KRUPANIDHI COLLEGE OF PHARMACY, BANGLORE

3rd SESSIONAL OF 1st D.PHARM , MAR 2020

HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Q1)- Write the structure and function of Liver ?

Ans)-

Weighing between 3.17 and 3.66 pounds, or between 1.44 and 1.66
kilograms (kg), the liver is reddish-brown with a rubbery texture. It is
situated above and to the left of the stomach and below the lungs.The liver
is roughly triangular and consists of two lobes: a larger right lobe and a
smaller left lobe. The lobes are separated by the falciform ligament, a band
of tissue that keeps it anchored to the diaphragm.
A layer of fibrous tissue called Glisson’s capsule covers the outside of the
liver. This capsule is further covered by the peritoneum, a membrane that
forms the lining of the abdominal cavity.
Unlike most organs, the liver has two major sources of blood. The portal
vein brings in nutrient-rich blood from the digestive system, and the
hepatic artery carries oxygenated blood from the heart.

The blood vessels divide into small capillaries, with each ending in a
lobule. Lobules are the functional units of the liver and consist of millions
of cells called hepatocytes.

Blood is removed from the liver through three hepatic veins

Functions

The major functions of the liver include:

• Bile production: Bile helps the small intestine break down and
absorb fats, cholesterol, and some vitamins. Bile consists of bile
salts, cholesterol, bilirubin, electrolytes, and water.

• Absorbing and metabolizing bilirubin: Bilirubin is formed by the

breakdown of hemoglobin. The iron released from hemoglobin is
stored in the liver or bone marrow and used to make the next
generation of blood cells.

• Supporting blood clots: Vitamin K is necessary for the creation of

certain coagulants that help clot the blood. Bile is essential for
vitamin K absorption and is created in the liver. If the liver does not
produce enough bile, clotting factors cannot be produced.

• Fat metabolization: Bile breaks down fats and makes them easier to
digest.
• Metabolizing carbohydrates: Carbohydrates are stored in the liver,
where they are broken down into glucose and siphoned into the
bloodstream to maintain normal glucose levels. They are stored as
glycogen and released whenever a quick burst of energy is needed.

• Vitamin and mineral storage: The liver stores vitamins A, D, E, K,

and B12. It keeps significant amounts of these vitamins stored. In
some cases, several years’ worth of vitamins is held as a backup. The
liver stores iron from hemoglobin in the form of ferritin, ready to
make new red blood cells. The liver also stores and releases copper.

• Helps metabolize proteins: Bile helps break down proteins for

digestion.

• Filters the blood: The liver filters and removes compounds from the
body, including hormones, such as estrogen and aldosterone, and
compounds from outside the body, including alcohol and other drugs.

• Immunological function: The liver is part of the mononuclear

phagocyte system. It contains high numbers of Kupffer cells that are
involved in immune activity. These cells destroy any disease-causing
agents that might enter the liver through the gut.

• Production of albumin: Albumin is the most common protein in

blood serum. It transports fatty acids and steroid hormones to help
maintain the correct pressure and prevent the leaking of blood
vessels.

• Synthesis of angiotensinogen: This hormone raises blood

pressure by narrowing the blood vessels when alerted by production
of an enzyme called renin in the kidneys.
Q2)- Write the composition and functions of saliva.

Ans)- Saliva is an extracellular fluid produced and secreted by salivary

glands in the mouth. Saliva is 99.5% water plus electrolytes, mucus,
white blood cells, epithelial cells (from which DNA can be
extracted), enzymes (such as amylase and lipase), antimicrobial agents
such as secretory IgA, and lysozymes.

The enzymes found in saliva are essential in beginning the process

of digestion of dietary starches and fats. These enzymes also play a role in
breaking down food particles entrapped within dental crevices, thus
protecting teeth from bacterial decay.
Saliva also performs a lubricating function, wetting food and permitting
the initiation of swallowing, and protecting the oral mucosa from drying
out.
Functions
Saliva contributes to the digestion of food and to the maintenance of oral
hygiene. Without normal salivary function the frequency of dental caries,
gum diseases, and other oral problems increases significance.
Lubricant
Saliva coats the oral mucosa mechanically protecting it from trauma
during eating, swallowing, and speaking. Mouth soreness is very common
in people with reduced saliva and food (especially dry food) sticks to the
inside of the mouth.
Digestion
The digestive functions of saliva include moistening food and helping to
create a food bolus. The lubricative function of saliva allows the food
bolus to be passed easily from the mouth into the esophagus. Saliva
contains the enzyme amylase, also called ptyalin, which is capable of
breaking down starch into simpler sugars such as maltose and dextrin that
can be further broken down in the small intestine. About 30% of starch
digestion takes place in the mouth cavity.
Role in taste
Saliva is very important in the sense of taste. It is the liquid medium in
which chemicals are carried to taste receptor cells (mostly associated
with lingual papillae).
Others
Saliva maintains the pH of the mouth. Saliva is supersaturated with various
ions.
Saliva secretes carbonic anhydrase, which plays a role in the development
of taste buds.

Q3)- Write a note on Salivary Glands.

Ans)- There are three pairs of major salivary glands: the parotid glands, the
submandibular glands, and the sublingual glands.

Parotid Glands:-
The parotid glands are the largest salivary glands. They are located just in front
of the ears. The saliva produced in these glands is secreted into the mouth from
a duct near your upper second molar.

Submandibular Glands

It is about the size of a walnut, the submandibular glands are located below the
jaw. The saliva produced in these glands is secreted into the mouth from under
the tongue.
Like the parotid glands, the submandibular glands have two parts called the
superficial lobe and the deep lobe.

Sublingual Glands

The sublingual glands are the smallest of the major salivary glands. These
almond-shaped structures are located under the floor of the mouth and below
either side of the tongue.

Q4)- Write the anatomy and physiology of pancrease.

Ans)- Anatomy:-
The pancreas is an elongated, tapered organ located across the back of the
abdomen, behind the stomach. The right side of the organ (called the head) is
the widest part of the organ and lies in the curve of the duodenum (the first
section of the small intestine). The tapered left side extends slightly upward
(called the body of the pancreas) and ends near the spleen (called the tail).
The pancreas is made up of two types of glands:
• exocrine

The exocrine gland secretes digestive enzymes. These enzymes are
secreted into a network of ducts that join the main pancreatic duct, which
runs the length of the pancreas.
• endocrine

The endocrine gland, which consists of the islets of Langerhans, secretes
hormones into the bloodstream.

• The pancreas is a narrow, 6-inch long gland that lies posterior and inferior to
the stomach on the left side of the abdominal cavity. The pancreas extends
laterally and superiorly across the abdomen from the curve of the duodenum
to the spleen. The head of the pancreas, which connects to the duodenum, is
 the widest and most medial region of the organ. Extending laterally toward
the left, the pancreas narrows slightly to form the body of the pancreas. The
tail of the pancreas extends from the body as a narrow, tapered region on the
left side of the abdominal cavity near the spleen.

PHYSIOLOGY OF PANCREASE
Digestion

The exocrine portion of the pancreas plays a major role in the digestion of
food. The stomach slowly releases partially digested food into the
duodenum as a thick, acidic liquid called chyme. The pancreas secrete
pancreatic juice to complete the digestion of chyme in the duodenum.
Pancreatic juice is a mixture of water, salts, bicarbonate, and many
different digestive enzymes. The bicarbonate ions present in pancreatic
juice neutralize the acid in chyme to protect the intestinal wall and to
create the proper environment for the functioning of pancreatic enzymes.
The pancreatic enzymes specialize in digesting specific compounds found
in chyme.
• Pancreatic amylase breaks large polysaccharides like starches and
glycogen into smaller sugars such as maltose, maltotriose, and
 glucose. Maltase secreted by the small intestine then breaks maltose
into the monosaccharide glucose, which the intestines can directly
absorb.
• Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase are protein-digesting
enzymes that break proteins down into their amino acid subunits.
These amino acids can then be absorbed by the intestines.
• Pancreatic lipase is a lipid-digesting enzyme that breaks large
triglyceride molecules into fatty acids and monoglycerides. Bile
released by the gallbladder emulsifies fats to increase the surface
area of triglycerides that pancreatic lipase can react with. The fatty
acids and monoglycerides produced by pancreatic lipase can be
absorbed by the intestines.
• Ribonuclease and deoxyribonuclease are nucleases, or enzymes that
digest nucleic acids. Ribonuclease breaks down molecules of RNA
into the sugar ribose and the nitrogenous bases adenine, cytosine,
guanine and uracil. Deoxyribonuclease digests DNA molecules into
the sugar deoxyribose and the nitrogenous bases adenine, cytosine,
guanine, and thymine.

Functions of the pancreas:

The pancreas has digestive and hormonal functions:
• The enzymes secreted by the exocrine gland in the pancreas help
break down carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and acids in the duodenum.
These enzymes travel down the pancreatic duct into the bile duct in
an inactive form. When they enter the duodenum, they are activated.
The exocrine tissue also secretes a bicarbonate to neutralize stomach
acid in the duodenum.
• The hormones secreted by the endocrine gland in the pancreas are:-
insulin and glucagon (which regulate the level of glucose in the
blood), and somatostatin (which prevents the release of the other two
hormones).
Q5)- Draw a neat and labelled diagram of digestive system? Write the
physiology of digestion and absorption in small intestine?

Ans-

The small intestine or small bowel is an organ in the gastrointestinal

tract where most of the end absorption of nutrients and minerals from food
takes place. It lies between the stomach and large intestine, and
receives bile and pancreatic juice through the pancreatic duct to aid
in digestion.
The small intestine has three distinct regions – the duodenum, jejunum,
and ileum. The duodenum, the shortest, is where preparation for absorption
through small finger-like protrusions called villi begins. The jejunum is
specialized for the absorption through its lining by enterocytes: small
nutrient particles which have been previously digested by enzymes in the
duodenum. The main function of the ileum is to absorb vitamin B12, bile
salts, and whatever products of digestion were not absorbed by the
jejunum.

Absorption in Small Intestine:-

Digested food passes into the blood vessels in the wall of the intestine through
either diffusion or active transport.
The small intestine is the site where most of the nutrients from ingested food
are absorbed. The inner wall, or mucosa, of the small intestine is lined with
simple columnar epithelial tissue.
Structurally, the mucosa is covered in wrinkles or folds called plicae circulares,
which are considered permanent features in the wall of the organ. They are
distinct from rugae which are considered non-permanent or temporary allowing
for distention and contraction. From the plicae circulares project microscopic
finger-like pieces of tissue called villi. The individual epithelial cells also have
finger-like projections known as microvilli.
The functions of the plicae circulares, the villi, and the microvilli are to increase
the amount of surface area available for the absorption of nutrients, and to limit
the loss of said nutrients to intestinal fauna.
The epithelial cells of the villi transport nutrients from the lumen of the
intestine into these capillaries (amino acids and carbohydrates) and lacteals
(lipids). The absorbed substances are transported via the blood vessels to
different organs of the body where they are used to build complex substances
such as the proteins required by our body. The material that remains undigested
and unabsorbed passes into the large intestine.
Absorption of the majority of nutrients takes place in the jejunum, with the
following notable exceptions:
• Iron is absorbed in the duodenum.
• Folate (Vitamin B9) is absorbed in the duodenum and jejunum.
 • Vitamin B12 and bile salts are absorbed in the terminal ileum.
• Water is absorbed by osmosis and lipids by passive diffusion throughout
the small intestine.

Q)6- Describe the structure and function of skin?

Ans)- The skin is one of the largest organs in the body in surface area and
weight. The skin consists of two layers: the epidermis and
the dermis. Beneath the dermis lies the hypodermis or subcutaneous
fatty tissue.
The skin has three main functions: protection, regulation and sensation.
• The skin is composed of two major layers: a superficial epidermis and a
deeper dermis.
• The epidermis consists of several layers. The topmost layer consists of
dead cells that shed periodically and is progressively replaced by cells
formed from the basal layer.
• The dermis connects the epidermis to the hypodermis, and provides
strength and elasticity due to the presence of collagen and elastin fibers.
• The hypodermis, deep to the dermis of skin, is the connective tissue that
connects the dermis to underlying structures; it also harbors adipose
tissue for fat storage and protection.

Epidermis

The epidermis is composed of keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium. It is

made of four or five layers of epithelial cells, depending on its location in the
body. It does not have any blood vessels within it.

Dermis

The dermis might be considered the “core” of the integumentary system,

as distinct from the epidermis and hypodermis. It contains blood and
lymph vessels, nerves, and other structures, such as hair follicles and sweat
glands. The dermis is made of two layers of connective tissue that
compose an interconnected mesh of elastin and collagenous fibers,
produced by fibroblasts.

Hypodermis

The hypodermis (also called the subcutaneous layer) is a layer directly

below the dermis and serves to connect the skin to the underlying fascia
(fibrous tissue) of the bones and muscles. It is not strictly a part of the
skin, although the border between the hypodermis and dermis can be
difficult to distinguish.

The hypodermis consists of well-vascularized, loose, areolar connective

tissue and adipose tissue, which functions as a mode of fat storage and
provides insulation and cushioning for the integument.
 Pigmentation

• .The color of skin is influenced by a number of pigments, including

melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin. Recall that melanin is produced by
cells called melanocytes, which are found scattered throughout the
stratum basale of the epidermis.

• The melanin is transferred into the keratinocytes via a cellular vesicle

called a melanosome.

• The accumulation of melanin in keratinocytes results in the darkening of

the skin, or a tan. This increased melanin accumulation protects the DNA
of epidermal cells from UV ray damage and the breakdown of folic acid,
a nutrient necessary for our health and well-being.
• Thus, the amount of melanin present in our skin is dependent on a
balance between available sunlight and folic acid destruction, and
protection from UV radiation and vitamin D production.

Hair
Hair is a keratinous filament growing out of the epidermis. It is primarily
made of dead, keratinized cells. Strands of hair originate in an epidermal
penetration of the dermis called the hair follicle. The hair shaft is the part of
the hair not anchored to the follicle, and much of this is exposed at the
skin’s surface.

Sweat glands
Sweat glands develop from epidermal projections into the dermis and are
classified as merocrine glands; that is, the secretions are excreted by
exocytosis through a duct without affecting the cells of the gland.
There are 2 types of sweat glands:-

• An eccrine sweat gland is type of gland that produces a hypotonic

sweat for thermoregulation. These glands are found all over the skin’s
surface, but are especially abundant on the palms of the hand, the soles
of the feet, and the forehead.

• An apocrine sweat gland is usually associated with hair follicles in

densely hairy areas, such as armpits and genital regions. Apocrine sweat
glands are larger than eccrine sweat glands and lie deeper in the dermis,
sometimes even reaching the hypodermis, with the duct normally
emptying into the hair follicle.

Sebaceous Glands
A sebaceous gland is a type of oil gland that is found all over the body
and helps to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair. Most sebaceous
glands are associated with hair follicles. They generate and excrete sebum,
a mixture of lipids, onto the skin surface, thereby naturally lubricating the
dry and dead layer of keratinized cells of the stratum corneum, keeping it
pliable. The fatty acids of sebum also have antibacterial properties, and
prevent water loss from the skin in low-humidity environments. The
secretion of sebum is stimulated by hormones, many of which do not
become active until puberty. Thus, sebaceous glands are relatively inactive
during childhood.
Q7)-Describe the structure and physiology of kidney.

Ans)-

The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs found in vertebrates. They are
located on the left and right in the retroperitoneal space, and in adult
humans are about 11 centimetres (4.3 in) in length. They receive blood
from the paired renal arteries; blood exits into the paired renal veins. Each
kidney is attached to a ureter, a tube that carries excreted urine to
the bladder.
The nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney. Each
human adult kidney contains around 1 million nephrons, while a mouse
kidney contains only about 12,500 nephrons.
The kidney participates in the control of the volume of various body
fluid compartments, fluid osmolality, acid-base balance,
various electrolyte concentrations, and removal of toxins.
Filtration occurs in the glomerulus: one-fifth of the blood volume that
enters the kidneys is filtered.
Examples of substances reabsorbed are solute-
free water, sodium, bicarbonate, glucose, and amino acids.
Examples of substances secreted
are hydrogen, ammonium, potassium and uric acid.
The kidneys also carry out functions independent of the nephron. For
example, they convert a precursor of vitamin D to its active
form, calcitriol; and synthesize the hormones erythropoietin and renin.

Functions od Kidneys-
• The kidneys excrete a variety of waste products produced
by metabolism into the urine. The microscopic structural and functional
unit of the kidney is the nephron. It processes the blood supplied to it via
filtration, reabsorption, secretion and excretion; the consequence of
those processes is the production of urine. These include the nitrogenous
wastes urea, from protein catabolism, and uric acid, from nucleic
acid metabolism.The kidney participates in whole-body homeostasis,
regulating acid-base balance, electrolyte concentrations, extracellular
fluid volume, and blood pressure.

• Hormone secretion
The kidneys secrete a variety of hormones, including erythropoietin,
calcitriol, and renin. Erythropoietin is released in response
to hypoxia (low levels of oxygen at tissue level) in the renal circulation.
It stimulates erythropoiesis (production of red blood cells) in the bone
marrow. Calcitriol, the activated form of vitamin D, promotes intestinal
absorption of calcium and the renal reabsorption of phosphate. Renin is
an enzyme which regulates angiotensin and aldosterone levels.
• Blood Pressure Regulation-
The long-term regulation of blood pressure predominantly depends upon
the kidney. This primarily occurs through maintenance of the extracellular
fluid compartment, the size of which depends on the
plasma sodium concentration. Changes in renin ultimately alter the output
of this system, principally the hormones angiotensin II and aldosterone.
Each hormone acts via multiple mechanisms, but both increase the
kidney's absorption of sodium chloride, thereby expanding the
extracellular fluid compartment and raising blood pressure. When renin
levels are elevated, the concentrations of angiotensin II and aldosterone
increase, leading to increased sodium chloride reabsorption, expansion of
the extracellular fluid compartment, and an increase in blood pressure.
Conversely, when renin levels are low, angiotensin II and aldosterone
levels decrease, contracting the extracellular fluid compartment, and
decreasing blood pressure.

• Acid-base balance

Two organ systems, the kidneys and lungs, maintain acid-base

homeostasis, which is the maintenance of pH around a relatively stable
value. The lungs contribute to acid-base homeostasis by regulating carbon
dioxide (CO2) concentration. The kidneys have two very important roles in
maintaining the acid-base balance: to reabsorb and regenerate bicarbonate
from urine, and to excrete hydrogen ions and fixed acids (anions of acids)
into urine.

Q8)- Explain Urine formation with Glomerulus filtration rate?

Ans)-Urine is a waste byproduct formed from excess water and metabolic

waste molecules during the process of renal system filtration. The primary
function of the renal system is to regulate blood volume and plasma
osmolarity, and waste removal via urine is essentially a convenient way
that the body performs many functions using one process.

Urine formation occurs during three processes:
 1. Filtration
2. Reabsorption
3. Secretion
Filtration

During filtration, blood enters the afferent arteriole and flows into the
glomerulus where filterable blood components, such as water and
nitrogenous waste, will move towards the inside of the glomerulus, and
nonfilterable components, such as cells and serum albumins, will exit via
the efferent arteriole. These filterable components accumulate in the
glomerulus to form the glomerular filtrate.

Normally, about 20% of the total blood pumped by the heart each minute
will enter the kidneys to undergo filtration; this is called the filtration
fraction. The remaining 80% of the blood flows through the rest of the
body to facilitate tissue perfusion and gas exchange.

Reabsorption

The next step is reabsorption, during which molecules and ions will be
reabsorbed into the circulatory system. The fluid passes through the
components of the nephron (the proximal/distal convoluted tubules, loop
of Henle, the collecting duct) as water and ions are removed as the fluid
osmolarity (ion concentration) changes. In the collecting duct, secretion
will occur before the fluid leaves the ureter in the form of urine.

Secretion

During secretion some substances±such as hydrogen ions, creatinine, and

drugs—will be removed from the blood through the peritubular capillary
network into the collecting duct. The end product of all these processes is
urine, which is essentially a collection of substances that has not been
reabsorbed during glomerular filtration or tubular reabsorbtion.
Urine is mainly composed of water that has not been reabsorbed, which is
the way in which the body lowers blood volume, by increasing the amount
of water that becomes urine instead of becoming reabsorbed. The other
main component of urine is urea, a highly soluble molecule composed of
ammonia and carbon dioxide, and provides a way for nitrogen (found in
ammonia) to be removed from the body. Urine also contains many salts
and other waste components. Red blood cells and sugar are not normally
found in urine but may indicate glomerulus injury and diabetes mellitus
respectively.

Glomerular Filtration

Glomerular filtration is the renal process whereby fluid in the blood is

filtered across the capillaries of the glomerulus. Glomerular filtration is the
first step in urine formation and constitutes the basic physiologic function
of the kidneys. It describes the process of blood filtration in the kidney, in
which fluid, ions, glucose, and waste products are removed from the
glomerular capillaries.

Many of these materials are reabsorbed by the body as the fluid travels
through the various parts of the nephron, but those that are not reabsorbed
leave the body in the form of urine.

The Mechanisms of Filtration

The process by which glomerular filtration occurs is called renal

ultrafiltration. The force of hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus (the
force of pressure exerted from the pressure of the blood vessel itself) is the
driving force that pushes filtrate out of the capillaries and into the slits in
the nephron.

Osmotic pressure (the pulling force exerted by the albumins) works against
the greater force of hydrostatic pressure, and the difference between the
two determines the effective pressure of the glomerulus that determines the
force by which molecules are filtered. These factors will influence the
glomeruluar filtration rate, along with a few other factors.

Glomerular Filtration Rate

Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the measure that describes the

total amount of filtrate formed by all the renal corpuscles in both
kidneys per minute. The glomerular filtration rate is directly
proportional to the pressure gradient in the glomerulus, so changes
in pressure will change GFR.

GFR is also an indicator of urine production, increased GFR will

increase urine production, and vice versa.The equation for GFR is:

GFR=Filtration Constant × (Hydrostatic Glomerulus Pressure–

Hydrostatic Bowman’s Capsule Pressure)–(Osmotic Glomerulus
Pressure+Osmotic Bowman’s Capsule Pressure)

The filtration constant is based on the surface area of the

glomerular capillaries, and the hydrostatic pressure is a pushing
force exerted from the flow of a fluid itself; osmotic pressure is the
pulling force exerted by proteins. Changes in either the hydrostatic
or osmotic pressure in the glomerulus or Bowman’s capsule will
change GFR.
Q9)- Draw a neat and labelled diagram of Nephron?

Ans)-
Q10)- Write a note on Micturation.

Ans)-Micturition is a process where urine is expelled from the body. It is

brought about by reflex contraction of a special muscle called the detrusor
muscle after voluntary relaxation of the sphincter muscle.

The human excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys and ureters, a

urinary bladder, and a urethra. The kidneys play a major role in the process
of urine formation and its excretion. The urine formed is stored in the
urinary bladder.
Micturition is also known as voiding phase of bladder control and lasts for
a short time. As the bladder becomes full, the stretch receptors increase
their firing rate. This increase the urge to urinate and causes micturition
reflex. It sometimes even causes involuntary urination.
Micturition process consists of two phases:
• Storage phase
• Voiding phase
Storage Phase
The urinary bladder is a balloon-shaped, hollow, muscular, organ that acts
as the storage organ for urine. The urinary bladder in a healthy urinary
system can store up to 16 ounces of urine for 2 to 5 hours easily. The
circular sphincter muscles prevent leakage of urine. They close tightly
around the opening of the bladder into the tube (urethra) that allows the
passage of urine outside the body.
Voiding Phase
When the bladder is filled with urine, the nerves in it are triggered, which
in turn stimulates the need to urinate. The brain signals urinary bladder to
contract. The receptors of the urinary bladder send a signal to the central
nervous system, in response to which the nervous system sends a signal
that incites the contraction of the urinary bladder. Through the urinary
opening at the urethra, the urine is eliminated, and the process is called
micturition. The neural mechanism involved is called the micturition
reflex.
Q11)-Name the hormones secreted by pituitary gland. Write the
functions of anterior pituitary gland.

Ans)-The two sections of the pituitary gland produce a number of different

hormones which act on different target glands or cells. Hormones secreted
by pituitary gland are as follows:-

Anterior pituitary

• Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)

• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Luteinising hormone (LH)
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Prolactin (PRL)
• Growth hormone (GH)
• Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)
Posterior pituitary

• Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)

• Oxytocin

Table of pituitary hormones

Horm Targe Function

one t(s)
ACTH Adren Stimulates the adrenal gland to produce a
als hormone called cortisol. ACTH is also
known as corticotrophin.
TSH Thyroi Stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete its
d own hormone, which is called thyroxine.
TSH is also known as thyrotrophin.
LH & Ovari Controls reproductive functioning and
FSH es sexual characteristics. Stimulates the
(wom ovaries to produce oestrogen and
en) progesterone and the testes to produce
testosterone and sperm. LH and FSH are
Teste
known collectively as gonadotrophins. LH
s
is also referred to as interstitial cell
(men)
stimulating hormone (ICSH) in males.
PRL Breas Stimulates the breasts to produce milk.
ts This hormone is secreted in large amounts
during pregnancy and breast feeding, but
is present at all times in both men and
women.
GH All Stimulates growth and repair. Research is
cells currently being carried out to identify the
in the functions of GH in adult life.
body
MSH Exact role in humans is unknown.
ADH Kidne Controls the blood fluid and mineral levels
ys in the body by affecting water retention by
the kidneys. This hormone is also known
vasopressin or argenine vasopressin
(AVP).
Oxyto Uteru Affects uterine contractions in pregnancy
cin s and birth and subsequent release of
breast milk.
Breas
ts
Anterior Pituitary
The anterior pituitary secretes seven hormones that regulate several
physiological processes, including stress, growth, and
reproduction.

A major organ of the endocrine system, the anterior pituitary (also

called the adenohypophysis) is the glandular, anterior lobe of the
pituitary gland. The anterior pituitary regulates several
physiological processes including stress, growth, reproduction, and
lactation.

Its regulatory functions are achieved through the secretion of

various peptide hormones that act on target organs including the
adrenal gland, liver, bone, thyroid gland, and gonads. The anterior
pituitary itself is regulated by the hypothalamus and by negative
feedback from these target organs.

Major Hormones Secreted by the Anterior Pituitary Gland

• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), is a polypeptide

whose target is the adrenal gland. The effects of ACTH are
upon secretion of glucocorticoid, mineralocorticoids, and sex
corticoids.
• Beta-endorphin is a polypeptide that effects the opioid
receptor, whose effects include the inhibition of the perception
of pain.
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone is a glycoprotein hormone that
affects the thyroid gland and the secretion of thyroid
hormones.
 • Follicle-stimulating hormone is a glycoprotein hormone that
targets the gonads and effects the growth of the reproductive
system.
• Luteinizing hormone is a glycoprotein hormone that targets
the gonads to effect sex-hormone production.
• Growth hormone is a polypeptide hormone that targets the
liver and adipose tissue and promotes growth through lipid
and carbohydrate metabolism.
• Prolactin is a polypeptide hormone whose target is the ovaries
and mammary glands. Prolactin influences the secretion of
estrogen/progesterone and milk production.

Regulation
Hormone secretion from the anterior pituitary gland is regulated by
hormones secreted by the hypothalamus. Neuroendocrine neurons
in the hypothalamus project axons to the median eminence, at the
base of the brain. At this site, these neurons can release substances
into the small blood vessels that travel directly to the anterior
pituitary gland (the hypothalamo-hypophysial portal vessels).

Q12)- Mention the function of thyroid gland.

Ans)-The thyroid gland is located at the front of the neck just below
the Adam's apple (larynx). It is butterfly-shaped and consists of two
lobes located either side of the windpipe (trachea). A normal thyroid
gland is not usually outwardly visible or able to be felt if finger
pressure is applied to the neck.

The thyroid gland produces three hormones:

 • Triiodothyronine, also known as T3


• Tetraiodothyronine, also called thyroxine or T4


• Calcitonin


The primary function of the thyroid is the production of the iodine-

containing thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4)
and the peptide hormone calcitonin.The thyroid hormones are created
from iodine and tyrosine. T3 is so named because it contains three
atoms of iodine per molecule and T4 contains four atoms of iodine per
molecule.The thyroid hormones have a wide range of effects on the
human body.
These include:
• Metabolic- The thyroid hormones increase the basal metabolic
rate and have effects on almost all body tissues. Appetite, the
absorption of substances, and gut motility are all influenced by
thyroid hormones. They increase the absorption in the
gut, generation, uptake by cells, and breakdown of glucose. They
stimulate the breakdown of fats, and increase the number of free
fatty acids.

• Cardiovascular- The hormones increase the rate and strength of

the heartbeat. They increase the rate of breathing, intake and
consumption of oxygen, and increase the activity
of mitochondria. Combined, these factors increase blood flow and
the body's temperature.

• Developmental- Thyroid hormones are important for normal

development. They increase the growth rate of young people, and
cells of the developing brain are a major target for the thyroid
hormones T3 and T4.

• The thyroid hormones also play a role in maintaining normal

sexual function, sleep, and thought patterns. Increased levels are
 associated with increased speed of thought generation but
decreased focus. Sexual function, including libido and the
maintenance of a normal menstrual cycle, are influenced by
thyroid hormones.

Q13)-Write a note on Adrenal glands and Hormones released by it.

Ans)-An adrenal gland is made of two main parts:

• The adrenal cortex is the outer region and also the largest part
of an adrenal gland. It is divided into three separate zones:
zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona reticularis. Each
zone is responsible for producing specific hormones.

• The adrenal medulla is located inside the adrenal cortex in the

center of an adrenal gland. It produces “stress hormones,”
including adrenaline.

• The adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla are enveloped in

an adipose capsule that forms a protective layer around
adrenal gland.
Hormones of the Adrenal Glands

The role of the adrenal glands in your body is to release certain

hormones directly into the bloodstream. Many of these hormones
have to do with how the body responds to stress, and some are vital
to existence. Both parts of the adrenal glands — the adrenal cortex
and the adrenal medulla — perform distinct and separate functions.

Each zone of the adrenal cortex secretes a specific hormone. The

key hormones produced by the adrenal cortex include:

Cortisol

Cortisol is a glucocorticoid hormone produced by the zona

fasciculata that plays several important roles in the body. It helps
control the body’s use of fats, proteins and carbohydrates;
suppresses inflammation; regulates blood pressure; increases blood
sugar; and can also decrease bone formation.

This hormone also controls the sleep/wake cycle. It is released

during times of stress to help your body get an energy boost and
better handle an emergency situation.

Aldosterone

This mineralocorticoid hormone plays a central role in regulating

blood pressure and certain electrolytes (sodium and potassium).
Aldosterone sends signals to the kidneys, resulting in the kidneys
absorbing more sodium into the bloodstream and releasing potassium
into the urine. This means that aldosterone also helps regulate the
blood pH by controlling the levels of electrolytes in the blood.
Epinephrine (Adrenaline) and Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline)

The adrenal medulla, the inner part of an adrenal gland, controls

hormones that initiate the flight or fight response.

The main hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla include

epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which
have similar functions.

These hormones are capable of increasing the heart rate and force of
heart contractions, increasing blood flow to the muscles and brain,
relaxing airway smooth muscles, and assisting in glucose metabolism.
They also control the vasoconstriction, helping maintain blood
pressure and increasing it in response to stress.

Like several other hormones produced by the adrenal glands,

epinephrine and norepinephrine are often activated in physically and
emotionally stressful situations when your body needs additional
resources and energy to endure unusual strain.

Q14)-In brief explain spermatogenesis.

Ans)-Spermatogenesis, the origin and development of the sperm

cells within the male reproductive organs, the testes. The testes are
composed of numerous thin, tightly coiled tubules known as
the seminiferous tubules; the sperm cells are produced within the
walls of the tubules. Within the walls of the tubules, also, are many
randomly scattered cells, called Sertoli cells, that function to support
and nourish the immature sperm cells by giving them nutrients and
blood products. As the young germ cells grow, the Sertoli cells help to
transport them from the outer surface of the seminiferous tubule to the
central channel of the tubule.

1. Spermatocytogenesis (also called Mitosis): Stem cells (Type A

spermatogonia; singular = spermatogonium) divide mitotically to replace
themselves and to produce cells that begin differentiation (Type B
spermatogonia). Spermatogonia have spherical or oval nuclei, and rest on
the basement membrane. (You are not responsible for distinguishing
between Type A and Type B spermatogonia in lab.)
2. Meiosis: Cells in prophase of the first meiotic division are primary
spermatocytes. They are characterized by highly condensed
chromosomes giving the nucleus a coarse chromatin pattern and an
intermediate position in the seminiferous epithelium. This is a long stage,
so many primary spermatocytes can be seen. Primary spermatocytes go
through the first meiotic division and become secondary spermatocytes.
The cells quickly proceed through this stage and complete the second
meiotic division. Because this stage is short there are few secondary
spermatocytes to be seen in sections. You are not responsible for
identifying secondary spermatocytes in lab. Meiosis is the process by
which the diploid number of chromosomes present in spermatogonia (the
stem cells) is reduced to the haploid number present in mature
spermatozoa.
The products of the second meiotic division are called spermatids. They
are spherical cells with interphase nuclei, positioned high in the
epithelium. Since spermatids go through a metamorphosis into
spermatozoa, they occur in early through late stages. You are not
responsible for distinguishing the different stages of spermatids, but you
are required to identify a spermatid.
All of these progeny cells remain attached to each other by cytoplasmic
bridges. The bridges remain until sperm are fully differentiated.
3. Spermiogenesis:
This is the metamorphosis of spherical spermatids into
elongated spermatozoa. No further mitosis or meiosis occurs. During
spermiogenesis, the acrosome forms, the flagellar apparatus forms, and
most excess cytoplasm (the residual body) is separated and left in the
Sertoli cell. Spermatozoa are released into the lumen of the seminiferous
tubule. A small amount of excess cytoplasm (the cytoplasmic droplet) is
shed later in the epididymis.

Sertoli Cell & Developing Sperm Cells:

At all stages of differentiation, the spermatogenic cells are in close contact
with Sertoli cells which are thought to provide structural and metabolic
support to the developing sperm cells. A single Sertoli cell extends from
the basement membrane to the lumen of the seminiferous tubule although
its cytoplasm is difficult to distinguish at the light microscopic level. They
are characterized by the presence of a vesicular, oval, basally positioned
nucleus which contains a prominent nucleolus. The nuclear envelope often
contains a definite fold. The significance of the very close association of
the two types of cells is unknown. Sertoli cells are endocrine cells - they
secrete the polypeptide hormone, inhibin. Inhibin acts at the level of the
pituitary to reduce the secretion of follicle stimulating hormone.
Each day, some 100 million sperm are made in each human testicle, and
each ejaculation releases 200 million sperm. Unused sperm are either
resorbed or passed out of the body in urine. During his lifetime, a human
male can produce 1012 to 1013 sperm.

Q15)- Explain in detail oogenesis.

Ans)-The effect of gametogenesis in females is associated with the mature
female gamete. This is created through a process called oogenesis. This
happens in the ovaries or female gonads. There are three phases to
oogenesis; namely, multiplication phase, growth phase and maturation
phase.

• Multiplication Phase: During foetal development, it should be

noticed that certain cells present in the germinal epithelium of the
female ovary are bigger than others. Hence, these cells split by
mitosis, creating a couple of million oogonia or mother egg cells in
each ovary present in the foetus. There are no more oogonia which
are formed or augmented after birth.

• Growth Phase: This particular procedure of the primary oocyte

tends to be very long. In this, the oogonium nurtures into bigger
primary oocytes. After this, each primary oocyte gets surrounded by
a granulosa cells layer to create primary follicle. Later, a large
number of follicles get debased during the duration from birth to
puberty. Therefore, at puberty around 60,000 to 80,000 primary
follicles can be found in each ovary.
 • Maturation Phase: Similar to a primary spermatocyte, every
primary oocyte experiences two maturation divisions. However, the
outcomes of maturation divisions under oogenesis are quite different
to those which occur in spermatogenesis. Considering the first
meiotic division, the primary oocyte segregates into two uneven
haploid daughter cells. These are known as the large secondary
oocyte and a small polocyte.
Later, considering the second maturation separation, the initial polar body
might split to create two, second polar bodies. Here, the secondary oocyte
once again divides to form unfit daughter cells.

OOGENESIS

Q16)- Draw the diagram of testis and specify it.

Ans)-Testicles, or testes, are oval-shaped organs located in the
scrotum, just behind the penis and right in front of the anus on male
humans. Each testis weighs 0.35 to 0.5 ounces (10 to 15 grams), The
testes have an ellipsoid shape. They consist of a series of lobules, each
containing seminiferous tubules supported by interstitial tissue.

The seminiferous tubules are lined by Sertoli cells that aid the
maturation process of the spermatozoa. In the interstitial tissue lie the
Leydig cells that are responsible for testosterone production.

Spermatozoa are produced in the seminiferous tubules. The

developing sperm travels through the tubules, collecting in the rete
testes. Ducts known as efferent tubules transport the sperm from the
rete testes to the epididymis for storage and maturation.

Inside the scrotum, the testes are covered almost entirely by the tunica
vaginalis, a closed sac of parietal peritoneal origin that contains a
small amount of viscous fluid. This sac covers the anterior surface and
sides of each testicle and works much like the peritoneal sac,
lubricating the surfaces of the testes and allowing for friction-free
movement.

The testicular parenchyma is protected by the tunica albuginea, a

fibrous capsule that encloses the testes. It penetrates into the
parenchyma of each testicle with diaphragms, dividing it into lobules.

The epididymis consists of a single heavily coiled duct. It can be

divided into three parts; head, body and tail.

• Head – The most proximal part of the epididymis. It is formed

by the efferent tubules of the testes, which transport sperm from
the testes to the epididymis.
 • Body – Formed by the heavily coiled duct of the epididymis.
• Tail – The most distal part of the epididymis. It marks the origin
of the vas deferens, which transports sperm to the prostatic
portion of the urethra for ejaculation.
The main arterial supply to the testes and epididymis is via the
paired testicular arteries, which arise directly from the abdominal
aorta. They descend down the abdomen, and pass into the scrotum via
the inguinal canal, contained within the spermatic cord.

Diagramatic representation of Testis