Homework 1 Solutions

Problem 4.1.2. Let p be a prime number, and let n be a positive integer. How many polynomials are there of
degree n over Zp ?
Solution. A polynomial of degree n is determined by it’s n + 1 coefficients where the coefficient of xn is not zero.
Thus there are (p − 1) choices for the leading coefficient and p choices for the remaining coefficients. Hence there
are (p − 1)pn polynomials of degree n over Zp .

Problem 4.1.5. Over the given field F , write f (x) = q(x)(x − c) + f (c) for
(b) f (x) = x3 − 5x2 + 6x + 5; c = 2; F = Q
(d) f (x) = x3 + 2x + 3; c = 2; F = Z5
Solution. (b): Following the method in Theorem 4.1.9 we have

f (x) − f (1) = 2x3 − 2 + x2 − 1 − 4x + 4

= 2(x − 1)(x2 + x + 1) + (x − 1)(x + 1) − 4(x − 1)
= (x − 1)(2x2 + 3x − 1).

Hence f (x) = (x − 1)(2x2 + 3x − 1) + 2.

(d) Similarly one obtains f (x) = (x − 2)(x2 + 2x + 1).

Problem 4.1.7. Show that if c is any element of the field F and k > 2 is an odd integer, then x + c is a factor
of xk + ck .

Proof. By theorem 4.1.9 it suffices to check that f (−c) = 0 for f (x) = xk +ck . Since k is odd f (−c) = (−c)k +ck =
−ck + ck = 0.
Problem 4.1.9. Let a be a nonzero element of a field F . Show that (a−1 )−1 = a and (−a)−1 = −a−1 .
Proof. Using the field axioms we have a = a · 1 = a(a−1 · (a−1 )−1 ) = (a · a−1 )(a−1 )−1 = 1 · (a−1 )−1 =
(a−1 )−1 . By proposition 4.1.3(e) we have (−a)−1 = (−a)−1 · 1 = (−a)−1 (a · a−1 ) = (−a)−1 ((−a)(−a−1 )) =
((−a)−1 (−a))(−a−1 ) = 1 · (−a−1 ) = −a−1 .
√ √
Problem 4.1.11. Show that the set Q( 3) = {a + b 3| a, b ∈ Q} is closed under addition, subtraction, multi-
plication, and division.
√ √ √ √ √
Proof. Given α1 = x1 + y√ 1 3, α2 = √ x2 + y2 3 ∈ Q( 3) then α1 ± α2 = (x √ 1 ± x2 )√+ (y1 ± y2√) 3 ∈ Q( 3).
Also, α1 α2 = (x1 + y1 3)(x2 + y2 3) = (x1 x2 + 3y1 y2 ) + (x1 y2 + x2 y1 ) 3 ∈ Q( 3), so Q( 3) is closed under
multiplication. √ √
To show that Q( 3) is closed √ under√division note that if α1 6= 0 then x21 −√3y12 6= 0 since√ 3 is not rational.
x1
Hence β = ( x2 −3y y1
2 ) − ( x2 −3y 2 ) 3 ∈ Q( 3) and α1 β = 1, hence α1−1 = β ∈ Q( 3). Since Q( 3) is closed under
1 1 1 1 √
products we have α1 /α2 = α1 · α2−1 ∈ Q( 3) for α2 6= 0.
Problem 4.2.9. Let a ∈ R, and let f (x) ∈ R[x], with derivative f 0 (x). Show that the remainder when f (x) is
divided by (x − a)2 is f 0 (a)(x − a) + f (a).

Proof. By the division algorithm there exist unique polynomials q(x), r(x) ∈ F [x] such that f (x) = q(x)(x−a)2 +
r(x) where deg(x) < 2. Write r(x) = bx + c then observe that f (a) = 0 + r(a) = ba + c. Taking the derivative
we have f 0 (x) = (q 0 (x)(x − a) + 2q(x))(x − a) + b so f 0 (a) = b. Consequently, c = f (a) − ba = f (a) − f 0 (a)a and
hence r(x) = f 0 (a)x + f (a) − f 0 (a)a = f 0 (a)(x − a) + f (a).
Problem 4.2.10. Let p(x) = an xn +· · ·+a1 x+a0 be a polynomial with rational coefficients such that an and a0 are
nonzero. Show that p(x) is irreducible over the field of rational numbers if and only if q(x) = a0 xn +· · ·+an−1 x+an
is irreducible over the field of rational numbers.

1
Proof. We prove the contrapositive of one direction, the other direction is similar. Suppose that p(x) is reducible
then p(x) = a(x)b(x) for some a(x), b(x) ∈ Q[x] with deg(a(x)) = i < n, deg(b(x)) = j < n and i + j = n.
Observe that q(x) = (a0 + a1 x−1 + · · · + an x−n )xn = p(x−1 )xn = a(x−1 )b(x−1 )xn = (a(x−1 )xi )(b(x−1 )xj ) where
a(x−1 )xi ∈ Q[x] of degree i < n and b(x−1 )xj ∈ Q[x] of degree j < n. Thus q(x) is also reducible.

Problem 4.2.11. Find the irreducible factors of x6 − 1 over R.

Proof. Observe that x6 − 1 = (x − 1)(x2 + x + 1)(x + 1)(x2 − x + 1). The factors x − 1 and x + 1 are clearly
irreducible. The factors x2 + x + 1 and x2 − x + 1 have no root in R since they both have discriminant −3 and
hence they are irreducible by proposition 4.2.7. Thus x − 1, x + 1, x2 + x + 1 and x2 − x + a are the irreducible
factors of x6 − 1 over R[x].
Problem 4.2.13. Find all the monic irreducible polynomials of degree ≤ 3 over Z3 . Using your list, write each
of the following polynomials as a product of irreducible polynomials.
(b) x4 + 2x2 + 2x + 2
Proof. One can verify that the following polynomials of degree 2 and 3 are irreducible by checking that they have
no roots in Z3 . Moreover, one can check that the list is exhaustive by checking the finite list (albeit lenghty) of
monic polynomials of degree less than or equal to 3 or by counting the number of monic irreducibles of a given
degree (see problem 4.2.14 for a method of counting).
Monic irreducible polynomials of degree 1: x, x − 1, x − 2.
Monic irreducible polynomials of degree 2: x2 + x + 2, x2 + 2x + 2, x2 + 1.
Monic irreducible polynomials of degree 3: x3 + x2 + 2x + 1, x3 + 2x + 1, x3 + 2x2 + x + 1, x3 + 2x2 + 1, x3 +
x + 2, x3 + x2 + 2, x3 + x2 + x + 2, x3 + 2x2 + 2x + 2.

(b): Note that x4 + 2x2 + 2x + 2 = (x + 1)2 (x2 + x + 2) where each of the factors are irreducible.
Problem 4.2.14. Show that there are exactly (p2 − p)/2 monic irreducible polynomials of degree 2 over Zp .
Proof. A monic polynomial of degree 2 over Zp is determined by the two non-leading coefficients. Since |Zp | = p,
there are p2 monic polynomials of degree 2 over Zp .
A monic polynomial of degree 2 which is reducible must be of the form (x − a)(x − b) for a, b ∈ Zp . There
are p such polynomials with a repeated factor and p(p−1)
2 such polynomials with distinct factors. Thus there are
p + p(p−1)
2 = p(p+1)
2 reducible monic polynomials of degree 2 over Zp .
A polynomial which is not reducible is irreducible. Thus there are p2 − p(p+1)
2 = p(p−1)
2 monic irreducible
polynomials of degree 2 over Zp .