IIT Roorkee Advanced Manufacturing Processes

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE
UNIT 2
Advanced Manufacturing Processes

Non-conventional Machining Methods:

• More correctly known as advanced machining methods
• Called non-conventional means conventional tools are not
employed for metal cutting
Basic Reason to Opt for Advanced Machining Methods:
• New materials with a low machinability
• Dimensions and accuracy requirements
• A higher production rate and economy
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A. In industries like
• Aeronautics, nuclear reactor, automobile, space research,
missile, turbine etc.
• Demand is for materials having High Strength Temperature
Resistant ie. having High strength to weight ratio.
• Materials like titanium, stainless steel, nimonics, super
alloys, fibre reinforced composite, tungsten carbide, stellites
(Cobalt based alloys), ceramic etc
• Here High strength, hardness, toughness etc need improved
cutting materials in conventional machining
• We face difficulty in finding such hard and strong tool
materials
3
B. Dimensional Accuracy and Requirements:

• Accuracy is better in advanced machining processes
because material is removed in the form of atoms or
molecules individually or in groups ie. ultra-precision
machining
• Production of complex shapes in above mentioned material
is still more difficult
• Other requirements:
- Better finish
- Low value of tolerance
- Non circular holes
C. A higher production rate & economy
4
Drawbacks in Conventional Machining:

• Conventional machining methods involve removal of metal
by compression shear chip formation
Inherent drawbacks
1. Chips:
– Unwanted by product
– difficult process, removal, disposal, and recycling of chips is a
very cumbersome procedure
2. Large cutting forces:
– Heat generation in large amount at tool workpiece interface
which causes undesirable deformation and residual stresses in
workpiece
– Proper holding of workpiece to avoid distortion is must due to
very large cutting forces involved
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3. Complex shapes and delicate components like chips not

possible to be produced by conventional machining
methods:
For example drilling a non circular hole or micro hole,
producing holes and slots (both through and blind) in glass and
semiconductors.
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Un-Conventional Machining Processes
Classification of un-conventional machining processes:

Table shows the possible processes using different types of
energies, mechanics of material removal, energy source etc.
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8
SCOPE:
1. Mechanical energy type:
Conventional machining
– USM (Ultrasonic Machining)
– AJM (Abrasive Jet Machining)
Performance of these processes depends upon
– Hardness
– Strength
– Physical and mechanical properties of work
material
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2. Thermoelectric:
Energy supplied in the form of
• Heat (PAM) Rough process
• Light (LBM)
• Electron bombardment (EBM) Precise
• Electric spark(EDM) (electrically conductive material is a
limitation. Surface finish is not so good and MRR is low.)
• Chemical (ChM) etching process – Very low MRR, Suitable
etchant is problem
• Electro-chemical (ECM) - Wide field of application, High
MRR, independent of physical and mechanical properties of
workpiece, but should be electrically conductive
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3. Hybrid Processes:
• To enhance the capabilities of the machining processes two
or more than two machining processes are combined to take
advantage of the worthiness of the constituent processes.
• Conventional grinding:
– Good surface finish, Low values of tolerance
– But is associated with
– Burrs, HAZ and Residual Stresses
• Solution is electrochemical grinding
Electro chemical spark machining,
Electro chemical arc machining,
Electro discharge abrasive grinding have been developed.
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Limitations (Advanced Machining Processes)
• Performance may depend upon

Thermal/Electrical/Chemical properties of workpiece
• In general low MRR
• High Initial Investment
12
CASES:
How will you decide to recommend a specific advanced
machining processes for-
A. Cutting a glass plate into two pieces
By elimination process one should arrive at the particular
process to be used
1. Glass is electrically non-conductive, hence certain
processes ECM, EDM, PAM, EBM are ruled out because
they cannot be employed for electrically non-conductive
work pieces
2. LBM can be ignored being an expensive process
3. Chemical Machining need not to be considered because it
is for very special applications
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4. WJM is usually for comparatively softer materials

5. AJM, USM can be applied depending upon the size of
workpiece and kind of accuracy required
B. Making a hole in a mild steel workpiece
1. Drop chemical machining
2. AJM, USM more suitable for comparatively harder materials
ie. Drop
3. Being electrically conductive ECM, EDM, LBM, EBM, PAM
can be employed
• At this point one should know the requirements of the hole in
terms of dimension, tolerances and surface integrity
• If it is not a microhole one can easily adopt ECM or EDM.
• If high surface integrity is required ECM should be used and
so on 14
Un-Conventional Machining Processes……AJM ( Abrasive Jet Machining)
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1. Material removal takes place due to impingement of the fine

abrasive particles
2. Particles move with a high speed air or inert gas
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17
Jet Diameter = 0.2-0.3 mm

Size of abrasive particle = 0.025 mm (10-50 micro meter)
Abrasive used:
- Al2O3 Aluminium oxide,
- SiC Silicon carbide,
- Glass beads,
- Crushed glass,
- Sodium bicarbonate etc.
Selection depends upon:
– Type of work material
– MRR
– Machining accuracy desired
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• Al2O3 - Good for cleaning, cutting, deburring

• SiC - Good for cleaning, cutting, deburring but for harder
material
• Sodium Bicarbonate - Good for cleaning, cutting, deburring
but for softer material
• Glass beads - for finishing
• Crushed glass - for sharper edges
Reuse of abrasive gives low cost but
• Cutting capacity decreases after the first application
• Contamination clogs the small orifices in the nozzle
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Un-Conventional Machining Processes……Mechanics of AJM
• Ref. Fig. Scheme of material removal in AJM

• When an abrasive particle impinges on the work surface at a
high velocity, the impact causes a tiny brittle fracture and the
following air (or gas) carries away the dislodged small work
piece particle (wear particle)
• It is obvious that the process is more suitable when the work
material is brittle and fragile.
Parametric Analysis:
Important parameters that affect the material removal rate
during AJM are
• Stand Off Distance (SOD) or nozzle tip distance
• Type and size of abrasive particles
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• Flow Rate of Abrasive

• Gas Pressure
• Work Material
• Feed Rate
Process Parameters can be evaluated by judging:
– MRR
– Geometry of Cut
– Roughness of surface produced
– Rate of nozzle wear
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Stand Off Distance (SOD):
22
23
Fig. Photograph of actual

machined cavity profile at
different SODs(a) 2 mm
(b) 6 mm (c) 10 mm (d) 14
mm (e) 16 mm (f) 20 mm
DP= 30 μm, α = 0.148,
nozzle pressure
=147.15kN/m2 (gauge),
and cutting time = 60s
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• A decrease in SOD improves accuracy decreases kerf width,

reduces taper in machined groove.
• Light operation like cleaning, frosting etc. are conducted with
a large SOD.
Abrasive Flow Rate:
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• Figure shows that MRR (mg/min) increases upto a certain

value of abrasive flow rate beyond which it starts decreasing.
Why? As abrasive flow rate increase
No. of abrasive particles cutting the W/P ie. MRR

However, with a further increase in abrasive flow rate (other
parameters remaining unchanged) the abrasive flow velocity
goes down. This decrease in abrasive flow velocity causes a
reduction in MRR.
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Nozzle Pressure:
27
• K.E. of the abrasive particles is responsible for removal of

material by erosion process.
• Abrasive must impinge on the w/p surface with a certain
minimum velocity so that the erosion can take place.
eg. minimum velocity for machining glass by SiC particles is
formed to be around 150 m/s.
Mixing ratio:
M = Mixing ratio = Va/Vg
= (Volume flow rate of abrasive particles)/ (Volume flow rate of

carrier gas)
An in M results in MRR
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• But large value of M may decrease jet velocity & sometimes

may block the nozzle i.e. an optimum is to be sought.
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Process Capabilities:
• Although AJM gives low MRR but it can easily :
– Produce intricate details in hard and brittle materials.
– Production of narrow slots – 0.12 to 0.25mm
– Low tolerance -0.12 to +0.12 mm
– Good surface finish 0.25 – 1.25 micron
– Sharp radius 0.2 mm on machined edge
are some of characteristics of AJM.
• Steels upto 1.5 mm thick and Glass upto 6.3 mm thick have
been possible to cut.
• Thinner sectioned brittle materials are cut.
• Surface damage is insignificant as heat generation is very
low.
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Un-Conventional Machining Processes……Applications of AJM
Applications:
• Manufacturing of electronics devices
• Deburring of plastics
• Making Nylon and Teflon parts
• Marking an electronic products
• Permanent marking of rubber stencils
• Cutting Titanium foil
• Drilling Glass wafers
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Un-Conventional Machining Processes……Problems on AJM
Problem: In Tutorial Class
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Un-Conventional Machining Processes…Ultrasonic Machining(USM)
• It is a mechanical type non-traditional machining process.

• It is employed to machine hard and/or brittle materials both
electrically conductive and non-conductive.
• It uses a –
– Shaped tool
– High frequency mechanical motion
– Abrasive slurry
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• In USM a cutting tool oscillates at high frequency (about 20

KHz or KC/s) in an abrasive slurry.
• The tool has the same shape as the cavity to be machined.
• There is a continuous flow of an abrasive slurry in the small
gap between the tool and the work surface (the gap is
0.02 – 0.01 mm)
• The tool is uniformly fed with a uniform force. The impact of
hard abrasive grains fractures the hard and brittle work
surface, resulting in the removal of the work material in the
form of small wear particles which are carried away by the
abrasive slurry.
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Working Principle:
Consider a particle p is
thrown on the wax wall with
a certain force F1, it will
penetrate into the wall to
length l1.
If same particle is thrown
with force F2 and F3
(F3>F2>F1),then it will
penetrate deeper in the wall
l3>l2>l1
In USM, the throwing force is
contributed by tool oscillating
at ultrasonic frequency.
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Process Parameters:
– Frequency
– Amplitude
– Static Loading (Feed Force)
– Hardness Ratio of the Tool and the Workpiece
– Grain Size
– Concentration of abrasive in the slurry
Variation of MRR with feed force:
As the value of Feed Force F MRR
But in actual practices MRR decreases after some value of F
because the abrasive grains get crushed under heavy load.
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3 1 3
𝑑 𝐹4𝐶4 𝐴4
Q∝ 3 .ν Where Q is volume of work material
3/4
𝐻𝑤 (1+λ)4
removal rate
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ν – Frequency
d – Spherical abrasive grain diameter
Hw – Brinell Hardness of Work
F – Mean static feed force
A – Amplitude of oscillation of the tool
λ = ht/hw where ht & hw – Indentation caused in tool and work
respectively
C – Concentration of abrasive grain in slurry
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MRR increases linearly with the frequency but actual

characteristics is not exactly linear.
Amplitude MRR for different frequencies.
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Static Loading (Feed rate) MRR as explained earlier,

MRR decreases beyond a certain value of force as the grains
start getting crushed.
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As the ratio of workpiece hardness to tool hardness increases

the MRR decreases.
Table: Indicates the brittleness of work material plays a
dominant role apart from hardness
(For given ν-16.3 kHz, A-12.5 μm and Grain Size-100 mesh)
Work Material Relative Removal Rate
Glass 100
Brass 6.6
Tungsten 4.8
Titanium 4
Steel 3.9
Chrome Steel 1.4
• A more brittle material is machined more rapidly.
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Ref Fig. a, The MRR with mean grain dia ‘d’

However, when ‘d’ becomes too large and approaches the
magnitude of the amplitude A, the crushing tendency increases
& MRR decreases.
42
• Ref. Fig. b, It shows the variation for B4C and SiC with
Abrasive Concentration C (%).
• Here, concentration directly controls the no. of grains
producing impact per cycle and also the magnitude of each
impact, the MRR is expected to depend on C.
• In expression for Q too - MRR ∝ C1/4 it is not ∝C
• The increasing trend of MRR is very low after C has crossed
30% and further increase in concentration does not help.
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MRR as Viscosity
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• Variation of MRR with viscosity (of Fluid used for slurry)

• MRR as viscosity
• MRR is very important for judging USM performance.

• For proper evaluation quality of finish obtained has also to be
considered.
• The figure shows dependence of surface finish on grain size
shows that the surface finish is much more sensitive to the
grain size in case of glass. Because for a high hardness
(tungsten carbide) the size of fragments dislodged through a
brittle fracture does not depend much on the size of the
impacting particles.
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Ultrasonic Machining Unit
The important components of the unit are :

1. Acoustic Head
2. Feeding Unit
3. Tool
4. Abrasive Slurry and Pump Unit
5. Body with work table
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1. ACOUSTIC HEAD
• Most important part

• Function - To produce a vibration in the tool
• It consists of a generator for supplying a high frequency
electric current, a transducer to convert this into a
mechanical motion in the form of a high frequency vibration,
a holder to hold the head and a concentrator to mechanically
amplify the vibration while transmitting it to the tool
 Purpose of concentrator
• To increase the amplitude to the level needed for cutting
• Various types of concentrator used are eg. exponential,
conical, stepped.
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2. FEEDING UNIT
 Objective - To apply the working force during the machining

operation
 Types
Various types of feed mechanism are
• 1. Counter weight-type
• 2. Spring type
• 3. Pneumatic and hydraulic type
• 4. Motor type
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3. TOOL
• Should be short and rigid, strong and ductile as well

• Material - Stainless Steel and Low Carbon Steel used for
making tool,
• Aluminium and Brass tools wear 10 & 5 times faster than
steel tools
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4. ABRASIVE SLURRY
 Most common abrasives are:

• B₄C (Boron Carbide) - best & most efficient but expensive
• SiC (Silicon Carbide) - on glass, germanium & few ceramics
but cutting time more 20-40% than with B₄C
• Al₂O₃ Corundum
• Diamond - Cutting Diamond & Rubies
• Boron Silicarbide
# Fluid in slurry – Water

• others - Benzene, Glycerol, Oils etc.
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ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING
• Process is new but basic principle is known since a long time

i.e. reverse of electroplating.
• In electroplating objective is to deposit metal on the work
piece. Here, in ECM objective is to remove the metal.
• The w/p is connected to +ve (Anode) and Tool to –ve ( Cathode)
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• Fig(a) shows a workpiece and a suitably-shaped tool, the
gap between the tool and workpiece being full of suitable
electrolyte. When the current is passed the dissolution of the
anode occurs.
• However, the dissolution rate is more where the gap is less
and vice versa, as the current density is inversely
proportional to the gap.
52
• Now, if the tool is given a downward motion, the work
surface tend to take the same shape as that of the tool, and
at a steady state, the gap is uniform. Thus the shape of the
tool is reproduced in the job. (Fig. b)
• Fig(c) The electrolyte is pumped at a high pressure through
the tool and the small gap between the tool and the
workpiece. The gap is say 0.05 - 0.30 mm.
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Electrolyte
In ECM, an electrolyte perform three basic functions,

1. Completing the electrical circuit and allowing the large
current to pass
2. Sustaining the required electrochemical reactions
3. Carrying away the heat generated and the waste product.
• 1st Function requires – The electrolyte should have a large
electrical conductivity
• 2nd Function requires – The electrolyte should be such that
at anode the work piece is continuously dissolved and
deposition of metal ions on the cathode should not occur.
• Moreover, electrolyte must be chemically stable,
inexpensive, safe, as non-corrosive as possible
54
TYPES
Alloy (workpiece) Electrolyte

• Iron based Chloride solutions in water (mostly
20% NaCl)
• Nickel based HCl or mixture of brine & H₂SO₄
• Titanium based 10% each hydrofluoric acid + HCl
+ HNO₃
• Co-Cr-W based NaCl
• WC based Strong alkaline solutions
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Effect of ECM on Workpiece
• In contrast with the conventional machining process, the

material removal during ECM is smooth and gentle. As a
result, the maximum residual compressive stress is very low
in the work piece surface.
• Moreover, the depth of work hardened surface layer is
negligible. When the depth of the work hardened surface
layer is about 0.5 mm and 1.5 mm for turning and milling
respectively, that in ECM is about 0.001 mm.
• Similarly, the order of magnitude of residual stresses in a
surface machined by a conventional process is about 50
kg/mm2, whereas that with ECM is almost zero.
56
ECM (contd….)
# The parts produced with ECM are having lower fatigue

strength (10-25 %). This is because the micro-crack tips are
exposed at the surface produced by ECM and also because
the process leaves the stress free surface.
• For increasing the fatigue strength, some mechanical
process example mechanical polishing, glass bead blasting,
vapour blasting can be used.
OTHER RELATED PROCESSES

• Electro-chemical Grinding
• Electro-stream Drilling
• Electro-chemical Reburring
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APPLICATIONS
• Mainly in Aerospace Industry, Nuclear Technology, Space

Vehicles, Automobiles, Turbines etc.
• Machining large sized components made of hard and difficult
to machine materials
• Drilling long holes
• Generation of three-dimensional surfaces
• Profiling of odd shapes
• Multiple-hole drilling
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ADVANTAGES
• Can machine highly complicated and curved surfaces in a

single-pass
• Tool life is very high (At least Theoretically)
• Machinability of work piece is independent of its Physical
and Mechanical properties
• Production of stress-free and burr-free surface having good
surface finish.
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LIMITATIONS
• Its use is restricted to electrically conductive work materials

• Accuracy of machined component depends upon the factors
like
- Tool Design,
- Degree of the process control imposed,
- Complexity in the shapes produced
• Machining of materials consisting of hard spot, inclusions,
sand and scale present some practical difficulties
• Cannot produce edges and sharp corners (say limit is 0.2
mm radius)
• Large floor space requirement and
• High capital cost
60
EDM (Electric Discharge Machining)
# Energy Type - Thermal

# Source - Electric Spark - EDM
- High Speed Electron - EBM
- Powerful Radiation - LBM
61
WORKING PRINCIPLE (EDM)
• When discharge takes place between two points of the

anode and the cathode, the intense heat is generated.
• Heat energy of a spark is used to remove material from the
workpiece.
• Workpiece and tool should be made of electrically
conductive material.
• A spark is produced between the two electrodes (W/P and
Tool) and its location is determined by the narrowest gap
between the two. Workpiece is normally made anode
(Because the electrode connected to positive terminal
erodes at a faster rate).
• Duration of each spark is short, Entire cycle time is usually
few microseconds.
62
Working Principle (EDM) Contd…
• Frequency of sparking may be as high as thousands of

sparks per second.
• Area over which spark is effective is also very small. Spark
occurs at the spot where tool and workpiece surfaces are the
closest. Therefore, spark travels all over the surface.
• However, the temperature of the area under the spark is very
high (8000-12000°C).
• As a result, the spark energy is capable of partly melting and
partly vaporizing materials from localised area on both the
electrodes i.e. workpiece and tool.
• Material is removed in the form of craters which spread over
the entire surface of the workpiece.
63
• Finally, the cavity produced in the workpiece is
approximately the replica of the tool.
• To have machined cavity as replica of the tool, the tool wear
should be zero.
64
TOOL ELECTRODE
• During EDM, the tool also get eroded due to the sparking
action. Therefore, it should have good wear characteristics
eg. graphite. However, for small sized batches tool of
cheaper material can be used i.e. Cu, brass etc.
DIELECTRIC FLUID
Requirements of Dielectric :
• Should have sufficient and stable dielectric strength (to serve
as insulation between electrode and the tool).
• Should take minimum possible time to breakdown i.e.
ignition delay time once the breakdown voltage is reached.
• Should deionize rapidly after the spark discharge has taken
place.
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• Should have low viscosity (High degree of fluidity).
• Should be Chemically neutral (so as not to attack the
electrode and workpiece).
• Its flash point should be sufficiently high (to avoid any fire
hazard).
• Should serve as an effective cooling medium.
• Should not emit any toxic vapour or have unpleasant odour.
• Easily available in market at a reasonable price.
66
Working Principle (EDM) Contd….
# These qualities are generally found in the hydrocarbon

oils such as kerosene. Other dielectrics are - paraffin
oils, Silicon oils, deionized water (high MRR but
corrosion), polar liquids eg. ethylene glycol.
# High dielectric strength means it should remain
electrically non-conductive until the required
breakdown voltage between the electrode is attained.
# Filtration before recirculation is highly essential.
Say use cotton yarn cartridges, otherwise the
insulation quality is affected.
# Dielectric Flushing - to remove by-products from gap is
must.
67
PROCESS VARIABLES AND MRR
• Fig - Material removal rate characteristics in EDM

• Fig - Dependence of surface finish of capacitance
Q = K*(Vd)²/(2*R*ln[Vₒ/(Vₒ-Vd)]
– R - Resistance
– Q - MRR
– K - Constant of proportionality denoting fraction of power effectively
used in material removal
– Vo - DC source voltage
– Vd - Voltage across Tool-Work gap
• Q increases as R decreases.
• Hence, resistance cannot be decreased below a critical
value as otherwise arcing instead of sparking will take place.
68
RC RELAXATION CIRCUIT
Here capacitance C is changed

through a variable resistance R
by the DC source of voltage Vo
69
APPLICATIONS
• EDM can be employed to machine any material (hard, tough,
brittle, exotic etc.) provided it has some minimum
conductivity
• Hardened steel dies
• Aerospace/ automobile tools
• Through cavities and miniature holes
• Used for making dies for moulding, casting, forging,
stamping, coining, forming etc and dies for extruding, wire
drawing which requires through holes
• Employed for tiny holes, orifices (say 50 micron), fragile
features (microsized slots)
• EDM can be employed after heat treatment and one can
choose better die material without worrying about its
machining problem
70
APPLICATIONS
• It can be used to produce shapes which are extremely

difficult to make otherwise, viz. Squares, ‘D’ holes, splines,
narrow slot and grooves, blended features.
• As no mechanical forces act as in conventional machining,
hence the EDM can be employed to machine thin and fragile
component without any danger of damage due to such
forces.
71
ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING
72
WORKING PRINCIPLE
• In EBM process, the surface of thermo-electronic cathode is

heated to such a high temperature that the electron acquire
sufficient speed to escape out to the space around the
cathode.
• The stream of these large number of electrons moves as a
small diameter beam of electrons towards the anode.
• The high velocity beam of electrons strikes the workpiece.
The kinetic energy of electrons converts into heat, which is
responsible for melting and vaporization of workpiece
material.
• EBM can machine electrically conducting as well as non-
conducting materials.
73
• Before machining starts vacuum is created in the machining
chamber.
• Diameter of electron beam focused onto the work should be
slightly smaller than the desired hole diameter.
74
ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING SYSTEM
75
Three important elements of EBM system are

• Electron Beam Gun
• Power Supply
• Vacuum System and Machining Chamber
1. Electron Beam Gun
• Used to produce electron beam of desired shape and to
focus at the predetermined location
• A superheated cathode (Tungsten Filament type) generates
the electrons cloud
• Due to force of repulsion from the cathode, electrons move
at a very high acceleration towards anode which attracts
them.
76
• Velocity with which electron pass through the anode is

approximately 66% that of light.
• On the path of electrons, there is a kind of switch which
generates the pulses.
• A magnetic lens is used to shape the electron beam into a
converging beam.
• The deflection coils are used to control the beam movement
in any required manner.
2. Power Supply
• The power supply generates a voltage as high as 150kV to
accelerate the electrons.
• Thus, electron velocity achieved is 228,478 km/sec.
77
• EBM gun is usually operated at 12kW.

• Power density at the work surface is too high that is why it is
capable to melt and vaporize the workpiece material.
3. Vacuum System and Machining Chamber
• The electron beam generation, its travel in the space and
resulting machining takes place in a vacuum chamber.
• The vacuum does not allow rapid oxidation of incandescent
filament and there is no loss of energy of electrons as a
result of collision with air molecules.
• The vacuum in the chamber is of the order of 10‾⁴ to 10‾⁵
torr.
78
EBM PROCESS PARAMETERS
1. Beam current 100µA - 1A

2. Pulse duration 50µs – 10ms
3. Lens current
4. Signals for the deflection of beam
• These parameters can be controlled during EBM with the
help of a computer.
# Beam current governs the energy/pulse being supplied to
workpiece.
• Higher the energy/pulse more rapidly the hole can be drilled.
# Pulse duration is varied depending upon the depth and
diameter of the hole to be drilled.
• Drilling using longer pulse duration results in a wider and
deeper drilled hole.
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# Lens current - its magnitude determine the working distance
(distance between the electron beam gun and focal point)
LIMITATIONS (EBM)
• Skilled operator needed
• Very high temperature gradient would result in residual
thermal stresses
• High cost of equipment
• EBM is to be carried out in vacuum chamber (to eliminate
collision of the electron with gas molecules)
• High energy required
80
APPLICATIONS (EBM)
• Material application - All materials
• Popular in industries like aerospace, food processing,
chemical etc.
• Perforation of sheets (hundreds to thousands of holes to be
drilled easily)
• Drilling small diameter holes (less than 1mm say upto
0.05mm), eg used for turbine engine combustor domes and
Cobalt alloy fiber spinning head
• Depth to diameter ratio more than 100:1
• Making fine gas orifices in space nuclear reactors
• Holes in wire drawing dies, Cooling holes in turbine blades,
Holes in filters and screen used in food processing industries
• Drilling with EBM is 100 times faster than EDM
81
LASER BEAM MACHINING
82
• LASER - Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

Radiation
• Laser is a highly coherent beam of electromagnetic radiation
with wavelength varying from 0.1-70.0 µm
• For machining operation effectively usable wavelength range
is 0.4-0.6 µm
# In school days - game - sun rays focused by a lens to
burn a piece of paper
- Energy density achieved=1W/mm²
# In same way - laser beam be focused on diamond – energy
density achieved may be = 1000W/mm² and it can melt and
even vaporize the diamond.
83
TYPES OF LASER
1. Solid State Laser - Ruby and Nd (Neodymium) : glass - for

light work
2. Gas Laser - CO₂, He, N₂ act as lasing medium - more
power
# Laser uses the light energy

– which is monochromatic ( theoretically light has a single wavelength)
– collimated ( light rays in the beam are almost perfectly parallel)
from a laser to remove material by evaporation and ablation
# The light beam is pulsed so that the released energy results
in an impulse against the work surface that produces a
combination of evaporation and melting.
84
• LBM is used to perform various types of drilling, slitting,

slotting, scribing, and marking operations
• Diameter of holes possible down to 0.025 mm
• Range of material that can be machined - unlimited
• Ideal properties of the material to be machined should
include following:
1. High Light Energy Absorption
2. Poor Reflectivity
3. Good Thermal Conductivity
4. Low Specific Heat
5. Low Fusion Heat
6. Low Vaporization Heat
85
• Of course no material has this ideal combination of

properties. The actual list includes material with high
hardness and strength :
1. Soft Metals
2. Ceramic
3. Glass and glass epoxy
4. Plastics
5. Rubber
6. Cloth
7. Wood
86
PLASMA ARC MACHINING
87
Plasma arc machining
• A gas molecule at room temperature is consist of two or

more atoms. when such a gas is heated to a high
temperature of the order of 2000ºC or so, the molecules
separate out as atoms. If the temperature is raised to
3000ºC, the electron from some of the atoms dissociate and
the gun becomes ionized consisting of Ions and electrons.
This is state of gas is known as plasma
88
• A gas in plasma state (also known as fourth state of matter)
becomes electrically conductive as well as responsive to
magnetism
• The source of heat generation in plasma is the
recombination of electrons and ions into atoms or
recombination of atoms into molecules
• Temperature of Plasma can be of order of 33,000ºC
• When such a high temperatures source reacts with work
material the work material melts out and may even vaporize
• plasma arc machining can be used on all materials which
conduct electricity including those which are resistant to
oxyfuel gas cutting (example aluminium)
89
Plasma arc cutting system
There are two modes

1. Non transferred arc
2. Transferred arc
1. Non Transferred Arc Mode

• Power is transferred between electrode and nozzle
• Thermal efficiency is low 65-75%
• Workpiece maybe electrically conductive or non conductive
2. Transferred Arc Mode
• Arc is maintained between electrode and electrically
conductive workpiece
• Electrical thermal efficiency 85-90%
90
• Oxy fuel system can cut the plates up to a definite thickness,
beyond which plasma arc cutting system can do the job. In
case of thick plates plasma arc cutting is much more
economical than oxy fuel system
91
92

IIT Roorkee Advanced Manufacturing Processes

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IIT Roorkee Advanced Manufacturing Processes

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INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Advanced Manufacturing Processes

Non-conventional Machining Methods:

B. Dimensional Accuracy and Requirements:

Drawbacks in Conventional Machining:

3. Complex shapes and delicate components like chips not

Classification of un-conventional machining processes:

Limitations (Advanced Machining Processes)

• Performance may depend upon

4. WJM is usually for comparatively softer materials

1. Material removal takes place due to impingement of the fine

Jet Diameter = 0.2-0.3 mm

• Al2O3 - Good for cleaning, cutting, deburring

• Ref. Fig. Scheme of material removal in AJM

• Flow Rate of Abrasive

Stand Off Distance (SOD):

Fig. Photograph of actual

• A decrease in SOD improves accuracy decreases kerf width,

• Figure shows that MRR (mg/min) increases upto a certain

No. of abrasive particles cutting the W/P ie. MRR

• K.E. of the abrasive particles is responsible for removal of

M = Mixing ratio = Va/Vg

= (Volume flow rate of abrasive particles)/ (Volume flow rate of

• But large value of M may decrease jet velocity & sometimes

Problem: In Tutorial Class

• It is a mechanical type non-traditional machining process.

• In USM a cutting tool oscillates at high frequency (about 20

MRR increases linearly with the frequency but actual

Static Loading (Feed rate) MRR as explained earlier,

As the ratio of workpiece hardness to tool hardness increases

Ref Fig. a, The MRR with mean grain dia ‘d’

• Variation of MRR with viscosity (of Fluid used for slurry)

• MRR is very important for judging USM performance.

Ultrasonic Machining Unit

The important components of the unit are :

• Most important part

 Objective - To apply the working force during the machining

• Should be short and rigid, strong and ductile as well

 Most common abrasives are:

# Fluid in slurry – Water

• Process is new but basic principle is known since a long time

In ECM, an electrolyte perform three basic functions,

Alloy (workpiece) Electrolyte

• In contrast with the conventional machining process, the

# The parts produced with ECM are having lower fatigue

OTHER RELATED PROCESSES

• Mainly in Aerospace Industry, Nuclear Technology, Space

• Can machine highly complicated and curved surfaces in a

• Its use is restricted to electrically conductive work materials

# Energy Type - Thermal

• When discharge takes place between two points of the

• Frequency of sparking may be as high as thousands of

# These qualities are generally found in the hydrocarbon

• Fig - Material removal rate characteristics in EDM

Here capacitance C is changed

• It can be used to produce shapes which are extremely

• In EBM process, the surface of thermo-electronic cathode is

Three important elements of EBM system are

• Velocity with which electron pass through the anode is

• EBM gun is usually operated at 12kW.

1. Beam current 100µA - 1A

• LASER - Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

1. Solid State Laser - Ruby and Nd (Neodymium) : glass - for