Lake Fuquene (Colombia)

Mauricio Valderrama, María Pinilla-Vargas, Germán I. Andrade,

Eugenio Valderrama-Escallón, and Sandra Hernández

Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Ecosystem Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Conservation Status and Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Threats and Future Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Cross-References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Abstract
Lake Fúquene is the second largest high altitude lake in Colombia and it is very
important for the survival and prosperity of the inhabitants of its catchment area.
Additionally, Fúquene harbors endemic and threatened fauna and flora, and it is a
key habitat for migratory bird species. This wetland supports fish stocks, provides
water for human consumption, irrigation for agriculture, flow regulation and
materials for handcrafts. The lake has been subjected to years of unsustainable
practices and inappropriate management policies. Climate change poses a threat
to the lake’s ability to provide essential environmental services and therefore

M. Valderrama (*) • M. Pinilla-Vargas • S. Hernández

Fundación Humedales, Bogotá, Colombia
e-mail: mvalde@fundacionhumedales.org; mpinilla@fundacionhumedales.org;
sandrahe@fundacionhumedales.org
G.I. Andrade
Universidad de Los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia
e-mail: giandradep@gmail.com
E. Valderrama-Escallón
Fundación Humedales, Universidad El Bosque, Bogotá, Colombia
e-mail: evalderr@fundacionhumedales.org

# Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2016 1

C.M. Finlayson et al. (eds.), The Wetland Book,
DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-6173-5_282-1
2 M. Valderrama et al.

policies must assure measures towards adaptation and reduction of the vulnera-
bility of the communities. Whole catchment policies, restoration efforts, sustain-
able agricultural and economic activities and sewage treatment are some of the
recommendations to guarantee the ecosystem’s health for future generations.

Keywords
Fúquene • Colombia • Northern Andes • Wetland management • Socio-ecological
conflicts

Introduction

Lake Fúquene is one of the most important freshwater bodies of the high altitude
ecosystems in the Northern Andes. Because of its uniqueness and the nature of the
threats it faces, this lake is strategic for both the communities living around it and
professionals involved in water management disciplines.
In this chapter, we look into the successes and failures of pursuing sustainable
management of the lake and raise a discussion into actions aimed to preserve the
ecosystem services it provides. Finally, we present a strategy for the adaptation of
this ecosystem and its human communities to climate change.

Location

Lake Fúquene is located in South America, in the Colombian Northern Andes (5
300
N; 73
500 W), in the Ubaté River Basin (1,752 km2 surface; Map 1). The lake has a
surface area of 3,260 ha, a volume of 82.5 Mm3, and a mean depth of 2.5 m (JICA

Table 1 Lake Fúquene Parameter Value

water quality (Adapted
Temperature 18,1
C
from: JICA 2000; Franco
et al. 2011a; Asociación de Dissolved oxygen 4,8 mg/L
Pescadores Los Fundadores Total dissolved solids 47,5 ppm
and Fundación Humedales Conductivity 98,5 us/cm
2011). BOD (Biological pH 6,78
oxygen demand) and COD
Alkalinity 46,35 mg/L CaCO3
(Chemical oxygen demand)
Hardness 77,1 mg/L CaCO4
Organic matter in sediment 16,4 %
Nitrites 0,002 mg/L
Nitrates 0,21 mg/L
Phosphates 0,13 mg/L
Total phosphorus in sediments 478
BOD 2,5
COD 25,6 mg/kg
mg/l
mg/L
Lake Fuquene (Colombia) 3

Table 2 Lake Fúquene Group N
spp.

biodiversity (Adapted from:
Fishes 6
Hilty and Brown 1986;
Olivares 1969; JICA 2000; Macro-crustaceans 1
Asociación de Pescadores Birds 125
los Fundadores and Mammals 12
Fundación Humedales Amphibians 7
2011)
Reptiles 5
Aquatic plants 17
Phytoplankton 27
Coastal plants 20
Surrounding flora 87

2000). The lake is situated in a high altitude tropical region (2,500 m above sea level)
near the nation’s capital Bogotá with ca. 8,000,000 citizens. The 29 km Ubaté River
is the main inflowing tributary to the lake; and the only discharge is by the Suárez
River which flows for 120 km before joining the Sogamoso River and eventually
empties into the Caribbean Sea via the Magdalena River. The lake is part of a
wetland complex that includes other small water bodies, like the lagoons of
Cucunubá and Palacio.
The weather is characterized by an almost constant temperature and humidity
varying between 70 % and 79 %. The mean rainfall in the central part of the lake is
1,030 mm per year and the average duration of sunlight is 5.3 h/day (JICA 2000).
The water quality indicates eutrophic conditions (see Table 1).
Historically the lake has lost 76 % of its original surface compared to the
minimum level of year 1934 (Valderrama et al. 2013). The water surface has
declined 29.6 ha per year between 1940 and 2009 (Franco et al. 2011b).

Biodiversity

Lake Fúquene represents a local “hotspot” of freshwater biodiversity; 307 different

species have been registered at the lake and its surrounding area (Table 2).
Among the species present in the lake, it is important to highlight the catfishes
Eremophilus mutissi and Pygidium bogotense, the small characid Grundulus
bogotensis and the river crab Neoestrengeria macropa as they are endangered
endemic species (Mojica et al. 2012). Also, there are two exotic species present:
the goldfish Carassius auratus and the carp Cyprinus carpio which were introduced
to the lake. Fish is still important as a food resource for local people.
Fúquene’s area represents a key habitat in Colombia for globally threatened bird
species and subspecies. For example, the extinct Andean grebe Podiceps andinus
and subspecies of the ducks Anas georgica niceforoi and Anas cyanoptera borreroi
were found in the lake until the 1960s. A high proportion of the bird species found in
Fúquene (43 of 125 spp.) are migratory (41 boreal, 2 austral), 39 spp. are aquatic,
3 are endemic, and 5 are threatened (Renjifo et al. 2002), i.e., Apolinar's wren
4 M. Valderrama et al.

Map 1 Geographical position of Lake Fúquene and topography of the surrounding area

Cistothorus apolinari, Bogota rail Rallus semiplumbeus, spot-flanked gallinule

Porphyriops melanops, ruddy duck Oxyura jamaicensis, and subtropical doradito
Pseudocolopteryx acutipennis. Other species include the blue-winged tail duck Anas
discors, the red duck Anas cyanoptera, the American osprey Pandion haliaetus, the
Lake Fuquene (Colombia) 5

lesser scaup duck Aythya affinis, and the southern pochard Netta erytrophtalma.
Some bird species are occasional, e.g., ruddy duck Oxyura jamaicensis and the
endemic masked duck Nomonyx dominicus. Among the aquatic weeds and cattails
are found the least bittern Ixobrychus exilis and the yellow-hooded black bird
Chrysomus icterocephalus.
The lake provides habitat for four species of amphibians: the green-dotted tree
frog Dendropsophus labialis, the Bogotá robber frog Pristimantis bogotensis, the
cream-backed poison frog Hyloxalus subpunctatus, and Buckley’s giant glass frog
Centrolene buckleyi, and four species of reptiles: the Bogotá Anadia Anadia
bogotensis, the striped lightbulb lizard Riama estriata, the water snake Liophis
epinephelus, and the ground snake Atractus sp.
The vegetation of the lake is mainly composed of emerging aquatic plants such as
the rush Scirpus californicus or the cattail Thypha angustifolia, floating plants
including the water hyacinth Eichiornia crassipes and the duck weed Lemna
minor, and the submerged Brazilian elodea Egeria densa. The surrounding land-
scape consists of a dry slope covered in subxerophytic vegetation, with important
plant species such as the endemic Agave cundinamarcensis and small relict stands of
formerly extensive neotropical oak forests Quercus humboldtii on wetter slopes on
the east side of the lake.

Ecosystem Services

During Pre-Columbian times, Lake Fúquene was a sacred place to the Muisca (the
original inhabitants of the region) who named it “Bed of the Vixen Goddess”.
Nowadays, the lake is still an important part of the popular traditions of the
population, but its spiritual meaning has faded.
Currently, Lake Fúquene provides freshwater to ca. 105,000 rural and 76,000
urban inhabitants. The water provided is used for human consumption as well as
supporting agricultural activities (e.g., dairy farming, cattle breeding, and crops) and
water distribution to an irrigation district. The lake also contributes with flow
regulation; plant material used for handcrafts; and supports fish stocks and habitat
to endemic, migratory, and threatened bird species.
In terms of economic activities, the region is dedicated to agriculture with ca.
50 factories of different capacities producing dairy products. A continuous growth in
the number of cattle has taken place over the last 10 years, from 120,232 cows
(2001) to 146,218 cows (2010) (Valderrama et al. 2013). The area’s per capita gross
domestic product (GDP) is around US$ 2,455 (JICA 2000).
Currently only 48 of the nearly 200 fishermen reported 20 years ago remain
fishing at Lake Fúquene (Fig. 1). Of these, 69 % derive their income from fishing and
the rest fish to supplement other activities such as cattle raising, agriculture, and sale
of rush handcrafts. The average monthly income deriving from fishing activities is
very low at just US$68 which represents less than one third of the country’s legal
monthly minimum wage.
6 M. Valderrama et al.

Two native species are caught by fishermen: the catfish “Capitán de la sabana”
(Eremophilus mutisii) and the crab “Cangrejo de la sabana” (Neoestrengeria
macropa), along with two introduced species: the carp and goldfish. The annual
fish harvest from the lake is 19 t and valued at ca. US$ 36,000. Carp is the most
frequently caught species, followed by catfish, and 36 % of the total harvest is
destined for the fishermen’s family use, which in turn translates to a fish consump-
tion of 53.3 kg per person per year. Fúquene clearly represents an important food
source for the community, guaranteeing food security, especially when compared to
the national average consumption of 6 kg of fish per person per year (Valderrama and
Hernández 2007; Asociación de Pescadores Los Fundadores and Fundación
Humedales 2011).
Handcrafts are another economic and social activity that employs more than
175 people and their families who sell baskets and hampers made of native plants
like rush or cattail in the local markets (Hernández and Valderrama 2007).

Conservation Status and Management

Five centuries of transformations have changed the natural conditions (i.e., climate,
hydrological pulses) of the lake and associated wetlands into a problematic human
regulated irrigation district (Andrade et al. 2013).
The catchment basin of Lake Fúquene has suffered an intensive process of
deforestation. Only 5 % of the land cover is primary and secondary forests (JICA
2000). During the last 22 years, the natural cover of the basin lost 107 ha (7 %) at a
rate of 5 ha per year. The resulting erosion has increased the sedimentation rate of the
lake from approximately 0.4 mm per year over the last 10,000 years to 1 mm per year
during the last 500 years (van der Hammen 1998). This trend has caused a decrease
of 2.5 m in the depth of the lake and an estimated loss of 50 % of its water storage
capacity (Franco et al. 2011b).
The assessment of the lake water’s physicochemical conditions and biological
indicators reveals poor water quality; and in several spots of the lake these indica-
tors reach critical status and a high level of eutrophication (Asociación de Pesca-
dores Los Fundadores and Fundación Humedales 2011). Dissolved oxygen in the
water has decreased and the levels of phosphorus and nitrogen are high. The levels
of biological oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand are high according to
national standards. The availability of water is also compromised with a medium to
high vulnerability index (Franco et al. 2011b). Water contamination is caused
primarily by sewage, milk processing by-products, and water drainage from cattle
ranches.
The situation described above is exacerbated by the expansion of invasive aquatic
plants – floating water hyacinth Eichiornia crassipes and submerged elodea Elodea
densa which reduce the extent of open water. During 2003–2008 the rate of increase
of invasive aquatic vegetation was 64 ha per annum; and when projected to
2020–2025 suggests there will be no open water in the lake.
Lake Fuquene (Colombia) 7

Environmental degradation due to low water quality and loss of habitat has
affected the fishery as well. In the last 10 years fish catches declined 80 % affecting
food security of fishermen who in turn abandoned the fishery by 90 % (Asociación
de Pescadores los Fundadores and Fundación Humedales 2011). Two endangered
native species have disappeared from the harvest: the small sardine Grundulus
bogotensis and the crayfish Neostrengeria macropa. The principal native fish in
the fishery, the catfish E. mutisii, is overexploited.
Another important environmental impact was the construction of a peripheral
channel that was intended to address the contraction in the amount of open
water, but instead caused a disruption of the hydraulic regime affecting water
circulation patterns and constraining the wetland’s area (Useche 2003). The
channel also isolated the central body of the lake from the lakeside ecosystems.
Water level fluctuations and pulses now depend on the management of the
floodgates.
The Regional Autonomous Environmental Authority (CAR) has proposed a
management plan for the lake (CAR and CI 2011), which has not yet been approved.
Recently, the same authority defined an action plan (CAR 2015) that recommends
the declaration of Lake Fúquene as a protected area under the District of Soil
Conservation category. This category prioritizes the conservation of soil and water
over productive activities and thus restricts potential uses of the area, creating
conflicts of interest especially with the local dairy industry. The action plan also

Fig. 1 Lake Fúquene’s fishermen inspecting their catch (Photo credit: Sandra Hernández # Rights
remain with the author)
8 M. Valderrama et al.

calls for a functional assessment of the lake and suggests actions aimed to improve
hydraulic conditions. These actions include the removal of invasive aquatic vegeta-
tion, the recovery of degraded soil and aquatic habitat, the management of sedi-
ments, an economic assessment of the services provided by the ecosystem,
improving the connectivity to other associated wetlands, and the development of
environmental education programs.
Although the Colombian Authority of Aquaculture and Fishing, AUNAP, regu-
lates the fisheries by types of fishing gear permitted, fish catch sizes, and fishing
seasons through Resolution 3,897 (2004), these regulations are no longer relevant
given the lake’s environmental problems. The lake has however been declared an
Area of Importance for Bird Conservation (AICA) according to criteria established
by Bird Life International which highlights the lake’s importance and the need to
apply effective management practices.
Van der Hammen (2003), Fundación Humedales (2007b), and Andrade (2010)
recommended measures to improve the environmental sustainability of the lake.
Among these are: increase the water level of the lake through better management of
current floodgates; the establishment of protected areas in the surrounding area;
restoration of native forests; and preservation of habitat for fish and birds. Addition-
ally, Fundación Humedales has contributed to the understanding of Lake Fúquene
using models of current and possible future scenarios by varying provisioning of
ecosystem services and decision-making processes. Researchers at this
nongovernmental organization (NGO) have also identified social and ecological
barriers to achieve sustainable management of the lake, addressed the vulnerability
of the basin to climate change, and proposed a strategy for climate change adaptation
(Franco et al. 2011b, 2015).
The current state of Lake Fúquene is the product of a history of transformation
expressed in the decrease of the lake’s area and the change in structure and function
of the ecosystem (depth, sediments, and introduced species, among others). Cur-
rently, the wetland system is part of an irrigation district that has an objective to
improve the pastures for cattle raising and dairy production. This reality creates
“threats” (in the sense of external processes on a natural area) and also changes the
natural water regime of the system due to the artificial regulation of the water flow.
Therefore, lake management is focused on maintaining the pastures and does not
consider measures for climate change adaption. This will result over the long term in
a continual reduction of the lake’s open water and the transformation of the system
into an extensive swamp with possible water shortages in “El Niño” (Southern
Oscillation) years and floods in “La Niña” years.
The NGOs, Fundación Humedales and the Global Nature Fund (GNF), as a
means to improve the lake’s water quality and restore its natural attributes are
building constructed wetlands for the wastewater treatment of sewage effluents
from small towns in the lake’s basin. Three of these treatment systems are already
operating with community participation in San Miguel de Sema, Susa, and Fúquene.
Both institutions have since 2004 promoted a participatory biodiversity monitoring
program.
Lake Fuquene (Colombia) 9

Threats and Future Challenges

Although changes in ecosystem functions seem inevitable, a comprehensive man-

agement plan for the water bodies can still improve the provision of environmental
services and preserve biodiversity. Information on the factors affecting the hydrol-
ogy and provisioning of ecosystem services throughout the catchment and its
contributing rivers is necessary to enhance management plans for the wetland. For
example, management objectives for Lake Fúquene have shifted from drainage to
provide more land for agriculture in the early twentieth century, towards the current
artificially regulated irrigation system. Neither of these approaches has been suc-
cessful in the protection of the natural resources. Fúquene needs a change in policy
towards an ecosystem-based approach that includes the stakeholders and provides
adaptation strategies to face the threats of climate change (JICA 2000; van der
Hammen 2003; Andrade 2010).
The conservation and restoration of the lake and all the benefits that it provides to
the communities should be the main management objective. With the inclusion of
Colombia as a signatory to the Ramsar Convention of Wetlands of International
Importance (Law 357 of 1997), and with Lake Fúquene as part of the Living Lakes
Conservation Network (since 2000), new opportunities not yet realized for inte-
grated resource management policies became available.
Colombia’s high Andean wetlands are particularly sensitive to climate change,
and it is essential that many dependent human communities adapt to that inevitabil-
ity. An adaptive management plan for climate change requires acknowledgement not
only of the magnitude of the climate threats but of the aspects that determine
vulnerability (Franco et al. 2013).
Analyzing Lake Fúquene’s vulnerability to climate change, Franco et al. (2011)
proposed a desired scenario for a successful adaptive climate change strategy for this
ecosystem that identifies actions to counteract the principal challenges the wetland
faces: “The lake and its associated wetlands will be immersed in an active process of
planning and environmental action, so that its irreversible environmental deteriora-
tion is halted and the foundations of the management plan aimed to consolidate it as
a wetland of international importance are laid.” It is necessary to increase the
resilience of social-environmental systems undergoing environmental transforma-
tions. In order to achieve this it is essential that the ecosystem components and the
interactions between them are understood, so that the outcome of management
actions can be predicted with less uncertainty.
To accomplish the latter, there must be an integral planning process that directs
the social welfare, economic, and human development towards the conservation,
restoration, recovery, and sustainable use of the territory. Pursuing the following
objectives based upon the methodology of Hallie and Luers (2006) to assess the
vulnerability of social-environmental systems will aid the process:

(a) Include the entire catchment and wetland complex into the management and
adaptation plans, not just Lake Fúquene
10 M. Valderrama et al.

(b) Promote ecological restoration and conservation efforts in the lake

(c) Support social development and community involvement in conservation
initiatives

To ensure the resilience of the territory, the quality of the water supply, and the
sustainable management of soils under changing environmental conditions due to
climate change, it is necessary to have a forest cover on at least 36 % of the basin area
in the next 20 years (Franco et al. 2011). Additionally, the activities that occur in the
basin, traditional (their environmental impacts should however be reduced) or as yet
unknown that might arise from the community or governmental efforts, must be
directed towards sustainable use of the resources. This requires political will in the
long term focused on a model of administration and management that ensures
environmental security and, above all, an improvement of rural productivity, com-
petitiveness, and the quality of life of the people.
To achieve a successful and long-term adaptation to climate change and the
provision of ecosystem services in the Lake Fúquene Basin, it is important to ensure
the protection of the territory as a whole. Particular attention to other wetlands in the
complex is needed to guarantee the water supply, and conservation and restoration of
vegetation relicts currently considered almost extinct is vital (Valderrama
et al. 2013). On the other hand, a better and more efficient use of the soil and the
reduction of natural hazards will improve the livelihoods of local communities that
depend on the lake for their survival and income. This in turn will be reflected in the
slowdown of the widespread environmental deterioration and loss of biodiversity.

Cross-References

▶ Alien Plants and Wetland Biotic Dysfunction

▶ Freshwater Lakes
▶ Lake Conchalí Ramsar site/Laguna Conchalí, Sitio Ramsar (Chile)
▶ Wetlands of Chile. Biodiversity, Endemism and Conservation Challenges

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