CYANOBACTERIAL AND ALGAL

BIOTECHNOLOGY
Unit iv
Algae in pollution as pollution indicators, eutrophication
agents and role in Bioremediation. Cyanobacterial and algal
toxins, allelopathic interactions, Algae in global warming
and environmental sustainability. Cyanobacteria and selected
microalgae in agriculture.

Submitted by:
Ankita Mishra
 Algae as a Pollution Indicator

• Algal population of a water body is an

indicator of the water pollution status

• A study of water algal population can be used

to identify water pollution problems of
following types.
 Why are algae such good indicators?

Naturally high population

Rapid response time

Identification to a species level

Ease of sampling

Tolerance or sensitivity to specific environmental

conditions known
 Pollution Indicators

Dinobryon Pandorina

Scenedesmus
Anabaena Schroederia

Oscillatoria
Staurastrum

Aphanzinomenon Pediastrum
Cosmarium

Closterium Microcystis
Microsterias
 Algae indicates water acidity…

• Water Acidity:
– Water acidity can be caused by acid forming
chemicals or acid rains
– Increase in the acidity of water initially causes
general increase in filamentous algae.
– High levels of water acidity due to pollution
results in decrease in planktonic algae in the
water body
 Algae as PH indicator…

• PH alterations:
– Occurrence of different species of Diatoms can be
an indicator of PH level of the water.

– Changes in the species composition of diatoms

very accurately indicate the pH level of the water
body.
 Algal bloom occurs when there is eutrophication…

• Sewage, organic matter and chemical

fertilizers:
– Increase in the organic matter or chemical
fertilizers that are washed off into the water body
results in increased nutrient supply for algal
growth.
– Such a condition of increased nutrient supply is
termed eutrophication
– Eutrophication causes water blooms of various
types of algae
 Algae as Heavy metal pollution indicator…

• Heavy metals:
– Some algae like Cladophora and Stigeoclonium
absorb and accumulate many heavy metals from
the water.
– Thus the excessive growth of these algae in the
water indicates pollution due to heavy metals.
 Algae and Oil pollution…

• Oil pollution:
– Excessive growth of algae like Duniella tertiolacta,
Skeletonema costatum, Cricosphaera carterae,
Amphidium carterae, Cyclotella cryptica and
Pavlova lutheri indicate oil pollution of water
bodies.
 Algae as general health indicator of a water body…

• Like all species in an ecosystem, algae are

indicators of the health of the system.
– No Algae: Sterile water in a natural environment
often indicates the presence of toxic materials or
pH problems.
– Slight Algae Growth: A slight growth of algae
limited to just one species may indicate the
presence of some pollution so that only hardy
species can exist.
Algae as general health indicator of a water body…

– Slight Algae Growth (of Several Species): A

diverse growth of algae indicates normal
conditions
– Prolific Algae Growth: Eutrophication (high levels
of nutrients in the water) indicates polluting
sources contributing phosphorus and nitrogen
compounds.
– Algal Blooms: Extremely high levels of nutrients
lead to clumps of algae which die and accumulate
leaving floating mats of decomposing algae.
 Algae for waste water treatment
• Problems with Current Practices
– Many wastewater treatment processes generate
large amounts of sludge that must be sent off-site
for disposal (increases cost).
– Most wastewater treatment processes cannot
effectively respond to diurnal, seasonal, or long-
term variations in the composition of wastewater.
– High energy requirements will make many
wastewater treatment methods unsuitable for
low per-capita energy consumption countries.
 Problems with Current Practices…

– High operation and maintenance requirements,

including production of large volumes of sludge
(solid waste material), make them economically
unviable for many regions.

Microalgal cultures offer an interesting alternative

for waste water treatment
 Algae for waste water treatment…

• A method of waste treatment and algae recovery

involves making available in a first pond open to
light and air a first body of waste water such as
sewage containing algae.
• The first body is retained, usually several days,
and then transferred to a second pond open to
light and air.
• To the second body some algal nutrients are
added and the body is continuously agitated
maintain the growing algae in suspension.
 Algae for waste water treatment…

• After several days in the second, mixed material

is transferred to a third pond.
• The third pond is shielded from the light and is
dark and is kept unagitated and quiet.
• The algae is settled by gravity to the bottom.
• The remaining clean, supernatant liquid is
withdrawn from the top while the settled algae
are removed from the bottom.
• Some of the removed algae may be re-circulated
to the first pond for inoculation.
 Waste water treatment
• Macro- and micro-algae can be applied to sequester, remove or
transform pollutants such as excess nutrients, xenobiotics, and
heavy metals from wastewater, or CO2 from exhausts. These
applications are known as phycoremediation.
• The treatment processes yield an output in the form of algal
biomass that can be used to produce chemicals, biofuels or biogas
as by-products (Munoz and Guieysse 2006).

• Removal of nutrients
• Removal of organic pollutants
• Removal of heavy metals
Wastewater Treatment:
cyanobacteria

One example of
conventional
wastewater
treatment process
Wastewater Treatment: Algae System
• Sodium alginate binds tightly to radioactive such substances as strontium,
calcium, barium, cadmium and radium.

• Cows have been fed sodium alginate, which binds to radioactive strontium 90,
causing it to pass out of the body without any of it getting absorbed. Animals
can consume radioactive materials if they have been dispersed into the
environment.

This occurred when the

Cernobyl nuclear
reactor in Russia
released large amounts
of radiation into the
atmosphere in 1986.
 Algae in Pollution control

• In recent times, algae has found applications

in controlling pollution. They act as biofilters,
and so are being used in the treatment of
waste water to make it suitable for human
use.
• Even some power plants also use algae to
reduce the carbon dioxide emissions, where
carbon dioxide is poured into some tanks or
ponds in which algae are fed. In farmlands,
they are used for capturing the run-off
fertilizers that can pollute the water bodies.
The Seto Inland Sea is the largest enclosed coastal sea in Japan and is also a major
fishing ground including aquacultures of fish, bivalves and seaweeds. The
incidents of red tides dramatically increased in frequency and scale in the Seto
Inland Sea along with serious eutrophication in the 1960s and 1970s.

The maximum incident of 299 was recorded in 1976, but the incident has since
shown a clear decreasing trend, reaching about 100 per year in the late 1980s by
virtue of regulation by law, and this level has been maintained thereafter with the
level of nutrients supporting red tide occurrences. The “Law Concerning Special
Measures for Conservation of the Environment of the Seto Inland Sea” was
legislated in 1973 and industrial loading was decreased to half the level of 1972.
The important red tide organisms causing huge fishery damages by fish-kill are
Chattonella antiqua, C. marina, C. ovata and Heterosigma akashiwo
(Raphidophyceae), and Karenia mikimotoi and Cochlodinium polykrikoides
(Dinophyceae).
The maximum fishery damage (death of 14.2 million yellowtails) was
7.1 billion yen (about US $60 million) caused by C. antiqua in
Harima-Nada in 1972. In 1988, a novel red-tide dinoflagellate species
Heterocapsa circularisquama appeared for the first time, and has
repeatedly killed both natural and aquacultured bivalves, with the
highest damage of 3.9 billion yen to cultured oysters in Hiroshima
Bay in 1998.

Among the important red-tide organisms, C. antiqua, H.

circularisquama and C. polykrikoides are rated as extremely harmful
species that can easily reach the warning level of fishery damage by
consuming only small amounts of nutrients.

In toxic blooms, the dinoflagellate Alexandrium tamarense has

become dominant in the Seto Inland Sea in the spring season, causing
toxicity in short-necked clams and cultured oysters almost every year.
Many countermeasures have been applied for harmful algal blooms
in Japan. Laws for the regulation of water quality have been most
effective in decreasing red-tide occurrences.

No physical and chemical controls have been successful except for

clay treatments. Clay spraying has been investigated and
implemented in Kyushu and Korea for the removal of C.
polykrikoides red tides. As environment-friendly mitigation
strategies for red tides, biological controls using algicidal bacteria
and viruses are proposed.

A new finding of the abundant existence of algicidal bacteria on the

surface of seaweeds suggests that co-culturing fish and seaweed is a
prevention strategy for harmful algal blooms by virtue of the
continuous release of many algicidal bacteria to the surrounding
seawater. The artificial development of seaweed beds would also be
effective as a prevention strategy for red tides.
24
 Algae and Cyanobacteria (Blue‐Green Algae)

Algae (CO2, Sunlight, Water, micronutrients):

• – Relatively very high rate of growth, No agriculture land , Sea water is fine.
• – Both, light dependent and light independent phases can be optimally used.
• – Fuel (oil and sugars) as well as food/feed supplement.
• – Low solid yield, harvesting and extraction of cell contents are major issues.
• – Cells have to be sacrificed continuously and require continuous nutrients.

Cyanobacteria (BGA): (CO2, Sunlight, Water, micronutrients)

• – Photosynthetic bacteria (Prokaryotic), very high growth rate. Sea water, No
Agri land.
• – Relatively easy for genetic manipulation (vis‐à‐vis) Eukaryotic Algae.
• – Can easily excrete the desired contents (Oil, Alcohol, Chemicals) into the
medium and need not be harvested regularly. No extraction of chemicals.
• – Lower requirement of nutrients.

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 Blue green algae toxins

Toxins (microcystin and anatoxin) are made by

some BGA cells

Microcystin affects liver, anatoxin affects brain

Toxins are released when cells die

Waters immediately following the disappearance of

a bloom might have a high toxin concentration

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 Cyanobacterial Toxins

• 1/3 Cyanobacteria studied produce toxins

• What is a toxin –
– A toxic substance (usually protein based) produced by
a living organism
• Toxins are classified as:
• Hepatotoxic – can cause liver failure
• Neurotoxic – disrupt nerve and brain function
• Non-specific Toxins
• Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) effects

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 Cyanobacterial Toxins

• Several documented cases of human poisoning

with various cyanobacteria have been identified
• Little dose-response information is available in
humans
• In general, animal data has shown that neurotoxic
toxins can produce severe acute effects but degrade
rapidly while hepatotoxic compounds are more
persistent and accumulate in human liver

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Various toxins produced by cyanobacteria
Genus Toxins produced
Anabaena Anatoxins, Microcystins, Saxitoxins
Anabaenopsis Microcystins
Aphanizomenon Saxitoxins, Cylindrospermopsins
Cylindrospermopsis Cylindrospermopsins, Saxitoxins
Hapalosiphon Microcystins
Lyngbya Aplysiatoxins, Lyngbyatoxin a
Microcystis Microcystins
Nodularia Nodularin
Nostoc Microcystins
Phormidium (Oscillatoria) Anatoxin
Anatoxins, Aplysiatoxins, Microcystins,
Planktothrix (Oscillatoria)
Saxitoxins
Schizothrix Aplysiatoxins
Trichodesmium yet to be identified
Umezakia Cylindrospermopsin 29
 Microcystins
 Most commonly detected cyanobacterial toxin in fresh and brackish water
• Most well studied cyanobacteria for toxic effects
 Water soluble, but does not readily cross cell membranes
 Typically transported across cell membranes through special transporters
present in the liver
 Approximately 70% of administered dose distributes to the liver
 Highly toxic, low doses required for lethality, steep dose response curve
 Liver is the target organ for toxic effects
 Carcinogenicity
 Not mutagenic
 Some evidence that microcystins act as hepatic tumor promoters

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 Microcystin -LR
Microcystin L-R: hepatotoxins
Produced by Microcystis aeruginosa
(an others blue-greens algal species)

Monocyclic heptapeptides
(L–amino acids; L=Leucine; R=arginine)

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Microcystin-LR
Microcystin-LR Structure
Structure

32
 Sources
Sources of
of Human
Human Exposure
Exposure

• Consumption of drinking water

• Recreational use of lakes and rivers
• oral, dermal
• Showers
• inhalation, dermal
• Algal food tablets
• oral

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34
Factors Affecting Bloom Formation & Toxin
Production / Persistence
 Bloom Formation  Toxin release
• Inorganic nutrients
• Water temperature
• pH level: 6-9 Persistence
• Daylight • Stable in water
• Turbidity • Resistance to pH extremes
• Turbulence • Heat resistant
• Water flow

 Toxin production
• Environmental factors
• Temperature, light,
nitrogen levels, carbon
dioxide and/or pH
• Genetic differences
• Metabolic processes

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 Factors Affecting Toxin Production
• Toxins are not secreted but released from cell
lysis (death)
• Older and senescing blooms tend to release toxins
as well as those treated with copper sulfate
• Temperature (18-25°C) and pH extremes increase
toxin content
• High phosphorous stimulates toxin production in
hepatotoxic strains
• Non nitrogen fixing species (Microcystis) produce
more toxins in nitrogen rich conditions

36
Toxins Produced From Cyanobacteria

37
 Anabaena sp
• Anabaena sp. can produce several kinds of toxins. -
• Neurotoxic- Two different neurotoxins have been described.
Anatoxin-a
• A potent postsynaptic cholinergic nicotinic agonist, which causes a
depolarizing neuromuscular blockade.
• Produces staggering, paralysis, fasciculations (muscle twitching), gasping,
convulsions and death in animals

Anatoxin-a(s)
• Chemically unrelated to the first, acts as an inhibitor of cholinesterase
leading to a neuromuscular blockade.
• Both cause a "tetanus- like" muscle paralysis. induced toxicosis in
experimental animals may exhibit hypersalivation, tremors, fasciculations,
involuntary muscle movement, diarrhea, cyanosis (tongue and mouth
lining bluish) and death.

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 Lipopolysaccharide

• Lipopolysaccharides (LPS) are found in the outer cell

wall of gram negative bacteria
• Consist of a sugar and fatty acid component
• Fatty acid portion elicits an irritant or allergenic
effect in humans
• LPS is a potent activator of macrophages
• Can result in the production of cytokines, growth
factors, and reactive oxygen species

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 Microcystin Hepatotoxins
• These hepatotoxins inhibit the protein phosphatasesinside
hepatocytes
• Affecting the maintenance of the cytoskeleton by disruption
the balance of phosphate groups on the cytoskeletal proteins
• Microcystin-LR does not readily cross cell membranes and
does not enter most tissues.
• It crosses the ileum through the multispecific organic ion
transport system and mainly enters hepatocytes, where it is
covalently bound to a 40000-dalton protein (protein
phosphatase 2A and possibly protein phosphatase 1)

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Routes of Exposure

Eating, dogs can lick fur, young children swallow water

Skin exposure from swimming or bathing in water
Breathing toxins during skiing or boating

BGA Toxin Ingestion Symptoms

Symptoms may occur soon after exposure Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,

muscle fatigue, Headache, abdominal pain, Death (in rare instances)
BGA Toxin Dermal Symptoms

Itchy eyes and skin

Allergic like symptoms
Other animals affected by BGA toxins
Ducks, geese, songbirds
Fish, shellfish
Livestock
Pets
 BGA Toxins Can Affect Human
• When Blue-Green Algae dies, it releases one or more
harmful toxins.
• If you ingest it, your digestive process kills it,
releasing the toxin into your system.
• If BGA dies naturally, the toxin is present in the lake
water for a period, perhaps weeks.
• You cannot see the toxin, this is why we tested for
them last summer and will continue to analyze water
samples.

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Algae in global warming and
environmental sustainability
 Algae and Biodiesel
• Algae Biodiesel is a good replacement for
standard crop Biodiesels like soy and canola
• Up to 70% of algae biomass is usable oils
• Algae does not compete for land and space
with other agricultural crops
• Algae can survive in water of high salt content
and use water that was previously deemed
unusable
 BIOFUEL
• A non-petroleum-based diesel fuel
consisting of long-
• chain alkyl (methyl, propyl or ethyl)
esters.
• Made by chemically-reacting lipids and
alcohol.
Algal biomass
• Is distinguished from the straight
vegetable oil (SVO) used as
• fuels in some converted diesel vehicles.
• Produced by transesterification of oil

Algal biofuel
 Biofuel-why algae???
• Producing biodiesel from algae is most efficient way to make biodiesel fuel. The main advantages of
deriving biodiesel from algae oil include:
• rapid growth rates, a high per-acre yield (7 to 31 times greater than the next best crop – palm oil),
certain species of algae can be harvested daily,
• algae biofuel contains no sulphur,
• algae biofuel is non-toxic,
• algae biofuel is highly bio-degradable, and
• algae consume carbon dioxide as they grow, so they could be used to capture CO2 from power stations
and other industrial plant that would otherwise go into the atmosphere.
• In some cases, more than half of that mass consists of lipids or triacylglycerides—the same material
found in vegetable oils. These bio-oils can be used to produce such advanced biofuels as biodiesel, green
diesel, green gasoline, and green jet fuel.
• Micro-algae grows within all year and has short life cycle;
• Micro-algae the most fast-growing plant on Earth - grows in 100 times faster, than trees. Usually the
weight of micro-algae for a day is doubled;
• For micro-algae the readily available raw material is required: sunlight, water, carbon dioxide and
nutrients (Р and N);
• From micro-algae it is possible to receive natural products: pigments, fibers, enzymes, sugar, fats,
amino acids, vitamins.
• Depending on kinds of algae (exists more than 30.000 kinds) and conditions of its cultivation, the
chosen algae makes about 40-60 % of oil.
• Selection micro-algae grows in all environments. Even if the temperature of water makes - 2°С.
• Capable of utilizing high nutrients in waste water streams
 Oil Yield
Gallons of Oil per Acre per Year

– Corn . . . . . . . 15

– Soybeans . . . .48

– Safflower. . . . . 83

– Sunflower . . . 102

– Rapeseed. . . 127

– Oil Palm . . . . 635

– Micro Algae . .1850 [based on actual biomass

yields]

– Micro Algae . .5000-15000 [theoretical

laboratory yield]
Strain selection
• Important characteristics of
Algae

– High % of total biomass is oil

– Maintains a high % of oil even
under stress
– Compatible with the San Luis
Obispo climate
– Lipid production
– Resistance to photo-
inhibition
– Ease of Harvest
 Cyanobacteria and
selected microalgae
in agriculture.
Algae as An animal Feed
• The most direct use of the biosolid residue left
when lipids and carbohydrates are extracted
from algae is as animal feed

• Microalgae has been fed to pigs, poultry, cattle

and fishes. However the high nucleic acid content
of microalgae as compared to conventional
protein
Sources such as fish and soybean meal may limit
the amount of algal residues that can be used

• Based on the grade used and the technology

adopted for its cultivation it finds various
applications. Spirulina is favored in the feed
industry (poultry, cattle, aquaculture, sericulture)
as a protein supplement.
 Other Uses
• Hydrogen
– Algae can be grown to produce hydrogen
• Discovered first in 1939 by Hans Gaffrom
• Late 1990’s it was found that if sulfur deprived, algae
will produce hydrogen
• Biomass
– Algae can be grown to produce biomass
• Burned to produce heat and electricity
• Can still produce greenhouse gases
Red Algae is a source of Carrageenan
–
and Agar
. FOOD APPLICATIONs
– Like many algae products, it is used as an ingredient in food
products such as ice creams, milkshakes, and sauces, to increase
the viscosity of the delicacy.
– In many parts of Europe, local beer and alcoholic drink
manufacturers use carrageenan as a protein remover.
– Beer/Wine/ Vinegar -accelerates and improves clarity. Chocolate
Milk Drink -stabilizes and improves viscosity. Ice cream -
prevents ice crystals formation. -enhances excellent mouthfeel.
Flans/Dessert Gel -enhances flavor release and excellent mouthfeel
– Sauces and Dressings -thickens and improves viscosity.
– PROCESSED MEAT Beef Patty -substitutes fat, retains moisture
and increase yield. Luncheon Meat -prevents fat separation serves
as a meat extender. Poultry and Ham -controls dehydration of
frozen poultry, enhances juiciness and increase yield.
– NON-FOOD APPLICATION Petfood Canned meat and fish -
gelling and stabilizing agent. Moist, solid petfood -binder.
Toothpaste -stabilizer. Air freshener -gelling agent. . It is
prominently used in shampoos, tooth paste, diet sodas, pet food
and soy milk.
• Agar, carrageenans and alginates are some of the important extract of algae used in
food, cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. Agar is mainly used as a preservative
in canned meat and fish and as a gelling agent in food. Carrageenans are used in
toothpastes, ice-creams, pet foods, lotions and as a stabilizing agent in dairy
products.

• In recent times, algae has found applications in controlling pollution. They act as
biofilters, and so are being used in the treatment of waste water to make make it
suitable for human use. Even some power plants also use algae to reduce the
carbon dioxide emissions, where carbon dioxide is poured into some tanks or ponds
in which algae are fed. In farmlands, they are used for capturing the run-off
fertilizers that can pollute the water bodies. Brown algae is a source of alginic acid,
which is used as a thickening, stabilizing and emulsifying agent in ice-creams, dairy
products, rubber, paint, shaving creams, adhesives and in the textile industry.
• Agar, a substance made from algae, is gelatinous in nature. It is an ingredient in many different
Japanese desserts.

• The Japanese red bean jelly, called Mizuyōkan, is made from agar, and is a very popular delicacy.

• Agar is commercially produced with the help of Gelidium amansii - a species of red algae.

• The greatest use of agar is in association with food preparation and in the pharmaceutical industry (as a
laxative, or as an inert carrier for drug products where slow release of the drug is required).

Agar is used in bacteriology and mycology as a stiffening agent in growth media.

Agar is used as a stabilizer for emulsions, and as a constituent of cosmetic skin preparations, ointments,
and lotions. It is used in photographic film, shoe polish, dental impression molds, shaving soaps, hand
lotions, and in the tanning industry.

In food, agar is used as a substitute for gelatin, as an antidrying agent in breads and pastry, and also for
gelling and thickening purposes. It is used in the manufacture of processed cheese, mayonnaise,
puddings, creams, and jellies and in the manufacture of frozen dairy products.
• Algin is found in the cell wall of kelp along with cellulose. Kelp is harvested for this substance
which acts as an emulsifier and thickening agent used in many products.
• Emulsifiers allow for a stable and homogenous mixture of two liquids, which do not normally mix. .
• About half of the algin produced is used for making ice cream and other dairy products. The rest is
used in other products, including shaving cream, rubber, an paint.
• Algin is used as a stabiliser in ice-cream and salad dressings. In fruit pie fillings, the algin stops the
fruit pulp leaking into the pastry.
• It is also used as a foam stabiliser in beer, as well as in bakery products and pet food.

• Alginic Acid
• Another very useful form of algae is alginic acid. Alginic acid is a viscous, gum-like substance,
derived from algae. It is used as an additive in dehydrated products. It is also a very important
ingredient in the manufacturing of papers and textiles. As it possess most of the properties of gum,
it is also used in the water-proofing and fire-proofing industry. It is especially helpful in making
fabrics that are fire and water resistant. In the pharmaceutical industry, it is used in the
manufacture of Gaviscon, Asilone, Bisodol etc. It is used as a mold making material in life casting,
prosthetics and dentistry. Like most of the forms or products of algae, alginic acid is used
extensively in the food processing industry as an ingredient of soups and jellies.
 CHALLENGES IN ALGACULTURE

• Algae can also be picky:

• too much direct sunlight can kill them,
• temperature must be held steady,
• overcrowding will inhibit their growth,
• the ―waste‖ oxygen they produce must be continually
removed from the water,
• open algal ponds are subject to evaporation and rainfall,
which cause salinity and pH
• imbalances, and
• local species of algae often overgrow the desired strain.
Over the years, research has proven many health benefits associated with
algae. It is commonly used as a dietary supplement to improve general health
and wellness. Some of important health benefits of algae include:

Beta-Carotene: Algae is known to have a high concentration of beta-carotene,

that helps fight some specific types of cancer and cardiovascular diseases.

Antioxidant: Full of antioxidants algae helps restrict the growth of free

radicals and toxics. Antioxidants also aid in production of necessary enzymes,
needed to keep the body's function smooth.

Better Digestion: As it is organic in nature and full of enzymes, it is easily

digestible and light on the stomach. It is known to help in smooth bowel
movements, thereby reducing the occurrence of all abdomen muscle
associated diseases.

Protein and Complex Sugar: Algae is considered a complete source of protein,

as it contains amino acids, minerals and many vitamins, essential for the
growth of hair, skin and nails.
Immunity Booster: Algae contains immune boosting and stimulating properties such as
amino acids, minerals, proteins and vitamins. These help fight infections, detoxify the
immune system and aid in building the body's resistance to infections.

Gamma-Linolenic Acid (GLA): There are only two sources of GLA found; mother's milk
and spirulina, a blue-green algae. GLA is essential to the development and growth of
babies. Deficiency in nutrition reduces GLA in the mother's milk, which results in poor
baby health.

Chronic Disease Treatment: Algae is known to treat diabetes, anemia, liver disease,
ulcers, allergies, radiation and chemical poisoning. Its concentrated sugar helps to
stabilize blood sugar levels in people with high or low blood sugar.

Nutrients: Algae ensures a healthy nutrient level for people who diet, as well as people
who detoxify their bodies regularly. The amino acids present in algae are known to
influence neurotransmitters in the brain that control appetite.

Alkaline Food: A balanced diet consists 80% alkaline food and 20% acidic food. An
acidic body is vulnerable to diseases. Algae is considered as a natural source of alkaline
food.