1. Write notes on phospholipids? Function of lipids?

Phospholipids are compound lipidsalso known as phosphatides.Theyre esters of fatty acids with
glycerol or anyother alcohol and contain and esterified phosphoric acid an esterified phosphoric
acid and a nitrogenous base.

Biological functions

1.Phospholipids form structures of membranes, myelin sheath, microsomes and mitochondria.

2. They act as carriersof inorganic ions across membranes

3.Helps blood clotting

4.Acts as emulsifying agentsin digestion and absorption of fats.

5.Increase the rate of fatty acid oxidation

6.They act as prostheticgroups of certain enzymes

7.They play an important role in prevention of fatty liver.

Classification of Phospholipids The recent classification is based on the type of alcohol

present.accordingtothis phospholipids are classified as

1. Glycerophosphatides (glycerol is the alcohol group)

Phosphatidyl choline(Lecithin)- Prevents fatty liver
Phosphatidyl ethanolamine(Cephalin)
Phosphatidyl serine(found in brain)
Plasmalogens(brain nerves muscle mitochondria)

2. Phospho- ionositides (ionositol is the alcohol group)

Phosphatidyl ionositol(brain)
Phospho-sphingosides(sphingosine is the alcohol Sphingomyelin)

2. Structure and function of Vitamin D and deficiency disorder?

Vit D is also called as Calciferol or antirachitic factor . It prevents rickets two types of Vit D are
Vit D2 or ergocalciferolobtained by irradiation of ergosterol present in yeasr and ergot and
vitamin D3 or cholicalciferol produced in human skin by irradiation of 7-dehydrocholesterol.
Structure of Vit D

Source: Fishliver oil, codliver oil, egg yolk

Function

● It facilitates absorption of calcium and phosphorous in intestineand helps calcification of

bones and teeth
● Increases citrate content of bone, blood tissue and urine.
● It produces hydrolysis of phytate and prevents rickets.

Deficiency diseases

Deficiency of Vit D causes Ricketts (Bent bones) in children and Osteomalacia (Bone loss)in
adults.

3. Define coenzymes and name them? Write their significance and functions ?

Coenzyme: A substance that enhances the action of an enzyme. (An enzyme is a protein that
functions as a catalyst to mediate and speed a chemical reaction). Coenzymes are small
molecules. They cannot by themselves catalyze a reaction but they can help enzymes to do so. In
technical terms, coenzymes are organic nonprotein low mol.wt molecules that bind with the
protein molecule (apoenzyme) to form the active enzyme (holoenzyme).A number of the water-
soluble vitamins such as vitamins B1, B2 and B6 serve as coenzymes.

Functions of coenzymes: The important function performed coenzymes is to transfer hydrogen or

functional groups.The coenzyme accept the atom or group from the substrate and transfer them
to other molecules.
Coenzyme A :

Reactions of CoA is due to presence of sulfhydryl group .it accepts acetyl group to form acetyl
CoA.Its required for:

● Conversion of α ketoglutarate to succinyl CoA in citric acid cycle.

● Oxidation of fatty acids.

Acetyl CoA :

It is utilized in citric acid cycle.

It combines with choline to form acetyl choline

Starting material for cholesterol synthesis and ketone bodies, in synthesis and elongation of fatty
acids and steroid hormones.

4. Note on diseases caused due to cholesterol deposition?

Atherosclerosis is the narrowing of arteries due to plaque buildup on the artery walls.
Atherosclerosis starts when the endothelium becomes damaged, allowing the harmful type
of cholesterol to build up in the artery wall.
The body sends a type of white blood cell to clean up this cholesterol, but, sometimes, the cells
get stuck at the affected site.Over time, plaque can build up, made of cholesterol,
macrophages, calcium, and other substances from the blood.

Sometimes the plaque clogs up the artery, disrupting the flow of blood around the body. This
makes blood clots more likely, which can result in life-threatening conditions.

In some cases, the plaque eventually, breaks open. If this happens, platelets gather in the affected
area and can stick together, forming blood clots. This can block the artery, leading to life-
threatening complications, such as stroke and heart attack.

Note:(Arteries carry blood from the heart to the rest of the body. They are lined with a thin layer
of cells that keeps them smooth and allows blood to flow easily. This is called the endothelium.
The condition can affect the entire artery tree, but mainly affects the larger, high-pressure
arteries)

5. Note on disease caused due to Vitamin B12 deficiency (megaloblastic anaemia)

Megaloblastic anemia is a condition in which the bone marrow produces unusually large,
structurally abnormal, immature red blood cells (megaloblasts). Anemia is a condition
characterized by the low levels of circulating, red blood cells. Red blood cells are released from
the marrow into the bloodstream where they travel throughout the body delivering oxygen to
tissue

A deficiency in healthy, fully-matured red blood cells can result in fatigue, paleness of the skin
(pallor), lightheadedness and lightheadedness, dizziness and a fast or irregular heartbeat. The
initial neurological symptom may be tingling or numbness in the hands or feet.Megaloblastic
anemia has several different causes - deficiencies of either cobalamin (vitamin B12) or folate
(vitamin B9) are the two most common causes. These vitamins play an essential role in the
production of red blood cells., Additional common symptoms include aches and pains, muscle
weakness, and difficulty breathing (dyspnea). Individuals with megaloblastic anemia may also
develop gastrointestinal abnormalities including diarrhea, nausea, and loss of appetite. Some
affected individuals may develop a sore, reddened tongue. These abnormalities may result in
unintended weight loss. Mild enlargement of the liver (hepatomegaly) and a slight yellowing of
the skin or eyes (jaundice) may also occur

6. Note on Diabetes mellitus

Diabetes mellitus, commonly known as diabetes, is a metabolic disease that causes high blood
sugar. The hormone insulin secreted by pancreatic islets of langerhans moves sugar from the
blood into your cells to be stored or used for energy. With diabetes, your body either doesn’t
make enough insulin or can’t effectively use the insulin it does make. Untreated high blood sugar
from diabetes can damage your nerves, eyes, kidneys, and other organs.

There are a few different types of diabetes:

Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease. The immune system attacks and destroys cells in
the pancreas, where insulin is made. It’s unclear what causes this attack. About 10 percent of
people with diabetes have this type.

● Type 2 diabetes occurs when your body becomes resistant to insulin, and sugar builds up
in your blood.

● Urination and thirst are increased, and people may lose weight even if they are not trying
to.

● Diabetes damages the nerves and causes problems with sensation.

● Diabetes damages blood vessels and increases the risk of heart attack, stroke, chronic
kidney disease, and vision loss.

● Doctors diagnose diabetes by measuring blood sugar levels.

● People with diabetes need to follow a healthy diet that is low in refined carbohydrates
(including sugar), saturated fat, and processed foods. They also need to exercise and
usually take drugs to lower blood sugar levels.

7. Define the following saponification number, Acid value Iodine value, Acetyl value,
Rancidity

Saponification number: The saponification number is the number of milligrams of potassium

hydroxide required to neutralize the fatty acids resulting from the complete hydrolysis of 1g of
fat

Acid value: The Acid Value is the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide (KOH)

necessary to neutralize the fatty acids in 1 gram of sample. 

Iodine value :  The mass of iodine in grams that is consumed by 100 grams of a chemical
substance. Iodine numbers are often used to determine the amount of unsaturation in fatty acids.
Acetyl value : The acetyl value is the number which expresses in milligrams the amount of
potassium hydroxide required to neutralize the acetic acid liberated by the hydrolysis of 1 g of
the acetylated substance.

Rancidity:Rancidity generally is the complete or incomplete oxidation or hydrolysis of fats and

oils when exposed to air, light, or moisture or by bacterial action, resulting in unpleasant taste
and odor.

Long answers

1. Β-oxidation of palmitic acid with energetic? Structure and function of

cholesterol?

β-oxidation of Fatty Acids

The successive oxidative removal of two carbons in the form of acetyl–CoA beginning
from the

carboxyl end is called β-oxidation.It requires a set of enzymes. The oxidation is so called
because

the β carbon is oxidized during the oxidation process. It takes place in the matrix of
mitochondria.

Energy needs of tissues are met by the oxidation of free fatty acids, released by adipose
tissue.

Fatty acids are activated with the help of thiokinase, prior to transport to mitochondria.
Overall

activation of fatty acid requires hydrolysis of two phosphodiester bonds.

Acyl CoA dehydrogenase converts acyl CoA to acyl trans enoyl CoA

Hydratase converts it to 3-hydroxy acyl CoA.

.Hydroxy acyl CoA dehydrogenase converts it to 3keto acyl CoA.

It is further converted to acyl CoA and acetyl CoA.by Thiolase

The cycle is repeated 7 times for palmitic acid for complete oxidation.

The FADH2 and NADH +H+ join the electron transport chain as high energy electron
carriers. The latter donates its reducing equivalents (hydrogens) to NADH dehydrogenase
to produce 3ATP per pair of electrons and the former produces only 2ATPS. Complete
oxidation of fatty acid can be divided in to two stages.
 A. Formation of acetyl CoA.

B. Oxidation of acetyl CoA to CO2, water via TCA cycle.

Stochiometry of the reaction:

Palmitoyl CoA + 7FAD + 7 NAD +7CoA = 8 Acetyl CoA+7FADH2 +7 NADHH.

Energetics of palmitate oxidation:

Reduced equivalents enter ETC and produce energy rich phosphate bonds. Acetyl CoA
release

energy through TCA cycle.

7 FADH2 → 7 x 2 = 14 ATPs

7NADHH → 7 x 3 = 21 ATPs

8 Acetyl CoA → 8 x 12 = 96 ATPs

Total ATP produced from one molecule of palmitic acid is 131. Two ATPs (Two energy
rich bonds) are utilized, during activation of fatty acid. Therefore total gain of ATPs is
129.

Oxidation of Unsaturated Fatty Acids

The oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids requires two additional enzymes called isomerase
and

reductase. Most naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids are in cis- configuration, which
are not

suitable for the action of enoyl-CoA hydratases and hence they must be changed to their
trans

isomer by an isomerase. The rest of the enzymes are needed for the oxidation in addition
to

these two for the oxidation are the same.

Oxidation of Fatty Acids with Odd Number of Carbons

Ruminant animals can oxidize them by B- oxidation producing acetylCoAs until a three
carbon
 propionylCoA residue is left.TheacetylCoAs produced are funneled to the Krebs cycle but
the

propionylCoA produced is converted to succinylCoA by three enzymatic steps.

SuccinoyCoA is

an intermediate in the Kreb’s cycle and it can be metabolized.

The fates of acetyl-CoA formed by b-oxidation of fatty acids are:

1. Oxidation to CO2 and H2O by citric acid cycle.

2. Synthesis of lipids like cholesterol, fatty acids and other steroids.3. Formation of ketone
bodies in the liver.

Regulation of Oxidation of Fatty Acids

1. Hormones regulate lipolysis, in adipose tissue.More free fatty acids are available for the
β-oxidation.

2. • Insulin inhibits lipolysis.

3. • Acylcarnitine transferase-1 is inhibited by malonyl CoA , one of the intermediates of
fattyacid synthesis.
4. • High level of NADHH inhibits acyl CoA dehydrogenase.
5. • Increased concentration of acetyl CoA inhibits Thiolase.
6. • When the animal is well fed by carbohydrate, fatty acid oxidation is lowered.

2. Structure function ofdeficiency and disorders of cyanocobalamin?

Vitamin B-12 is a crucial B vitamin. It is needed for nerve tissue health, brain function, and the
production of red blood cells. Cobalamin is another name for vitamin B-12. Deficiency can to
irreversible neurological symptoms.

● Vitamin B-12 is important for brain function the synthesis of red blood cells.
● Deficiency of vitamin B-12 can lead to neurological difficulties and anemia.
● People over the age of 14 should consume more than 2.4 micrograms (mcg) of vitamin B-
12 daily. Vitamin B-12 is vital for red blood cell production and mental processes.
Vitamin B-12 is a water-soluble vitamin after absorption any excess or unwanted vitamin B-12 is
excreted in the urine. Vitamin B-12 is the largest and most structurally complicated vitamin. It
occurs naturally in meat products and can only be industrially produced through bacterial
fermentation synthesis.

Foods: Vitamin B-12 can be found naturally in animal products, such as fish, meat, eggs, and
dairy products. It does not typically occur in plant foods. Benefits Vitamin B-12 is crucial to the
normal function of the brain and the nervous system. It is also involved in the formation of red
blood cells and helps to create and regulate DNA.

vitamin B-12 plays a part in the synthesis of fatty acids and energy production. And enables the
release of energy by helping the human body absorb folic acid. The human body produces
millions of red blood cells every minute. These cells cannot multiply properly without vitamin
B-12. The production of red blood cells reduces if vitamin B-12 levels are too low. Anemia can
occur if the red blood cell count drops.

Intake requirements

Teens and adults over the age of 14 years should consume 2.4 micrograms (mcg) of vitamin B-
12 a day. Pregnant women should be sure to consume 2.6 mcg, and lactating women 2.8 mcg.

The antibiotic chloramphenicol, or chloromycetin, may also interfere with red blood cell

production in people taking supplements.

Deficiency symptoms

Vitamin B-12 deficiency occurs when the body does not receive enough vitamin B-12.It can
result in irreversible and potentially severe damage, especially to the nervous system and brain.

Even slightly lower-than-normal levels of vitamin B-12 can trigger deficiency symptoms, such
as depression, confusion, memory problems, and fatigue.

However, these symptoms alone are not specific enough to diagnose vitamin B-12 deficiency.
Other symptoms of vitamin B-12 deficiency include constipation, loss of appetite, and weight
loss.
Once symptoms escalate, they can include neurological changes, such as numbness and tingling
in the hands and feet. Some people may have difficulty maintaining balance.

Infants who lack vitamin B-12 may demonstrate unusual movements, such as face tremors, as
well as reflex problems, feeding difficulties, irritation, and eventual growth problems if the
deficiency is left untreated.

Vitamin B-12 deficiency carries a serious risk of permanent nerve and brain damage. Some
people with insufficient vitamin B-12 have a higher risk of developing psychosis, mania,
and dementia.

Insufficient vitamin B-12 can also lead to anemia. The most common symptoms of anemia are
fatigue, shortness of breath, and an irregular heartbeat. People with anemia might also
experience:

● a sore mouth or tongue

● weight loss

● pale or yellowing skin

● diarrhea

● menstrual problems

Vitamin B-12 deficiency also leaves people more susceptible to the effects of infections.

Vegans face a risk of vitamin B-12 deficiency, as their diet excludes animal-sourced food
products. Pregnancy and lactation can worsen deficiency in vegans. Plant-sourced foods do not
have enough cobalamin to guarantee long-term health.

People with pernicious anemia may lack vitamin B-12. Pernicious anemia is an autoimmune
disease that affects the blood. Patients with this disorder do not have enough intrinsic factor (IF),
a protein in the stomach that allows the body to absorb vitamin B-12.
Other at-risk groups include people with small intestine problems, for example, an individual
whose small intestine has been surgically shortened. They may not be able to absorb cobalamin
properly. People with Crohn's disease are said to be at risk, but researchers maintain that there is
a lack of evidence to confirm this.

Gastritis, celiac disease, and inflammatory bowel disease may lead to a deficiencyTrusted

Source because these conditions cause the absorption of nutrients to be reduced.

People with chronic alcoholism may lack vitamin B-12Trusted Source, as their bodies are also
not able to absorb nutrients efficiently.

Individuals treating diabetes with metformin are advised to monitor their levels of vitamin B-12.
Metformin might reduce the absorption of vitamin B-12.

Treatment includes vitamin B-12 injections. A vitamin B-12 injection must be administered to
people that have problems with nutrient absorption.
3. Explain the process involved in glycogenesis and glycolysis?

Glycogenesis
 4. Describe urea cycle and significance of urea cycle

1.Reactions of urea cycle

1.Formation of carbamyl phosphate :
Ammonia combines with CO2(decarboxyllation reaction) to form carbamylphosphate.It is
catalysed by enzyme carbamyl phosphate synthetase.It requires biotin and N-acetyl
glutamic acidas cofactors. Two molecules of ATP are used in this reaction.
2.Carbamyl phosphate to citrulline
Carbamylphosphatecombines with ornithine to form citrulline.It is catalysed by enzyme
ornithine transcarbamylase.
3.Citrulline to arginosuccinate: Citrulline combines with aspartate to form arginosuccinate. It
is catalysed by arginosuccinate synthetase
4.Arginosuccinate to arginine:
Arginosuccinate is cleaved to form arginine and fumarate.catalysed by Arginosuccinate lyase.
5.Arginine to Urea:
Arginine is hydrolysed to urea and ornithine .It is catalysed by arginase.
Ornithine liberated again combines with carbamyl phosphate .Thus urea cycle is repeated.One
molecule of urea is synthesized in urea cycle from one molecule of NH3 andCO2.3
molecules of ATP are utilized in this cycle for synthesis of one molecule of urea.

Significance: Urea cycle ghelps to eliminate toxic ammonia from body.Dysfunction of urea
cycle leads to accumulation of urea leading to hyperammonemia,
gout,renalfailure,haemolytic ammonia etc.
It regulates nitrogen balance.

6 .Describe the structure function and deficiency of Vitamin C and vitamin A?

Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin. Collagen is unusual in its widespread modification of

proline to hydroxyproline and lysine to hydroxylysine. Most of the hydrogen bonds between
chains in the triple helix are from amide protons to carbonyl oxygens, but the OH groups of
hydroxyproline also seem to participate in stabilizing the structure. Hydroxylysine residues in
collagen serve to form attachment sites for polysaccharides.
The hydroxylation reactions in collagen involve vitamin C. A symptom of extreme vitamin C
deficiency, called scurvy, is the weakening of collagen fibers caused by the failure to
hydroxylate proline and lysine.

In general hydroxylation reactions require Vit C.

Example: Hydroxylation of cholesterol.

Functions:

• Collagen biosynthesis
• Degradation of Tyrosine
• Absorption of Iron
• Steroidogenesis
• Adrenaline synthesis
• Bile acid formation
• Degradation of tyrosine
• Bone mineral metabolism
• Potent anti oxidant
WBC’s are rich in vit C and plays an important role in Immunity.
Source: Citrus fruits, Potato, tomato & green vegetables
RDA: 60mg/day
Deficiency: scurvy symptoms are spongy gums and bleeding of gums due to defective collagen
synthesis.

Vitamin A

The vitamin is present in the diet as retinol or as β-carotene some of which is hydrolyzed in the
intestine to form retinol. It is a generic term for a collection of three forms of Vitamins, retinol,
retinal and retinoic acid (Retinoids) all of which are found from animal and plant sources.

Pre-Albumin and specific binding proteins on cell surface membranes are involved in the
uptake of Vitamin A ester from the plasma in to the tissues. Owning to the fat soluble nature
,transport is effected by a specific proteins – serum retinol binding protein(SRBP), cytosolic
retinol binding protein(CRBP) and Albumin as well as a specific retinoic acid binding protein
(RABP). The vitamin is stored in the liver, mainly as its ester. Some other derivatives of
Vit A are stored in the Liver as retinol palmitate.

In natural sources VitA is present as esters of fatty acids .These as well as their precursors are
readily absorbed from the intestine via the lymphocytics.
Pancreatic lipase liberates the free Vitamin from the ester during digestion, but it is re-esterified
in the intestinal mucosa. Carotenone are converted to vitamin in the liver.
Source: A rich source is Liver, but leafy vegetables and some fruits provide the largest amount
of β-carotene
Liver, egg yolk, butter and milk are good sources of β-carotene.
Functions
β-carotene has an antioxidant role and prevents the development of diseases in which the action
of free radicals is implicated .
It plays a protective role against Cancer and cardiovascular disease.
As the normal proliferation of epithelial cell growth and differentiation depends on retinoids.

Retinal

Vitamin A is necessary for vision mediated by the rod cells, so deficiency often presents as
“Night blindness”, the first symptom of Vit.A deficiency.
The visual pigment, rhodopsin is found in the rod-cells of the retina and is formed by the binding
of 11-cis retinal to the apoprotein opsin. When rhodopsin is exposed to light it gets decomposed
(bleached), retinal dissociate and isomerized and reduced to all-trans retinol. This reaction is
accompanied by conformational change and elicits a nerve impulse perceived by the brain as
light.
The All-trans –retinol in the absence of light is converted back to 11-cis retinol by isomerase
present in the cytoplasm of the rod cells. This recombines with scotopsin and rhodopsin to
generate another cycle of action on exposure to light.
There is another route for the conversion of trans compound to cis compound in the dark, the
aldehyde group of all-trans retinal is reduced to a primary alcoholic group reversibly by a
dehydrogenase, aided by NADH+ H.The compound formed is OH-trans retinol. This is also
acted by the isomerase to form 11-cis retinol which is reversibly oxidized to 11-cis retinal by
dehydrogenase and NAD+ with the conversion of the alcoholic group to aldehyde group.
Retinol: It gets phosphorylated and serves as an anchor for the growing chain of
oligosaccharides.It prevents fetal resorption, promote spermatogenesis.

Retionic acid: It is translocated to nucleus and control gene expression. It resembles steroid
hormone because of this property.It promotes differentiation of epithelia. Acts as carrier of
oligosaccharides for glycoprotein synthesis.

Vit A deficiency
Vit A affects growth and differentiation of epithelial cells leading to defective epitheliazation, a
condition affecting the cornea of the eye. It produces softening and opacity. Severe Vit A
deficiency leads to progressive keratinization of the cornea and possibly permanent
blindness.Another form, retinoic acid, induces differentiation of epithelial cells .Vit A deficiency
predisposes to gastrointestinal and respiratory tract infections.
Plasma [Vitamin A] may be decreased in states of severe protein deficiency,due to lack of its
carrier protein.Low plasma [Vitamin A]has been shown to be associated with an increased risk
of developing cancer.
• Failure of bone formation (Thick, solid bones).
• Abnormal Keratin forms in the mucosal cells, cause keratomalecia in the eye.
Effect on Skin
The deficeiency causes dryness and roughness of skin developing keratosis of hair folliciles
with concomitant deficiency of Vit-B complex.
Effect on Bone and teeth
Bone growth is markedly impaired .Osteoclastic activity is also hampered, causing defective
bone formation
Effect on general Metabolism
Zinc is necessary to maintain normal plasma concentration of Vit A. This vitamin is also
necessary for the conversion of trioses to glucose perhaps indirectly through adrenal cortex that
synthesizes hormones concerned with Gluconeogenesis.

Hypervitaminosis:
Excessive intake of vitamin A, in humans cause head ache, nausea, vomiting and
dizziness.This might be related to increased spinal fluid pressure. Patien suffers from dry itchy
skin, alopasia, cracking of lips etc. On withdrawl of vit, patient feels relief.
It is virtually impossible to develop e vit.A toxicity by ingesting natural foods.When people
consume supplements, there might be hypervitaminosis.

7. Describe the structure function physiological importance and disease causes by

excess of of cholesterol? Describe biosynthesis of cholesterol?

CHOLESTEROL

• Compounds containing 27 carbon cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene structures with four

rings labeled A to D. Steroids are complex fat-soluble molecules, which are present in the

plasma lipoproteins and outer cell membrane. Cholesterol is one of the important non fatty

acid lipid that is grouped with steroids.Cholesterol is important in many ways:

• For the synthesis of bile salts that are important in lipid digestion and absorption.

• For the synthesis of steroid hormones that are biologically important like the sex hormones

estrogen and progesterone.

• For the synthesis of vitamin D3

• As a structural material in biological membranes.

• As a component of lipoproteins as transport forms of lipid based energy.

Hypercholesterolemia :

Normal cholesterol level is 150-250mg% in blood.

High concentration leads to hyper cholesterolemia.

Excess cholesterol gets deposited under the skin, tendons as Xanthomas.

In some cases the regulatory enzyme HMG-CoA reductase is not sensitive to feed back

regulation. Such people suffer from familial hypercholesterolemia.

Atherosclerosis:

Deposition of lipids in the connective tissues of intima of arteries is called atherosclerosis. It

causes obstruction to blood flow, leading coronary heart disease, stroke, myocardial infarction
etc. Ultimately, the accumulation of cholesterol becomes one of the chief chemical constituents
of the

atherosclerotic plaque that forms at the site.

Circulating monocytes accumulate at the site of injury, ingest excess of lipids.

If the damage to the intima continues, there is infiltration of platelets at the site.

Foam cells and platelets aggregate, and release substances resulting in atheromatic plaque.

Biosynthesis of Cholesterol

Cholesterol is synthesized in the cell cytosol and endoplasmic reticulum from acetylCoA. Liver

and intestine account each for 10% of the total cholesterol synthesized in the body. Almost all

tissues containing nucleated cells can synthesize cholesterol. The synthesis follows five major

steps which include:

•2 moieties of Acetyl CoA condense to form acetyl CoA and acetoacetylCoA,which condense
with another moiety of acetyl CoA to HMG CoA.

• HMG CoA is reduced to Mevalonate by a HMG CoA reductase.

• Mevalonate undergoes three times Phosphorylation, in the presence of 3 ATPs and various

kinases.The product is 3- phosphor-5 pyrophospho mevalonate.

• Dephosphorylation, decarboxylation converts it to Isopentenyl pyrophosphate.

• It is isomerised to dimethyl allyl pyrophosphate by isomerase

• Isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethyl allyl pyrophosphate form Geranyl PP(10C).

• Geranyl PP and one more molecule of Isopentenyl PP→ Farnesyl PP(15C).

• Two of Farnesyl PP join to form Squalene (30C).

● Squalene undergoes cyclization, loses three carbon atoms,aquire a double bond,forms

cholesterol

Regulation of Cholesterol Synthesis:

Acetyl CoA is converted to Mevalonate. It is the committed step in the synthesis of cholesterol.

Almost 800 mg of cholesterol is synthesized in our body .HMG CoA reductase is the regulatory
enzyme.

1. Dietary cholesterol inhibits endogenous synthesis.

2. Fasting leads to low levels of the key enzyme.

3. Insulin activates protein phosphatase which converts it to active enzyme. Glucagon

decreases its activity through c AMP dependent protein kinase.

4. Whenever ATP levels are low, the enzyme is switched off by AMP activated protein

kinase.

5. m RNA for HMG CoA reductase is under the control of sterols . High concentration of

sterols inhibits the synthesis of m RNA, there by the synthesis of enzyme.

6. High levels of degradation products lead to rapid degradation of HMG CoA reductase.

Catabolism of Cholesterol:

Intestinal Bacteria converts cholesterol to coprostanol which is excreted in feces. Cholesterol

breaks down to cholic acid and chenodeoxycholic acid.Both are bile acids.They combine with

sodium, Potassium to form bile salts. The key enzyme α-hydroxylase is inhibited by high

concentration of bile acids.

1. What are lipids?Classify with examples?

Lipids are insoluble organic compounds that consist of fat and oil. The chemical composition
of these molecules includes hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen. • They provide high energy and
perform three important biological functions in the body: to provide structure to cell
membranes, to store energy, and to function as signaling molecules. The classification of
lipids includes phospholipids, triacylglycerols, and sterols.
8.Define and classify proteins? Define and classify amino acids?

The definition of a protein is a substance that has amino acids, compounds and carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes sulfur and is found in many foods.

An amino acid is an organic compound characterized by having a carboxyl group, amino group,

and side-chain attached to a central carbon atom. Amino acids are used as precursors for other
molecules in the body. Linking amino acids together forms polypeptides, which may become
proteins.

Nonpolar Amino Acids

 Ala: Alanine           Gly: Glycine          Ile: Isoleucine           Leu: Leucine
 Met: Methionine  Trp: Tryptophan    Phe: Phenylalanine    Pro: Proline
 Val: Valine

Polar Amino Acids

  Cys: Cysteine         Ser: Serine           Thr: Threonine
 Tyr: Tyrosine       Asn: Asparagine Gln: Glutamine

Polar Basic Amino Acids (Positively Charged)

 His: Histidine      Lys: Lysine           Arg: Arginine

Polar Acidic Amino Acids (Negatively Charged)

 Asp: Aspartate   Glu: Glutamate

While amino acids are necessary for life, not all of them can be produced naturally in the body.
Of the 20 amino acids, 11 can be produced naturally. These nonessential amino acids are
alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartate, cysteine, glutamate, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine,
and tyrosine. With the exception of tyrosine, nonessential amino acids are synthesized from
products or intermediates of crucial metabolic pathways. For example, alanine and aspartate are
derived from substances produced during cellular respiration. Alanine is synthesized from
pyruvate, a product of glycolysis. Aspartate is synthesized from oxaloacetate, an intermediate of
the citric acid cycle. Six of the nonessential amino acids (arginine, cysteine, glutamine, glycine,
proline, and tyrosine) are considered conditionally essential as dietary supplementation may be
required during the course of an illness or in children. Amino acids that can not be produced
naturally are called essential amino acids. They are histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine,
methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. Essential amino acids must be
acquired through diet. Common food sources for these amino acids include eggs, soy protein,
and whitefish. Unlike humans, plants are capable of synthesizing all 20 amino acids.
9. Describe the normal and abnormal constituents of urine?
10. Describe different Tests for abnormal constituents of urine?
11. Describe different coloured reactions of proteins?

Different coloured reactions of proteins include biuret, Xanthoproteic test sakaguchi test,
Liebermanns test, Millons test etc. Following table describes the test, the reagentsresults and
inference the group which answers the test etc.
12. Therapeutic and pharmaceutical applications of enzymes?
13. Notes on water balance ?

Water balance is the concept that the amount of water lost from the body is equal to the amount
of water consumed. ... Our thirst center can detect very small changes in the water level within
our bodies. The recommended daily intake for water in the U.S. is 3.7 liters per day for males
and 2.7 liters per day for females.

Dehydration, a net loss of water that results in insufficient water in blood and other tissues. The
water that leaves the body, as exhaled air, sweat, or urine, is ultimately extracted from blood
plasma. As the blood becomes more concentrated, the thirst response—a sequence of
physiological processes—is triggered. Osmoreceptors are sensory receptors in the thirst center in
the hypothalamus that monitor the concentration of solutes (osmolality) of the blood. If blood
osmolality increases above its ideal value, the hypothalamus transmits signals that result in a
conscious awareness of thirst. The person should (and normally does) respond by drinking water.

The hypothalamus of a dehydrated person also releases antidiuretic hormone (ADH) through the
posterior pituitary gland. ADH signals the kidneys to recover water from urine, effectively
diluting the blood plasma. To conserve water, the hypothalamus of a dehydrated person also
sends signals via the sympathetic nervous system to the salivary glands in the mouth. The signals
result in a decrease in watery, serous output (and an increase in stickier, thicker mucus output).
These changes in secretions result in a “dry mouth” and the sensation of thirst. Decreased blood
volume resulting from water loss has two additional effects. First, baroreceptors, blood-pressure
receptors in the arch of the aorta and the carotid arteries in the neck, detect a decrease in blood
pressure that results from decreased blood volume. The heart is ultimately signaled to increase its
rate and/or strength of contractions to compensate for the lowered blood pressure.

Second, the kidneys have a renin-angiotensin hormonal system that increases the production of
the active form of the hormone angiotensin II, which helps stimulate thirst, but also stimulates
the release of the hormone aldosterone from the adrenal glands. Aldosterone increases the
reabsorption of sodium in the distal tubules of the nephrons in the kidneys, and water follows
this reabsorbed sodium back into the blood.

If adequate fluids are not consumed, dehydration results and a person’s body contains too little
water to function correctly. A person who repeatedly vomits or who has diarrhea may become
dehydrated, and infants, because their body mass is so low, can become dangerously dehydrated
very quickly. Endurance athletes such as distance runners often become dehydrated during long
races. Dehydration can be a medical emergency, and a dehydrated person may lose
consciousness, become comatose, or die, if his or her body is not rehydrated quickly.

Water intoxication, also known as water poisoning, hyperhydration, overhydration,

or water toxemia, is a potentially fatal disturbance in brain functions that results when the normal
balance of electrolytes in the body is pushed outside safe limits by excessive water intake.

14. Name the ketone bodies and tests to detect them?

 Ketone bodies: Chemicals that the body makes when there is not enough insulin in the blood and
it must break down fat instead of the sugar glucose for energy. The ketone bodies -- acetone,
acetoacetate, and beta-hydroxybutyrate -- are toxic acidic chemicals.

The ketone bodies are released by the liver into the blood. ketones in blood test measures the
level of ketones in your blood. Ketones are substances that your body makes if your cells don't
get enough glucose (blood sugar). Glucose is your body's main source of energy.
Ketones can show up in blood or urine. High ketone levels may indicate diabetic ketoacidosis
(DKA), a complication of diabetes that can lead to a coma or even death. A ketones in blood test
can prompt you to get treatment before a medical emergency occurs.
Other names: Ketone bodies (blood), serum ketones, beta-hydroxybutyric acid, acetoacetate

You may need a ketones in blood test if you have diabetes and symptoms of DKA. DKA
symptoms include:

 Excessive thirst
 Increased urination
 Nausea and vomiting
 Dry or flushed skin
 Shortness of breath
 Fruity smell on breath
 Fatigue
 Confusion
Other conditions can cause you to test positive for blood ketones. These include:

 Eating disorders, malnutrition, and other conditions where the body does not take in
enough calories
 Pregnancy. Sometimes pregnant women will develop blood ketones. If high levels are
found, it can mean gestational diabetes, a type of diabetes that only affects pregnant
women.

Testing for ketone bodies is based on a nitroprusside reaction. Acetoacetic acid reacts with

sodium nitroferricyanide and glycine in an alkaline medium to produce a violet-to-purple colored
complex. The reagent strip method can detect as little as 5 mg/dL acetoacetic acid in urine.

15. Coloured reactions of proteins? Explain any two?

1) Xanthoproteic reaction
The addition of concentrated nitric acid to protein solutions generally causes the formation of a

white precipitate which turns yellow upon heating, the colour becoming orange when the

solution is made alkaline. Insoluble proteins are turned yellow and orange on the surface. The

xanthoproteic reaction is due to nitration of the phenyl rings present in tyrosine, phenylalanine,

and tryptophan to give yellow nitrosubstitution products, which become orange-coloured upon

the addition of alkali. Most proteins give the xanthoproteic reaction.

2) Biuret Reaction

When protein solutions are made strongly alkaline with sodium or potassium hydroxide and

when very dilute copper sulphate is added, a purplish to pinkish violet is obtained, the colour

depending upon the complexity of protein. Proteins give a purplish violet colour while proteoses

and peptones give a pink colour. Peptides give a very light pink colour and gelatin gives a blue

colour. This biuret reaction is used as a test for the presence of proteins in biological materials. It

is also used as an excellent method for the quantitative estimation of proteins.

16. Structure of Glucose Fructose maltose and sucrose? Tests to differentiate the sugars?
17. Transamination and deamination reaction of amino acids with examples?
18. Tests for identification of carbohydrates?

19. Role of minerals in human body

Mineral Function Sources

Sodium Needed for proper fluid balance,
nerve transmission, and muscle
contraction
Table salt, soy sauce; large
amounts in processed foods;
small amounts in milk, breads,
vegetables, and unprocessed
meats

Chloride Needed for proper fluid balance, Table salt, soy sauce; large
stomach acid amounts in processed foods;
small amounts in milk, meats,
breads, and vegetables

Potassium Needed for proper fluid balance, Meats, milk, fresh fruits and
 nerve transmission, and muscle
contraction
Calcium Important for healthy bones and
teeth; helps muscles relax and
contract; important in nerve
functioning, blood clotting, blood
pressure regulation, immune
system health
Phosphorus Important for healthy bones and
teeth; found in every cell; part of
the system that maintains acid-base
balance
Magnesium Found in bones; needed for making
protein, muscle contraction, nerve
transmission, immune system
health
Sulfur Found in protein molecules
Trace minerals (microminerals)
The body needs trace minerals in very small amounts. Note that iron is considered to be a trace
mineral, although the amount needed is somewhat more than for other microminerals.
Trace minerals
Mineral Function
Iron Part of a molecule (hemoglobin) found
in red blood cells that carries oxygen in
the body; needed for energy
metabolism
vegetables, whole grains,
legumes
Milk and milk products;
canned fish with bones
(salmon, sardines); fortified
tofu and fortified soy milk;
greens (broccoli, mustard
greens); legumes
Meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk,
processed foods (including
soda pop)
Nuts and seeds; legumes; leafy,
green vegetables; seafood;
chocolate; artichokes; "hard"
drinking water
Occurs in foods as part of
protein: meats, poultry, fish,
eggs, milk, legumes, nuts
Sources
Organ meats; red meats;
fish; poultry; shellfish
(especially clams); egg
yolks; legumes; dried
fruits; dark, leafy greens;
iron-enriched breads and
cereals; and fortified
cereals
Zinc Part of many enzymes; needed for Meats, fish, poultry,
making protein and genetic material; leavened whole grains,
has a function in taste perception, vegetables
wound healing, normal fetal
development, production of sperm,
normal growth and sexual maturation,
immune system health

Iodine Found in thyroid hormone, which helps Seafood, foods grown in

regulate growth, development, and iodine-rich soil, iodized
metabolism salt, bread, dairy products

Copper Part of many enzymes; needed for iron Legumes, nuts and seeds,
metabolism whole grains, organ meats,
drinking water

Manganes Part of many enzymes Widespread in foods,

e especially plant foods

Fluoride Involved in formation of bones and Drinking water (either

teeth; helps prevent tooth decay fluoridated or naturally
containing fluoride), fish,
and most teas