Theory of Production Processes-I (MIN-216)

Relative Weight: CWS: 20 PRS: 20 MTE: 20 ETE: 40

Credits: 4 L: 3 T: 1

• Chapter 1: Theory of Machining

• Chapter 2: Advanced Manufacturing Processes
• Chapter 3: Finishing and Superfinishing Processes
• Chapter 4: Metrology
• Chapter 5: Jigs and Fixtures
 Chapter 1
Theory of Machining
Manufacturing Processes:
• To produce a piece of specified shape and material properties.
• To produce changes in configuration and physical properties of
the raw material.

Operation Types:
1. Constant Mass Operations
(casting, rolling, extrusion, wire drawing, forging etc.)
2. Material Addition Operations
(bolting, rivetting, keying, welding etc.)
3. Material Removal Operations
(machining, grinding etc.)
Definitions
1. Machining: The removal of excess material (from the original
workpiece of suitable size and shape) in the form of small chips.
2. Cutting Tool: The body which removes the excess material
through a direct mechanical contact.
3. Machine Tool: The machine which provides the necessary
relative motions between the work and the tool.
4. Primary or Cutting Motion: The relative motion (between the
tool and the work) responsible for the cutting action.
5. Secondary or Feed Motion: Motion responsible for gradually
feeding the uncut portion.
 Machining Processes
Single-point Tool Multi-point Tool Abrasive Operations
Operations Operations

1. Turning 1. Milling 1. Grinding

2. Boring 2. Drilling 2. Lapping
3. Shaping 3. Tapping 3. Honing
4. Planing 4. Reaming 4. Super-Finishing
5. Hobbing
6. Broaching
7. Sawing
 Single-point Tool Operations

• Straight Turning or Boring: When tool path is parallel to the axis,

the surface generated is cylinder.

Straight Turning Straight Boring

Shaping and Planning: Planes are generated by series of straight
cuts without rotating the workpiece.

For a long job, it becomes inconvenient to provide long cutting

strokes with the mechanism used in shaping machine. In such a
case, planing machine is used, where the work is provided with the
cutting motion and feed is given to the tool.

Shaping Planing
Tool reciprocate and Workpiece
workpiece moves reciprocate and tool
crosswise at the end moves crosswise
of each stroke
Shaping and Planing
 Multi-point Tool Operations

• Plain Milling: The cutter

revolves and moves over the
workpiece. The axis of the
cutter is parallel to the surface
generated. Plain Milling

• Drilling: The drill turn and be

fed into the workpiece or the
workpiece may revolve while
the drill is fed into the
workpiece.

Drilling
Machining With Single-Edge Tools

A typical lathe tool A wedge shaped tool

• α- Rake angle, which tool face makes with a plane normal to

cutting velocity vector and machined surface.
• δ- Flank angle, is between flank face and the machined surface.
Orthogonal Cutting & Oblique Cutting

Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting

Orthogonal Cutting:
1. Here the cutting edge of the tool is straight and is
perpendicular to the direction of cutting velocity.
2. The cutting edge is wider than the workpiece and extends
beyond the workpiece on either side. Also the width of
workpiece is much greater than the depth of cut. These
conditions give two dimensional flow and the flow is confined
to the (x, z) plane with practically no side flow.
3. The chips generated flows on the rake face of the tool with
chip velocity perpendicular to the cutting edge.
4. The cutting forces act along x and z directions only and can be
represented in the (x, z) plane.
Oblique Cutting:
1. The cutting edge of the tool is inclined at an angle i with the
normal to the cutting velocity vector. Angle i is generally called
the inclination angle.
2. The chip generated flows on the rake face of the tool at an angle
approximately equal to i with the normal to the cutting edge in
the plane of the rake face.
3. Cutting edge extends beyond the width of workpiece on either
side.
4. The cutting force act along the three directions, i.e., along x, y
and z axes.

 It is obvious that the study and the analysis of the orthogonal

machining operation is much simpler.
Chip Formation:

Schematic view of idealized chip formation

Types of Chips:
Depending on the properties of the work material and the cutting
conditions, three basic types of chips are obtained in practice.
These are :
1. Continuous Chips
2. Continuous Chips with Built-up Edge (BUE)
3. Discontinuous Chips
Types of Chips:

1. Continuous
Chips

2. Continuous Chips
with built-up
edge (BUE)

3. Discontinuous
Chips
Built –up Edge (BUE)

At higher speeds the temperature increases and the tendency of

plastically deformed material to adhere to the rake face increases
and a lump is formed at the cutting edge. This is called a built-up
edge (BUE).

It grows up to certain size but ultimately breaks due to the

increased force exerted on it by the adjacent flowing material.
After it breaks, the broken fragments adhere to the finished
surface and the chip surface results in a rough finish. with a
further increase in the cutting speed or when a cutting fluid is
used, the built-up edge disappear.
Conditions for various types of chips
(1) Continuous Chips
• Ductile material
• Small uncut thickness
• High cutting speed
• Large rake angle
• Suitable cutting fluid
(3) Discontinuous Chips
• Low cutting speed
• Brittle work material
• Small rake angle
• Large uncut thickness

(2) Continuous Chips with BUE

• Stronger adhesion between
chips and the tool face
• Low rake angle
• Large uncut thickness.
Tool Geometry

Tool Angles of Single-Point Cutting Tool

The optimum value of any Tool angle primarily depends on following

• Tool-work combination
• Output parameters such as
 Cutting Forces
 Surface Finish
 Heat Generation etc.

Here the considerations to decide the Tool angles are discussed

briefly.
3D Image of Single point cutting tool
Schematic of Single-point cutting tool angles as per American
System (ASA)
Rake Angles
• The rake angle influences the cutting forces, power and surface
finish.
• Large Rake provides the low cutting forces and power and better is
the surface finish.
• Large Rake also decrease the cutting angle between the rake and
the principal flank faces and less metal is available to support the
tool, hence it weaken the tool.
• The angle chosen is the compromise between the efficient cutting
and tool strength.
• Further, for the rough machining, often carbide tools with negative
rake are used because on a negative rake tool, the initial impact of
cutting occurs away from the cutting edge and its edge has added
strength.
• For HSS tools it vary from 5° to 15° degrees, depending upon the
materials. Higher values are used for softer materials like
Aluminum. 8° to 12° for steels and 5° to 10° for cast iron.
Back Rake Angle(αb):
• It is the angle between the face of the tool and base of the shank
or holder, and is usually measured in a plane perpendicular to
the base and parallel to the length of the tool.
• It affects the ability of the tool to shear the work material and
form the chip.
• In turning positive back rake angle takes the chips away from the
machined surface, whereas negative back rake angle directs the
chips on to the machined surface, hence negative rake angle is
preferred.
Side Rake or Axial Rake Angle (αs):
• It is the angle between the face of the tool and base of the
shank or holder and is usually measured in a plane
perpendicular to base and parallel to width.
• Increase in the side rake angle reduces the chip thickness in
turning.
Flank Angles
• End Relief Angle and Side Relief Angle are the Flank angles.
• Flank angles are provided to enable the sides of the tool to clear
the workpiece and not to rub against it during cutting.
• The larger the angle, the lower is the flank face wear but this
would weaken the tool.
• The flank angles should be as large as possible and still provide
enough support to the cutting edge.
• The angle depends on the tool and work material.
• For HSS and carbide tools the value of these angles are in range
of 5° to 12° and 5° to 8° respectively.
• Higher angles for the softer materials and lower for the hard
materials.
• Flank angles have marginal effect on the cutting forces, power
and the surface finish.
End Relief Angle (Ƴe)
• It is the angle between the portion of the end flank immediately
below the end cutting edge and a line drawn through this cutting
edge perpendicular to the base. It is usually measured in a plane
perpendicular to the end flank.
• The end relief angle prevents friction on the flank of the tool.

Side Relief Angle(Ƴs)

• It is the angle between the portion of the side flank immediately
below the side cutting edge and a line drawn through the
cutting edge perpendicular to the base. It is measured in the
plane perpendicular to the side flank.
Cutting Edge Angles
• The Auxiliary or end cutting edge angle is provided to clear the
cutting edge from the machined surface and reduce tool chatter.
However too large angle weakens the tool.
• The principal or side cutting edge angle affects the tool life as well
as surface finish.
• Large angles also wear the tool.
• The sharp tool tip is highly stressed, has short life and results in
feed marks on the machined surface.
• The nose radius smoothens these marks and strengthen the
cutting tool.
• Nose radius 0.5 to 3 mm is quite satisfactory for single point
cutting tool.
End Cutting Edge Angle (Ce)
• The end cutting edge angle is the amount that the end cutting
edge slopes away from the nose of the tool, so that it will clear
the finished surface on the workpiece, when cutting with the
side cutting edge.
• It prevents the trailing end of the cutting edge of the tool from
rubbing against the workpiece.
• A larger end cutting edge angle weakens the tool, it is usually
kept between 5°to 15°.
Side Cutting Edge Angle (Cs)
• It is the angle which prevents interference as the tool enters the
work materials.
• Larger this angle , the greater the component of the force
tending to separate the work and the tool, may induce chatter at
higher forces.
• It ranges normally from 5° to 15°.
Single-Point Cutting Tool

The geometry of practical cutting tools is quite complex and

specific since two or more cutting edges are involved for different
machining operations. The tools have to be made in workshops by
following certain standards.

For Geometry of single-point cutting tools some of important

standards are:
1. American System
2. Continental System
3. British System
4. International System
Reference Planes
To define the geometry of single-point cutting tool in standard
systems has different set of planes as reference planes.
Some of the planes are common in these systems.

Following are the sets of reference systems:

1. Co-ordinate System (ASA)
2. Orthogonal System (ORS)
3. Maximum Rake System (MRS)
4. Normal Rake System (NRS)

All the systems explained here are for single-point cutting tools.
1. Co-ordinate System
• Base Plane (πr): A plane
parallel to the ground
(horizontal plane) containing
the tool shank. The base
plane is perpendicular to the
velocity vector.
• Longitudinal Plane (πx): The
Second reference plane
which is along the Reference plane in Co-ordinate System
longitudinal feed direction (1) Longitudinal (2)Transverse feed direction
and perpendicular to base
plane.
• Transverse plane (πy): The third reference plane is
perpendicular to both the above planes.
2. Orthogonal System (ORS)
• In this the reference planes
are chosen from the
considerations of tool
operating on the workpiece on
the machine tools.
• Again the three reference
plane are mutually
perpendicular planes but Reference plane in Orthogonal System
related to the position of the (1) Longitudinal (2)Transverse feed direction
cutting edge.
• Base Plane (πr): Same as previous case
• Cutting Plane (πc): the second reference plane, contains the
cutting edge and is perpendicular to the base plane.
• Orthogonal Plane (πo): The third reference plane, it is
perpendicular to these to planes.
3. Maximum Rake System (MRS)

• The base and the cutting

planes are same as in the
orthogonal system but the
third plane, the maximum
rake plane πm, is normal to
base plane and is in
direction of the maximum Reference plane in Maximum Rake System
slope of the rake face. (1) Longitudinal (2)Transverse feed direction

• The third plane called the maximum rake plane is inclined at

an angle, say θm, with the transverse feed direction.
4. Normal Rake System (NRS)

Reference plane in Normal Rake System

(1) Longitudinal (2)Transverse feed direction
• In normal rake system also, the base plane and the cutting
planes are the same as in the orthogonal system but the
third plane is perpendicular to the cutting edge of the tool.
The third reference plane is called the normal plane πn.
System of Axes
System of Axes
• The cutting edges of a straight-turning tool in all the four
reference systems are located with respect to the longitudinal
and transverse feed direction, Xf and Yf respectively.
• The orientation of rake and flank faces are defined with
respect to the system of axes (x, y, z).
• The subscripts a, o, m and n refers to American, orthogonal,
maximum rake and normal rake system respectively.
• These are not the Cartesian co-ordinate axes but the traces of
planes
• (xau, yau, zau) used for defining auxiliary cutting edge and
auxiliary flank angles in ORS, MRS and NRS specifications.
Tool Specifications
1. American System (ASA)

• αb– Back Rake angle

• αs- Side Rake Angle
• δe- End Flank Angle
• δs- Side Flank Angle
• Ƴe- End Cutting Edge Angle
• Ƴs- Side Cutting Edge Angle
• r - Nose Radius

Single-Point tool specification in American System

• The various angle in this system are specifies in a special
sequence.
2. Continental System (ORS)

• Include German (DIN),

Russian and Czech
systems
• The geometry of chip
formation is always
analyzed with respect
to the cutting edge and
here the plane
containing the cutting
edge has been chosen
as one of the reference
plane.
• All angles except the
orthogonal rake angle,
are true angles. Single-Point tool specification in continental system (ORS)
• The various angles in this system are specified in a special
sequence.
3. British System (MRS)
This system is considered to be unrelated to the mechanics of
cutting.

Single-Point tool specification in British System (MRS)

• The various angles in this system are specified in a special
sequence.
4. International System (NRS)
It is brought up to synthesize the different ways in all the systems of
representing tool nomenclature. The Indian Specification(IS) now
follows ISO, earlier it was based on DIN

Single-Point tool specification in International System (NRS)

• The various angles in this system are specified in a special
sequence.
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting

• All the machining operations are considered to be either

oblique or orthogonal.
• Since most practical cutting operations are complex so for
the study point of view, some assumptions for orthogonal
cutting analysis are:
– Tool tip is sharp (zero edge radius) and the chip makes contact
only with the rake face of the tool.
– The cutting edge is perpendicular to the cutting velocity.
– The deformation is two dimensional.
– The deformation takes place in a very thin zone so that the
deformation zone could be reasonably represented by a plane
called shear plane.
– Continuous chip formation without BUE are formed.
– The workpiece material is rigid, perfectly plastic.
– The coefficient of friction is constant along the chip-tool
interface.
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting

Fig. Material Deformation and associated phenomena in machining

• The various zones related to the deformation of the material

and formation of BUE are shown in the above figures.
Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting….. Shear Strain Analysis

• The analysis of the actual machining operation is very

difficult.
• Under moderate and high speeds with normal machining
conditions, the thickness of shear zone is very small and we
can consider it as a plane.

Fig. Features of orthogonal chip formation

 Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting….. Shear Strain Analysis

• The plane OS where the shear occurs is shear plane and its
inclination with the machined surface (φ) is called shear
angle.
• To determine the shear angle, two perpendiculars SM and SN
from S on the extension of the machined surface and the rake
face of the tool.
• Further, SP is drawn parallel to OM and Q is the intersection
of SP with normal drawn at O to OM.
• Considering the two right angled triangle ΔSNO and ΔQPO
we get
∠𝑃𝑆𝑁 = ∠𝑃𝑂𝑄 = 𝛼 = Rake angle
or
∠𝑁𝑆𝑂 = ∠𝑃𝑆𝑂 − ∠𝑃𝑆𝑁 = (∅ − 𝛼)
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting….. Shear Strain Analysis

𝑡2 𝑡1
Again OS = SN/cos(∅ − 𝛼)= = SM/sin∅ =
cos(∅− 𝛼) sin∅
Hence

𝑡1 sin∅
Cutting Ratio = = = r, (1)
𝑡2 cos(∅− 𝛼)
where r is known as the cutting ratio.
Equation (1) can be expressed as
rcos𝛼
tan ∅= (2)
1−rsinα
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting….. Shear Strain Analysis

• Now to determine the magnitude of the shear strain

let us consider an element of the unreformed work-
material ABSO of thickness Δ in figure (b).
• Due to the presence of the tool, this is sheared to the shape
KLSO.
• From the definition,
the magnitude of the shear strain is given by
𝑨𝑲
𝜸=
∆
• A perpendicular ON has been dropped on AK from O
whose length is equal to Δ.
Then, obviously ∠𝐾𝐴𝑂 = ∅
𝜋 𝜋
Thus, + 𝛼 = ∠𝑂𝐾𝐴 + ∅ or ∠𝑂𝐾𝐴 = + 𝛼 − ∅
2 2
Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting….. Shear Strain Analysis

Now
𝐴𝐾 𝐴𝑁+𝑁𝐾
γ= = = cot ∅ + tan ∠𝐾𝑂𝑁
∆ 𝑂𝑁
Hence

γ = cot ∅ + (tan ∅ − 𝛼) (3)

Example: During orthogonal machining with a cutting tool

having a 10° rake angle, the chip thickness is
measured to be 0.4 mm, the uncut chip thickness being
0.15 mm. Determine the shear plane angle and the
magnitude of the shear strain.
Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting….. Shear Strain Analysis

Solution:
Cutting ratio (r) = 0.15/0.4 = 0.38
Using equation (2), we obtain
0.38𝑐𝑜𝑠10°
∅= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟖°
1−0.38 sin 10°
To determine the shear strain, we use equation (3)

γ = cot 21.8° + (tan 21.8° − 10°) = 2.5 + 021 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟏

 Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting… Merchant Circle Force Analysis
• First of all Ernst and Merchant proposed the force analysis in chip
formation.
• They considered an idealized case of single shear plane and the
chip above the shear plane as rigid body moving with a constant
velocity. Accordingly, the resultant of forces acting on it from the
rake surface of the tool R and the work surface along the shear
plane R’ must be zero.

Chip
Tool

W/P

(a) Equilibrium of chip (a) Merchant’s circle diagram

Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting… Merchant Circle Force Analysis

• FC & FT are cutting and thrust forces

• FS & FN are shear and normal forces
• F & N are friction force and normal load
Now the total force R can be resolved into two components N
and F normal to and along the rake surface, respectively.
Since F must be the friction force due to the existence of the
normal load N,
According to the usual convention,
𝑭
= 𝝁, (4)
𝑵
𝜇 - average coefficient of friction
between the chip and the tool.
Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting… Merchant Circle Force Analysis

The coefficient of friction can also be expressed as:

𝝁 = tan λ (5)
λ - friction angle
• Similarly, R’ can also be resolved into the components along
the directions normal (FN) and parallel to the shear plane (FS).
• The inclination of shear plane and rake surface is variable so
the force acting on the tool (which is equal to R in magnitude
and opposite in direction of R) is resolved into two
components FC and FT along and normal to the direction of
the cutting velocity v.
• FC along the direction of motion is responsible for the energy
consumption.
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting… Merchant Circle Force Analysis

• The relationship among the different components and the

resultant cutting force can be easily understood with the help of
Merchant’s circle diagram.
• Since the resultant of FC , FT and FS , FN are same and those of F
and N are the same in magnitude, the tips of all these forces
must lie on an imaginary circle of diameter R, as shown in
figure.

FS
FC φ
(λ-α) R FN
FT
F α
R λ R
N
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting… Merchant Circle Force Analysis

From above figures, it can be shown that the friction force

F = R sin λ (6)
and normal force
N = R cos λ (7)

To get the relationship all unknown forces can be

resolved in term of FC and FT . Then, we get
FC = FS cos φ + FN sin φ (8)
FT = FN cos φ- FS sin φ (9)
F = FC sin α + FT cos α (10)
N = FC cos α – FT sin α (11)
FS = FC cos φ – FT sin φ (12)
FN = FC sin φ + FT cos φ (13)
𝐅𝐒
R= (14)
𝐜𝐨𝐬 (φ+𝛌−𝛂)
FC = R cos (𝛌 − 𝛂) (15)
FT = R sin (𝛌 − 𝛂) (16)
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting… Merchant Circle Force Analysis

• The measurement of FC and FT can be easily done with the help

of a tool dynamometer.
• After calculating FC and FT , other force components can be
determined with the given equations.
• When the material properties and other necessary data are
given then FC and FT can also be determined by theoretical
method.
Let 𝜏𝑆 is the ultimate shear stress of the work material,
then the shear force FS along the shear plane can be written as
𝑤𝑡1
shear plane area AS = (17)
sin φ
Then 𝒘𝒕𝟏𝝉𝑺 (18)
FS = 𝝉𝑺 AS =
𝒔𝒊𝒏 φ
where 𝑤 is the width of the
workpiece under cutting and 𝑡1 is the uncut thickness.
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting… Merchant Circle Force Analysis
Now from equation (14) and (15)
FS cos(λ−α)
FC =
cos(φ+λ−α)
Putting the value of FS from equation (18) in the above equation,
we get
1
FC = 𝑤t1τS cos(λ − α) [ ] (19)
sin φ cos φ+λ−α
The power consumption during machining is given by
1
W= FCv = v𝑤t1τS cos(λ − α) [ ] (20)
sin φ cos φ+λ−α
Now, during a cutting operation φ takes a value such that the
least amount of energy is consumed or the minimum power (W)
consumption.
As v, w, t1 and α are given, and we assumed that τS and λ do not
change when φ varies. Now W is a function of φ only
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting… Merchant Circle Force Analysis

Then,
constant
W (φ)=
sin 𝜙 cos 𝜙+λ−α
For W(φ) to be minimum the denominator should be maximum.
Then differentiating the denominator with w.r.t. φ and equating
it to zero, we get
cos φ cos φ + λ − α − sin φ sin φ + λ − α =0
or
cos 2φ + λ − α = 0
or
π (21)
2φ + λ − α =
2

where λ = tan-1 μ
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting… Merchant Circle Force Analysis

Therefore, with the help of equation (21), φ can be determined

for a given α and average coefficient of friction between chip and
the tool.
Using equation (19) and (21), we get
2𝑤t1τS cos(λ−α)
FC = (22)
1−sin(λ−α)
Also for a given cutting speed v the power consumption can be
calculated.
Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting… Velocity Triangle
Let us assume that the work material is moving against the
cutting tool with a velocity V. The chip velocity VC is the vector
sum of V (the velocity uncut chip) and VS shear velocity.

Fig. Relationship of different velocities

𝜋𝐷𝑁
V=
60
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting… Velocity Triangle
Applying the Sine rule:
𝑉 𝑉𝐶 𝑉𝑆
= =
sin(90−𝜙+𝛼) sin 𝜙 sin(90−𝛼)

𝑉 𝑉𝐶 𝑉𝑆
= = =
cos(𝜙−𝛼) sin 𝜙 cos 𝛼

Cutting Power = FC.V

Shear Power = FS.VS
Friction Power = F. VC
Also Cutting Power = Shear Power + Friction Power
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting… Modified Merchant Theory

• It is not surprising that the theoretical and experimental

results do not show good agreement.
• For simplifying the shear angle (φ) calculations, several
assumptions has been taken so the experimental value of
shear angle is quite different from the theoretical values.
• Merchant found that this theory is quite suitable for cutting
synthetic plastic but agrees poorly with the results of
machining metals.
• P. W. Bridgeman showed that τS is not completely
independent of normal stresses and can be expressed as
τS = τS0 + K1 σ (23)
where K1 is a constant and σ is the normal stress acting on the
shear plane.
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting… Modified Merchant Theory

During matching, σ is given by

𝐹𝑁
σ=
𝑤𝑡1/ sin φ
So, the shear stress τS can be expressed as
𝐹𝑁
τS= τS0 + k1
𝑤𝑡1/ sin φ
Now from the circle diagram we can write
FN/FS = tan (φ + λ - α)
or
FN= FS tan (φ + λ - α)
Putting the value of FN in τS equation
𝐹𝑆 FS tan (φ + λ − α)
= τS0 + k1
𝑤𝑡1/ sin φ 𝑤𝑡1/ sin φ
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting… Modified Merchant Theory
𝐹𝑆
or [1- k1 tan (φ + λ − α)]= τS0
𝑤𝑡1/ sin φ
or
𝑤𝑡1τS0
FS =
sin φ
[1− k1 tan (φ + λ − α)]
Using equation (14) and (15) along with the forgoing equation,
we obtain
𝑤𝑡1τS0 𝐜𝐨𝐬(λ
− α )
FC = (24)
sin φ [1− k1 tan (φ + λ − α)]
Now applying the principle of minimum energy consumption,
we finally get
(2φ + λ − α) = Cm
(25)
where Cm = cot-1 k1 and is a constant for work material. Cm is
sometimes called machining constant. Its values are in degree
(e.g. for SS304 and SS303 Cm= 82 and 92 ° respectively)
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting… Modified Merchant Theory

• This modified theory of Merchant agrees better with the

experiments.
• From the figure below, it can be seen that the plots of φ
versus (λ – α) yield different straight line of the same plot
(obtained from Merchant’s original theory) and can match the
experimental results in the case of mild steel, copper, and
lead.

Fig. Theoretical and experimental shear angle relationships.

 Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting… Modified Merchant Theory
From the equation (25), it is clear that
• When α increases, φ also increases, and when μ (and also λ)
increases, φ also decreases.
• When machining speed increases, the coefficient of friction μ
decreases.
• The nature of variations of FC with cutting speed v and the
rake angle α are indicated in figure below.

Fig. Effect of cutting

parameters on chip
formation
 Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting… Modified Merchant Theory
Example: During an orthogonal machining operation on mild
steel, the results obtained are
t1 = 0.25 mm, t2 = 0.75 mm, w = 2.5 mm
α = 0° , FC = 950 N, FT = 475 N
Determine: (i) Coefficient of fiction between the tool and chip.
(ii) Ultimate shear stress τS of the work material.

𝛑
Lee and Shaffer Shear angle relationship: (φ + λ − α) =
𝟒
Mechanics of Orthogonal Metal Cutting… Modified Merchant Theory

• To determine the coefficient of friction μ, directly use μ = F/N

Failure of Cutting Tool and Tool Wear
Failure Of Cutting Tool
When a cutting tool is unable to cut, consuming reasonable energy,
and cannot produce an acceptable finish, it is considered to have
failed.

The failure of cutting tool may be due to one or a combination of

the following modes.

3. Failure Through
1. Plastic deformation 2. Mechanical Breakage
Gradual Wear
Failure of Cutting Tool and Tool Wear
1. Plastic deformation of the tool due to high temperature and
large stress.
2. Mechanical breakage of the tool due to large force and
insufficient strength and toughness.
3. Blunting of the edge of the tool through a process of gradual
wear.

Tool Wear
In Metal cutting, three basic causes for the tool wear:
1. Adhesion
2. Abrasion
3. Diffusion
Failure of Cutting Tool and Tool Wear

1. Adhesion
• When two mating surfaces come in contact, strong bonds are
formed due to welding of the surface asperities.
• If the bond formed are stronger than the local strength of the
material, particles may transfer from one surface to the other
when the junction fracture.
• Thus, the small fragments of the tool material can get torn out
and get away on the underside of the chip or on the surface of
the workpiece.
• When the wear particles thus removed are very small the process
is referred to as attritious wear.
• When the large particles are generated the process is referred to
as galling. The mechanism involved are the same except the size
of wear particles.
2. Abrasion
• when two surfaces are in sliding contact, the surface asperities
on the harder material plough a series of grooves on the softer
material.
• Alternatively, material removal may be caused by loose hard
particles trapped at the sliding interface.
• Hard particles on the underside of the chip or loose hard
particles trapped at the interface may remove tool material due
to abrasion.
• In order to have abrasive wear, it is necessary that scratching
material must be at least 20% harder.
• In abrasion wear, the wear rate depends upon the hardness and
elastic properties and the geometry of the mating surface.
3. Diffusion
• When two surfaces comes in close contact, atoms from one of the
mating surface may get diffused into the matrix of the other
surface depending upon the relative affinity of the atoms.
• This phenomenon affects the wear process by causing the change
in physical properties such as hardness, toughness, etc. of either
the tool material or the work material or the both.
• The diffusion rate is a temperature dependent phenomenon and,
therefore, depends upon the sliding speed.
• The amount of material transfer, however, depends upon the time
of contact of the mating surfaces, that is an inverse function of the
sliding speed.
• This diffusion, however, occurs in very narrow zone at the interface
where high temperature exist. When the hardened chip slides over
the weakened surface layer of tool, small particles are removed
from the tool. Similarly, when the softened tool layer rubs against
the hardened workpiece surface, tool wear occurs.
Progressive Tool Wear
The wearing action takes place on
those surfaces along which there is
a relative sliding with the other
surfaces.
Hence,
 The wear on the flank surface
where the rubbing between the
work and the tool occurs called
as Flank Wear.
 The wear takes place on the
rake surface where the chip
flows over the tool called as
Crater Wear.

Crater and Flank Wear

 Flank Wear
• Flank wear is evaluated in terms of length of wear land lw which
can be easily measured by means of a measuring microscope.
• Tool flank wear land increases with cutting time.

Fig. Wear land growth

• This wear land curve can be divided into three distinct
regions.
 Region I, where the sharp cutting edge of the cutting tool
quickly broke down and a finite wear lw1 is established.
 Region II, the intermediate region where the wear land
growth curve is usually linear and wear increases at a
uniform rate.
 Region III, when a contact area reaches a critical value lw2,
the flank surface temperature becomes high to cause
softening of the tool material . Under these conditions
the normal pressure is sufficient to cause the sub-surface
plastic flow and wear rate increases.
• It is established by experiments that the normal force on
the cutting tool is proportional to the size of wear land.
Thus , when wear rate increases the normal force will also
increase accordingly and in extreme cases may cause
rupture of the tool.
• The cutting tool, therefore must be reground before it
enters the last region, i.e. before lw= lw2
 Crater Wear
• Measured in terms of depth of crater
dc and the shape of the crater is
assumed to be the segment of an arc.
• Crater is formed some distance away
from the cutting edge.
• At low cutting speeds, the cutting
edge is protected from the action of
the chip because of the formation of a
stable built-up edge.
• At higher speeds, diffusion has been considered to play major role.
Diffusion is a temperature sensitive phenomenon.
• Since the maximum temperature at the chip-tool interface appears
to exist at some distance from the tool edge, crater formation also
initiates at this point because of high diffusion rate.
• Variation of crater wear with cutting time and speed (V) is shown in
the figure.
 Heat generation and cutting tool temperature
• When a material is deformed plastically, most of the energy
spent is converted into heat.
• During machining, the plastic deformation is large and takes
place at a very high rate, and under such conditions, almost
99% of the energy is converted into heat.

Fig. Sources and distribution of heat in machining

 Heat generation and cutting tool temperature
The heat generation in the three distinct region is as:
a) In shear zone, the heat is generated due to plastic
deformation of the workpiece material.
b) On the chip-tool interface, the heat is generated due friction
between rake face of the tool and chip.
c) In work-tool interface heat is generated due to friction
between flank face of the tool and workpiece.
• The major plastic deformation takes place in the shear zone
and the heat generated is about 80 - 85% in this zone.
• Chip-tool and tool-work interfaces contribute 15 -20% and 1 -
3%, respectively.
• A large fraction of this heat carried away by the chip (about
80%), 15-20% flows into the tool and less than 5% is
conducted into the workpiece.
 Heat generation and cutting tool temperature

• The heat flows into the tool causes very high temperature in
the vicinity of tool tip which in turn decreases the hardness of
the tool material and in some cases may even cause melting
which leads to decrease the useful tool life.
• Variable affecting the cutting temperature:
Cutting speed > cutting feed > depth of cut

Total power consumption = total rate of heat generation during machining

W = FC.v = WP + WS
where WP & WS are primary and secondary deformation zones,
respectively.
WS = F. vc , where F is friction force and vc is chip velocity.
Tool Life
Tool life is the length of the period for which a tool can be used.
A tool that no longer performs the desired function is said to have
failed or reached the end of its useful life.
Various ways in which tool life can be specified are:
• Cutting time to failure
• Cutting length to failure
• Volume of material removed to failure
• No of components produced to failure etc.

Variables Affecting Tool Life

• The cutting conditions
• The tool geometry
• The tool material
• The work material and
• The cutting fluid
 Variables Affecting Tool Life
Cutting conditions:
• Practical conditions have shown the wear-land size is usually
the limiting factor determining the useful life of a cutting tool.
• Rate of wear increase as cutting speed increases as shown in
figure.
Critical wear land size
Limits of tool wear

Tool Wear Criterion

Material
HSS Catastrophic failure or lw=0.3 mm

WC lw=0.3 mm or lw max=0.6 mm

Fig. Wear-land growth at different cutting speeds

 Variables Affecting Tool Life……… Cutting conditions
• When the values of cutting time Vs cutting velocity were
plotted on logarithmic coordinates (fig.), a straight line
relationship is obtained and this relationship could be
represented by an equation as-
V Tn = C

where V is cutting speed, T is the

tool life and n and C are constant
depending on the tool and work
material, tool geometry, and cutting
conditions (except speed).
For HSS n = 0.08-0.2

For Carbides n = 0.2-0.6

For Ceramics n = 0.5-0.8
Fig. Tool life curve
 Variables Affecting Tool Life……… Cutting conditions
• The generalized Taylor equation for machining with
continuous chip without build-up edge is-

𝑪𝟏
T=
𝑽𝟏/𝒏 𝒇𝟏/𝒏𝟏 𝒅𝟏/𝒏𝟐

where f is feed, d is depth of cut, C1 is a constant for a given tool-

work material combination and tool geometry. 1/n, 1/n1 and
1/n2 are exponents for cutting velocity, feed and depth of cut
respectively. Here 1/n > 1/n1 > 1/n2 which indicates that cutting
speed has the greatest influence on the tool-life followed by feed
and then depth of cut.
 Variables Affecting Tool Life……… Cutting conditions
Example: A carbide tool with MS workpiece was found to give
tool life of 2 hrs while cutting at 0.5 m/min. Compute the tool life
if the same tool is used at speed of 25% higher than previous
one. Also determine the value of cutting speed if the tool is
required to have tool life of 3 hrs. assume Taylor’s exponent
n=0.27?
 Variables Affecting Tool Life……… Cutting conditions
Example: A carbide tool with MS workpiece was found to give
tool life of 2 hrs while cutting at 0.5 m/min. Compute the tool life
if the same tool is used at speed of 25% higher than previous
one. Also determine the value of cutting speed if the tool is
required to have tool life of 3 hrs. assume Taylor’s exponent
n=0.27?

Ans: C = 1.8211
T = 52.51 min
V = 0.44815 m/min
 Variables Affecting Tool Life
Tool Geometry:
• The rake and clearance angles are two important parameters
of a tool which affects the tool life.
• When rake angle increases, tool life starts improving (Fig. a)
because the cutting forces and temperature reduces.
• Further increase in rake angle results in a larger temperature
since the tool becomes thinner and available area for heat
conduction decreases.
 Variables Affecting Tool Life……… Tool Geometry
• This gives an optimum value of the rake angle for which the
tool life is maximum.
• Similarly, with increasing clearance/flank angle, the tool life
increases initially and then decreases after reaching an
optimum value.
• Increase in flank/clearance angle reduces the rubbing
between tool and work piece and hence tool life increases.
Providing too high clearance angle weakens the tool and thus,
reduces the tool life.
 Variables Affecting Tool Life
Cutting Tool Materials:
Basic Requirements
• Hardness should be higher than work material at elevated
temperature.
• Higher toughness to withstand shocks.
• Large resistance to wear
• Low coefficient of friction between the work and tool
• Shock resistance and its ability to maintain these properties at
cutting temperature.
No tool material is capable to fulfill all the required properties.
Therefore, a wide variety of cutting tool materials are available
as per applications and each one of them has a unique
combination of properties.
 Variables Affecting Tool Life……… Cutting Tool Materials
The materials commonly used for making tools are:
• High Carbon Steel
• High Speed Steel (HSS)
• Cemented Carbides
For grinding and other machining processes, abrasive
minerals e.g. silicon carbide, aluminium oxide, and diamond are
used.
Brinell Hardness (BHN)

Fig. Variation of hardness with temperature for common tool materials

 Variables Affecting Tool Life……… Cutting Tool Materials
• Cemented carbides are produced by powder metallurgy
technique. Also, coated cemented carbides with a thin (≈ 5
μm) layer of ceramic e.g., TiC, TiN, Al2O3 and carbon boron
nitride (CBN) are produced by this technique.
• CBN has hardness next to diamond and can be used at speeds
over five times that of carbides.
• HSS is the most popular tool material and good upto 600° C.
• The maximum possible speed at which mild steel can be cut
with various tool materials is given below:
Tool Material Cutting Speed (m/min)
Carbon Steel 5
High Speed Steel 30
Cemented Carbide 150
Coated Carbide 350
Ceramic 600
 Variables Affecting Tool Life
Cutting Fluids:
• Most of the cutting operations carried out in the presence of
cutting fluids to reduce the coefficient of friction at interface
and reducing the cutting temperature.
• The cutting fluids by forming a weaker solid at the interface,
reduce the welded junction between the tool and the chip.
For example, if a cutting fluid containing chlorine is used while
machining steel, iron chloride is formed at the interface which
is weak material and seizure is prevented as shearing takes
place only at interface.
• The cutting fluids affect the machining in following ways:
– Cooling down the chip-tool-work zone by carrying the heat
generated
– Reducing the coefficient of friction at tool-chip interface
 Variables Affecting Tool Life……… Cutting Fluids
– Washing away the chips and cleaning the machining zone
– Increasing tool life and reducing the thermal distortion
– Prevents the formation of BUE
– Protecting the finished surface from corrosion

Fig. Dependence of coefficient of friction Fig. Effect of cutting environment

on speed when machining copper when machining steel
 Variables Affecting Tool Life……… Cutting Fluids
• An ideal cutting fluid should
– Have a large specific heat and thermal conductivity
– Have low viscosity
– Be nonpoisonous and noncorrosive
– Be inexpensive and
– Easily available
• The cutting fluids are mainly two types
i. Water based ii. Mineral oil based
Common cutting fluids are:

Solutions

Dispersions
Water based
Emulsions
 Variables Affecting Tool Life……… Cutting Fluids
Inactive oil Mineral oils
Mineral based Fatty oils
Active oil Sulphurated mineral oils
Sulphochlorinated oils
Synthetic fluids
Gases

• At high cutting speeds, oil based cutting fluids are ineffective

and it is the cooling action that is operative. The water based
fluids are, therefore, more effective because of their high
specific heat and thermal conductivity.
• The selection of cutting fluid based on work material is shown
in table on next slide.
Variables Affecting Tool Life……… Cutting Fluids
 Variables Affecting Tool Life……… Cutting Fluids

Table: Selection of cutting fluid based on tool material

 Machinability
• The term ‘Machinability’ means ‘ease of machining’. It is
often used to describe the machining properties of work
materials.
• Good machinability leads to lower tool wear, high material
removal rate, good surface finish and lower power
consumption.
• Material properties that affect the machinability are shear
strength, hardness, abrasiveness, thermal conductivity etc.
• Although, it is difficult to set a single unique index to describe
the ease with which a material could be machined. There are
the following criterion for judging the machinability:
– Tool-life criterion
– Production rate criterion
– Machining force and power consumption criterion
– Surface-finish criterion
 Machinability
Tool-life criterion: it is expressed as the length of the period in
term of cutting speed for which a tool can be used. For assessing
the machinability, common material is chosen as a standard and
machinability of other materials is compared and expressed as a
ratio.
• Tool life may also be expressed in term of material removal
rate and the production rate may be taken as the
machinability criterion.
• For higher cutting speed for a given tool life, the greater will
be the material removed and the higher will be the
production rate.
 Machinability
Machining force and power consumption: A machining
requiring a large force indicate low machinability and vice versa.
• This criterion is mainly considered when the tool strength
matters.
• For higher cutting forces, power consumption will be higher
and a large machine tool may be required which in turn
increases the production cost. So the materials with higher
cutting force have lower machinability index.
Surface finish: Some of the materials may be machined at higher
cutting speed and lower cutting forces but in such situations they
may have poor surface finish. In such situations surface finish
criterion is important. Thus, a material that produces better
surface finish under a given set of conditions may be considered
to have better machinability rating.
 Machinability Index
• To determine the machinability index, the tool material, tool
geometry, tool life and cutting conditions except cutting speed
are fixed.
• The speed at which the tool material can cut with a
predetermined tool life (usually 60 min for steel tools) is
determined.
• The machinability index KM is defined by
KM = V60/V60R
where V60 is the cutting speed for the target material that
ensures tool life of 60 min, V60R is the same for the reference
material.
If KM > 1, the machinability of the target material is better than
that of the reference material, and vice versa.
 Machinability Index
Example: Machinability rating The reference material for steels,
AISI 1112 steel has an index of 1. Machining of this steel at
cutting speed of 0.5 m/s gives tool life of 60 min. Therefore, V60R
= 0.5 m/s. For the austenitic 302 SS steel, the machinability index
is KM = 0.23/0.5 = 0.46 (tool life of 60 min for 302 SS is reached
for cutting at 0.23 m/s).
For a tool life of 60 min, the AISI 1045 steel should be machined
at 0.36 m/s. Hence, the machinability index for this steel is KM =
0.36/0.5 = 0.72.
This index is smaller than 1, therefore, AISI 1045 steel has a
worse workability than AISI 1112, but better than 302 SS. So, we
can rate these steels in a descending order of machinability:
AISI 1112 > AISI 1045 > 302 SS
 Economics of Machining
• The ultimate objective of the manufacturing engineer is to
produce the objects at the most economical cost.
• To minimize the production cost and maximize the
production rate, optimum cutting speed must be selected.
• For example, when the cutting speed is low, longer tool life is
obtained but the production rate is also low. On the other
hand, at higher cutting speeds although the production rate
increases, the tool life is very short. This again make the
operation uneconomical since the cost of tool regrinding and
replacement will be high.
• Thus, there must be some optimum value for cutting speed
which compromises between production rate and tool life.
• So, the cost of machining is minimum at a particular set of
cutting conditions i.e. speed, feed, depth of cut etc.
 Economics of Machining
Machining Cost: The machining cost can be classified as
A. Non-productive Cost
B. Machining or Cutting Cost
C. Tool Cost
Non-productive cost: It is calculated by adding all non-
productive time and multiplying it by the cost rate.
Let NB number of components in a batch and NG number of
components are produced between each tool regrind.
Then, total non-productive time is
TN = TS + (Tl +Ta)NB + Ti (i)
where TS is set-up time in min.
Tl - loading and unloading time in min.
Ta - tool advance and withdrawal time in min.
Ti - idle time in min.
 Economics of Machining
Machine Cost Cm = cL + cO + cD (ii)
where cL - labor cost, cO - overhead cost and cD - depreciation
cost.
Now total non-productive cost
CN = CmTN
CN = Cm [TS + (Tl +Ta)NB + Ti] (iii)
Machining or Cutting cost:
CC = Cm Tm NB (iv)
where Tm - machining or cutting time per component = (L/fN)
L - total length of cut, f - feed and N (V = πDN) - rpm.
 Economics of Machining
Tool Cost: It includes the tool initial cost, tool regrinding cost and
the number of regrinding possible in case of HSS tool. Therefore,
cost of tool replacement
CTR = Cm TC (NB/NG) (v)
where TC - the tool change time
Let Ce - cost/edge or regrind
For carbide and ceramic tools with throw away tips
Cost of the bit
Ce =
Number of cutting edge per bit
For HSS and brazed carbide tools
Cost of the tool +Regrind cost X Number of regrinds
Ce =
Number of regrinds+1
Total cost of the tool is
CT = (Cm TC + Ce )(NB/NG) (vi)
 Economics of Machining
Total cost of the machining is
C = CN + CC + C T

C = Cm [TS+(Tl +Ta)NB +Ti] + CmTmNB + (CmTC +Ce )(NB/NG) (vii)

• The total cost of machining can be reduced with
– appropriate tool material and tool geometry which gives longer
tool life,
– reducing non-productive time by using jigs and fixtures, and
– reducing cutting cost by optimizing the cutting speed and feed.
• Therefore, the following criteria based on optimum cutting
conditions are used:
– Minimum cost per component
– Maximum production rate, and
– Maximum profit rate
 Economics of Machining

Fig. Variation of Cost and time per piece with cutting speed

For total minimum cost, the equation (vii) could be differentiated

with respect to cutting speed V, considering all other conditions
constant
dC dCN dCC dCT
= + + (viii)
𝑑𝑉 dV dV dV
 Economics of Machining
• For cylindrical workpiece Tm = (L/fN)
Putting V=πDN or N = V/πD
Tm = (πDL/fV)
Number of piece produced per regrind NG = T/Tm
and using Taylor's tool life equation VTn = C
T = (C/V)1/n
Putting these values in equation (viii) and differentiating, we get
C
Vopt = Ce 1 n
(ix)
+TC −1
Cm n
and
Ce 1
Topt = + TC −1 (x)
Cm n
 Economics of Machining
For maximum production rate:
Let the production rate (no of product /unit time) is RP and TP is
the machining time per piece then
RP = 1/TP so for maximum production TP should be
minimum then, equating
dTP
=0
𝑑𝑉
we get
C
Vopt = 1 n
(xi)
TC −1
n
and
1
Topt = TC −1 (xii)
n
 Economics of Machining

From the above figure we can say that Vmin (optimum speed for
minimum cost criterion) is different from the Vmax (optimum
speed for maximum production criterion) and the optimum
value of V for maximum profit rate will lie between these two
values.