, students can come to understand
their own reasons for writing, their own sense of aesthetics, and the
value of writing to humankind.
Note: Teachers can do student writers a great service by

introducing them to writers and writing from their own
community and province. Through such writing students learn
that their own lives and perspectives are worthy subject matter,
that writers live everywhere in the world, and that the place
where a writer lives has an impact on his or her content and
form. By meeting writers, students learn that it is possible to
become a career writer if they so choose, and are provided with
the opportunity to ask questions of a professional in their field of
interest.
5. Teachers must provide latitude in allowing students to choose

their own writing models.
The study of literature in Writing 521 must be focused on the

individual student, and the term "literature" must be broadly
defined to include forms of particular interest to high school
students (i.e., song lyrics, comic books, independent "zines", and
speculative fiction). In this course, literature needs to speak to and
inspire individual students if it is to help them understand and
grow in their own writing. Students must be seen as contemporary
writers with their own cultures, inspired by forms and writing that
may not appear in the canon with which the teacher is familiar.
The teacher can and should act as a guide, leading students in
new directions, but the starting point must be established by the
student.
Note: If there is certain language or subject matter that is not

acceptable in a particular classroom, the teacher and students
can establish guidelines for works brought to school.
INTRODUCTION
6. Teachers must be sensitive to the variety of language use that

exists within social and ethnic cultures.
How language is used to support subject matter and meaning is

both culturally determined and intensely personal. Teachers and
peers should remember that a writer might be doing something
with language that makes perfect sense within a certain context.
Students should not be steered routinely toward a homogenous use
of language or method of structuring a piece of writing.
7. Writing activities should be planned around students' interests

and student-selected topics.
Student learning in creative writing is facilitated when students

have opportunities to apply the elements of language in meaningful
situations, and when their writing fulfils purposes which are
determined by and understood by them. It is crucial to students'
learning that they be allowed to handle topics in their own way.
The freedom to choose topics and explore them in their own way
greatly influences students' attitudes toward writing.
8. Creative writing should be seen as a product of the

imagination.
The imagination is one of the most valuable gifts a human being

can have. The imagination allows people to create, to experience
the joy and satisfaction of invention, to predict and hypothesize,
and to empathize with others. When a person reads a novel and
believes in the characters in that novel, it is because the writer has
“imagined” the story into existence in a way that allows the reader
to do the same.
When students create a piece of writing, they are creating

something that did not exist before—they are imagining it into
existence. By using language for creative writing, students make a
representational world for themselves and their readers.
INTRODUCTION
9. Creative writing should be seen as a “way of knowing” about

the world and humanity.
From the earliest of times, humankind has expressed its way of

knowing about the world through the arts. Ancient legends, for
example, document historical events, provide explanations for
natural occurrences, and describe codes of behaviour and the
consequences of breaking them.
The process of writing is a process of thinking. As students write,

they make comparisons, inferences, and deductions. They discover
relationships; they ponder and reflect about the organization of
words, images, and thoughts. As students work their way through
an idea by writing, they explore points of view, think about “what
if ”, and synthesize their thoughts about the world, humanity,
language, and personal aesthetics.
10. The organic nature of the writing process must be recognized.
An organic process is one that evolves as it progresses. Teachers and

students must understand that, although each individual will have a
different method for developing a piece of writing, the meaning of
a piece of writing is usually revealed through the process of writing.
Often a writer will begin from a general idea, but will be unable to
state what the piece is about until he or she has completed several
drafts. A story writer might, for example, begin with a rough plot
idea. When the writer has a draft, he or she might ask, “What is
this story about?” (theme) and “How can I revise the story so that
meaning is revealed through what the characters say or do?” It is
reassuring for students to know that professional writers work this
way. Learning what they are writing about is all part of the process;
this knowledge is the outcome of the work they do on a piece of
writing.
11. There should be an abundance of discussion about writing in

the creative writing classroom.
Productive discussion about writing helps students develop an

awareness of the relevance and importance of writing. It also
provides an opportunity for students to learn from the ideas of
others and to explore in more depth what they have read (i.e.,
through book talks and literature circles).
It is also important for students to discuss their own and other

students’ work. They can respond to one another’s work before,
during, and after a piece of writing is created. They can respond in
small groups and pairs. Productive discussion encourages thinking
and subsequent revision, and that is the spirit in which it should
take place.
INTRODUCTION
12. The teacher should write along with students in the classroom.
The participation of the teacher as a writer forms a necessary part

of a successful creative writing program. The blank page should be
just as much of a challenge to the teacher as to the student. When
time permits, the teacher should participate in freewriting, journal
writing, and drafting in order to model writing activity.
Periodically, the teacher should submit a piece of writing which he

or she is struggling with, and get student responses to it, similar
to how the students are preparing their writing for peer response
and for teacher response. Watching the teacher edit his or her own
writing reinforces for students the value of the writing process and
provides effective modeling of the editing process.
CONTEXTS FOR LEARNING AND TEACHING
Context for Learning and Teaching

The Learning The learning environment must be structured in such a way that
students, alongside their peers, develop confidence in writing, and
Environment competence with using language for real purposes. Students should be
encouraged to start slowly and build gradually.
A supportive environment is especially crucial for students who

lack confidence in themselves as learners. If a learning environment
sensitive and responsive to the needs of all students is to be created, the
students must come to know one another. This builds the base for peer
partnerships, tutoring, sharing, and other collaborative efforts. Through
mini-lessons, workshops, and small group exercises, knowledge is shared
about individual learning styles and interpersonal skills.
It is necessary that the teacher’s role be a very active one. The teacher
models the writing process. As well, the teacher models ways of drawing
everyone into a range of writing experiences, making mental notes
about students’ writing to conference with them later on an individual
basis.
Flexibility is important for all students. Whether students are working

individually or in small groups, pairs, or triads, the teacher should
• provide extended periods of time for students to write in an

atmosphere of comfort and positive reinforcement;
• allow students choice in the topics for writing, understanding that
students respond best to those things that matter to them;
• select partners for students and also encourage them to select different
partners for different reasons;
• observe students working individually and within groups, and talk
with them about their work;
• help students to move beyond their comfort zone and transition from
one type of writing into another
• allow students to work alone, if they choose, so long as they still
benefit from some group experience;
• provide mini-lessons or strategy instruction for the whole class or on
a small group basis with other students who have similar learning
needs.
By providing these conditions, teachers create an environment that
invites students to participate in the kinds of writing experiences that
will develop the attitudes, knowledge, skills, and strategies required of
effective, confident writers.
Meeting the Needs The development of students’ literacy is shaped by many factors
including gender, social and cultural backgrounds, and the extent to
of All Students which individual needs are met. In designing learning experiences for
students, teachers should consider the learning needs, experiences,
interests, and values of all students.
In recognizing and valuing the diversity of students, teachers might

consider ways to
• provide a climate and design learning experiences to affirm the

dignity and worth of all learners in the classroom community;
• redress educational disadvantage—for example, as it relates to
students living in poverty;
• model the use of inclusive language, attitudes, and actions
supportive of all learners;
• adapt classroom organization, teaching strategies, assessment
strategies, time, and learning resources to address learners’ needs
and build on their strengths;
• provide opportunities for learners to work in a variety of learning
contexts, including mixed-ability groupings;
• identity and respond to diversity in students’ learning styles;
• build on students’ individual levels of knowledge, skills, and
attitudes;
• design learning and assessment tasks that draw on learners’ strengths;
• ensure that learners use strengths and abilities to motivate and
support learning;
• use students’ strengths and abilities to motivate and support learning;
• offer multiple and varied avenues to learning;
• celebrate the accomplishment of learning tasks that learners
believed were too challenging for them.
Gender In a supportive learning environment, male and female students

receive equitable access to resources, including the teacher’s time and
Inclusiveness attention, technology, learning assistance, and a range of roles in group
activities. It is important that the curriculum reflect the experience
and values of both male and female students and that texts and other
learning resources include and reflect the interests, achievements, and
perspectives of males and females.
Both male and female students are disadvantaged when oral, written,
and visual language creates, reflects, and reinforces gender stereotyping.
Through critical examination of the language of a range of texts,
students can discover what texts reveal about attitudes toward gender
roles and how these attitudes are constructed and reinforced.
Teachers promote gender equity in their classrooms when they
• articulate equally high expectations for male and female students;

• provide equal opportunity for input and response from male and
female students;
• model gender-fair language and respectful listening in all
their interactions with students.
Valuing Social and Valuing social and cultural diversity in the classroom is one way of
expanding and enriching the learning experiences of all students.
Cultural Diversity Students can learn much from the diverse background, experiences,
and perspectives of their classmates in a community of learners where
participants discuss and explore their own and others’ customs,
histories, traditions, values, beliefs, and ways of seeing and making
sense of the world. Through discussion of each others’ writing, students
from different social and cultural backgrounds can come to understand
other perspectives, to realize that their ways of seeing and knowing are
not the only ones possible, and to probe the complexities of the ideas
and issues they are examining.
English as an Students from language backgrounds other than English add valuable
language resources and experiences to the classroom. The first language,
Additional prior knowledge, and culture of EAL students should be valued,
Language (EAL) respected, and whenever possible, incorporated in the curriculum. The
different linguistic knowledge and experience of EAL students can be
Students used to extend the understanding of linguistic diversity of all students
in the class.
While EAL students should work toward achievement of the same

curriculum outcomes as other students, they may approach the
outcomes differently and may at times be working with different
learning resources at different levels and in a different time frame from
other students.
The learning environment and classroom organization should affirm

cultural values to support EAL students and provide opportunities
for individual and group learning. It is especially important for these
students to have access to a range of learning experiences, including
opportunities to use language for both formal and informal purposes.
Teachers may need to make explicit the ways in which different

forms and styles of English are used for many different purposes. It is
particularly important that EAL students make connections between
their learning in English language arts and others curricular areas, and
use learning contexts in other subjects to practise, reinforce, and extend
their language skills.
Technology and the Information and communications technology is becoming increasingly

important in our global society. Today’s students need to develop
Language Arts literacy in relation to computer and information technology, and they
must be able to critically reflect on the role of technology in their
lives. Whenever appropriate, students should be encouraged to apply
their technological knowledge and skills to managing information and
communication in Creative Writing 521A.
Links to Other Students should be encouraged to explore ways in which to link their
learning in Creative Writing 521A to their studies in other courses,
Disciplines particularly those courses requiring research, self-exploration, or the
clear expression of ideas. Teachers from other disciplines may be invited
as guest speakers to discuss the kinds of writing required in their
disciplines or to share their own experiences with writing.
Education for The role of education for sustainable development is to help people
develop the attitudes, skills, and knowledge to make informed decisions
Sustainable for the benefit of themselves and others, now and for the future, and to
Development (ESD) act upon those decisions. ESD is an approach to teaching and learning
based on the ideals and principles that underlie sustainability—human
rights, poverty reduction, sustainable livelihoods, peace, environmental
protection, democracy, health, biological and landscape diversity,
climate change, gender equality, and protection of indigenous cultures.
In these and many other dimensions, education for sustainable
development is analogous with the vision and goals of UNESCO (from
“Education for Sustainable Development”, Canadian Commission for
UNESCO).
Teachers of Creative Writing 521A are encouraged to consider ESD-

related themes for pre-writing class discussions and to invite students to
research ESD-related subjects and share their findings with peers. The
key action themes identified by UNESCO are as follows:
• overcoming poverty
• gender equality
• health promotion
• environment
• rural development
• cultural diversity
• peace and human security
• sustainable urbanization.
The first challenge for students who choose to research one of the above
broad themes will be to narrow their research topic. To do this, they
may find it valuable to consult with a science or social studies teacher
for appropriate sub-topics that are current and of local relevance.
Resource-based Effective teaching and learning in writing actively involves students,

teachers, and library staff in the effective use of a wide range of print,
Learning non-print, and human resources. Resource-based learning fosters
students’ development by accommodating their diverse backgrounds,
learning styles, needs, and abilities.
Resource-based learning supports students as they develop information

literacy: more specifically, accessing, interpreting, evaluating, organizing,
selecting, producing, and communicating information in and through
a variety of media, technologies, and contexts. When students engage
in their own research with appropriate guidance, they are more likely to
take responsibility for their learning, and to retain information.
In a resource-based learning environment, students and teachers make

decisions about appropriate sources of information and tools for
learning, and how to access them. A resource-based approach raises the
issues of selecting and evaluating information sources. Developing the
critical skills needed for these tasks is essential to writing.
The range of possible resources for research writing include the

following
• print—books, magazines, newspapers, documents, and other

publications
• visuals—maps, illustrations, photographs, charts, and graphs
• artifacts—concrete objects and primary source documents
• individual and community—interviews, field work, community sites
• multimedia—films, audio and video tapes, television and radio,
simulations
• information technology—computer software, databases, CD-
ROMs, DVDs, GPS, live-streaming broadcasts, podcasts, and
locational technologies
• communication technology—Internet sites, blogs, e-mail, and
social media
Resource-based learning takes place in Creative Writing 521A classroom

through a variety of means. The prescribed text book, although a
principle source of information for the student, is only one of many
resources available. Students in a Creative Writing 521A class will make
use of many other sources of information, including magazines, news
articles, Internet Web sites, government publications, and social science
agencies. For a fully enriched learning experience, students should
be encouraged to explore and engage in as many diverse sources of
information as possible.
Introduction to Project Based Learning (PBL) is a model for classrooms that emphasizes
long-term, interdisciplinary and student-centered activities. Learners
Project Based are able to conduct in-depth investigations of real world issues and
Learning challenges. This type of learning engages students as they obtain
a deeper knowledge of a subject area through inquiry, research,
experimentation, and/or the assistance of a community member.
PBL allows students to explore, investigate, and construct new meaning

from prior knowledge and from the information that is retrieved from
other sources. It is not linear in form but promotes a continual looping
back and forth throughout the process as students gather and process
new information, redirect their inquiries, and continue through the
process. Inquiry into an environmental issue will require students to
practice and refine their critical and creative thinking skills. The process
of working with acquired information and reformulating it into newly
constructed meaning is emphasized in this course.
In order for students of WRT521A to become fully engaged in the

PBL model, they will need to draw on their prior knowledge, ask many
questions, and conduct preliminary research to help them define the
direction of their inquiry. Classroom discussions about specific life and
career issues may help them to decide where their inquiry will take
them. Current events portrayed in the media may also be a catalyst to
student inquiry as well as several other sources. An inquiry plan will
ensure that students know what is expected of them and will aid in
keeping track of progress throughout the PBL model. One of the key
features of PBL is inquiry.
THE CREATIVE PROCESS AND WRITING PROCESS
The Creative Process

Introduction It is important for teachers to distinguish between the creative
process and the writing process. The writing process describes
the phases of a writing project that all students are expected to
complete, from pre-writing through to publishing or display.
The creative process, on the other hand, is much more elusive. It

describes the process that artists engage in when they are creating
something that did not previously exist. The creative process
involves the student in decision making about content, genre,
form, structure, language, theme, craft, and imagery. The end
result is the creation of something new that has its own meaning.
The point at which various decisions are made will be different

for each student and, possibly, for each project. Some students
will make a decision (about form, for example) at the pre-writing
stage and adhere to that decision. Another student might make
a similar decision at the pre-writing stage and then change his or
her mind several times during revision. Some decisions cannot be
made until certain truths about the work become evident to the
student. The process, then, is an organic process, and one that is
unique to individual artists and students. It describes the complex
interaction between the student and the work-in-progress.
Gertrude Stein said the following about writing:

"... think of the writing in terms of discovery, which is to say
that creation must take place between the pen and the paper, not
before in a thought or afterwards in a recasting" (Preston, 1935).
Tips for Teaching the Because the creative process is organic, there is no one way to
engage in the creative process and there are no fixed sequential
Creative Process steps that can be taught to students. However, the teacher can
assist and reassure students in the following ways:
Make students familiar with the creative processes of various

writers and other artists.
Read students anecdotes from biographies or books on writers

and their work. Post quotations on the bulletin board. Invite
authors to the classroom. Create an entire display on creative
process or have students do it. Ask each student to find a
quotation or story about the creative process of a different writer
or other artist. Discuss the anecdotes in small groups or as a
whole class. Students could also research an artist of choice and
present their findings.
Draw connections for individual students between the way you

see them working and the way a particular writer works.
Professional writers often say that becoming a writer is, in part,

a matter of learning about their own process. Writers do not
automatically know what works best for them or how they discover
meaning in their own work. Teachers can help a student by pointing
out observations they have made about how the student works.
Teachers can validate a student’s process by telling the student about
writers who work in similar ways and directing him/her to excerpts
from biographies or articles on writing.
Routinely ask students questions about their work and the

decisions they are making.
Many students are not aware that writing creatively involves constant
reflection and decision making. Often, students do not realize that
they are making decisions as they work. By asking provocative
questions, teachers can draw students’ attention to the decisions they
are making, and let them know that reflection and decision making
are expectations.
Encourage students to think about process when they are writing

in their response journals.
Use a science analogy to help students understand the value of

keeping a journal: when scientists create something new, they keep
notes and records so they will know what they did and how they
did it. When students reflect on their own work, they are thinking
about both what they write and how they do it. Thinking about the
process will help them build on what they have done and grow in
their creative abilities. Encourage them to see that keeping a response
journal is a means of learning about their own process.
Encourage students to take risks and see the value of failures and
lucky accidents.
The term “taking risks” refers to trying something new that might
or might not work. Because creative writing is often personal
and because it is eventually shared with a reader, writers (even
professionals) are sometimes nervous about attempting new things.
However, if writers and other artists do not take risks, they do not
grow in their abilities to say something in a new way, or to discover
new things about human nature or artistic expression.
It is not necessary for everything the student tries to work. In fact,

it is sometimes the failures from which the most can be learned.
Remind students that advancements in science and the arts often
come about by accident. Encourage them to see the value of

accidental discoveries, and to veer in a new direction in the
middle of a project if they choose. Taking risks and making
decisions about what works and what does not, and which
"accidents" are of value, are important parts of the creative
process.
Reassure students of the value of individual differences.
Individual differences and perceptions are the "best friends" of

the creative artist. Art works are unique, autonomous expressions
and they are so because of the individual differences among the
artists who create them. We all have our own experiences with
the world, with culture, and with the arts (including literature).
We all have our own unique ways at looking at something. It is
individual perceptions that have given the world centuries of arts
expressions.
Assess and evaluate students’ engagement in the creative

process.
Teachers can design their own instruments for assessing student

progress in this area. It is important to assess the students’
engagement in the creative process in order to determine the
quality of the students’ creative experience. The product alone
will not suffice as an indicator, especially if the students were
taking a risk and trying something that might not have worked
out in the end. Assessing the students’ engagement in the creative
process lets students know that it is an essential part of the
program. It also allows teachers to assess several different kinds of
projects using the same criteria.
The Role of Individual There are two major factors that influence a writer engaged in a
creative process: the writer’s perceptions of the real world, and the
Perceptions in the writer’s experience with literature and language. The first provides
Creative Process content; the second provides the means or tools for constructing
a new piece of writing.
The student’s perceptions of the real world and the student’s

experience with literature are both unique to that student and
must be respected by teachers and other students. The following
are examples of factors that influence the individual student’s
perception of the world:
• urban, rural, and northern perspectives
• various cultural perspectives
• perspectives based on gender
• perspectives based on spirituality
• travel experiences
• knowledge of current affairs
• knowledge of world cultures
• perspectives based on areas of knowledge such as science

or philosophy.
The following are examples of factors that determine a student’s

experience with literature and language:
• reading experiences in a variety of forms (e.g., poetry,
short fiction, plays, nonfiction)
• reading experiences in various sub-genres (e.g., mysteries,

romance, science fiction)
• experiences with oral traditions
• knowledge of periods of literature (e.g., Victorian,

modern, post modern)
• knowledge of world literature and the literary traditions

of various cultures
• knowledge of literary criticism.
The teacher can guide students to expand their knowledge of

both the world and literature by directing them to resources
that might be of interest, providing experiences such as field
trips and guest speakers, encouraging students to value their
own perceptions and experiences, encouraging discussion in the
classroom, and encouraging students to use experiences in other
content areas as sources for their writing.
The Writing Process

Introduction The writing process describes the phases of a writing project
with which all students are expected to become familiar. The
purpose of incorporating the writing process in a formal way
into language arts programs is to encourage students to adopt
certain behaviours that will make their writing better and more
complete. The writing process encourages students to see writing
as something that develops through exploration, research,
consultation, revision, editing, and publishing or sharing their
work with others.
The writing process includes the following phases:

• pre-writing
• drafting
• revision
• editing and proofreading
• publishing.
Note: Conferencing and discussion are important at

all phases of the writing process. Fifteen minutes is an
appropriate amount of time for peer conferencing sessions.
Students can use this time for discussion of ideas, topic
choice, free writing, and drafts, as appropriate. More
detailed information on peer conferencing and student-
teacher conferencing is provided.
Pre-writing Pre-writing includes all the activities a writer goes through before
writing actually begins. Some pre-writing might include activities
to stimulate students' thinking, such as completing webs or
concept maps. Selecting a topic, conducting research, and
notetaking or journal writing are also pre-writing activities.
Writing Topics and The pre-writing strategies provided in this guide can be presented
by the teacher to encourage students to explore ideas and
Pre-writing Strategies begin writing. Each pre-writing strategy should be explained
thoroughly by the teacher and presented along with examples.
Students should write each idea down in their notebooks or
journals, to be filed away for use at some later date. A few
students may wish to try the strategies out immediately, but these
strategies should not be treated as assignments to be done by
everyone at the same time. They are for students’ future reference,
to be used as needed. Pre-writing strategies help students discover
facts, clarify impressions, and use their imaginations.
The following are general types of pre-writing strategies:
• Brainstormed Lists. This is a method of generating a large

number of ideas for writing. Students write down whatever
ideas come to mind, no matter how simple or strange their
ideas may be. Superficial observations usually head the list,
but as students continue to write, interesting ideas begin to
appear. Brainstorming should result in a list of enough useful
ideas that students can discard those which are not useful.
Brainstorming can be done at any time and the resulting list
used later for creative writing projects. A list created by the
class might be posted for reference.
• Lists Under Topics. Students can compose their own lists

that might help them to decide on themes in the future:
favourite things, things that make them angry, important
events that have taken place in their lives, things to save or
things to throw away, fears, hopes, dreams, regrets, wishes,
superstitions, loyalties, or questions. They might list things
they do not want for their birthdays, or things they did over
the holidays. They can also construct word lists (e.g., lists of
warm words, cold words, rough words, smooth words).
• Places. Students may be encouraged to recall places that

they remember from childhood. places that scared them
or fascinated them, or places that amused them. They can
also develop lists of places that spark their imaginations
for some reasons: baseball parks, haunted houses, scientific
laboratories, beauty shops, web sites, etc. Then, on their
own time, they might arrange to visit one of these places to
take notes and record images and ideas to be used later for
writing. Students can also collect pictures of places that spark
their imaginations and keep them in their idea notebooks.
• Memories. Students may recall memories of events and

experiences from childhood, and recreate the perceptions,
feelings, and associations linked with those memories.
• Pictures. Pictures are useful sources for ideas: magazine

pictures, photographs, slides, paintings, and computer
generated images. Film can also be used to inspire ideas for
creative writing. Students can "put themselves" into the
picture and imagine what they might experience from a
particular vantage point, or they can describe what they see
from the outside looking in. They can also create narrative
from a picture by imagining what happened before the
picture was taken and what will happen next.
• Image Clusters. Students might find it useful to create image

clusters as a pre-writing strategy. An example follows, using
the topic "Hockey Game" and the five senses as categories.
Sample Image Cluster

- rolling helmets from an illegal
body check
- referees in black and white
- uniformed bodies flying by
- red light flashing a goal
Sight
- blankets tucked around
shoulders
- warm woolly mittens A Taste
on hands
Touch - hot dogs with relish and
- numbness of red cheeks
- hard cold bleachers
Hockey mustard
- golden salty french fries
Game - creamy hot chocolate
- chewing gum gone stale
Smell Sound
- buttery popcorn - referee’s whistle
- hamburgers sizzling on the grill - swish of skates
- steaming hot coffee - screams of fans
- sweaty odour from the players’ bench - “crack” of the puck hitting the boards
• Persona Activities. It is possible for students to use their

imaginations in unique ways by adopting the persona of
something or someone else. They can imagine they are a
different person, a country, an animal, or the wind. In their
minds, they can follow a butterfly, a bicycle, or a five-dollar
bill. They might try writing from a variety of points of view
(i.e., "becoming" colours, foods, furniture, tools, or musical
instruments).
• Dreams. Both day dreams and night dreams can be

sources for pre-writing activities. Day dreams can be used
constructively by student writers when they day dream
themselves into a celebrity’s lifestyle or someone else's shoes,
for example. Students might also imagine "what if" (e.g.,
what if I had a million dollars or what if I were a world
leader). Night dreams might become topic sources if students
are encouraged to remember their dreams (writing them
down in a notebook kept by their bed), or to "borrow"
dreams by asking friends or relatives about their dreams.
Students may decide to use dreams as allegories or symbols in
their writing.
• Research. Research can generate a great deal of useful

material for writing. When students have thought of
something that interests them, they can research the topic
to find out about it. For example, if the topic is an old stone
house, the student can trace its history in the local archives.
If the topic is an animal, plant, or historical figure, research
can be done by visiting the library or searching the Internet.
If the subject is a living person, the student can contact
that person and request an interview, or the student might
scan newspapers or local history books to get information
about the town or community where the person originated.
Familiarity with topics is necessary if students wish to write
well about them. In addition,their research might spark a
completely different idea.
• First-hand Experience. This is one of the very best sources

of writing topics. Students can be encouraged to observe
events directly and write down their impressions and
interpretations.
Idea Notebooks or An idea notebook or journal should be kept for the purpose of
recording anything that might be useful later on for creative
Journals writing projects. The notebook or journal might be a bound pad,
a steno pad, a spiral notebook, or an electronic device.
Students might also want to carry an additional, very small

notebook with them at all times because topic ideas will not
always occur to the student in school time. If students keep their
notebooks with them and write in them often, these books will
become filled with the raw material for creative writing.
In their idea notebooks, students may record such things as

images, phrases, thoughts, story lines, experiences, encounters,
or emotions. The following are additional suggestions which
students may be given for their idea notebooks:
• record descriptions and details of your observations (people,

places, events, etc.)
• record interesting conversations overheard (e.g., dinner table
conversations, conversations overheard on buses)
• record accounts of your own and other's reactions to
situations, events, news stories, etc.
• record ideas for plots that come from everyday experiences
(your own and those of others)
• record multi-sensory images (tastes, smells, sounds, etc.)
• clip and paste newspaper or magazine articles, photos, etc.
Free Writing Free writing is spontaneous writing that may or may not be
connected to a particular writing project. Fifteen minutes is
a suggested period of time for free writing. During this time
students might try out a pre-writing strategy presented by the
teacher, develop a topic previously explored, or create a first draft.
This should be a quiet writing time.
During free writing, it is important that students write down all

that comes to mind. They should write for the full amount of
time without going back and rewriting or making corrections.
In this way, they will explore their thoughts and moods without
trying to be too correct too soon. They will become comfortable
with writing as a constant practice.
Some of the writing students produce during this time will not
be useful to them later. Free writing helps students to understand
that not all writing they do is equally good, and not all writing
must be kept. Writers must learn to discard. By the end of a
writing project, they may have a different focus or angle on the
topic or even a whole new topic, and keeping earlier words and
phrases might ruin the final product.
On the other hand, during free writing students will often come
up with ideas and phrases that lead them in an imaginative new
direction. Because students are not focusing on a product, they
take risks in free writing without realizing it. This can result in
the discovery of something new—perhaps a new idea, skill, or
insight.
Drafting Creative writing requires blocks of time and students must be

able to rely on specific planned time periods for their writing.
Therefore, when students begin drafting a piece of writing,
teachers should plan classes so that students have the time to
work intensively on their drafts.
The important thing to remember about the first draft is that it

is an opportunity to begin exploring the idea in a formal way;
that is, to begin structuring the idea by taking it beyond notes,
diagrams, and journal entries. After students have completed their
pre-writing and/or first draft stages, their writing will begin to
take shape. They will begin to organize their thoughts. They will
also begin to consider their intended meanings.
Individual Differences in The drafting phase of the writing process refers, primarily, to the
first draft. However, the writing process is not always cut and
Working Style
dried, and it is sometimes difficult to tell when the first draft ends
and the second draft begins. In addition, some students will write
a first draft slowly and carefully, while other students will write
very quickly. There is no one correct way to write a first draft.
Teachers should observe students’ ways of working and try to
decide when it is best to intervene with suggestions. They should
encourage students to get to the end and to complete the first
draft.
Some students will revise constantly, even while they are writing
a first draft. As soon as they have a few paragraphs or stanzas
on paper, they will get an idea for how to make the work better,
and will begin again. Although a certain amount of this is fine,
some students are such perfectionists that it is difficult for them
to go on if they know something is wrong with the piece. These
students need to learn that all first drafts are flawed. They can be
encouraged to move on by being told that things will happen in

the writing as they complete the first draft that will help them
revise the beginning. Their writing will actually be better if they
complete the piece and then revise in earnest.
Other students will write a complete first draft and immediately

want to start something new. These students are good at getting
to the end of a first draft, but are impatient with the whole
process of revision. Of course, these students need to understand
that revision is an expectation, and that their writing cannot
reach its full potential without revision. However, teachers should
realize that there are students who will learn by writing many
different first drafts. Teachers should not limit these students'
imaginations by forcing them to write a piece over and over again
if they have lost interest in that piece.
Teachers can deal with these different types of student writing

preferences by establishing minimum requirements regarding
number of pieces that must be revised, edited, and proofread.
In addition, the teacher could establish further requirements for
individual students based on their preferred ways of working.
Teacher Writing Time The teacher should also write and become as involved as the
students are in the world of language. When students are writing,
the teacher should try to find ten minutes to write along with
them. For the remaining student writing time, the teacher may
wish to schedule individual student-teacher writing conferences,
or to conduct informal conferences by conversing with students
about their writing in a more informal manner.
Writing Folders All writing drafts should be kept, not only while the writing
is being developed, but also after it is completed. These drafts
are valuable to the student as a collection of thoughts, writing
projects, and sources for new directions. They are valuable to
parents, as they provide the qualitative information that a mark
cannot provide. They are valuable to the teacher as a means of
looking back over the semester’s work to observe development,
find reasons for problems, and assess progress.
Students should keep all notes and drafts for a writing project
in a writing or electronic folder. They should date their drafts.
Students might keep another folder for pre-writing activities,
some of which might not develop into writing projects.
Note: Remember that the writing folder is different from

the portfolio. The portfolio is a collection of writing
assembled according to specific criteria, for the purpose
of assessment and/or display. Students will assemble their
portfolios from the work they have kept in their writing
folders. For more information on portfolios, see the
Assessment and Evaluation section of this curriculum guide.
The Revision Process Revising is a process of deciding what should be changed,

expanded upon, deleted, added, or retained. Revising also
includes editing and proofreading. Editing, although it occurs
at a later stage of the revision process, still involves revising
for structure, sentences, and words to make the work clearer.
Proofreading involves revising for style, spelling, and mechanics,
so that the presentation of the work is clean and correct. Editing
and revising are not mutually exclusive, and can occur a little at
a time as the writer becomes more sure of a certain section of the
project.
Methods of Revising Writing is not a linear process; it is an organic one, where one
thing affects another and ideas develop as the writing is in
progress. Revision, then, can take many forms. The following are
examples:
• One writer might make “successive sketches” of the same

picture; the first sketches are very rough and vague, and each
one gets clearer, more detailed, more accurate, and better
organized.
• Another writer might get half way through a draft, change
his or her mind about the beginning, start over, write the
ending, back up and change the middle, and so on.
• Some writers prefer to focus on one section of a piece at a
time, going over that section again and again until they are
happy with it, then moving on to another.
Other writers will:
• write alternate versions of the same piece from different

points of view, then choose their preference
• take their central themes in several different directions, then
work with the direction that most appeals to them
• write different scenes for the same characters, then choose
those scenes which are most promising.
There is no one correct way to rewrite, nor is there a correct

number of drafts that a writer should expect to complete. Each
piece is different and as students become more experienced, they
will begin to recognize their own preferred methods of revising.
As students work through their various drafts, a theme will
gradually emerge. Their writing will take on a shape it did not
have in the beginning. There is no "short cut" to this process.
Often an original draft seems wonderful at the time, and then
further writing produces an extension of it. The original draft
serves as a stepping stone to the second draft.
Students are finished revision when the elements of their pieces

all fit together and generally "feel right". When their pieces do
what they want them to, even though there still may be some
rough edges, they can move on to editing.
Editing and Proofreading Students should be reminded that editing and proofreading are
aspects of the revision process. However, they are undertaken
by most writers after significant revision has already taken
place. When students edit, they should pay attention to things
like rhythm, pacing, word choice, accuracy, and sentence and
paragraph structure, depending on the genre of the piece. A piece
that needs no more major revision may still require minor editing
to ensure that:
• every word used is the correct one

• the rhythm of the sentences or phrases is correct for the piece
• there are no gaps that need to be bridged
• there are no extraneous words, sentences, or paragraphs.
Proofreading is essentially a technical task. Proofreading is a

final check to make certain that everything in a writer’s piece is
complete and correct. It includes checking spelling, punctuation,
grammar, usage, capitalization, page set-up, and spacing.
Students and teachers may find editing guidelines in several
writers’ reference texts listed in the bibliography for this
course. Recommended handbooks and dictionaries useful for
proofreading are also listed.
Both peer conferencing and student-teacher conferencing will,

at certain times, be focused on editing and proofreading. For
the purposes of editing or proofreading, students may wish to
conduct conferences with their peers in pairs as well as in a larger
group.
Many students’ pieces will be revised for the classroom audience

only. However, some of each student’s writing will be published
for a wider audience. Publication is an incentive for students to
polish their work by editing and proofreading. If students are
preparing their pieces for publishing, they will want these pieces
to be correct in every detail.
For published material, the teacher will probably wish to assume

the final editing and proofreading responsibility. All writers who
publish have editors--people who give the writing a final read
and look at it in a more detached way. Students must become
aware that receiving additional comments from an editor does
not necessarily reflect on their own editing abilities. Editors are
simply able to isolate problems the writer may not have been able
to recognize because of his or her closeness to the material.
Suggested Revision Guidelines for Student Writers

• Try focusing on your major concerns first (e.g., central plot, theme, image, metaphor, or character).
After you have these working, look at slightly less important concerns (e.g., pacing, secondary
images).
• Resist the urge to “polish” because, at this point, it can distract from your piece’s more important
problems. (It could also be meaningless, because you could decide to rewrite what has just been
polished.)
• Let your writing take the direction it wants. New ideas and images may appear as you revise. Look
at each on an individual basis; if it feels right, be willing to use it, even if it means abandoning your
original intention or plan.
• Do not be upset if your piece seems awkward at first. This is common for first drafts. Anything you
write can be changed. As you rewrite, your piece will steadily take shape.
• It is not uncommon for writers to like the draft of their project when they first complete it, and
then be hypercritical of it the next day. Do not get discouraged. You will like it again once you get
involved in the revision process.
• Before you begin a new draft, or after you have made some changes, read aloud what you have
done so far, listening closely to the words and absorbing them. This sometimes helps you to notice
things you might have missed previously.
• One of the most important aspects of the revision process is cutting or getting rid of all the things
you do not need. You may decide to eliminate words or phrases, entire scenes, stanzas/sections, or
anything in between. Although deciding what and when to cut is difficult at first, all writers come
to realize that cutting is often essential in order to make a work better. The following might help
you decide when cutting is necessary:
• Cut anything which unintentionally repeats what you already said, which does not support
your piece, or which does the piece more harm than good. (Remember that some repetition
is intentional; if something is repeated for a reason, do not cut it.)
• If you are uncertain about whether to leave something in or take it out, read the passage
aloud twice, once with it in, and once without it. This should help you decide. If you are still
unsure, ask a trusted peer what he or she thinks about the passage in question.
• Cutting words and phrases should not result in changed meaning, unless that is what you
intend. For example, you might reduce a very detailed paragraph to a sentence or two,
shorten a long description to a few important details, or combine two or three phrases into
one, and still retain the original meaning.
• Once in a while, something that you have written may seem particularly good, but it does
not fit into your piece. When this happens, you should cut it. However, you should save it in
your writer’s notebook for use at some other time.
• Throughout the entire revision process, it is helpful to continue to ask: What do I want to say?
What do I want to have happen in this piece? Why did I choose this topic? What is it about this
piece that interests me? If you find yourself unable to continue, return to your notebook or journal
and look through it carefully. You will probably find something that will get you writing again.
• If, after all your best efforts, a piece simply does not work for you, put it away for a while and come
back to it. Be sure to save everything you have written.
Publishing Publishing, for educational purposes, means making public

and sharing with others. Students might post their work on a
bulletin board, present their work orally, publish in a school or
community newspaper, publish in a student anthology, or enter
their work in writing or speaking contests, or publish online. It
is essential that students select their best work for publication or
sharing, as the selection process encourages them to discriminate
and develop criteria for judgement.
Teachers might establish a regular time in the schedule for

students to prepare their work for publication or sharing.
Activities might include:
• preparing for and arranging displays on walls and bulletin

boards
• submitting writing to the school newsletter
• performing at school assemblies
• putting up community displays in store fronts or in local
libraries
• sharing creative writing in an author’s circle
• performing a student-written scene or dialogue for readers
theatre or as street theatre
• making and showing a videotape
• having a creative writing fair
• sharing creative writing with senior citizens or hospital patients
• framing writing for display
• making a wall-sized mural or a billboard display
• decorating a T-shirt
• translating student writing into another language, then
displaying it.
• online publication (blogs, Google docs, podcasts, Webcasts)
Formal publication can be exciting and gratifying for students,
although it should not become the focus of the program. A
student creative writing booklet or magazine can often be desk-
top published right at the school. Students can enter their own
pieces, design the look of the booklet and the cover, and create
illustrations.
Note: Some students may be reluctant to put their work

on display. Although they should be encouraged to display
their best work, their requests for privacy should be
respected. Writing can be very personal and students might
not want to share it with other students or teachers outside
of the classroom.
Formal Publication Formal publication can happen in many ways. Local and
provincial magazines and newspapers will sometimes feature
student creative writing, as will a number of literary publications.
Note: If students express interest in exploring the open

magazine market, they must understand that acceptance or
rejection is not a valid measurement of the quality of their
work. There are many more submissions to a magazine
than can possibly be published, and the editor’s final
decision is based on his or her personal preference. Some
magazines receive 500 submissions for every six published,
and even professional writers receive many rejections from
magazines. In most cases, the classroom creative writing
booklet is the best publication project for students. The
open market can be discouraging at a time when students
need to be encouraged to write and learn.
Contests Some students may be interested in submitting to writing

contests, although contests can also be discouraging because very
few people win them. No student should ever be forced to enter
a contest, and teachers should make sure students understand
that entering contests is not the main reason for writing, and
that writing is not a competitive endeavour. That said, contest
deadlines do act as an incentive for some students to complete
and polish their work. Sometimes entry in a contest includes a
subscription to a literary magazine.
Preparation of When students decide to display their writing or submit it to

contests, editors, publishers, or the teacher, the appearance of
Manuscripts their manuscripts is important. Students should present their
manuscripts on white bond paper, double spacing their lines
and leaving a two-centimetre margin on the sides and bottom.
Pages should be numbered and the author’s name should appear
in a header or footer on every page. The author’s name, address,
telephone number, and/or e-mail address should appear in the
top left-hand corner of the first page. The title of the story, in
bold or capital letters, should be centred on the first page. If
the student is preparing poetry, each poem should be put on a
separate page.
If students choose to send work to magazines or contests, they

should prepare a very brief cover letter (a few lines will do).
Editors prefer to receive unstapled manuscripts. They also
want stamped self-addressed envelopes for the return of the
manuscripts. Student writers can expect to wait from several
weeks to two months for a reply. They need to be reminded never
to take rejection as a reflection of their abilities as writers.
Conferencing Conferencing, both peer and student-teacher, is an essential

component of the creative writing program. It is useful for
student writers to receive feedback on all stages of their works-
in-progress. However, peer conferences can be destructive
rather than constructive if they are not handled well. Students
must learn how to present their work for feedback and how to
give constructive feedback. It is the teacher’s responsibility to
observe peer conferencing sessions and intervene if they are not
progressing in a constructive manner. The teacher should prepare
mini-lessons, as appropriate, to ensure that students are learning
and practising the skills of peer conferencing.
Not all students are alike in their need for peer comments. Nor
are they alike in the ways they will find comments useful. Some
students prefer to meet in small groups, while others prefer one
on one conferences. Some students will be best served by teacher
conferences. Although students should experience all types of
conferences throughout the course, the teacher should attempt
to determine student preferences and help students arrange the
types of conferences that will be most useful to them.
Peer Conferences The benefits of peer conferencing are as follows:
• Students have the opportunity to share their enthusiasm for

writing with other students who have the same interest.
• Students show increased motivation to write.
• Students write for a real audience.
• Students receive prompts and varied feedback, from several

different responders.
• Students learn to be more discriminating writers by:
› reading what others have written

› picking up ideas from other writers
› developing standards through discussion of a variety
of writing selections.
• Students learn to consider audience when they see themselves

as mediators between their subjects and their readers.
• Students read the writing of others in order to comment

usefully, thus gaining valuable practice in critical reading for
a real purpose.
As a rule, a group of three or four is a good size for peer

conferencing. Each member of the group can read aloud
portions of what he or she has written (or the entire piece, if it
is short enough) and receive feedback offered by the other group
members. Members of each group may want to have photocopies
of the materials ahead of time so they can prepare. The teacher
may wish to join a group as well, with his or her topic choices,
free writing, or first drafts.
Some students may find it useful, at least at times, to exchange

their writing with one partner only. This could be true of
students who prefer not to share their writing in groups, students
who are writing about something very personal, or students who
are writing in a style to which it is difficult for other students to
respond. Even in a healthy classroom environment, some students
will be protective of their writing, and their desire for privacy
should be respected.
This is not to say that all students should not learn to give
appropriate feedback to others when asked. The teacher should
monitor peer conferencing sessions and help students make the
choices that are best for them, and that will best help them grow
in their writing abilities.
Tips for Successful Peer Conferences

Conduct mini-lessons on appropriate conference behaviour and skills.
Students must be supportive of each other and may need instruction in developing the necessary group
interaction skills, such as contributing, listening to the contributions of others, responding to other
members’ contributions, encouraging quieter members to speak, and practising self-discipline. Students
may also need help from the teacher in developing the vocabulary to express the responses they have.
Establish conferencing guidelines with the students.
These are “rules of conduct” for peer conferences. They should apply to both the student writer and the
peer responders. These can be developed by the class and the teacher, and can be revised as necessary.
Post them so they can be referred to easily.
Establish that the leader of the discussion should be the student whose writing is being discussed.
This places the student writer in control of the conference. He or she can have specific questions for the
responders or ask for general feedback. The writer should see the session as a working session for his or
her benefit, and try, as the chairperson, to keep the conference on track so that valuable information
is gained. If the teacher senses problems, he or she should step in and model the behaviours of a good
leader.
Encourage students to recognize the developmental process of the peer conference.
Students generally experience four stages of peer response: sharing, summarizing, responding, and
helping. It is useful for students to understand what type of response they want or are getting from the
group.
At the sharing stage, students support each other’s efforts as writers. Hence, the first sessions of peer
response might simply consist of members sharing several pieces of writing, if that is the only stage with
which they are comfortable.
Summarizing can occur when the writer feels confident that group trust has been established. Members
of the group retell in their own words the content of the writing being discussed, so the writer can
determine if the writing is clear to others.
When students respond, they talk seriously about the ideas at hand, and how well the writer’s format
serves these ideas. Group members discuss their reactions openly and freely. From the reactions of the
group, the student writer learns that writing is serious communication that constructs meaning.
Helping is the final stage. Student writers are generally ready to help themselves as a result of the
discussions which have taken place. Also, writers are often ready for some unobtrusive comments
regarding writing conventions, word combinations, alternative approaches, or elaboration. In later
conferences which focus on editing and proofreading, group members may help with things like
spelling, usage, and punctuation.
Guidelines for Peer Students should be provided with some written guidelines
regarding their roles. Guidelines similar to the ones on the next
Conferences
page may be given as handouts or displayed in the classroom.
Note: A peer conference should never be seen as a session

of group or committee writing. Changes are always in
the hands of the writer, and the writer is free to reject all
suggestions if he or she chooses. The assumption should
always be that the writer is the expert on the writing
selection under discussion. Peers are there to respond only.
Student Guidelines to
Peer Conferencing
Conferencing Guidelines for Writers

• Do not make apologies or explanations concerning your writing (e.g., I did not have
much time).
• Never tell your readers how you want them to respond. When you know how your
audience has perceived your writing, then you might ask them how they think a
different audience might respond.
• Do ask specific questions if you know on what it is that you need feedback. For
example, you might ask the group's opinion on whether you should cut a section or
leave it.
• Pay attention to what responders have to say and think about what might be behind
it. Although what they say may be wrong in your mind, it still might point out a
problem you should take seriously.
• Listen openly to responses and take them in, but do not be made helpless by what is
said. Remember that you are in charge of your own writing and you will decide for
yourself what to do next with your piece.
• Remember that responders are giving feedback on a piece of your writing, not on you
as a person.
• Remember that, even if your writing is based on personal experience, you are asking
responders to react to the writing, not the experience or your feelings about it.
Conferencing Guidelines for Responders

• Focus on the writer’s work. Stay on task.
• Point out and comment on ideas, words, and phrases which move you in some way or
seem to have lots of energy.
• React to the writing only, giving specific responses to specific parts. Do not make
personal comments or ask personal questions about something you think might be
based on the writer’s real experience. If the writer wants to tell you about it, he or she
will. Even so, the purpose of the peer conference is to focus on the writing.
• Be sure to give an accurate account of what you understand the writer to be saying.
• It is not necessary to evaluate. Writers will gain advice and guidance through the
interaction between you and their words.
• Avoid telling other group members how to feel and never quarrel with someone else’s
reaction.
• Try to understand other people’s perceptions, rather than staying locked into your
own impressions. (There will always be some words or passages that you will not
perceive as others do.)
• Show appreciation for a writer’s work, ask about its contents, describe what you like
about it, and refrain from making negative judgements.
• Help writers to clarify their intentions for the work, but remember that it is not
appropriate for you to try to “rewrite” someone else’s work. The writer is the expert on
each piece of writing.
Student-teacher Student-teacher conferencing is also essential. In some cases, student-

teacher conferences can be more useful than peer conferencing
Conferencing
sessions, depending on the student. Teachers should hold regular
conferences with all students and make judgements about which
students need more of their time. In addition, teachers should
regularly talk informally with students as they are working.
The teacher might begin the conference by asking, "How is it

going?" or "How can I help you?". It is important that teachers
ask questions which are non-directive, non-evaluative, and
non-leading, so that students will learn to evaluate their own
writing. The teacher might ask directly, "What would you like to
accomplish in today’s conference?" or "What, in particular, would
you like to talk about?”
The teacher should continue to ask broad questions that invite

response. Typical inquiries might be, “What idea are you
developing?” or “How do you feel about the beginning?”
Students must feel that the teacher is interested in what they have
to say, and the teacher should never imply that he or she has a
greater knowledge about the topic than the student possesses.
As with peer conferences, the student should be considered the
expert on the piece of writing under discussion. When students
are led to discover their own strengths, they become aware that
revision does not mean starting all over again.
ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
Assessment and Evaluation

Overview Assessment and evaluation require thoughtful planning and
implementation to support the learning process and to inform teaching.
All assessment and evaluation of student achievement must be based on
the specific curriculum outcomes in the provincial curriculum.
Assessment involves the systematic collection of information about

student learning with respect to:
• achievement of provincial curricula outcomes;

• effectiveness of teaching strategies employed;
• student self-reflection on learning.
Evaluation involves the weighting of the assessment information against

a standard in order to make a judgment about student achievement.
Reporting of student achievement must be based on the achievement of
curriculum outcomes.
There are three interrelated purposes of assessment. Each type of

assessment, systematically implemented, contributes to an overall
picture of an individual student’s achievement.
Assessment for learning involves the use of information about student

progress to support and improve student learning, inform instructional
practices, and
• provides descriptive, specific, and instructive feedback;
• occurs throughout the teaching and learning process, using a
variety of tools;
• engages teachers in providing differentiated instruction, feedback
to students to enhance their learning, and information to parents in
support of learning.
Assessment as learning actively involves student reflection on learning,

monitoring of her/his own progress, and
• supports students in critically analyzing learning related to
curricular outcomes;
• is student-driven with teacher guidance;
• occurs throughout the learning process.
Assessment of learning involves teachers’ use of evidence of student

learning to make judgements about student achievement, and
• provides opportunity to report evidence of achievement related to

curricular outcomes;
• occurs at the end of a learning cycle using a variety of tools;
• provides the foundation for discussions on placement or promotion.
Designing Effective The assessment and evaluation strategies used in Writing 521A must
support teachers in designing instruction that will best help students
Assessment achieve the learning outcomes for the course and help students grow as
responsible, self-confident writers.
Teachers must realize they are preparing students for a world where
knowledge is expanding at a rate we can no longer track. This requires
that we shift emphasis from content knowledge to information processing
skills. Our students need to be able to select, process, evaluate, and create
new knowledge. This knowledge does not always need to be tested directly
on evaluations that rely strictly on the recall of facts during tests; rather,
it can be encompassed in higher level objectives such as comprehension,
synthesis, or application. These could be better measured through a
problem-solving approach.
It is therefore important to emphasize a variety of strategies in evaluation

plans. These must reflect the teaching strategies employed in the delivery
of the specific topic.
Although the emphasis in Creative Writing 521A is on the writing

process, the evaluation plan should include a wide variety of assessment
methods and incorporate all language arts strands. Any single item of
information about a student’s learning is only a minuscule sample of that
individual’s accomplishments. All types of learning outcomes cannot
adequately be evaluated with a single type of instrument. Notions about
students having different learning styles also apply to their performance
on items designed for purposes of evaluation.
Evaluation strategies must closely resemble the nature of the instructional

program, curriculum, and modern learning theory. There is significant
movement toward authentic assessment or performance assessments.
These could include such strategies as open-ended questions, exhibits,
demonstrations, placement projects, computer simulations, writing, and
portfolios of students’ work over time.
A multifaceted plan is needed to respond to the differences in the

intended learning outcomes, the learning styles of students, and to reflect
the Essential Graduation Learnings. (A listing of the essential graduation
learnings is provided in Foundation for the Atlantic Canada English
Language Arts Curriculum (1996, pp. 6-9.)
Individual learning outcomes, the criteria for success, and the form that
assessment and evaluation will take, should be clearly understood by
teachers, students, and parents. This involves clearly describing unit and
lesson objectives and how the achievement of these objectives will be
assessed. If students are to see themselves as responsible for their own
learning, the requirements for attaining success in a unit of work must
be clearly understood. The assessment and evaluation of the unit should
contain no surprises.
Following are examples of assessment techniques:
Observation
This technique provides a way of gathering information fairly quickly while a
lesson is in progress. When used formally, the student(s) would be made aware of
the observation and the criteria being assessed. Informally, it could be a frequent,
but brief, check on a given criterion. Observation may offer information about
the participation level of a student for a given task or application of a given
process. The results may be recorded in the form of checklists, rating scales
or brief written notes. It is important to plan in order that specific criteria are
identified, suitable recording forms are ready, and that all students are observed in
a reasonable period time.
Performance
The Creative Writing 521A curriculum encourages learning through active
participation. There is a balance between process and content. It is important that
teachers provide feedback on skills development throughout the course. Many
activities referenced in this guide provide for students to reflect on their skill
development and for teachers to assess their progress.
Journal
Although not assessed in a formal manner, journals provide opportunities for
students to express thoughts and ideas, and to reflect on their transferable skills.
By recording feelings, perceptions of success, and responses to new concepts, a
student may be helped to identify his or her most effective learning style and
skills. Knowing how to learn in an effective way is powerful information. Journal
entries also give indicators of developing attitudes to concepts, processes, and
skills, and how these may be applied in the contexts of society. Self-assessment,
through a journal, permits a student to consider strengths and weaknesses,
attitudes, interests, and transferable skills.
Conferencing
Writing 521A promotes understanding and application of concepts. Conferencing
with a student allows the teacher to confirm that learning has taken place beyond
simply factual recall. Discussion allows a student to display an ability to use
information and clarify understanding. Conferences may be brief discussions
between teacher and student or they may take places between students. Such
conferences allow a student to be pro-active in displaying understanding. It is
helpful for students to know which criteria will be used to assess conferences.
This assessment technique provides an opportunity to students whose verbal
presentation skills are stronger than their written skills.
Paper and Pencil

These techniques can be formative or summative. Several curriculum outcomes
call for displaying ideas, plans, conclusions, and/or the results of research, and
can be in written form for display or for direct teacher assessment. Whether as
part of learning, or a final statement, students should know the expectations
for the exercise and the rubric by which it will be assessed. Written assignments
can be used to assess knowledge, understanding, and application of concepts.
The purpose of the assessment should determine what form of pencil and paper
exercise is used.
Presentation
The Creative Writing 521A curriculum includes outcomes that require students
to analyse and interpret information, to identify relationships, to work in teams,
to critically reflect, and to communicate information. Many of these activities are
best displayed and assessed through presentations, which can be given orally, in
written/pictorial form, by project summary, or by using electronic systems such as
video or computer programs. Whatever the level of complexity or format used,
it is important to consider the curriculum outcomes as a guide to assessing the
presentation. The outcomes indicate the process, concepts, and context for which
and about which a presentation is made.
Portfolio
Portfolios offer another option for assessing student progress in meeting
curriculum outcomes over an extended period of time. This form of assessment
allows the student to be central in the process. Decisions about the portfolio and
its contents can be made by the student. What is placed in the portfolio, the
criteria for selection, how the portfolio is used, how and where it is stored, and
how it is evaluated are some of the questions to consider when planning to collect
and display student work in this way. The portfolio should provide a long-term
record of growth in learning and skills. This record of growth is important for
individual reflection and self-assessment, but it is also important to share with
others. For many students it is exciting to review a portfolio and see the record of
development over time.
Assessment should reflect the full range of student learning in Writing

521A; involve the use of a variety of information gathering strategies
that allow teachers to address students’ diverse backgrounds, learning
styles, and needs; and provide students a variety of opportunities to
demonstrate their learning. It is important that Writing 521A teachers
address the breadth and depth of the curriculum outcomes.
Effective assessment strategies
• are explicit and are communicated to students and parents at the

beginning of the school term (and at other appropriate points
throughout the school year) so that students know expectations
and criteria to be used to determine the level of achievement;
• must be valid in that they measure what they intend to measure;
• must be reliable in that they consistently achieve the same results
when used again, or similar results with a similar group of students;
• involve students in the co-construction, interpretation, and
reporting of assessment by incorporating their interests (students
can select texts or investigate issues of personal interest);
• reflect where the students are in terms of learning a process or
strategy, and help to determine what kind of support or instruction
will follow;
• allow for relevant, descriptive, and supportive feedback that gives
students clear directions for improvement;
• engage students in metacognitive self-assessment and goal setting
that can increase their success as learners;
• are fair in terms of the students’ background or circumstances and
provide all students with the opportunity to demonstrate the extent
and depth of their learning;
• accommodate the diverse needs of students with exceptionalities,
including students with individual learning plans;
• assist teachers in selecting appropriate instruction and intervention
strategies to promote the gradual release of responsibility;
• are transparent, pre-planned, and integrated with instruction as a
component of the curriculum;
• are appropriate for the learning activities used, the purposes of
instruction, and the needs and experiences of the students;
• are comprehensive and enable all students to have diverse
and multiple opportunities to demonstrate their learning
consistently, independently, and in a range of contexts in everyday
instruction;
• include samples of students’ work that provide evidence of
their achievement;
• are varied in nature, administered over a period of time, and
designed to provide opportunities for students to demonstrate the
full range of their learning.
Reporting Reporting on student learning should focus on the extent to which

students have achieved the curriculum outcomes. Reporting involves
communicating the summary and interpretation of information about
student learning to various audiences who require it. Teachers have a
special responsibility to explain accurately what progress students have
made in their learning and to respond to parent and student inquiries
about learning. Narrative reports on progress and achievement can
provide information on student learning which letter or number grades
alone cannot. Such reports might, for example, suggest ways in which
students can improve their learning and identify ways in which teachers
and parents can best provide support. Effective communication
with parents regarding their children’s progress is essential in fostering
successful home-school partnerships. The report card is one means of
reporting individual student progress. Other means include the use of
conferences, notes, phone calls and electronic methods.
Guiding Principles In order to provide accurate, useful information about the achievement
and instructional needs of students, certain guiding principles for the
development, administration, and use of assessments must be followed.
The document Principles for Fair Student Assessment Practices for
Education in Canada (1993) articulates five fundamental assessment
principles, as follows:
• Assessment methods should be appropriate for and compatible with
the purpose and context of the assessment.
• Students should be provided with sufficient opportunity to
demonstrate the knowledge, skills, attitudes, or behaviours being
assessed.
• Procedures for judging or scoring student performance should be
appropriate for the assessment strategy used, and be consistently
applied and monitored.
• Procedures for summarizing and interpreting assessment results
should yield accurate and informative representations of a student’s
performance in relation to the curriculum outcomes for the
reporting period.
• Assessment reports should be clear, accurate, and of practical value
to the audience for whom they are intended.
PROGRAM DESIGN AND COMPONENTS
Program Design and Components

Curriculum Although Creative Writing 521A is a provincially developed course, it
is anchored to the general curriculum outcomes for writing as described
Framework in the Atlantic Canada English Language Arts Curriculum, Grades 10-12
(1996). As such, the course is designed to have students
• use writing (and other forms of representation) to explore,

clarify, and reflect on their thoughts, feelings, and experiences;
• create texts collaboratively and independently, using a
variety of forms for a range of audiences and purposes;
• use a range of strategies to develop their writing effectively and
precisely.
Essential Creative Writing 521A is also linked to the essential graduation

learnings for the Atlantic Canada curriculum. The outcomes
Graduation for Creative Writing 521A are most closely connected to the
Learnings (EGLs) communication cluster of essential graduation learnings. As writers,
students in Creative Writing 521A will be required to
• explore, reflect on, and express their own ideas, learnings,

perceptions, and feelings;
• demonstrate understanding of facts and relationships presented
through words;
• present information and instructions clearly, logically, concisely,
and accurately for a variety of audiences;
• access, process, evaluate, and share information.
Students will also be expected to work and study purposefully both

independently and in groups, which contributes to the essential
graduation learnings for personal development. In addition, they will
be expected to demonstrate problem solving abilities as they
• formulate tentative ideas, and question their assumptions and those

of others;
• solve problems individually and collaboratively.
As creators and sharers of written and electronic texts, students will be

working towards technological competence when they
• locate, evaluate, adapt, create, and share information using a variety

of sources and technologies;
• demonstrate understanding of and use existing and developing
technologies.
As they explore and create other forms of representation to support

their writing, they will be working toward an essential graduation
learning for aesthetic expression in that they will be using various art
forms as a means of formulating and expressing ideas, perceptions, and
feelings. (A listing of the essential graduation learnings is provided in
Foundation for the Atlantic Canada English Language Arts Curriculum
(1996, pp. 6-9.)
In the Atlantic Canada English Language Arts Curriculum,(Grade 10-

12), text is used to describe any language event, whether oral, written,
or visual. The implication of this definition for students in Writing
421A is that, though the major emphasis will be on writing, posters,
electronic texts, and illustrations may form part of their portfolio.
Planning, Creative Writing 521A requires pre-semester planning to ensure all

outcomes are addressed and process skills are integrated with content
Assessing, knowledge. All outcomes are inter-connected and interdependent.
Reporting and Any combination of outcomes can be the focus for a time frame of
instruction. Teachers should look for the connections when planning
Weighting in and make the connections when teaching. This will support students
Creative Writing in developing the deeper understanding needed to advance as writers.
521A Technically the course is comprised of only thirteen (13) outcomes,
although there is a high level of complexity within the course structure.
Outcomes are process-driven and will require critical up-front
discussion and guidance at the beginning of the semester. Students will
need to fully understand at the beginning of the course what will be
expected of them as well as how they will be assessed throughout the
duration of the course. This “front-loading” instructional time serves
two purposes: 1) it informs students of their tasks to come, and 2) it
enables students to start thinking about inquiry topics that they may
wish to pursue. Ideally, by giving students the necessary process tools
up front, many of them will be able to self-direct their learning as the
course proceeds. This will allow the teacher to act as a process facilitator
for some students while freeing up time to offer more direct assistance
to others.
Assessment of learning in Creative Writing 521A should occur

formatively throughout the process stages. Assessment tools, criteria,
and timelines (deadlines) should be established in advance to facilitate
ongoing and informative assessment and feedback to students.
Summative assessment may take place when an end-product is complete
(inquiry project). Teachers should consider the time and effort involved
in all stages of a project to ensure that the end-product does not become
the entire assessment.
Reporting methods and weighting of assessments should be determined

before the course is underway so that students are aware of expectations.
Some schools may have specific policies regarding weighting of major
assessment pieces. Creative Writing 521A is easily adaptable to a variety
of assessment weightings. It is important to note that this course
emphasizes the process involved in inquiry-based learning within a
writing context. While specific content knowledge is important, the
higher goal is in learning how writing creates meaning.
General Curriculum This course is organized around four general curriculum outcomes
that provide a general frame of reference for the specific curriculum
Outcomes for outcomes that will guide unit and lesson planning. The four general
Creative Writing curriculum outcomes are
521A • writing and representing
• reading and viewing
• speaking
• listening
Specific Curriculum The specific curriculum outcomes for Creative Writing 521A are
statements that identify what students are expected to know, be able to
Outcomes for do, and value upon completion of the course. Performance indicators
Creative Writing outline the key tasks and activities by which students will demonstrate
their achievement of these outcomes. Performance indicators represent
521A the breadth and depth of an outcome and are not meant to be viewed
as an exhaustive list. Unit and lesson planning by teachers should be
balanced to provide a range of writing experiences addressing each
outcome. Instructional practices can and should be designed to provide
a variety of opportunities to achieve the outcomes. The appendices
serve to provide teachers with additional assistance as they plan student
learning experiences and assess student learning.
How to Use the The Creative Writing 521A curriculum has been organized into four
sections. Each begins with a two or three page spread which provides an
Curriculum Layout overview of the unit as well as the clusters of outcome for the unit. This
is followed by each outcome and the performance indicators.
Column 1: Column 1 contains specific curriculum outcomes for each unit,

explaining what students are expected to know or be able to do within
Outcomes that particular task.
Column 2: Column 2 contains performance indicators for each specific curriculum

outcome within the unit. Performance indicators outline key tasks and
Performance activities by which students will demonstrate their achievement in these
Indicators outcomes.
The Two-Column Unit Overview

Spread Title of Unit
Outcomes Performance Indicators
* specific curriculum • articulates what students should be able to do when
outcomes they have achieved the outcome
Sample of a CREATIVE WRITING 521A
Writing and Representing
Two-Column Spread Outcomes Performance Indicators
Students will be expected to Students who have fully met the SCOs should be able to
1.1 develop their abilities to write • use writing to explore unique personal perspectives
creatively and expressively • use writing to explore ideas in a new way
• manipulate language for poetic and aesthetic purposes
• use language as a vehicle for thought
• write to express understanding
• write to engage a reader’s interest
• use freewriting and/or journalling to answer questions that lead
to reflection and evaluation
• illustrate text visually by creating a visual representation
(painting, mobile, sculpture, chart, graph, etc.)
• analyse emotions evoked by a text
Curriculum Writing and Representing
Outcomes Students will be expected to:

Overview 1.1 develop their abilities to write creatively and expressively
1.2 demonstrate the behaviours of committed creative writers
1.3 develop knowledge of creative writing and appropriate vocabulary
for discussing creative writing
1.4 recognize writing as a constructive, meaningful process
1.5 write creatively in the four major genres of poetry, short fiction,
play writing, non fiction
Reading and Viewing
Students will be expected to:

2.1 recognize reading as an active constructive process
2.2 demonstrate the behaviours of effective, strategic writers
2.3 read a variety of texts for a variety of purposes
Speaking

3.1 recognize that talk is an important tool for communicating,
thinking, and learning
3.2 demonstrate the behaviours of effective speakers
Listening

4.1 recognize listening as an active, constructive process
4.2 demonstrate the behaviours of effective listeners
4.3 listen effectively in a variety of situations for a variety of purposes
English Language Arts
Creative Writing 521A
49
CREATIVE WRITING 521A

Specific Curriculum Outcomes
By the end of Creative Writing 521A, students should be able to
1.1 develop their abilities to write creatively and expressively
1.2 demonstrate the behaviours of committed, creative writers
1.3 develop knowledge of creative writing and appropriate vocabulary for discussing creative writing
1.4 recognize writing as a constructive, meaningful process
1.5 demonstrate the attributes of creative writing in the four major genres of poetry, short fiction, play
writing, non fiction
Introduction
Students must be provided with daily opportunities to write and to revise their writing. Students must be
allowed time to write informally in a response journal or idea notebook (at least 2-3 per week).
Representing
Representing is included as a language process, along with the traditional language processes of speaking,
listening, reading, and writing. Representing broadens the way in which students can understand and
communicate their learning.
While the emphasis in language arts is on representing thoughts, ideas, and feelings in written or spoken
forms, students also might use visual, dramatic, and multimedia formats to support their written and spoken
messages. When appropriate, students should be given opportunities to communicate and respond through a
variety of formats including print (e.g., charts, graphs, tables), visual (e.g., diagrams, photos, advertisements),
drama (e.g., tableaux, improvisations, role playing, storytelling, readers theatre), and multimedia (i.e., recordings,
films, videos, television, Webcasts, video podcasts).
Language Conventions
Teachers are encouraged to help students identify patterns of errors in their writing and to focus on one or
two patterns at a time. Common errors at this level frequently involve
• comma splices and run-on sentences
• subject-verb agreement
• pronoun-antecedent agreement
• sentence fragments
• dangling and misplaced modifiers
• faulty parallel structure
• shifts in person and verb tense
• wordiness
• cliches
• homonyms
• punctuation
This instruction may take the form of mini-lessons (ten minutes or less). Teachers are encouraged to use
exercises involving sentence combining or mentor sentences to teach and reinforce sentence construction
rules.
Ongoing Classroom Activities

Regular routines in the creative writing classroom should involve
• various appropriate components of the writing process (pre-writing, drafting, revising, editing,
publishing)
• other writing activities such as freewriting and journal writing
• whole class and/or small group discussions of student writing and literary models
• mini-lessons on components of writing genre and craft
• mini-lessons involving grammar, usage, and conventions as needed
• time for student reflection
• time for peer and/or teacher conferencing
• reading
Areas of Emphasis
• Text forms – characteristics of poetry, drama, fiction, and non-fiction
• Writing process
• Traits of effective writing
› Content/Ideas–overall topic, degree of focus, and related details
› Organization–structure and form, dependent on purpose and audience
› Word Choice–evidence of author’s style, personality, and experience
› Voice–evidence of author’s style, personality, and experience
› Sentence Structure–variety and complexity of sentences
› Conventions–spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and usage (grammar)
Resources and Suggestions For Their Optimum Use

• The Act of Writing, 5th ed. (student text)
Teachers are encouraged to use this text to support the nonfiction unit. The chapters define the key
features of – and provide models for – various methods of development. The glossary and the suggestions
for topics in each chapter may be helpful for some students.
• Creative Writing (teacher resource)

Teachers are advised to use this resource to support the poetry, fiction, and independent project units.
Teachers should select those activities or exercises that best suit their students; teachers should NOT feel
obliged to use all of the lessons or handouts provided.
• The Bare Essentials, 6th ed. (one class set per school)
Teachers are encouraged to use this resource to inform mini-lessons on language conventions and
usage. Students may be asked to complete exercises relevant to patterns of errors in their writing either
individually, in small groups, or as a whole class, depending on need.
Daily Scheduling
Daily scheduling will depend on the students and teacher. Where one teacher and class might require a fairly
tight structure, another might function best in a less structured manner. It is important that some flexibility
be maintained so that the teacher can respond to student needs and progress. In addition, the teacher should
build in some mechanism for allowing for varying rates of progress, as some students will write very quickly
and wish to work on many projects at once, while others will work more slowly and methodically according to
their personal style.
Classroom Environment
It is essential that student writers work in an atmosphere that inspires confidence, knowing that they can
take risks without fear of criticism or ridicule. Teachers should understand that all honest creative endeavour
involves risk-taking, especially for adolescents with developing self-concepts. Many students will find their
voices in an atmosphere where risk-taking is encouraged and respected.
During discussion periods students exchange ideas, consult one another, and share their writing. The sound
of constructive conversation is healthy during these times. However, some classroom time should be set aside
as quiet time, to enable students to reflect, deliberate, and concentrate. The classroom environment should be
predictable and consistent.
Although conferencing is a part of the writing process, teachers should be aware that some students benefit
more than others from group discussion of their work. Teachers should help students determine their
preferences for receiving feedback and accommodate them as much as possible. Some students will benefit
from working with one partner with whom they have good rapport. Others will benefit most from teacher-
student conferences.
It is a challenge for teachers to make all personalities feel at home in a group environment, especially when
creative endeavours are often solitary and intensely personal. However, if teachers promote an atmosphere of
respect for individual differences, the creative writing program can be a productive one for student writers.
Students will be expected to Students who have fully met the SCO should be able to
1.1 develop their abilities to write • use writing to explore unique personal perspectives
creatively and expressively • use writing to explore ideas in a new way
• manipulate language for poetic and aesthetic purposes
• use language as a vehicle for thought
• write to express understanding
• write to engage a reader’s interest
• use freewriting and/or journalling to answer questions that lead
to reflection and evaluation
• illustrate text visually by creating a visual representation
(painting, mobile, sculpture, chart, graph, etc.)
• analyse emotions evoked by a text
1.2 demonstrate the behaviours of • write with purpose and understand the influence and power of
effective writers writing
• apply knowledge of literature and literary traditions to writing
• engage in a process of creative problem solving
• see the development of a piece of writing as organic and
incremental and understand the importance of revision
• confer with peers and teachers
• write introductions that engage interest and focus readers’
attention
• state a topic sentence clearly and limit the content to pertinent
material
• develop ideas rather than just re-stating them
• use various methods of development and organization
(chronological, spatial, and logical) appropriate to purpose
• demonstrate the ability to organize thought coherently using
transition words
• compose effective paragraphs and organize ideas into multi-
paragraph compositions
• compose suitable endings
• analyse and evaluate their own and others’ writing for ideas,
organization, sentence clarity, word choice, and mechanics
• prepare final copy using appropriate forms of publication
1.3 write fluently, confidently, and • understand and write from various points of view
creatively for a variety of purposes • establish distinct voice appropriate to form
and audiences
• use literary devices for effect
• explore connections between language use, theme, and
meaning
• experiment with a variety of writing genres including poetry,
fiction, plays, and nonfiction
• write for a variety of purposes including to:
› reflect, clarify, and explore ideas
› express understanding
› describe, narrate, inform and persuade
› express self
› create and entertain
• distinguish between the unique characteristics and conventions
of poetry, fiction, plays, and non-fiction
1.4 understand writing as a • recognize writing as a process of constructing meaning for self
constructive, meaningful process and others
• use the writing process to organize thoughts and explore ideas
through writing
• apply appropriate pre-writing and planning strategies
• develop ideas previously explored in draft form
• revise by adding, deleting, rearranging, or expressing the idea
in a different way
• edit, proofread, and present writing
• gather ideas from a variety of sources and use a framework
such as a graphic organizer to sort information/ideas, organize
perspectives, and make new connections
1.5 demonstrate the attributes of • write ten poems experimenting with diverse structures and
creative writing in the four major poetic devices (figures of speech such as simile, metaphor,
genres of poetry, short fiction, play personification, and synecdoche; sound devices such as
writing, non fiction rhyme, rhythm, alliteration, onomatopoeia, assonance, and
consonance; imagery; theme; tone; symbol) (see Appendix A).
• write three pieces of nonfiction (250-500 words each)
involving any three of the following methods of development:
comparison and contrast, process analysis, description,
narration, cause and effect, analogy, or classification (see
Appendix D).
• write one short story (1,000 - 1,500 words) including correctly-
written dialogue and demonstrating an awareness of the key
elements of fiction (such as plot, setting, characterization,
conflict, structure, and point of view) (see Appendix B).
• write one script demonstrating an awareness of common
dramatic concepts (such as stasis, dramatic action, conflict, and
structure in drama) and which might, for example, take one
of the following forms (a scene involving a real life dilemma;
a very short one-act play; an adaptation of a Shakespearean
scene, set in modern times; an adaptation of a moment from a
famous novel; a parody; a comedy sketch). Teachers may allow
students to create and present their scripts in small groups (see
Appendix C).
• complete an independent project reflecting a student’s genre of
interest. This may be a project inspired by one of the previous
genres or something different (such as children’s literature,
a tall tale, a comic book, a “zine” or small magazine, a series
of illustrated greeting cards, a myth, or a series of poems
adapted from prose passages, song lyrics). Students should be
encouraged to augment their project with appropriate forms
of representation (such as artwork, music, or graphics) (see
Appendix E).
• submit a portfolio of their work representative of their effort
and improvement and including some reflection on their
progress and accomplishments.
Reading and Viewing

Reading and Viewing

2.1 understand reading as an active, constructive process
2.2 demonstrate the behaviours of effective, strategic readers
2.3 analyse a diverse collection of texts for a variety of purposes
Introduction
Students must be provided with frequent opportunities (45-60 minutes per week) to read both fiction and
nonfiction text of their own selection and teacher directed mentor texts.
Students must read at least three selections from The Act of Writing in connection with the nonfiction module
as models of various methods of development.
Teachers are encouraged to

• display student work (with students’ permission) for their peers to read
• display or discuss short samples of writing often (from magazines, newspapers, online sources, student
reading, their own writing or reading, and so on), illustrating specific strengths, structures, and techniques
(characterization, effective diction, syntax, effective use of sentence fragments, and so on)
• use visuals (artwork, film, illustrations) as prompts for writing
Viewing
Viewing is included as a language process, along with the traditional language processes of speaking, listening,
reading, and writing. Viewing broadens the way in which students can understand and communicate their
learning.
Students comprehend thoughts, ideas, and feelings by viewing. When appropriate, students should be given
opportunities to view a variety of formats including visual (e.g., photos, graphs, cartoons), drama (e.g.,
tableaux, improvisations, live theatre), and multimedia (e.g., videos, television, CD-ROM, YouTube). As
students read and listen, they encounter visual messages which require response, interpretation, and critical
assessment.
Daily Scheduling
Teachers must insist that students behave respectfully toward one another. At the beginning of the term
teacher and students together could decide on classroom rules and procedures for giving feedback; these could
be posted and revised as necessary.
respect for individual differences, the creative writing program can be a productive one for all student writers.
Reading and Viewing
2.1 recognize reading as an active • respond personally, critically, and creatively
constructive process • record responses in a reader’s journal, log, or notebook
• recognize author’s purpose, form and techniques
• state and evaluate author’s theme, tone, and viewpoint
• recognize the major literary forms, elements and techniques
(allusions, symbols, figurative language, and stylistic devices in
a text)
• recognize prominent symbols in a literary work
• skim, scan, and read closely for required information (See
Appendix P.)
• locate, access, and summarize information from a variety of
sources
Reading and Viewing
2.2 demonstrate the behaviours of • interpret an author’s purpose and intentions
effective, strategic readers • recognize patterns of organization and genre structures
• recognize various literary uses of language
• demonstrate an open-minded attitude toward new and
unfamiliar work
• respond personally, critically, and creatively
• critically respond to writing in a reader’s journal, log, or
notebook
• recognize the structure and characteristics of a particular
poem, play, or prose (fiction or non-fiction) selection
• compare and contrast the structure and characteristics of
various selections
• distinguish fact from opinion
• skim, scan, and read closely for required information
• recognize the structure of a poem, play, short story or essay
Reading and Viewing
2.3 analyse a diverse collection of texts • read a wide range of material for personal enjoyment and
for a variety of purposes extension of experiences
• explore experiences and values influenced in texts
• test ideas and values against ideas in text
• read to stimulate the imagination
• make and defend an informal critical response
• recognise major literary forms and techniques
• assess a selections merit as a literary work
• compare, contrast, and evaluate texts
Speaking
Speaking
3.1 recognize that talk is an important tool for communicating, thinking, and learning
3.2 demonstrate the behaviours of effective speakers
Introduction
Students must be provided with frequent opportunities to work together in pairs or small groups to plan,
draft, revise, and polish their compositions. It is necessary to note that speaking can take various forms—
presentation, conferencing small groups, and paired discussion. It is important that teachers provide clear and
explicit instructions and model how students can discuss and assess the ideas and writing of their peers with
purpose and sensitivity.
Daily Scheduling
Speaking
3.1 recognize that talk is an important • speak to clarify and extend thinking
tool for communicating, thinking,
• speak to express understanding
and learning
• speak to share thoughts, opinions, and feelings
• speak to build and respect relationships and a sense of
community
• recognize others’ points of view
• generate and utilize probing questions to obtain information,
including evidence to support a presenter’s claims and
conclusions
• interact collaboratively in pairs and groups to explore ideas,
experiences, and information
Speaking
3.2 demonstrate the behaviours of • recognize and adjust verbal and nonverbal elements in keeping
effective speakers with purpose, audience needs, and individual cultural and
linguistic background
• practise the roles of group members including: chairing,
participating, moderating and reporting
• prepare a reading of a personal composition
• present an oral presentation related to their own writing,
presented to the whole class, a small group, or a select audience
of peers.
• complete a dramatic presentation, either individually or in a
small group, involving work completed during the play writing
module (see Appendix C).
• summarize the main points and conclusion of an oral
presentation
• organize information, thoughts, and opinions in a logical oral
presentation
Listening
Listening
4.1 recognize listening as an active, constructive process
4.2 demonstrate the behaviours of effective listeners
4.3 listen effectively in a variety of situations for a variety of purposes
Introduction
Students must be provided with frequent opportunities to work together in pairs or small groups to plan,
draft, revise, and polish their compositions. Also, students will be encouraged to listen to formal and informal
presentations. It is important that teachers provide clear and explicit instructions and model how students can
discuss and assess the ideas and writing of their peers with purpose and sensitivity.
Daily Scheduling
Listening
4.1 recognize listening as an active, • ask relevant questions calling for elaboration, clarification, or
constructive process qualification
› anticipate a message and set a purpose
› actively attend to the speaker’s message
› seek and check understanding by making connections, and
by making and confirming predictions and inferences
› interpret and summarize
› evaluate and analyze
Listening
4.2 demonstrate the behaviours of • recognize factors that interfere with effective listening,
effective listeners including personal biases
• be sensitive to ideas and purpose when listening
• recognize a speaker’s attitude, tone and bias
• recognize non-verbal indicators of a speaker’s intent
• recognize the organization of an argument
• identify persuasive (propaganda) techniques
• use effective and active listening strategies (connecting to
prior knowledge, making reasonable predictions, identifying
main points, generating thoughtful questions, clarifying and
confirming meaning) to understand, recall, and analyse a
variety of texts
• provide appropriate feedback
• respond personally, critically, creatively, and empathetically
Listening
4.3 listen effectively in a variety of • listen for personal pleasure
situations for a variety of purposes • listen to generate ideas and inspire writing
• listen to understand and learn, analyze and evaluate, empathize
and make connections with others
• assess their own ability to listen effectively
• assess the overall effectiveness of group discussions, readings,
and interviews
• write a paraphrase and summary of an oral presentation
Appendices
73
Appendix A
Writing Poetry
75
APPENDIX A
Reading and Discussing Poetry

There is no single collection of poetry that will provide an adequate variety of poems suitable for the study
of poetry models. Teachers should provide samples of a wide range of poetry for reading, listening to, and
discussing. Different poetic styles and voices will appeal to different students. Samples from Prince Edward
Island poets should be included in the mix.
The discussion of poetry should frequently take place in small groups, allowing students to hear how others
interpret poems. Through discussion, students can help each other appreciate words, phrases, images, and
scenes.
Some students will gain writing ideas from the poetry that is studied. Even when students do not get their
creative writing ideas from the study of poetry, poetry study still provides them with a valuable sense of what
poetry is, what it looks like and sounds like, and what techniques are available to them for their own poetry
writing.
Types of Poetry
Lyric Poetry: Lyric poetry expresses imagination and emotion. It focuses on individual ideas and experience,
and can be written in many different forms, including free verse.
Narrative Poetry: Narrative poetry tells a story using exposition, and often a combination of narration and
dialogue. The story may be factual, imagined, humorous, or serious.
Prose Poetry: Prose poetry is poetry that appears in paragraph form. A prose poem focuses on a singular idea
or image, rather than on a narrative or series of events that result in some kind of change—as in a postcard
story, which is a form of very short story that looks like a prose poem.
Found Poetry: Students with an interest in popular culture and social issues might be interested in
found poetry. Found poems are those which are created from existing material. The author's role is one of
identifying the poem and its meaning, rather than of creating it. Poets interested in this idea can find poetry
in such unlikely sources as the newspaper, restaurant menus, and graffiti. The poet's interest is in the language
and its meaning in a social context.
Dramatic Poetry: Dramatic poetry is poetry written for performance, and might incorporate the dramatic
elements of action and dialogue. Poetry written in the speaker's diction also fall into this category (a
monologue, speech, or spoken word poetry ).
Note: Teachers and students should remember that the reading and discussion of poetry is essential
to the writing of poetry. Although students may draw their content from their own experiences, it is
the world of literature that provides them with form and the tools of the trade.
APPENDIX A
Pre-writing Ideas and Activities

Encourage students to play and experiment with language, especially to begin the poetry unit. Once
students feel comfortable with poetry, they will be more willing to risk writing about substantial
topics and to discover their own poetic style and voice.
Introduce poetry to students by

• discussing what poetry is, especially contemporary poetry (including song lyrics, beginning perhaps
with the lyrics from the teacher’s favourite song)
• studying various examples (some brought by students)
• presenting poetry concepts in mini-lessons (e.g., line breaks, rhythm)
• discussing why someone might write a poem instead of a short story or play.
Have students look at or perceive something in real life as though it were a "picture" or a photograph. Have
them capture that picture in words.
Have students think about the sound of words they like. Have them select one and write a poem about why
they like the sound of that word.
Have students find a short poem that they like and analyze it for the following:
• the subject matter
• the kind of words and language used
• whether the writer is a presence in the poem or is at a distance.
Then, have students write their own short poem (or a few lines of a poem) imitating the style of the
original.
Have students play with language, for instance by writing a poem with one of the following conditions:
• using only adjectives
• using no adjectives
• using only sentence fragments
• using no verbs
• with no punctuation
• without line breaks
• using only words starting with consonants
• using only words starting with vowels
Have students find a short article in the newspaper. Ask them to eliminate as many words as possible and still
retain the essence of the story. They do not need to worry about sentences or paragraphs, and they can break
the lines wherever they want for clarity.
APPENDIX A
Have students mix the senses in unusual ways by responding to questions such as:
• What colour is the number seven?
• What does red sound like?
• What colour is surprise, or sleep, or winning, or pain?
• How does purple taste?
• Which is louder, a smile or a frown?
• Which is rougher, yellow or pink?
• Which is quicker, green or black?
• Which is friendlier, a point or a line?
• How is laughter like peanut butter?
• Is mud softer than midnight?
• What takes more space, a pickle or a giggle?
• What weighs more, a scream or a sack of potatoes?
Have students try one of the following:

• colour their family or their town
• describe the smell of success
• describe the fragrance of a piece of music
• describe the feel of touching the night.
Have students define an abstract idea in concrete terms (concepts such as happiness, war, hate, beauty, family,
friendship, pride, jealousy, or anger).
Have students define events or objects in abstract terms (things like mice, bicycles, tornadoes, blizzards,
floods, hurricanes, mermaids, ghosts).
Music can be a source of inspiration for poetry. Have students freewrite while listening to music. Afterward,
ask them to reflect on how the words and images related to the type of music to which they listened.
Have students create character studies in poem form, by using old family photographs or photos from a web site.
Have students create a series of "what if" poems. (What if I could be a character in my favourite book or
movie? What if I lived in Australia?)
Have students begin a poem with a word randomly selected in a dictionary, letting their imaginations take
over; or, assign students a page from the dictionary and ask them to compose a poem using five words from
that page.
Have students select famous quotations or idiomatic expressions as a place from which to start writing.
Have students create an argument or a conversation in poem form, featuring any two people (storekeeper-
customer, son-father, pedestrian-motorist).
APPENDIX A
Have students write poems in response to their own drawings or sketches.
Have students write poems in response to paintings, sculptures, or other images in art history books.
Have students turn a fable, fairy tale, or proverb into a poem.
Have students find descriptions of events, collections of words, or unusual ideas in daily newspapers,
catalogues, cereal boxes, bumper stickers, novels, textbooks, comic books, letters, essays, or recipes. Then,
have them recreate the words as "found poetry".
Have students write a poem to tell a familiar story (a narrative poem).
Have students work in pairs, with each member of the pair selecting about six words at random from a book.
Each partner could then create a poem using all of the other partner's words.
Have students write a poem in which they compare activity in the same location but at different times (a
certain street at 8:00 am Monday as compared with 1:00 pm Sunday; an arena before, then during, a big
game).
APPENDIX A
Sources for Inspiration

Poetry comes from daily thoughts, experiences, and emotions, and from the writer's involvement with the
subject matter. Ideas and topic choices, then, are endless. Students should be encouraged to write about topics
in which they have an interest. To spark that interest or to develop it further, students may become involved
in various activities. They might
• explore their immediate surroundings
• investigate the thoughts, dreams, or customs of others
• ask questions (about family history, local news, past events)
• learn about news events
• read magazines
• recall travel experiences
• study art, photography
• listen to music
• read poems
• read fairy tales or children's literature
• talk to senior citizens
• imagine different scenarios
• reflect on human relationships
• recall childhood memories
• adopt a point of view other than their own
• create an imaginary listener for their poetry (e.g., someone dead, someone famous)
• observe the world around them.
Topics which students choose to explore through poetry may be as varied as the following: cities, nature,
school (teams, report cards, biology notes), discoveries, disasters (storms, accidents), other people, hobbies,
fantasies, events (rodeos, races, garage sales), sports, history, places, the weather, food, health, animals,
holidays, the night, colours, family, job experiences, entertainment, or everyday objects.
Teachers can help students get started through brainstorming activities such as freewriting or by
having students imitate familiar structures such as haiku or acrostic poetry. Students should come
to appreciate that the essential features of all strong writing (showing rather than telling, vivid
imagery, specific rather than general examples) can be practised effectively through poetry, even in
its simplest forms.
APPENDIX A
Meaning, Tone, and Theme

Meaning
The meaning of a poem is the experience it expresses. That experience may involve a statement of emotion,
an understanding of human character, a story the poem has to tell, a description, an amazing image, an
epiphany, or some combination of these things. Meaning consists of much more than just the poem's central
theme or message. Meaning is connected to how the poem makes the reader feel or think. For example, it
may evoke thoughtfulness, puzzlement, laughter, surprise, joy, despair, anger, fear, or exhilaration.
Most importantly, writers of poetry must remember that no poem has a fixed meaning. Just as the act of
writing is an interaction between the writer and the work-in-progress, reading is an interaction between the
reader and the finished work. The experience of reading and the meaning will vary with each reader.
Students must be encouraged to value their own ideas, and to consider all the things that contribute to
meaning in their work. As they write a poem, they are exploring a unique way of expressing their ideas,
thoughts, and feelings. The writer is the person who controls how these are presented through decisions
about word choice, images, form, and tone.
Tone
Tone in poetry is the term used for the writer's attitude toward his or her subject, audience, or self. It is the
emotional meaning of the poem and is an important part of the total meaning. Readers will not completely
understand a poem unless they have a sense of what the tone is (sarcastic, carefree, happy, angry, reverent,
excited, calm). Almost all the other elements in a poem help to indicate its tone (imagery, figurative
language, rhythm, form). Recognition of tone, on the reader's part, requires increasing familiarity with word
connotations, alertness to nuances of language, and careful reading.
The best method by which writers can practise incorporating a particular tone into their poetry is to have
readers read the poetry, then discuss it among themselves and with the writer. The writer will then become
aware of reader interpretation of her or his work, and will be able to assess how successfully the desired tone
was incorporated into the poem.
Theme
The theme is a kind of unifying force which keeps the poem from "going off in different directions". The
theme of a poem is not its subject, but rather its central idea, which may be stated directly or indirectly.
Often, the theme in poetry is some type of comment on the human condition. The theme is often an
outgrowth of the subject – the poet's comment on the subject.
APPENDIX A
Essential Elements of Poetry

Essential Elements
Although contemporary poetry is difficult to define, beginning poetry writers might pay special attention to
the following: focus, words, images, rhythm, and form.
Focus
Most poems have a very specific focus: a central image, a specific emotion, an epiphany, a revelation, an
ironic twist. It is a great challenge to take an idea, find the essence in that idea, and then express it using just
the right words.
Students will often start with an idea that is too broad and difficult to capture. They will need to spend time
learning how to focus their idea and exploring what about the idea is especially important to them. Through
understanding the focus, they will be able to make other decisions that will allow them to construct and revise
their poem.
Sometimes students need to be reminded that writing is an organic process. Their focus might not become
clear to them until they have explored the larger idea through writing. Through the act of trying to capture
an idea in words, the focus might emerge. It is then up to the writer to recognize it and explore it further.
The following can help students focus an idea:

• journal writing
• free writing
• concept webbing
• writing first drafts
• discussing ideas and drafts with peers or the teacher.
Words
All writers pay attention to word selection. However, because of the condensed nature and specific focus of
poetry, word choice is a primary concern for most poets.
Student writers must learn to choose their words carefully for the following reasons:
• No two words have exactly the same meaning. A word either means what you want it to, or it does
not. Running is different from jogging; a huge pizza is bigger than a large one; a gaunt wolf is more
desperate or pitiable than a thin one.
• Words have a variety of connotations in addition to their denotation. Connotations include the
public and private associations we have with a word (home as opposed to house). Connotations are
extremely important to the poet because they express feelings and attitudes in addition to meaning
determined by definition.
APPENDIX A
• Different words look different on the page. Shriek somehow looks more piercing than yell. Stumble
looks like a harder fall than trip. The look of a word is particularly relevant in poetry, which has a
visual effect on the page.
• Different words have different rhythms. A writer might select a word for its sound, or how it fits into
a phrase, or for the number of syllables it has and how it contributes to the rhythm.
Images
Poems are full of images and it is often an image that is the essence of a poem, or that captures its meaning.
Student writers should be encouraged to concentrate on the freshness of images and on capturing meaning
through the use of imagistic language.
Images can be expressed through vivid description. They can also be captured by similes or metaphors, which
are both comparisons--the first linking two images specifically with "like" or "as", and the second implying a
relationship. Symbols are also a means of expressing an image.
Similes are more than simple comparisons. In most similes, the area of similarity is considerably narrower
than the area of difference. The effect of the simile depends on how well it can make the reader see the new
relationship. A simile must bring together terms that ordinary experience suggests are unlike. No simile by
itself ever seems truly poetic; however, it delights and surprises the reader in the context of the poem.
While a simile connects two dissimilar things by focusing on special similar qualities, a metaphor connects
two things directly by focusing on the basic essence of each. A metaphor is more than a substitution of one
thing for another; it is the expression of the unique connections between things. In using a metaphor, a writer
shifts from an explicit to an implied comparison. It is a shift from a statement which is literally true to one
that is literally untrue but is figuratively effective.
A symbol is any detail--an object, action, or state--which has a range of meaning beyond itself. When an
image works on a literal level and on an abstract level at the same time, it is a symbol. Often, the poet uses
repetition of the symbolic image as a means of drawing it to the reader's attention. However, care must be
taken not to make the symbol appear contrived; the symbolic reference is not effective if it seems forced. Also,
when symbols are used deliberately in creative writing, they should not be puzzles to assemble or clues to hunt
down. They should naturally complement the effect of the piece.
Rhythm
Rhythm refers to a pattern created by words, phrases, pauses, and punctuation. Patterns can be regular,
irregular, or random. Rhythm can be both visual (how the words look on the page) and aural (how they
sound).
APPENDIX A
Decisions regarding rhythm include

• choosing words for their sound in addition to their meaning
• making choices about line breaks
• considering pauses
• considering beat and emphasis
• making decisions about punctuation
• matching the poem's pace to its tone and meaning
• using devices such as repetition
• working with the natural ebb and flow of the language
Making students aware of different kinds of rhythm in poetry can result in their conscious efforts to control
rhythm in their own poems. Listening to the natural sound of the language and using it to advantage is often
the most effective way to control rhythm.
Form
All poetry distinguishes itself through the specific format in which it is written. Many types of poetry are
categorized according to the format used by the poet. In addition, some poems take a certain form on the
page or form a kind of picture that relates somehow to the content.
For student writers, the most important concepts related to form are the following:
• form and content are connected
• form contributes to the meaning of the poem
• often, the content of a poem determines its form.
Students can be made aware of the established formulas that exist for certain types of poems (cinquains,
diamantes, tankas, senrus, rengas, haikus, limericks, sestinas, ballads, and odes for instance). Formula poems
may serve as a good starting point and scaffold for students new to poetry. However, students should also be
encouraged to find form for their own ideas.
Most contemporary poetry is written in free verse. In free verse, the lines of poetry are not measured or
counted for accents, syllables, or rhyme. Lines in free verse may be short, long, or variable. Free verse usually
relies on vivid images and sound patterns; it uses the characteristics of poetic language (figures of speech,
sensory imagery, attention to detail).
Note: Although some students might be most comfortable when writing rhyming poetry, they should
be reminded that too often the effort in creating rhyming poetry goes into making the rhyme work
rather than finding the best words for the idea. Except when imitating a form that specifically
employs rhyme (a limerick, for instance) students should be discouraged from trying to force rhyme
onto their ideas.
APPENDIX A
Revising First Drafts

Basic questions writers might ask themselves upon completing their first drafts include the following:
• Is the focus clear?
• Does the poem explore or shed light on my idea or question?
• Are the images and descriptions interesting and convincing?
• Are all the words exactly the right ones?
• Does the poem display originality?
• Does the poem have the impact I hoped it would?
• Am I satisfied with the rhythms when I read the poem aloud?
• Is the poem punctuated in a way that contributes to the rhythm?
• Are the lines broken in the right places?
• Is the form effective?
• Does the form reflect the subject matter or content?
• Is the structure appropriate, and does it allow for meaning to be revealed as I wish it to be?
• Is the theme focused?
• Have I created the best possible ending or last line for my poem?
Note: Beginning writers often write poetry as an outpouring of feelings. Although it is perfectly
normal for teenagers to want to explore their feelings through writing, they should be reminded that
one of the purposes of literary writing is aesthetic. Even when exploring very personal subject matter,
they should be encouraged to think about such literary concerns as structure and language.
They should also be encouraged to think about how their personal experience has meaning in the
larger context of human experience.
Sample Discussion Questions for Conferences
The following questions are suggestions only, meant to encourage reflection and to gather response from peers
or the teacher.
• Are the words chosen exactly the right ones?
• Are there unnecessary words or lines?
• Does the rhythm of the poem work? What changes would influence rhythm?
• How does the order of the words or thoughts in the poem help to clarify or reveal the meaning?
• How does the poem reflect a unique "take" on the subject matter?
• What are the strengths of the poem?
Appendix B
Reading and Discussing Fiction
87
APPENDIX B
Reading and Discussing Fiction
This section introduces students to fiction, particularly short fiction. It encourages students to
discuss fiction, learn about the elements of contemporary fiction, and express their own ideas
through various types of fiction.
Questions for Consideration in Discussions, Peer Conferences, or Student-teacher Conferences
These questions might be asked of the student writer for the purpose of reflection, or the student might adapt
them to gather response from peers or the teacher. The questions are suggestions only. Students might have
their own questions to ask peers or the teacher. (Other relevant questions for revision of each genre can be
found in the Teacher Information section of this guide.)
• What is this story about?
• What type of language have you chosen (poetic, sparse, everyday, descriptive) and is it consistent
throughout?
• Is the type of language appropriate for the subject matter, characters, setting?
• Does the story unfold in a way that is interesting, intriguing, or satisfying for the reader?
• Is the story convincing and is it well-imagined? If so, why? If not, what might be the reason?
• Does the structure of the story allow the meaning of the story to be revealed or come clear at an
appropriate time for the reader?
• How does the story reflect your unique “take” on the subject matter?
• What are the strengths of your fiction writing?
Pre-Writing Ideas and Activities
• Introduce short fiction to students by:
• discussing what short fiction is, especially contemporary short fiction

• presenting short fiction concepts in mini-lessons (e.g., point of view, structure)
• discussing what it is that makes a person choose to write a short story from an idea, rather than a
poem or a play
• discussing the similarities and differences between short fiction and novels in terms of idea, scope,
and structure.
• Have students write five sentences about:
• a time when it paid off to be stubborn

• a time when they either lost or found confidence in themselves
• what they see when they look out the window
APPENDIX B
• being tense, and what makes them feel that way

• a time when they felt they were insensitive to another person
• what it is that distracts them and keeps them from concentrating.
• Have students describe a place that always gives them some particular feeling (e.g., their grandparents’
house, the library, a cabin, a park).
• As a class, go to some location nearby (e.g., a football field, a cafeteria, a playground). Ask each student
to write a full description of the place without looking at what others are writing. When back in the
classroom, compare the different detailed descriptions to illustrate the variety of ways in which the same
setting may be described.
• Ask students to choose a point of view or vantage point and describe a setting as seen from there (e.g.,
from an open window, from the air, through the eyes of their pet).
• Ask students to describe the most interesting street corner they know.
• Have students describe a place where someone they know works (e.g., an office, a shop, a hospital, a
garage, a trapper's cabin).
• Have students describe a place by making up clues to the identity of the inhabitants (e.g., the kind of
furniture they have, the objects on their tables or walls). Have students pair up and exchange descriptions
with their partner. Then, have them write about the type of people who live in the place which their
partner described.
• Have students imagine that they are inside a common object. Have them make up an imaginary
landscape inside this thing (e.g., a light bulb, a computer, a clothes dryer).
• Have students write five minutes of "stream of consciousness" writing as if they were:
• a character from a TV show, movie, or book

• the manager of a convenience store
• a postal carrier
• a day care worker after a hard day
• a person on his or her 100th birthday
• a sports figure
• a super hero.
• Ask students to imagine a "what if" situation. For example, "what if" they were standing in line at a bank
and a suspicious character walked in holding something under his or her coat. This person walks around
the bank in a suspicious manner and seems to be checking out the security system. Have students imagine
five different characters in the line at the bank and write a paragraph about:
• why each is in the bank

• what each is thinking about while standing in line
• what each does when he or she notices the suspicious character
• what the consequences are of what each character does.
APPENDIX B
• Have students write a dialogue between two people that characterizes them both, without referring
directly to either character’s personality traits.
• Have students write a dialogue between two people that characterizes someone who is not present,
without actually describing the person’s character directly.
• Have students select a character they have already imagined for possible use in a short story, and write a
brief dialogue between that character and another person under each of the following conditions:
• one is trying to convince the other to go to a movie

• one is trying not to let slip a piece of information that he or she has that might affect the other
• one is trying to tell the other something but cannot get it out
• the two are driving to the wedding of a mutual friend, who used to go out with one of them.
• Have students write opening paragraphs that contain some sort of "narrative hook" for these two possible
short stories:
• A middle-aged career woman dies suddenly, leaving unfinished business. She is given one day of grace
to come back and settle things.
• A young man decides to fake his own death and move to a distant country.
• From magazines, have each student select a photograph that contains people. Ask them to look at the
photograph and assign it a one-sentence theme. Ask them to describe, in writing, the setting and the
people. Then, ask them to put a plot in motion by presenting one of the characters with a choice, having
the character make a choice, and then imagining what the consequences are.
• Have the students picture, in their minds, a rowboat tied to a dock. Ask them to imagine a person, who
gets into the rowboat and rows it out into the lake. When the person gets to the middle of the lake, does
he or she:
• set the oars inside, let the boat drift, and read a book, lose track of time, get caught in a storm, etc.?
• meet other people out there, who are fishing, diving for a sunken wreck, planning a robbery, etc.?
• drop the boat’s anchor and go for a swim, explore the opposite shore, lose the boat, etc.?
• become surprised by a gust of wind and lose an oar, drift to an unknown place, get rescued by a
stranger, etc.?
• Describing physical action presents a unique challenge. Students might try some activities like the ones
which follow:
• Describe a young child eating.

• Write a description of a person doing a sport well.
• Describe a particular animal or bird running, jumping, flying, etc.
• Describe someone at work (e.g., a mechanic, a postal carrier, a dental hygienist, a dog trainer).
• Write about the movement of a crowd of people.

• Bring a collection of everyday objects to school and display them on a table. Have each student select two
seemingly unrelated objects and write something that includes both of them. Ask them to think about
how the presence of one affects the meaning of the other (e.g., apple and knife, pillow and knife, CD and
knife).
APPENDIX B
• Have students write about something changing:
• a wheat field ripening or being harvested

• a person changing his or her mind
• the sky changing colour
• a person changing his or her image or style of dress
• a person putting on a disguise
• a person becoming angry
• a school gym becoming an emergency shelter during a blizzard or a summer storm.

• Have students think about the meaning of the word "atmosphere" and how atmosphere can be created.
Ask them to create atmosphere in describing one or more of the following situations:
• a jazz club where a young musician is about to play his or her first professional gig
• the grounds where a powwow is about to begin
• a stadium where a famous rock musician is about to come on stage for a concert
• a small concert hall where a string quartet is about to play
• a parade route where a marching band is about to pass on Canada Day
• an old apartment block after midnight where the sounds of a single instrument can be heard (e.g.,
guitar, trumpet, drum).
• Ask students to find an article in the newspaper that tells of a series of events (narrative). Have students
retell the story as a "parody" of a certain type of fiction: a mystery, a western, a romance. They might tell
the same story several different times, as a different type of fiction.
APPENDIX B
Writing Short Fiction
Fiction is a mixture of experience and invention. It is a story that is not true, told in prose form. However, it
is a reflection or representation of reality and it generally reflects the life experiences of the writer in some way,
although not necessarily directly.
Every story operates within its own set of assumptions and expectations regarding what can or cannot happen.
The following are some forms of fiction that students might explore:
• Myths are narratives that reflect deep human concerns and try to explain natural, spiritual, or social
phenomena. Myths can be ancient or modern.
• Fables and parables are allegorical stories. They tell about one thing, but are really talking about
something else.
• Tales are basic stories written first and foremost to entertain an audience and produce some kind of
reaction in the audience--laughter, tears, anger, etc.
• Mimetic stories are modern stories that imitate real life. Characters are realistic and are guided by events
and ideas we have come to accept as possible or probable in our daily lives.
• Fabulous stories are those which provide a premise that readers are asked to accept. A pattern of realism
then operates in accordance with that accepted premise. Science fiction is an example.
• Dream fiction creates its own pattern, as dreams do. Dream fiction deals with the unconscious or the
sublime. It is not realistic fiction.
• Metafiction is a term used to describe fiction that comments, within the work, on itself or on literature.
Getting Started: Ideas for Student Writing

Experience is probably the most relied upon raw material for fiction—experience that is transformed to create
an illusion of reality. Student writers will rely heavily on their journals or idea books for subject matter. They
will continue to add to their bank of ideas by constantly observing, reading, researching, brainstorming, and
recording.
Note: Although the content of fiction comes from experience, the form the fiction takes will be
determined by the students’ knowledge of literary forms. Students should be reminded that, when
they draw on real life, they do not need to retell something exactly as it happened. They can use
the emotions and events in a new way. They can transform experiences into myths or metafictional
stories, for example. It is important that they understand that fiction is a representation of life; it is
not an imitation.
APPENDIX B
Sources of Inspiration
"Relationships" is a common theme in short fiction and one that students often choose to explore.
Relationships (family, friends, dating) is an appropriate theme because of the human emotions and conflicts
present in most relationships. The writer can often draw upon personal experiences and change them into
something related, but different, for short story purposes.
"Memories" is another theme students like to explore. Questions a writer needs to ask, when recalling
experiences or incidents, are: What happened? What was there about the experience which makes it unique
and meaningful? What is the human truth or meaning that can come from exploring this incident?
Other sources for fiction include:

• observations
• photographs
• newspaper stories
• objects
• anecdotes
• stories told to you by someone else.
As a work of fiction develops, the original inspiration (a memory, for example) takes on a life of its own.
Fiction writers often say that the story becomes so alive for them, they cannot remember what actually
happened and what they have fictionalized. However, although the final story might contain very few of
the facts related to the writer’s experience, it may still capture the essence of a particular memory or event.
That, in fact, is the goal: to find the essential truth in human experience; to make meaning out of experience
through fiction.
Note: The process of writing a story is one of imaging it into existence. If the writer believes in the
internal truths in the story, whether or not it is a realistic story, the reader will also be able to
imagine the story to life.
APPENDIX B
Elements of Short Fiction
Character
Character is the most important element in short story writing. Character is what brings significance to
plot and meaning to the story. The fiction writer needs to learn how to create characters who respond, not
necessarily realistically but believably, within the world of the particular story.
The writer’s purposes regarding characterization are:
To create convincing characters.
This does not mean that writers take people they know and put these people into their stories. It does mean
that they imagine characters to life, so that they seem like real people.
To make the reader care about what happens to these characters.
If the writer is successful at "getting inside" the character being created, the reader will feel what the characters
feel and recognize them as having unique human characteristics.
To maintain consistency in characterization.
When fictional personalities have been characterized, they should act in a manner consistent with that
characterization (unless their inconsistent behaviour is part of the story).
To connect something of great importance to the main character, to the story’s outcome.
In good stories, the characters are shown through the action, and the action is controlled through the
characters. In this way, the plot, characters, and story ending are connected.
Methods of Characterization
Characters can be portrayed directly or indirectly.
When using the direct method of characterization, the writer tells the reader what sort of person the character
is, through description. The author informs the reader through exposition or analysis, or has someone else in
the story tell the reader what a character is like.
Students attempting to use physical description to define their characters (e.g., describing speech idioms,
movements, or physical attributes) should be aware that such description can result in a character stereotype.
A good story is more concerned with what the character says and does, and how these things affect the
outcome of the story. Although some stories do contain physical descriptions, some stories with very strong
characterization contain no or very little physical description of the characters.
APPENDIX B
Using the indirect method of characterization, the writer provides the readers with information, but allows
them to draw their own conclusions regarding characterization. Of course, the writer selects the information
to be presented, so is still very much in control of the story. Indirect characterization may be accomplished
through:
› Setting: The character may either fit comfortably into the setting or be an "outsider" for some reason.
The resulting perspectives will be very different.
› Action: What a person does in a story reveals character and affects the outcome of the plot. The
meaning of a story is often revealed by the choices a character makes.
› Symbol: Some writers use details and objects in a symbolic way to indicate what Tom Wolfe refers
to as a character's "life status"—how a character views his or her position in the world. Such details
might include brand names, descriptions of homes and furnishing, and entertainment choices.
› Dialogue: What a person says reveals much about his or her character. Good dialogue is more than
simply conversation. It reveals the internal truths of a character.
› Thoughts: Looking into a person’s mind and listening to that person’s thoughts gives readers
a picture of what a character is like. Inner conflict can be revealed through thoughts, and the
contradictions of a character become clear to the reader if the character thinks one thing and says or
does another.
Note: Some books on writing encourage students routinely to write character sketches that describe
how their characters walk, talk, dress, etc. Students should understand that these details can be
superficial and might not get at the character's inner self.
Dialogue
One of the most important purposes that dialogue has in realistic fiction is to reveal character. Writers must
make every effort to have the fictional people they create speak "in character"; that is, in a manner that reflects
what the character believes and how he or she usually behaves.
Dialogue in a short story must have a purpose other than simply representing conversation. However, to be
convincing, dialogue must give the illusion of real "talk" within the context of the particular fictional world
the writer is creating. The characters in a futuristic science fiction story might not talk the way the students
talk, but they must still be convincing in the world of that story. The dialogue in A Clockwork Orange is a
good example of this.
It is important for students to understand the meaning of the word "sub-text". In fiction, as in life, people
often do not say exactly what they mean. The difference is that, in fiction, the text and sub-text of dialogue
are carefully controlled by the writer. Tension can be increased in a story if the reader knows what the
character wants to say, or is trying to say, or should say; the reader anticipates the character's dialogue and
might or might not be rewarded.
APPENDIX B
A first step in learning to write dialogue is learning to listen and analyze all the various ways and reasons that
people talk:
• to talk someone into something
• to gain information
• to exchange ideas
• to "test the water"
• to make someone feel at ease
• to threaten someone
• to think out loud.
Students should be encouraged to listen to many different conversations, read many examples of dialogue in
stories, and analyze purposes of conversation and what is achieved through talk.
Dialogue can also be "poetry" in a story. If a writer captures the rhythms and nuances of the way people
speak, there can be a tremendous amount of pleasure for the reader in simply enjoying the dialogue of the
characters. This is not a concern for all writers, but to some writers dialogue can be musical.
Some students will find that dialogue is very important to them in writing their stories. Other students will
incorporate very little dialogue. There is no rule concerning how much dialogue makes a good story. It all
depends on the writer's style. Encourage students to analyze their own purpose for including dialogue and to
understand what is accomplished in the story through dialogue. Their dialogue must have a purpose that is
related to characterization, action, plot, or poetic language (aesthetic purpose). Dialogue must add to the story
in some way.
Plot
Plot is that part of fiction that keeps the story in motion. Plot is what happens in a story. It is a sequence of
cause and effect events.
It is important to distinguish between plot and meaning. Plot is one level of the story and meaning is another.
For example, the plot of a story can follow a character’s journey from one side of the country to the other on
roller blades; the meaning of the story is something else again and is found in thematic concerns: the conflicts
between human frailty and strength, for example.
Some stories are heavily plot-dependent, while others are “quieter” and less dependent on plot. A mystery
story, for example, is usually heavily dependent on plot for its success, and will often contain a complex series
of cause and effect events (one thing leads to another). A Raymond Carver story, on the other hand, often has
very little plot and is still successful as a short story.
APPENDIX B
Forward Movement in a Story

The book Elements of Fiction (Scholes & Sullivan, 1988) suggests that the following are relevant when
examining plot in fiction:
• Beginning and Ending. Movement in some stories can be determined by looking at how things are
different at the end from what they were at the beginning.
• Changes in major characters. Changes to the characters based on what happens to them and how
they react (plot) can reveal the meaning of the story.
• Stages in the Changes. Characters do not change all of a sudden. There is usually a progression in a
story that culminates in some kind of change.
• Obstacles. There are always elements working against changes in the story. These might be
circumstances, other characters, the past, etc. They can be real or psychological.
• Various lines of action. Some complex stories have more than one plot that may or may not
intersect. However, one line of action may shed light on another for the reader.
• Characters or events that seem to make no contribution. Sometimes there is an element in the
story that is not involved in the plot at all, but does contribute to the meaning of the story.
Structure
Structure refers to the story's organization and is different from plot. Structure determines how the story is
organized, and how meaning is revealed to or constructed by the reader. The following are a few examples of
structures:
• Chronological. The events in the story are told as they happen, in time.
• Rising action. The story is structured around the cause and effect events of the plot, with the highest
tension coming near the end (climax).
• Flashback. The writer begins at the climax or some important point in the story other than the
beginning. The writer then flashes back to the past and provides details of the events leading up to the
point at which the story began.
• Non-linear. Events or sections of the story appear in a circular or dream-like way and add up to
something only after the reader has assimilated them all.
The structure of a story should be determined by the needs of the story. It is difficult, for example, to impose
a rising action structure on a story that does not have a cause and effect type of plot. On the other hand, it
would be difficult to write a suspenseful mystery story using a non-linear structure--the reader would have no
idea what was happening.
Structure in story writing is a difficult concept and one that beginning writers often confuse with plot. The
best way for students to learn about structure is to read, compare, and discuss many stories with a variety of
structures. Discussion should focus on:
APPENDIX B
• what the structure of the story is
• how the structure relates to the plot
• why the structure is appropriate for the story being told
• how the story’s meaning is either revealed or constructed by the reader through the story structure.
Meaning
Meaning and structure are closely connected. Where a writer places certain events, lines of dialogue, symbols,
images, or introspections will determine how the reader finds meaning in the story. The following are
examples:
• Look at a line of dialogue such as, "I wanted a different life". Where that line of dialogue is placed,
and in what context, will determine the importance a reader attaches to it. It can be banal, or it can
be revelatory, depending on where the writer places it.
• Imagine that a story contains the images of a white table cloth, a large white bird in flight, and a
white wedding dress. These images and the associations the reader makes with them are obviously
important to the meaning of the story. However, if they are all presented in one paragraph near
the beginning of the story, they will be overbearing and lacking context. The writer must place
them carefully in the story so that meaning is gradually constructed through the images and their
appearance.
Note: Students should understand that it is not just what happens in a story that allows the reader
to construct meaning. How the meaningful aspects of the story are presented (or how the story is
structured) determines what the reader makes of them.
Theme
Theme and meaning are closely connected, although theme is usually something a reader thinks about more
than a writer. Most writers do not set out to write a story about a certain theme, although a student might
say, "I want to write a story about justice" or "I want to write a poem about love". Although this is fine as a
starting point, students should be encouraged to focus on their story and its characters rather than the theme
itself, when they begin developing their story.
During revision they can think about what the story is saying in terms of theme and whether they need to
give the thematic ideas more focus.
Short story writers strive to bring some element of human existence alive. When they do this with conviction,
theme naturally arises out of what they have written. Readers, then, state the generalizations for themselves.
Point of View
Point of view refers to who tells or narrates the story. In some stories, the narrator or storyteller is the writer,
but usually the narrator tells the story on behalf of the writer, even if the story is told in the first person. (The
“I” character in a first person story does not have to be the writer.)
APPENDIX B
Note: Point of view is one of the most important decisions a writer makes because it determines how
much the reader is allowed to know, to what extent the reader can "see inside" the characters, and
through whose consciousness the story is told.
The following describes the four most common points of view:
First Person Point of View
In the first person point of view, the narrator is a character in the story and speaks from a first-person
perspective. (E.g., "I awoke one morning to find the front door wide open and most of my possessions gone,
even the dog. I immediately fell into despair, because the dog was my only companion.") The narrator can be
either a main character or the person telling the story of the main character. The important thing to remember
about first person point of view is that the story is told through the consciousness of one person, so whatever
that person thinks determines how the story is told. The main advantage of the first person point of view is
the sense of reality and immediacy it provides. Also, if the reader believes in the first person narrator, he or she
will believe in the story. The disadvantage is that the reader can have only the information the narrator has.
The narrator cannot see what happens behind closed doors.
Third Person Limited Point of View
Using this point of view, the writer tells the story in the third person, but from the viewpoint of one character
in the story. (E.g., "Larry awoke one morning to find the front door wide open and most of his possessions
gone, even the dog. He immediately fell into despair, because the dog was his only companion.") The events
of the story are seen through the eyes of, and understood through the mind of, that one character. The writer
reveals no knowledge of what other characters are thinking, feeling, and doing, except through what the
chosen character-narrator can observe or infer. The character telling the story might be either a participant or
an observer. The reader can have only the information or knowledge the narrator has.
Omniscient Point of View
In the omniscient point of view, the story is told using the third person, but the writer can go into the minds
of whatever characters he or she chooses. (E.g., “Larry awoke one morning to find the front door open and
most of his possessions gone, even the dog. He immediately fell into despair because the dog was his only
companion. The dog, however, was having the time of his life, chasing a rabbit and thinking about rabbit
stew”.) The writer’s knowledge is unlimited. She or he can tell readers what two, three, or all the characters
are thinking and feeling. The reader can have whatever information the writer wants him or her to have.
The omniscient point of view is extremely flexible, but must be used very carefully. If the story’s viewpoint is
continually shifting from character to character, the total unity of the piece could be destroyed.
Objective Point of View
In this point of view, the narrator can comment only on what can be seen or heard. He or she cannot enter
any character’s mind. (E.g., “Larry awoke one morning to find the front door wide open and most of his
possessions gone, even the dog. Larry picked up the dog’s empty dish. Then he sat on the porch with his
head in his hands.”) The reader sees the characters in action and hears what they say but can only infer what
they think or feel, or what their personalities are like. The advantages of the objective point of view are that it
allows for a great deal of action and speed in a story, and it allows readers to make their own interpretations.
APPENDIX B
Some novelists mix point of view, writing one section in the first person, for example, and another section in
the third. Most short story writers stick to one point of view for the duration of a story (although, of course,
there are exceptions).
Tense
Although tense might appear to be a mechanical concern, it is connected to point of view and can be
extremely important to a story. When students decide on point of view, they will also have to decide on tense.
They might write a story in one tense, and then change their minds and experiment with another. When they
have decided, they should take care to be consistent. Inconsistency in tense is a common mistake made by
beginning writers.
Most stories are written in either the past tense or the present tense. The present tense has the advantage of
being immediate; the reader's knowledge grows at the same time as the characters' knowledge. Past tense has
the advantage of distance. The narrator can have an introspection that comes with time having passed.
Setting
A writer chooses a particular setting for the short story, not because of the need to be realistically accurate, but
because of what it will accomplish for the story. Setting is used for a variety of purposes.
› The setting can reveal the main character’s relationship to the place where he or she is in the story
whether he or she is connected to the setting, at home in it, an outsider, a guest, etc.
› A setting that is vivid increases the credibility of character and action. If the reader accepts the setting
as real, that reader is more likely to accept the characters who live there, and their behaviour, as real.
(This applies to fabulist settings as well as realistic settings.)
› The setting of a story often has a direct connection to the story’s meaning. For example, a description
of a house can indicate an overall feeling of loneliness and isolation--a feeling which can be connected
to character and theme. Hence, a reader who accepts the particular meaning which a setting may have
is also accepting the writer’s intent.
› The setting can be used to create mood and atmosphere, if these are important to the story.
› Sometimes, the setting will hold keys to understanding the main character(s) or the supporting
character(s). Where a person lives is often very much a part of who that person is.
Note: Students should remember that all fictional settings (even though they give the illusion of
reality) are imaginary. Their job as writers is to imagine the setting to life, whether it is a real setting
or an imaginary one.
APPENDIX B
It is not possible to come up with a list of revision questions that will apply to all stories. The criteria for
one story might not apply to another. There are, however, some general questions that apply to most stories.
When the student has looked at the general questions, he or she can make a checklist of relevant specific
questions that can be put to peer responders.
Some general questions that a student can ask about a story are as follows:
• What was the original inspiration for the story?
• Has that changed? If so, how?
• What is my intention for the story now?
• Does it fulfil my intention?
• Are all of the parts of the story that I have included necessary?
• Are any important parts or ideas missing?
• Is the story interesting?
• Does the story say something about human experience that I believe?
• Have I created a world for the story that my readers will believe?
• Are my characters and their dilemmas interesting?
• Is there movement of some kind in my story, either from beginning to end, or within characters?
• Are the stages of movement logical and believable?
• What is the effect of the point of view I have chosen?
• Is it the right point of view for the story?
• Is the tense the right one for the story?
• What narrative elements do I handle well in the story (dialogue, introspection, action, description,
exposition)?
• Which ones should I look at again?
• What is the most successful thing in the writing of the story?
• What is the least?
Appendix C
Writing Drama
103
APPENDIX C
Writing Plays
A play is a complex art form that is concerned with the representation of people in time and space, their
actions, and the consequences of their actions. Actions and consequences are extremely important in most
plays.
Play writing is similar to fiction writing in some ways: both depend on character and forward movement. A
play is also similar to poetry writing in its attention to unity and language. The major difference is that a play
must be dramatic in some way; that is, the forward movement must be connected to "dramatic action". The
writer controls the forward movement through the characters, what they say and do, and the consequences,
rather than relying on other means such as exposition.
A play is a dramatic production that begins with tension, usually arising from an initial dramatic question.
One way of looking at this is to ask: Who is the main character of the play? What does that character want
most in the context and time frame of the play? What and who are stopping the character from getting what
he or she wants? Although this is too simplistic to work for all plays, it is useful for beginning writers and
helps them understand the concept of dramatic action.
In a very short play (five or ten minutes) the tension might build to one main conflict (physical, moral, or
psychological). In a longer play, tension builds in a series of conflicts (sometimes called rising and falling
action). In some plays the conflicts might be physical; in most plays, they are internal and psychological. The
latter are the most interesting because they often indicate the play's concern with "the human condition".
In this class, teachers and students should separate writing and performance. Students should concentrate
on learning to write dramatic characters and dialogue. Although performance aspects cannot be completely
separated from the writing, students need not concentrate on elements such as sets and lighting. Stage
directions need only be minimal--whatever directions help the reader to understand the play, whatever actions
help the reader understand the words a character says. This frees students to concentrate on dialogue, which is
the most important element in a play. In most plays, it is the dialogue that contains the dramatic action, not
the stage directions.
The success of a play depends largely on the interaction between the audience and the play. Playwrights
usually "workshop" their plays before they are produced. These workshops involve actors and are
opportunities for the playwright to see how his or her words can be interpreted, how the dramatic action
unfolds, and how the words sound. Workshops are not the same as rehearsals for a performance and, unless
the play is at a later stage of development, do not include physical movement and blocking. Actors usually
read the play seated at a table, especially if the play is at an early stage. In this class, peer conferencing can be
in the form of workshops, when appropriate. Students can read each other's plays aloud, as actors.
A play is a very difficult thing for students to write, in part because it is such a complex form, and in part
because most students have seen and read a limited number of plays. The concepts of dramatic action and
dramatic dialogue are unfamiliar, and students will have to learn that dialogue in a play can never be static
and must move the play forward in some way. The recommendation, then, is for students in this course to
concentrate on scenes and very short plays. In most cases, the end result should not be a formal performance
of the play for an audience.
APPENDIX C
However, a staged reading of the play could take place in the classroom at the publishing or presentation
phase of the writing process. A staged reading is a reading done by actors with scripts. They may read seated
at a table or standing with scripts on music stands. Sometimes a staged reading is presented with minimal
movement of characters. If the students wish, a small invited audience could be present (i.e., principal,
parents, other students).
Note: In some cases a student might write a play that is ready for full performance in the school
environment. The student might work on an independent study project with a drama teacher and
drama students. That is preferable to the whole creative writing class spending time on performance
elements. Most students will benefit more from time spent on the words and language of their plays.
Those students who are especially interested in play writing should be encouraged to take drama as
an elective, in order to learn more about performance.
APPENDIX C
Getting Started: Ideas for Student Writing
Plays generally begin with a situation, some kind of conflict or struggle, and forward movement toward an
outcome or conclusion. Plays can arise out of a writer’s own experience, just like stories do. The challenge for
the student is to learn the meaning of dramatic dialogue and dramatic action in order that they can translate
their experiences into something that is uniquely drama, rather than fiction or poetry.
The following are some sources of ideas for student plays:
Situations. A character finds himself or herself:

• in too deep
• in a potentially embarrassing situation
• in an outrageous or bizarre situation
• wanting to make things right
• knowing something he or she would rather not know
• stranded in some way
• wanting something that is difficult to attain.
Dilemmas. A character finds himself or herself:

• with secret information
• caught between two people
• being forced to take sides
• having to choose between what is good for the individual and what is good for the group
• having to give up something in order to get something else.
Historical Stories. Students might choose to write about:

• a local hero
• an historical event in the community
• something fictional set in another time
• a courageous act
• any historical figure or event.
Adaptations. Students could adapt:

• their own short stories
• their own narrative poems
• myths, fables, legends
• scenes from Shakespearean plays, set in modern times or another era (e.g., the musical West Side
Story is a re-telling of the Romeo and Juliet story, set in New York in the 1950s).
APPENDIX C
Parodies. Students could write parodies of:

• TV shows
• movies
• famous plays or novels.
What if. Students could ask "what if" about any situation or characters:
• what if you met a person who looked exactly like you
• what if a completely responsible person woke up one day and decided to be irresponsible for twelve hours
• what if you decided to give away every material thing you owned.
Beginning to Write
Students should begin by writing very short plays that are complete in themselves or scenes that might
become part of longer plays. A scene is a section of a play in which something happens that moves the play
forward. A scene has its own structure and often has its own conflict and rising action. A scene can be thought
of as a wave, with its own crest and denouement. Unless a student is especially interested in play writing, there
is no need for students to write more than scenes or very short plays in this course.
Students can begin by writing short scenes with the goal of understanding the following concepts:
• characters
• stasis
• actions and consequences
• dialogue
• what if.
APPENDIX C
Dramatic Elements
Characters
Students often make the mistake of thinking that a character is a person with distinctive quirks. We often
say about a person who amuses us, "He's a real character". Students need to understand that, in drama,
any character can be interesting if the writer gives that character an interesting dilemma. A character in
drama does not have to have distinctive physical characteristics or a unique way of dressing in order to be an
individual. Dramatic characters are distinguished by what they say and do, and what choices they make.
Students can begin to understand character in drama by thinking about characters from plays they know
(Romeo and Juliet or King Lear, for example). It is not Romeo and Juliet's external characteristics that are
essential to the play. It is their situation, their internal conflicts, and the choices they make that create a
moving and interesting play. In the case of King Lear, what matters is that a well-meaning decision made by
Lear leads to dire and tragic consequences. Of course actors create a physical presence in their characters, but
to the writer, the internal essence of the character is more important. Understanding this frees students to
place characters very much like themselves or the people around them in challenging situations.
Playwrights rely on action and dialogue to reveal character (that is, what characters do and say in response
to situations created by the writer). Character and action are inseparable; it is the character's personality,
morality, past experiences, and world view that determine how the character will react in given situations or
toward other characters.
Throughout the course of a play, major characters undergo significant changes. This does not mean their
personalities should change. After all, personalities need to be consistent to be believable. However, it does
mean that there may be changes in attitude or in fortune, or that the audience comes to view the characters in
a different light.
Characteristics are not something the writer "lays on" the characters. That is why it is inadvisable for students
to create character sketches or lists of personality traits for their characters. The danger in doing this is that
the characters will not be genuine, but will be constructed as stereotypes. If students know the characters they
want to write about, they should go ahead and write, and allow the depth of the characters to emerge in the
writing, through the engagement of the writer's imagination, and what the characters do and say in certain
situations created by the writer.
Stasis
“Stasis” is a word that might be useful to students in trying to decide what they might write about. In a play,
stasis refers to the balance that exists at the beginning of a play, at various points during the play, and at the
end of the play. Students can examine the state of stasis at the beginning of their plays and how the forward
movement begins when the balance is upset by something. For example, in the play Hamlet, Gertrude has
remarried after the death of her husband, Hamlet’s father, and life appears to be back to normal. Then the
ghost of Hamlet’s father appears and Hamlet decides to avenge his father’s death. If Hamlet did not make
APPENDIX C
the decision to avenge his father's death, life would go on and there would be no play. However, Hamlet
makes the decision and takes action. The stasis is upset and the play begins to move forward.
There may be several different points of stasis in a play, where balance is achieved and then upset again
by a new obstacle or conflict, or by a new development in a character's thinking. It is useful for students
to compare the beginnings and endings of their plays and scenes by looking at how the state of stasis has
changed.
Actions and Consequences

It is essential that student playwrights understand that “action” defined by action verbs (running, jumping,
fighting, eating, etc.) is different from the concept of dramatic action. Dramatic action in a play cannot be
separated from the play’s characters. Dramatic action refers to the forward movement of the play, and this is
usually achieved through what the characters say and do, and the consequences.
Hamlet and Macbeth, with which students may be familiar, are good plays for discussing actions and
consequences. For example, in the first scene of Hamlet, the ghost of Hamlet’s dead father is seen by Hamlet’s
friend Horatio. Horatio decides to tell Hamlet about the ghost. As a consequence, Hamlet decides to try
to speak to his father’s ghost. As a consequence of that, Hamlet decides his father was murdered; he acts to
avenge his father’s death, and so on. The entire play can be looked at a series of actions and consequences,
moving toward an ending.
Saskatchewan writer Connie Gault’s play The Soft Eclipse is an example of a modern play that, although
“quiet” in terms of subject matter (no sword fights or wars on stage), is full of dramatic action. The play
begins on a hot day in a small prairie town. The town gossip, Ina, learns that the long-absent husband of Mrs.
McMillan has just died. The decision is made to keep this news from Mrs. McMillan, and the rest of the play
is built on the consequences and complications that result from that decision.
Dialogue
Dialogue in drama strives to move the play forward in some way. The dialogue can contribute to the dramatic
action of the play or can reflect inner conflicts.
Dramatic dialogue is dialogue where one character speaks to “act” in some way upon another: to force the
character being spoken to into some kind of action that will move the first character closer to what he or
she wants in the context of the play. The simplest way to think of dramatic dialogue is as dialogue that has a
specific purpose related to action.
In everyday life, one person in an elevator might say to another, “Nice day”. There is no real purpose other
than to make small talk. The first person is not trying to get the second person to do anything that will have
a particular consequence. On the other hand, in a play a person would have a reason for saying, “Nice day”.
The following is an example: It is early spring. A woman suspects something is buried in her garden, but she
is afraid to dig and find out herself. She wants the gardener to do it, but she is afraid to tell him what she
suspects in case she is wrong. It is not quite late enough in the spring for gardening, but she tries to hurry the
gardener along. She says, “Nice day”, as a hint that he should dig the garden.
APPENDIX C
Sometimes a character's reason for speaking might be related to inner conflict. The following is an example:
A character is trying to make a decision about something that could have important consequences. The
character is at a bus stop, mumbling to herself, weighing the pros and cons of various alternatives. Another
character is standing next to her, waiting for the bus. He tries to make small talk by saying, "Nice day". The
first character does not hear him and continues mumbling to herself. Finally, she makes a decision and says to
herself, "Yes, that's it". Then she sees the man standing next to her and says, "Nice day". The sub-text of what
she says is, "I know what to do. I'm back in the world".
The important thing for students to understand is that all dialogue in a play has a purpose within the context
of that play. The biggest mistake beginning writers of dialogue make is having characters exchange lines that
do not move the play forward in some way.
What If
“What if ” is at the root of all play writing. Students can ask themselves “what if ” at any point in their notes
or draft writing and examine a multitude of consequences. “What if ” can help them see the many directions
their play could go and the many actions their characters could take.
Asking “what if ” is one of the pleasures of play writing, as it can open the students’ ideas up to a range
of imaginative possibilities. The important thing is that students look at the answers to their “what if ”
questioning inter ms of consequences--if this happens, then this might happen as a result, and so on.
Whatever they decide, it should move the play forward in some way.
Sample Scenario
The following is a scenario describing how a student might begin writing a play.
The student records in her notebook a description of a humorous conversation she overheard in the grocery
store: A man and his wife were arguing about whether to buy Christmas oranges. The man insisted that he
was allergic to the smell and could not have them in the house. The wife said it was all in his head. She said
she looks forward to Christmas oranges all year and why should she not have some when his problem is all in
his head.
The student begins by thinking about stasis: There are no oranges in the house. Everything is fine.
The student now thinks about the question, Who is the main character? She decides it is the wife. What does
the wife want in the scene? The student decides the wife wants to prove to the man that his “allergy” is all in
his head. What is standing in the way of the wife getting what she wants? The student decides it is the man’s
stubbornness and his refusal to change his mind, even after the wife proves he is not allergic to the smell of
oranges.
The student now has the information she needs to write a scene or a very short play from her notes. Her
dialogue will be dramatic dialogue because her characters have a purpose for speaking that is related to action
(e.g., the main character’s purpose--to trick her husband into admitting he is not allergic to the smell of
oranges; the husband’s purpose--to keep from admitting that he was wrong).
APPENDIX C
The student begins the play with the man alone in the house reading a newspaper. The wife comes in with
groceries. The audience sees her hide a bag of oranges. The husband does not see her. The wife busies herself
in the kitchen and then says, "Do you smell anything?".
Now the student asks, "What if ...?". What if the man says yes, he smells oranges? What if he says no, he
cannot smell anything? What if he says no, but then develops strange allergy symptoms? What if he dies in his
sleep that night and the wife thinks it was her oranges that killed him? What if he finds the oranges where she
hid them and decides to play some kind of trick on her?
The student will probably not know how the play or scene is going to end until she has worked on it for a
while. When she has decided what it is about (i.e., revenge), then she can start working toward a meaningful
ending. If the student is working on a scene that is to be part of a bigger play, she should concentrate on
moving one idea forward from the beginning to the end of the scene (i.e., a scene in which the wife convinces
the husband, even though he is suspicious, that there are no oranges in the house).
Note: Some students might be interested in writing radio dramas, either in this module or in the
Independent Project module. The basic elements for radio drama are the same as for stage plays. The
challenge is for students to make the characters and setting clear for the listening audience.
Film scripts, on the other hand, are very different from stage plays because much of the story in film is
told using visuals. Students with an interest in writing for film might choose to explore their interest
in an independent project. They might focus on the role of text and dialogue in film.
The Dramatic Plot

A dramatic plot begins with a concept. A concept can be described in a complete sentence or two. (i.e.., A
prince decides to avenge his father's murder. He becomes so obsessed with his mission that he brings about
the downfall of his whole family.) The basic unit of plot development is the scene, although not all plays are
written in scenes. Some plays comprise only one scene. Other plays comprise many short scenes. Scenes can
change without any characters leaving the stage.
Dramatic Questions
The dramatic question is what “hooks” the audience’s attention before the theme or story line becomes clear.
Examples of dramatic questions are: Who did this? What is happening? Will she succeed? Will he find out
what we know? Most lays move from one dramatic question to another so the audience wonders about both
immediate and final outcomes.
APPENDIX C
Dramatic Action
Dramatic action is the very core of a play. It does not refer simply to actors moving around on stage. It is a want,
a need, a desire, or an objective pursued by the major character(s). Dramatic action must be:
• Clear. The playwright must set down clear action through the dialogue.
• Strong. A character must know what he or she wants or the audience will lose interest.
• Incorporated into the dialogue itself. In most cases, playwrights do not depend on stage directions for
providing the action needed. (There are certainly plays where actions without dialogue have symbolic or
other significance. However, t is important for students to focus on learning to write dramatic dialogue,
rather than relying on physical movement to move their play forward.)
There are several types of recurring action in plays:
• discovery action, where the main interest is to find something out
• persuasive action, where a character wants to get someone to do something
• goal action, where a character can want something either concrete (i.e., money) or abstract (i.e., power)
• revenge action, where a character has a strong desire to get even with someone
• escape action, where someone needs to get away
• testing action, where a character finds out something about someone (i.e.., can that someone be trusted?)
• getting acquainted action, where a character is trying to get to know someone else
• choice action, where a character must decide between two major actions in the play.
The above list does not state all of the possible major actions, but it does provide the most common ones.
Playwrights see drama as action and try to create strong "action" objectives for the characters in their plays.
Pace
Pace is especially important in a play. Pacing can be thought of in the same way one thinks of rhythm in music.
There is no one pace that is correct for all plays. Obviously, mystery plays or thrillers have a faster pace than
quieter character-based dramas. Some scenes call for a slower pace so the audience can take in information or
enjoy the beauty of the language. The important thing is for the pace to be well thought out, varied, and in
keeping with the content of the play.
Conflict
Conflict is what gives drama its energy. Many plays have a network of related conflicts connected to their
characters’ wants, needs, and internal questioning. All plays will have a major conflict which will likely consist of
a struggle between the protagonist and antagonist. Full length plays of more than one act generally include sub-
plots involving secondary characters who strengthen, echo, or contrast the conflict(s) in the main plot.
APPENDIX C
Inner Conflict
Inner conflict, often the most interesting of conflicts, refers to characters struggling with themselves.
Characters may be torn between love and hate, or between courage and fear. They also may be torn between
two ethical positions or attracted to two different people. Revealing what goes on in the mind of a character
by using only dialogue and action can be quite a challenge. Writers might try giving the character with inner
conflict a personal friend or confidant who is not central to the action--someone in whom that character can
confide. Often, characters reveal inner conflicts through action that is out of the ordinary for them. Some
writers successfully use a monologue spoken by the character to reveal his or her inner conflict, either directly
or ironically.
Conflict is sometimes the result of an individual being at odds with society. Society as a whole can be the
play's antagonist. Of course, different writers will present different views of society. Writers who are interested
in this kind of conflict must be careful not to sermonize or their play will become too didactic.
Obstacles
Many playwrights view conflict as a form of obstacle to the action--an obstacle being an obstruction or
hindrance standing in the way of someone getting what she or he wants. This obstacle could be an idea, a
deadline, a person, a law, a natural disaster, or a condition such as illness or poverty. Whatever the specific
obstacle is, it is something that characters strive to overcome, whether or not they are successful.
Obstacles may be located either outside or inside a character. Examples of external obstacles are: a locked door,
an antagonistic relative, a weapon, a deadline, a vicious dog or a bully, a disease, or fear of public ridicule.
Examples of internal obstacles include psychological obstacles (i.e.., a conflict of loyalties) and flaws in
characters (i.e., greed or vanity).
Action comes up against obstacles in plays, thus creating dramatic tension. Often a character must face both
internal and external obstacles.
APPENDIX C
Dramatic Structure
A discussion of structure in drama is similar to a discussion of structure in fiction. Structure refers to the play's
organization and is not to be confused with plot. Structure determines how the play is organized, how unity
and balance are achieved, and how meaning is revealed to or constructed by the reader. Playwrights carefully
structure their plays in accordance with their subject matter, so that emotional truths will emerge at the right
moments.
The structure of a play should be determined by its needs. The best way for students to learn about structure
is to see, read, and discuss a variety of plays, including very short plays. Discussion should focus on:
• what the structure of the play is
• how the structure relates to the plot
• whether the structure is linear or non-linear
• whether the structure gives a sense of balance
• how the play is structured in scenes or acts
• whether the scenes are clearly broken out in the play or whether the play's scenes are "hidden" in the
action of the play
• why the structure is appropriate for the particular play
• how the play's meaning is either revealed or constructed by the reader through the play structure.
Symbols and Images

Symbolism in plays can be effective if the symbols are used well and delicately to construct meaning.
Symbolism can appear in the language of the play or in the visual aspects of the play (set, props, costumes,
lighting). Recurrent images (either real or in figurative language) are also important for constructing meaning.
Images do not have the direct meaning that symbols do, but they help the audience build meaning through
the associations they have with the images.
Design
There may be some aspects of the set, costumes, or lighting that are necessary to understanding the text or
structure of the play. If a writer sees these things as being essential to meaning, he or she should include them
in the script. However, the writer should be aware that creative designers can come up with wonderful ways of
complementing text through design and the script should not restrict them unnecessarily.
APPENDIX C
Basic questions writers might ask themselves when revising their plays include the following:
• Are the characters interesting and convincing?
• Is the dialogue effective?
• Does the script display originality?
• Does the play have the dramatic impact it should? Are the dramatic questions strong enough to hold
audience interest?
• Has the plot come together effectively (cause and effect, actions and consequences)?
• Are changes or epiphanies experienced by the characters logical? Are they the result of the play's
dramatic action?
• Is the structure appropriate and does it allow for meaning to be revealed as I wish it to be?
• Might an audience be able to construct meaning in a satisfying way?
• Are the themes well developed, and will they reach or challenge the audience in some way?
• Have I created the best possible ending for my play?
APPENDIX C
Writing Plays
This section introduces students to play writing. It encourages students to discuss plays, learn about some
elements of play writing, and express their own ideas through scenes and short plays.
Questions for Consideration in Discussions, Peer Conferences, or Student-teacher

Conferences
them to gather response from peers or the teacher. The questions are suggestions only. Students might have their
own questions to ask peers or the teacher.
• What is this scene or play about?
• Is the type of language consistent and appropriate for the subject matter, characters, situation (poetic,
sparse, everyday, heightened)?
• Is the dialogue dramatic rather than conversational; that is, does it push the characters to action (internal
or external)?
• Does the play or scene unfold in a way that is interesting, intriguing, satisfying, or challenging for the reader?
• Are the characters convincing and well-imagined? If so, what have you, the writer, done successfully? If
not, what might be the reason?
• Does the structure of the play or scene allow the meaning to be revealed or come clear at an appropriate
time for the reader?
• How does your scene or play reflect your unique "take" on the subject matter?
• What are the strengths of your dramatic writing?
Suggested Pre-writing Activities

• Introduce play writing to students by:
• discussing what plays are, especially contemporary plays
• discussing various types of contemporary plays (full length dramas, one act plays, “fringe” plays, street
theatre, etc.)
• presenting play writing concepts in mini-lessons (e.g., dramatic dialogue, dramatic action)
• discussing what it is that makes a person choose to write a play from an idea, rather than a short story or
a poem.
• Ask each student to write two or three “what if ” statements and throw them all in a shoe box. (i.e., what if a
black limousine pulled up and a celebrity got out?) Next, ask each student to find four different characters in
magazine ads or pictures, and throw them in a different shoe box. Next, ask each student to find two pictures
of a place (i.e., a natural setting, an airport lounge, an office). Throw them in another shoe box. Now, ask
students to choose randomly two characters, a setting, and a “what if ” statement and write some dialogue.
APPENDIX C
• Ask students to change a short story, fable, fairy tale, or myth into a short play.
• Ask students to take the main idea of a narrative poem and write it in play form.
• Ask students to write an episode of a weekly television series as a short play. This can be an episode they
have seen or one they make up.
• Have students imagine themselves at a social gathering with a famous movie or TV star. They want
to speak to the famous person, but they do not want to appear uncool or act like a "groupie". Write a
monologue in which they think out loud about how they will contrive to speak to the famous person.
• Have students imagine themselves as one of a number of hostages being held by a terrorist group. What
do all the people involved say?
• Have students write a conversation they have overheard and then extend it.
• Explore the meaning of the word "sub-text". Have students write a conversation between two people,
where they do not say directly what they mean. The following are examples:
• One person wants to ask the other to go to a movie but is shy. They talk about the weather.
• A student is trying to tell his or her parents about a bad mark on an exam. They talk about the dog.
• Two friends have applied for the same job. They are both trying to find out if the other got called for
an interview without actually asking. They talk about music on the radio.
• Have students create a conversation in which two people are talking: one has a secret and the other is
trying to find out what it is.
• Have students invent a detective and a villain, and write a typical conversation between them, showing
their styles or ways of speaking.
• Have students write dialogue between one person who is furious and another person who is trying to
calm the first person down.
• Have students take a scene from any Shakespeare play and rewrite it, setting it in modern times.
• Have students work in small groups. Provide enough newspapers so that everyone in the group has a copy.
Have each group pick a news story from the paper and write it as dialogue (i.e., a bank robbery, a trial, a
car accident, a human interest story).
• Explore the meaning of the term "dramatic action". Have students write dialogue in which a character
just make a choice and the choice has consequences.
• Have students write a monologue for a character in a one-person play. The character is telling the
audience a story that is particularly revealing. The story is:
• about a dream that caused the character to rethink something
• about something that happened when the character was a child
• about a time when the character was really embarrassed
• about something that changed the character’s life
• about a decision that ended up being the wrong one.
Appendix D
Writing Nonfiction
119
APPENDIX D
Writing Nonfiction
People sometimes assume that nonfiction writing exists only to provide information and is not intended to
be read for pleasure. However, this is not necessarily true. Nonfiction writers can adapt many strategies and
techniques to make the subject matter interesting for the reader, but still maintain the integrity of the subject
matter.
The term "literary nonfiction" refers more to styles of research and writing than to any one sub-genre of
nonfiction or journalistic writing. A biography can be literary, as can a feature article, a history book, or a
human interest story. It is the writer's unique style, research methods, and use of language that make a piece
of writing creative or literary.
Literary nonfiction writers often include their own perspectives and interpretations, working under the
assumption that presenting facts free of interpretation or perspective may very well be impossible, and
that their interpretation is one to add to many others. The body of work and variety of interpretations,
perspectives, and points of view work together to build a history or to uncover the truth.
For this course, literary nonfiction can be identified by the following characteristics.
• The work reflects the writer's desire to involve the reader.

• The work makes use of various techniques commonly used by fiction writers, poets, and playwrights.
• The work reflects the writer's aesthetic and literary intentions.
• The work reflects the writer's concern for accuracy, truth, and ethical behaviour in dealing with real
people and events.
APPENDIX D
Brief History of Literary Nonfiction
Nonfiction writing that is literary has, of course, been in existence for centuries. However, the use of the term
literary nonfiction to describe a particular type of journalism or reporting is relatively recent.
"New journalism" was a term that was used when critics and writers became aware of a new style of
journalism in the 1960s. In his book The New Journalism, Tom Wolfe describes a trend, whereby nonfiction
writers adopted the techniques of realist novelists to bring power to their stories (Wolfe, 1972, p. 31). He cites
the four following techniques as the ones that brought about significant changes in nonfiction writing:
Scene-by-scene construction.
Writers told their stories by moving from scene to scene rather than reporting only historical facts. They
sought to bring the people involved to life for the reader, so the reader could experience the human context of
the story.
Use of dialogue.
The primary way of creating character was the inclusion of dialogue. Wolfe says that realistic dialogue involves
the reader more than any other device and that dialogue defines character more quickly than any other means.
Use of third person point of view.

Scenes were presented to the reader through the eyes of a particular character, so that readers could feel as
though they were inside that character's mind and could understand his or her actions and emotions. This
technique meant that the journalist had to do exhaustive, first-hand research.
The recording of everyday details.

Wolfe says that the details of everyday life were once considered irrelevant in journalism, but that the
writers of so-called new journalism understood that these details could be symbolic and contribute to social
understanding. According to Wolfe, the recording of such details as habits, customs, attitudes, clothing, and
food contributes to an understanding of a person's "life status" or beliefs about his or her position in the
world.
Since the 1970s, nonfiction writing has undergone further changes and the term "new journalism" is no
longer current. In addition, the criteria that define creative or literary nonfiction writing have changed, and
the inclusion of fictional writing techniques is now only one of several defining criteria.
In her book The Art of Fact, Barbara Lounsberry (1990) lists the following as the characteristics of literary
nonfiction:
Documentable subject matter chosen from the real world rather than the writer’s imagination.
• Anything in the natural world is subject matter for the literary nonfiction writer. The following are
examples:
• the lives of individuals (e.g., one person’s struggle)

• human institutions (e.g., government)
• cultural groups (e.g., country music fans)
• events (e.g., current events)
• the natural world (e.g., environmental stories).
APPENDIX D
Exhaustive research.
• In order to bring the full world of the stories alive, the writer must conduct extensive research and be able
to verify every detail.
The scene.
• Lounsberry says that the scene is a necessary element in making a story “artful”. Instead of reporting on a
story, the writer of literary nonfiction recasts the story so that it has life and depth.
Fine writing and literary prose style.

• Writing cannot be literary without attention to language. Literary writers must be in complete control
of their use of language, whatever their prose preferences are. Lounsberry says that “... polished language
reveals that the goal all along has been literature” (p. xv).
In his book, The Literary Journalists (1984), Norman Sims contends that the change in journalism came about
as writers began to see private lives rather than dominant institutions as sources of information. He says that
literary journalists saw the need to immerse themselves in complex subjects in order to establish their own
perspective and authority, so that they could do more than simply report the facts as presented to them.
Sims gives the following as characteristics of literary journalism:
Immersion.
• Literary journalists invest a great deal of time and effort learning about their subject. They usually begin
with an emotional connection to the subject, and then immerse themselves in learning everything they
can about the world of the subject and the people involved.
Structure.
• Literary nonfiction writers believe the same about structure that fiction writers do: structure contributes
to meaning. Therefore, structure is not simply linear. It is carefully controlled by the writer and is unique
to each project. Where a portion of the story is placed, and what it is placed next to, will profoundly
affect the meaning the reader constructs as he or she is engaged with the story.
Accuracy.
• The ethical commitment to accuracy has not changed with the advent of literary journalism. If a writer
wishes to adopt a voice of authority on a subject, then he or she must be knowledgeable and present
accurate information. Dialogue, for example, cannot be invented. If real people speak, then the dialogue
must be direct quotation.
Voice.
• Sims says there is no one voice that defines contemporary literary journalism. One writer might use a first
person voice, where he or she is very much a part of the story. Another might remove himself or herself
from the story and concentrate on the subject’s own reality. The commonality is that all literary journalists
consider voice a factor in what they do and struggle to find the right voice for their story.
Responsibility.
• Literary nonfiction writers, who often immerse themselves in people’s lives and develop personal
relationships with their subjects, must recognize that they have a responsibility to themselves and their
subjects when the writing becomes public. Although there are no easy answers regarding what is ethical
to make public, writers do have a responsibility to let their subjects know what they are doing in their
research and why. Because of the subjectivity of much literary journalism, responsibility, purpose, and
consequences are things the literary journalist considers.
APPENDIX D
Getting Started: Ideas and Research
Several of the above listed characteristics of literary journalism have implications for students and their
choice of topics or subject matter. Because writers of literary journalism must establish a voice of authority,
they must know their subject intimately. For example, if a writer is interested in the subject of casinos and
casino gambling, it would be advisable for him or her to spend a great deal of time in casinos getting to know
people who gamble, talking to people who work in casinos, talking to addiction counsellors, etc. Through
this immersion experience, the writer would be able to set the scene for the reader, present characters through
accurate dialogue and detailed descriptions, and present a story with a voice of authority.
Students are not in a position to do this with many stories that might interest them. They should choose their
topics with an understanding of what literary nonfiction is and with consideration given to what they will be
able to do in terms of research. They can ask themselves:
• What is my personal interest in this topic?

• Will I have the time to research this topic adequately?
• How can I narrow the topic so that I can be successful in my research?
• How can I do first-hand research on this topic?
• Will I have access to the people I need to talk to in order to explore the topic fully?
• Will I be able to spend time in the physical setting so I can accurately set the scene for my readers?
• How can I experience "immersion" so that I can explore my topic fully?
• Will I have access to other resources I might need (i.e., archival material)?
The following are examples of stories that students could conceivably explore:
Day-in-a-life stories:
• senior citizens’ home
• hospital
• humane society
• nurse's office in a school
• various occupations
Personal stories:
• biographical accounts
• autobiographical accounts
• childhood memories
• eye-witness accounts
Day-by-day accounts:
• sports team or individual getting ready for tournament or competition
• politician preparing for an election
• person training a dog
• person learning a new language or Braille
APPENDIX D
Historical stories in the community:

• history of a particular building in the student's own community
• history of settlement in the community
• history of a community leader's career
• history of a particular church in the community
Issue stories in the community:

• handicap access
• care of elderly
• night hunting
• access to language immersion programs (i.e., French, Cree).
The important thing is for students to evaluate whether they will be able to do the research necessary. They
must be able to establish a voice of authority on their topic, and represent accurately the people involved.
They must understand that they will not just be presenting facts from print or media resources.
Documentation
Students should understand that they must maintain high ethical standards in their treatment of their subjects
and in their methods of documenting research. Even if they will not be including footnotes or references in
their final product (e.g., in some informal essays), they should still keep track of all information gathered
from interviews or other sources. They should be able to explain where they got all facts or quotations that are
presented in their writing.
In many literary nonfiction pieces, it is appropriate to include references to sources of information. However,
this can be problematic; when a piece of writing is intended to flow as a story in the reader's mind, references
in the text can interrupt the flow. One solution is to include "Author's Notes" at the end. Notes can be
presented by page in a way that does not interrupt the flow of the writing. The following is an example:
Author's Notes
Page 1
• This information is from an article in the Leader Post, Aug. 1, 1957, A2.
Page 2
• Mr. Smith told me this in an interview in his home on Sept. 30 of this year.
• The description of the wreck was derived from a photograph shown to me by
Mr. Smith.
As with all forms of nonfiction writing, all information taken from other print or media sources should
be referenced, either in the text or in footnotes. Direct quotations from published sources should always
be referenced, as should the ideas or theories of others (known as "intellectual property"). Some literary
nonfiction pieces include a combination of traditional referencing and author's notes.
APPENDIX D
Beginning to Write
Students will find useful many of the techniques of fiction and other literary writing. A brief discussion of the
most relevant follows:
• setting
• character
• language
• structure
• point of view.
Setting
The connection between place and the people who live or work in a place is of prime importance in
nonfiction. The reader can be engaged by a vivid depiction of a setting. Even more important, the setting can
contribute to an understanding of the subject. For example, if the topic is a day-in-the-life of a factory worker,
the reader will need to be able to "see" the factory floor in order to understand what the workers do.
Setting can be used to establish atmosphere. For example, a description of carpets with cigarette burns
and food stains could establish an atmosphere of seediness and decay. The description of the gym during a
basketball game could establish an atmosphere of tension and excitement.
Settings and objects can also have symbolic meaning. For example, a writer might perceive the sterile
environment of a hospital operating room as symbolic of dehumanization. Symbolism can refer to common
symbols with which most people will associate the same meaning (i.e., hospital white with sterility). Symbols
can also have more personal meaning for the writer (i.e., a single light bulb can become a symbol for hope).
If the writer believes that the details of a setting are relevant for his or her story, then they should be included.
Their social or symbolic meaning will become relevant to the reader if they are well-described and placed in
an appropriate context.
Character
The relevance of nonfiction is usually in its human interest. The writer of nonfiction uses the devices of fiction
in order to bring people to life for the reader. Students should strive to:
• be convincing in their portrayal of people

• make the reader care about the people in their stories
• maintain consistency of characterization
• connect something of importance to the people involved.
The writer can simply tell the reader what a character is like and what goes on in the character's mind. The
writer can also use indirect methods to establish character. The following (from the Fiction Writing section of
this guide) is a useful summary for nonfiction writers.
APPENDIX D
Indirect characterization may be accomplished through:
• Setting: The character may either fit comfortably into the setting or be an "outsider" for some reason.
The resulting perspectives will be very different.
• Action: What a person does in a story reveals character and affects the outcome of the plot. The
meaning of a story is often revealed by the choices a character makes.
• Symbol: Some writers use details and objects in a symbolic way to indicate what Tom Wolfe refers
to as a character's "life status"--how a character views his or her position in the world. Such details
might include brand names, descriptions of homes and furnishing, entertainment choices, etc.
• Dialogue: What a person says reveals much about his or her character. Good dialogue is more than
simply conversation. It reveals the internal truths of a character.
• Thoughts: Looking into a person’s mind and listening to that person’s thoughts gives readers
a picture of what a character is like. Inner conflict can be revealed through thoughts, and the
contradictions of a character become clear to the reader if the character thinks one thing and says or
does another.
Dialogue is very useful to the nonfiction writer, although it is not a necessary element, just as it is not a
necessary element in fiction. Dialogue in nonfiction can be used to
• portray personalities
• provide information
• give a real sense of how people talk in their everyday lives
• provide social context
• create tension.
If the student writer agrees with Tom Wolfe that the details of a person's everyday life are a window to
understanding the person and his or her social context, then they should be included. The student might
think about:
• clothing
• food preferences
• mode of transportation
• TV viewing habits
• attitudes
• religion.
The student should understand that these details are only worth including if they contribute to meaning in
the story. A character's physical characteristics or possessions do not have to be described, just as they are not
routinely included in fiction writing.
APPENDIX D
Note: Students should be reminded that if they attribute dialogue to real people, they must take
it from their research notes and tapes so that they quote people accurately. If they do not, they are
writing fiction. In the case of historical figures, writers sometimes "recreate" dialogue as a type of
dramatic enactment. If students do this, they should make it clear to their readers that the dialogue
is fictionalized.
Language
Language should be given the same care and attention in nonfiction as in any other literary endeavour. The
writer is an artist and language is her or his medium.
There is no one language that is "literary". However, students should
• use language for a purpose and in a way that contributes to their story (poetic language, terse
language, dense language, etc.)
• strive to develop a personal style in their use of language
• be aware of literary devices that might help them tell their story (e.g., metaphor, images, symbols)
• use description as appropriate to their story
• polish their writing with the utmost of care, examining every word for meaning and correctness, and
eliminating unnecessary words
• read and discuss literary nonfiction, paying attention to the different ways writers use language.
Structure
How a story is structured contributes to the meaning a reader will take away from it. Structure refers to how
the story is put together by the writer, and the order in which information is presented. Structure is the means
by which the writer controls the story. Structure can be:
• chronological
• anecdotal
• non-linear
• plotted.
Students will probably complete their research first and then decide on the best structure. For example, a
student might decide to spend an entire week-end in a nursing home to conduct research for a story on
the elderly in the community. While interviewing many residents, the student might hear one story that
symbolizes the experience. The student could decide to structure the writing in a way that builds toward the
important story told by the resident.
It is possible that a writer might decide on a structure first and then base his or her research on the structure.
For example, a student might decide to spend an eight-hour shift with a 911 emergency operator. The student
might decide beforehand that he or she will record whatever is happening on the hour, as a kind of journal
entry.
APPENDIX D
Students deciding on their story structure ahead of time should remain open to the possibility that, during
their research, they will discover something that might lead them to change their minds about how to tell the
story.
Point of View
A decision about point of view is essential in nonfiction. The writer does not have to tell the story as an
anonymous researcher. The writer has, in fact, all the options of the fiction writer. The decision of which
point of view to use will affect the way the story is told and the type of insight the reader will have into the
characters and story. The most common points of view in literary nonfiction are first person (with the author
as the first person narrator) and the third person (either limited or omniscient, depending on the subject
matter and the scope of the story).
Note: For more information on point of view, see Writing Short Fiction in the Teacher Information
section of this guide.
APPENDIX D
Types of Nonfiction
Obviously students will not have the time or experience to produce long works of nonfiction. The product or
type of nonfiction writing should be in keeping with the research students were able to do. Short articles will
be most appropriate.
Feature Articles
The following are examples of feature articles that might be appropriate for students:
› stories related to popular culture
› sports stories
› behind the scenes stories
› natural environment stories
› travel stories
› historical stories
› stories about issues or problems.
Literary feature articles can take many forms. They can be introspective, information-related, anecdotal,
humorous, or satirical. What makes them literary is the writer's attention to literary concerns, and the writer's
presentation from his or her on perspective rather than from a perspective that comes from another source.
Personal Essays
The personal essay is a first person, informal essay about something of great importance to the writer. The
purpose of the essay is two-fold: to help the writer sort out his or her feelings or ideas, and to have the reader
experience the process along with the writer. The personal essay is intimate and often revealing of the writer's
innermost thoughts and feelings. However, personal essays need not be serious. They can also be satirical,
ironic, or outrageously funny.
Note: Beginning writers can easily fall into the trap of using the personal essay as a kind of catharsis.
Although it is perfectly normal for teenagers to want to explore their feelings through writing, they
should be reminded that one of the purposes of literary writing is aesthetic. Even when exploring very
personal subject matter, they should be encouraged to think about such literary concerns as structure
and language. They should also be encouraged to think about how their personal experience has
meaning in the larger context of human experience.
Biographies
A biography is the true story of the life of a real and particular person. Although students will not have time
to create a full biography of someone, they might spend enough time with a living person or do enough
research on an historical figure that they are able to do an accurate biographical essay or article.
APPENDIX D
If students choose to do a biography they should remember that:
• there are many literary techniques available to them

• they should carefully examine setting and social context
• they do not have to structure their biography chronologically
• they might structure their biography around one event or story that is symbolic or particularly
representative of the subject
• their biography should be a search for meaning in the larger context of human experience.
Autobiographies
An autobiography is an account of a character’s life written by herself or himself. Writers do not have to be
old to write an autobiography. It is possible for students to create unique and meaningful autobiographies if
they give thought to literary and aesthetic concerns. Autobiographies do not have to be serious. They can be a
humorous look at oneself.
As with all literary writing, if the student chooses to work on an autobiography it should have a clear focus.
A literary autobiography is more than a chronological account. That said, the student might come up with a
truly unique way to tell his or her own story, making use of
• baby books and photo albums

• Interviews with family members for material regarding early years
• personal musings
• memories.
Note: The autobiography should never be a required assignment. Not all students will want to write
about themselves and a student's privacy should always be respected in writing classes.
APPENDIX D
Revising the First Draft
Basic questions writers might ask themselves, after they have completed their first drafts of nonfiction writing,
include the following:
• Do I have a personal connection or interest in this idea?
• Was my research complete enough that I was able to establish an authoritative voice?
• If not, what more could I do?
• What did I discover in the process of doing my research? Is that discovery reflected in the story?
• Have I documented or kept track of all my research sources, quotations, etc.?
• Have I been ethical in my treatment of real people and events?
• Does the story have a focus?
• Is my story convincing?
• Have I set the scene for the reader somehow?
• Is the reader able to get a picture of the context in which this story happens or this person lives?
• Have I thought about structure and order in my telling of the story?
• Do I have a reason for choosing the structure I have chosen?
• Is it an appropriate structure for constructing meaning in the story?
• Have I used dialogue in the story?
• If so, have I made good use of dialogue?
• If not, should I consider adding dialogue?
• What literary devices have I used?
• Are the literary devices appropriate? Do they do the job I want them to?
• What is it that makes my piece "literary"?
APPENDIX D
Writing Nonfiction
This section introduces students to writing nonfiction. It encourages students to learn what makes a work
of nonfiction a piece of creative writing. They will also discuss literary nonfiction and its development, read
literary nonfiction, and express their own ideas through nonfiction.
Questions for Consideration in Discussions, Peer Conferences, or Student-

teacher Conferences
their own questions to ask peers or the teacher.
• What is the subject matter?
• What techniques have you used to make the story interesting or bring it alive for the reader?
• If you used fictional techniques (i.e., dialogue), can the reader trust you to have told the story
accurately, and with integrity and respect for the people involved?
• Does the story unfold in a way that is interesting, intriguing, or satisfying for the reader?
• Is the story convincing? If so, why? If not, what might be the reason?
• Does the structure of the story allow the meaning of the story to be revealed or come clear at an
appropriate time for the reader?
• How does this writing reflect your unique "take" on the subject matter?
• What are the strengths of your nonfiction writing?
Suggested Pre-writing Strategies
Note: If students show an interest in extending these pre-writing strategies into major projects, they
should consider how they will conduct research that will enable them to have real insights into their
subjects. This is especially important with nonfiction because the writer's personal perspective is an
important part of the writing.
• Introduce nonfiction to students by:
• discussing what nonfiction is, especially contemporary literary nonfiction
• presenting nonfiction concepts in mini-lessons (i.e., research methods, incorporating dialogue)
• discussing what it is that makes a person choose to write nonfiction from an idea rather than fiction
or more traditional journalism.
• Have students look at an object from a totally different angle than usual (i.e., sideways, upside down, in
an extraordinary light).
APPENDIX D
• Have students write about an incident or event, looking at it from an unusual angle (i.e., the school bus
breaking down from the point of view of the tow-truck driver, a school basketball game from the point of
view of a person who lives across the street from the school).
• Have students find a newspaper article that describes an event or occurrence. Have students write the
story as though it were fiction, shaping it with a beginning, middle, and end, but at the same time not
changing the facts of the story.
• Have students think of an issue in their own community and write a personal perspective on that issue.
• Have students find an article in the local newspaper or a local history book that is historical in nature.
Have them visit the setting if possible and then write a description of the setting that will help bring the
real event to life for the reader.
• Have students describe a setting they believe could be symbolic of something that happens in that setting.
Their description should incorporate symbolism (i.e., the symbolism in rows and rows of identical work
stations in a factory).
• Have students describe something that takes place over time using a diary type of format (i.e., preparing
for an election, getting ready for an important sports event, training a dog, learning to drive).
• Have students interview someone who interests them and find an unique way to describe the results of
the interview (other than the usual question and answer method).
• Have students imagine a topic they would like to learn about by immersing themselves in the topic and
the lives of the people involved. Have them write an imaginary project proposal for a potential publisher.
In their proposal, they should explain what they will be doing and why. They should also explain their
personal interest in the topic and why they are the right person to write this story.
• Have students find an article in the newspaper about something momentous that happened to someone.
Ask them to pretend the incident happened to them (i.e., getting stranded overnight in a blizzard, saving
someone from a fire). Write a "personal essay" on what the incident meant to them and how it might
change their lives.
• Have students think of something similar to the above that really happened to them. Have them write five
different beginning paragraphs that could lead to different ways of telling the story.
• Have students write the story of something that really happened to them using one of the following for
literary effect:
• symbolism
• repetition
• suspense.
• Ask students to think of some aspect of human nature that they could "poke fun at", the way Stephen
Leacock did.
• Have students think of a frustrating occurrence from everyday life (i.e., locking the keys in the car, dealing
with voice messages when you are trying to call a business). Have them write a humorous anecdote that
shows the extreme way human beings sometimes respond to minor aggravations.
APPENDIX D
• Have students choose a real historical figure and research to find out more about the person, his or her
contribution, and the times he or she lived in. Ask students to:
• write diary or journal entries for the figure they have selected
• write a personal essay as that figure
• "interview" the person and then write up the interview in an interesting way
• write an article on the person and his or her particular contribution, using some of the techniques of
fiction writing but still capturing what really happened.
• Have students interview someone in the community who was/is involved in an historical or human
interest event (i.e., a veteran, an athlete, an elder, a local hero). Have students write a human interest
article on that person, making special effort to bring the story to life for the readers using some of the
techniques of fiction. The following are examples:
• recreating dialogue between the person and another person involved, based on quotations from the
person interviewed
• using a story structure that you might use to tell a fiction story (i.e., with some kind of rising action
and a climax)
• using descriptive language to set the scene or create an atmosphere for the reader
• telling the story in the first person so that you can record your own responses as you learn the details.
• Have students plan their own autobiography, thinking about what the tone and focus might be. Have
them write the introductory section.
Appendix E
Independent Project
137
APPENDIX E
Independent Project
The final unit provides an opportunity for students to work on a project of their own choosing. The focus
should be on selection of subject matter and writing genre that is important to the individual student, so
students can begin to learn what especially interests them about writing. They might also plan a project in
which they work with a writer or another person involved with writing.
Questions for Consideration in Discussions, Peer Conferences, or Student-

teacher Conferences
their own questions to ask peers or the teacher. (Other relevant questions specific to genre can be found in the
Teacher Information section of this guide.)
• What are the strengths of this writing?
• How is your unique perspective reflected in the writing?
• What is a particular challenge for you in this project?
• How might you see the writing in a new way during revision, so that you are not simply editing the
first draft?
• Might any writing exercises be designed to help the student writer with problems he or she is having
with this project?
• Are there any literature selections that might inspire the student or help to resolve some difficulties
with the writing?
• What are the particular challenges of the genre chosen?
• Is it the best writing genre for this particular idea?
• In what new directions might this writing project lead?
APPENDIX E
Guidelines for Independent Projects
• Students can select a project inspired by any of the previous modules or from an entirely new source.
• Students can select one of the four genres covered in this course or they can select something different
(i.e., a television or film script, a small magazine or "zine" format, a comic book).
• Students should outline the amount of time they will spend on the project and set timelines and
check points for themselves.
• Student and teacher should agree on how much in-class time will spent on the project and how that
time will be used.
• Students should decide on the type of feedback and conferencing that will most help them, and
identify the individuals or group with whom they would like to consult. They might consult with
an appropriate person outside of the school, with the teacher's approval (i.e., a writer or editor in the
community).
• Students should keep some kind of journal or record of their experience and progress. The purpose of
this is to help them become familiar with their own creative process and writing habits.
• Student and teacher should identify some literature selections and critical articles or reviews that
might help or inspire the student, or increase his or her repertoire with language.
• Student and teacher should decide how and when the project will be assessed and evaluated.
• Student and teacher should decide if and how the project will be published, displayed, or shared with
other students.
Appendix F
Sample Creative
Writing Assessment
141
APPENDIX F
Sample Creative Writing Assessment
Student’s Name: Date:
Writing Assignment:
Learning Objective Progress Toward Meeting Objective
 Uses writing to explore ideas in a new way
Comment on where the student was at the beginning of

the course:
 Uses the writing process

the course:
 Confers with peers and teachers

the course:
APPENDIX F
Appendix G
Sample Checklist or Rating Scale

for Assessing Creative Processes
145
APPENDIX G
Sample Checklist or Rating Scale for Assessing Creative Processes
This form may be used to assess several students on one date, or one student on different dates.
Names or dates
The student:
Contributes to discussion and brainstorming activities.
Contributes ideas to group discussion of themes, writing genres,

or concepts.
Extends ideas about the theme, writing genre, or concept in a new
direction.
Transfers ideas or knowledge gained from class discussion into
personal work.
Explores several ideas or directions in pre-writing activities.
Takes risks by exploring something new to him/her.
Makes connections between own writing and literary selections.
Shows interest and excitement about own writing project.
Shows commitment to the experience of creating.
Challenges self at all stages of the writing process.
Understands the importance of revision.
Describes what did or did not work in drafts and/or final product
(through discussion, conference, or response journal).
Identifies what he/she would like to do differently in next draft or
project.
Can describe what writing projects mean to him/her (personal
relevance).
Shows concentration.
Discusses why choices were made.
Works independently.
Confers appropriately with peers and teacher.
Chooses work to be shared through publication, oral reading, or

display.
Comments:
APPENDIX G
Appendix H
Sample Response Journal

Assessment
149
APPENDIX H
Sample Response Journal Assessment
This form can be used to assess students’ journal responses to their own writing, to others’ writing, to discussion
about writing, and to literary selections.
Student’s Name:
Evaluation Period: From To
Number of Responses:
Scale:
1 = weak 4 = good
2 = fair 5 = strong
3 = acceptable
Responses to reading, writing, and discussion are recorded in journal regularly.
Regularly Often Sometimes Rarely Never
Responses are full and complete.

1 2 3 4 5
Responses demonstrate:
 close careful reading/listening

 1 2 3 4 5

 personal connections made with written material or discussion content
 1 2 3 4 5

 reflection on significant issues, themes, or concerns
 1 2 3 4 5

 willingness to respond to a range of styles and forms of writing
1 2 3 4 5
 insightful reading/listening
 1 2 3 4 5


What has been learned from responding has been applied to subsequent writing.
1 2 3 4 5
Comments:
APPENDIX H
Appendix I
Sample Chart for Checking Off

Notebook or Journal Entries
153
APPENDIX I
Sample Chart for Checking Off Notebook or Journal Entries
Writer’s Name: ________________________________________________________________
Daily Journal Entries
Week Date of Entries Signature of Reader

1
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
APPENDIX I
Appendix J
Sample Student Record

of Conferencing
157
APPENDIX J
Sample Student Record of Conferencing
Type of Conference:
Name(s) of Conference Partner(s):
Subject of Conference:
Conference Goal:
How the Conference Helped:
What I Liked/Disliked about the Conference:
Suggestions for Future Conferencing:
Additional Comments:
APPENDIX J
Appendix K
Sample Teacher Record

of Conferencing
161
APPENDIX K
Sample Teacher Record of Conferencing
Conference Topic:
Introductory Remarks:
Student’s Strengths:
New Strengths Portrayed:
Areas Needing Improvement:
Goals for Meeting Student’s Needs
 Action to be Taken by Student
 Ways Teacher Can Help
Other Notes:
APPENDIX K
Appendix L
Sample Self-assessment:
Form One
165
APPENDIX L
Sample Self-assessment: Form One
This form is general in nature and could be used any time during the term.
Name: Date:
General remarks regarding my creative writing (e.g., genres and topics presently working on):
Things I do well:
Areas where I have shown recent improvement:
Areas needing further work:
My goal for my creative writing this term:
Steps I will take to attain my goal:
Literary works I might study to help me solve problems I am encountering:
How I will know when my goal is achieved:
Others concerns or comments:
APPENDIX L
Appendix M
Sample Self-assessment:
Form Two
169
APPENDIX M
Sample Self-assessment: Form Two
This form can be used to accompany writing folder or portfolio assessment. The questions are designed to relate
to a specific writing project.
Name: Date:
What was the main idea you were trying to express?
What methods did you use to explore and develop your idea during the pre-writing stage of the writing process?
Did you take a risk by trying something new in this piece of writing? Explain.
What were some unexpected problems you encountered while you were working on this piece of writing?
How did you try to solve these problems?
What was the most interesting thing you did in this writing project?
What have you learned from this project?
What have you read that might be connected in some way to what you were trying to do? Explain.
How might this writing project develop into something else, or be connected to your next project?
APPENDIX M
Appendix N
Sample Portfolio Assessment:

Form One
173
APPENDIX N
Sample Portfolio Assessment: Form One
Type of Assessment: Continous End of Project End of Module End of Term
Rating Scale: Excellent - 1, Very Good - 2, Good - 3, Fair - 2, Poor - 1
Criteria Rating Comments
Student selected appropriate

material.
Portfolio showed evidence of

student’s understanding of
project/module/course objectives.

student’s pride in own work and
commitment to writing
projects/experiences.
Portfolio showed evidence that

student completed assignments.

student’s understanding of the
process of developing and
organizing ideas.
Other comments:
APPENDIX N
Appendix O
Sample Portfolio Assessment:

Form Two
177
APPENDIX O
Sample Portfolio Assessment: Form Two
Note: This form could be attached to each writing selection in a portfolio.
Name: Date:
Genre: Title:
Student Comments:
I chose this piece because ___________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
I would especially like you to notice ____________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
My plan was ______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
This piece of work shows_____________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Next time, I might __________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
Other comments:
APPENDIX O
Appendix P
Reading Comprehension
Strategy
181
APPENDIX P
Reading Comprehension Strategy
Reading Comprehension Strategy Sounds like...

Connecting Linking what is being read with personal experience • This reminds me of a time when …
(text-to-self ), with what was previously read (text- • This part explains the part on page …
to-text), and with a knowledge of the world (text-to-
world) to better understand what is being read
Questioning Asking questions about the text or the topic in order • Before I started to read I wondered …
to better understand what is being read • I am confused because the visuals
seem to say something different than
the text.
• This part makes me wonder about …
• This doesn’t seem to make sense. I
wonder if there is a mistake.
Inferring Interpreting “clues” left by the author and combining • Based on what I am reading I think
interpretation with prior knowledge to create the word means …
meaning • I think … because it says …
Visualizing Picturing ideas and images based on the language and • I can picture the part where it says …
description used by the author • I imagine what it must be like to …
• I like the way the author describes …
Determining Knowing what is important and being able to identify • This is about …
Importance key ideas • This is important because …
• This information is interesting but it
isn’t part of the main idea.
• This word is in bold so it must be
important.
• I can use headings and subheadings
to help me find the information I am
looking for.
Analysing Examining parts or all of a text in terms of its • I notice the author used this
content, structure, and meaning technique/word choice …
• I think the author tried to …
• This doesn’t fit with what I know …
• This would have been better if …
Synthesizing Building a new understanding by combining what is • Now that I have read this I am
already known with what was read beginning to think differently about...
• For me this is about …
Students also need help in understanding the many strategies and conventions that writers, journalists, and
screenwriters employ in developing various types of text. The reading/viewing experience is greatly enriched
when readers/viewers understand how metaphor and other literary and rhetorical devices contribute to
the richness of a writer’s or filmmaker’s craft and textual development. Interpretations are enhanced when
readers/viewers recognize how narrative viewpoint, perspective, and time frame influence or reveal facts and
information about a print or film story.

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Prince Edward Island

English Language Arts

Angie MacCorquodale Colonel Gray High School

Contexts for Learning The Learning Environment ................................................ 9

The Creative Process Introduction ....................................................................... 15

The Writing Process Introduction ....................................................................... 19

Assessment and Overview ............................................................................ 38

Program Design and Curriculum Framework ...................................................... 44

Creative Writing 521A Writing and Representing................................................... 51

Appendices Appendix A–Writing Poetry ............................................... 75

• help students to develop language fluency not only in the school

CORE SENIOR HIGH ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS COURSES

Course Description Creative Writing 521A is designed to encourage students to develop

The purpose of Creative Writing 521 is to provide multiple

The content of Writing 521A: Creative Writing can be summarized in

• The course must be based on the general and specific learning

Core Elements • silent (independent or teacher-directed) reading (15-20 minutes,

• teach, as much as possible, through example and discussion;

• working collaboratively and independently;

2. The focus of the creative writing program should be on ideas

The relevance of creative writing to students is in the exploration

3. Discussion about the structure of writing genres and use

There is no one method or formula for telling a story, no one

Questions such as the following can be posed by the teacher:

• How does your use of language contribute to our

• How does the structure of your piece support your ideas or

• What other pieces of writing do you know about that are

4. Reading is essential to students’ development as writers.

The connection between reading and writing cannot be overstated.

Note: Teachers can do student writers a great service by

5. Teachers must provide latitude in allowing students to choose

The study of literature in Writing 521 must be focused on the

Note: If there is certain language or subject matter that is not

6. Teachers must be sensitive to the variety of language use that

How language is used to support subject matter and meaning is

7. Writing activities should be planned around students' interests

Student learning in creative writing is facilitated when students

8. Creative writing should be seen as a product of the

The imagination is one of the most valuable gifts a human being

When students create a piece of writing, they are creating

9. Creative writing should be seen as a “way of knowing” about

From the earliest of times, humankind has expressed its way of

The process of writing is a process of thinking. As students write,

10. The organic nature of the writing process must be recognized.

An organic process is one that evolves as it progresses. Teachers and

11. There should be an abundance of discussion about writing in

Productive discussion about writing helps students develop an

It is also important for students to discuss their own and other

The participation of the teacher as a writer forms a necessary part

Periodically, the teacher should submit a piece of writing which he

Context for Learning and Teaching

A supportive environment is especially crucial for students who

Flexibility is important for all students. Whether students are working

• provide extended periods of time for students to write in an

In recognizing and valuing the diversity of students, teachers might

• provide a climate and design learning experiences to affirm the

Gender In a supportive learning environment, male and female students

Teachers promote gender equity in their classrooms when they

• articulate equally high expectations for male and female students;

While EAL students should work toward achievement of the same

The learning environment and classroom organization should affirm

Teachers may need to make explicit the ways in which different