GEO120-1P/A8

3Q SY.2019-20

HOMEWORK XA

A Summary of Chapter 10: Igneous Rock Associations

This chapter aims to relate igneous rock associations to a petrotectonic context.

Petrotectonic associations are different rocks that form in response to a similar geological
condition. These associations typically occur around tectonic boundaries and hotspots. This
homework attempts to summarize those discussed in Earth Material’s chapter 10.

1. Divergent Plate Boundaries

Divergent Plates are regions where

two plates move away from each
other, relative to their boundary.
These sites are considered
“constructive”, because it does not
involve any destruction of a pre-
existing crust, and it creates new
ones. Because the two plates are
moving apart, some of the pressure
in the underlying upper mantle is Figure 1: An illustration of a Divergent Plate Boundary
relieved. This decompression
causes the low degree of partial melting of mantle peridotite, yielding basaltic melts, and
an ultrabasic refractory residual. Divergent plates typically mark the beginning of the
breaking of a supercontinent, and the creation of a new ocean basin. Divergent plates
can be seen in mid-oceanic ridges, and continental rifts.

Figure 2: Layers of an Oceanic Crust

An Oceanic crust typically composes of four layers. Layer 1 consist of a well-stratified marine
pelagic sediments and sedimentary rocks that accumulate on the sea floor. Layer 2 is
subdivided into two basaltic layers. The upper layer 2A consists of Pillow basalts 1, which comes
in contact with the ocean, causing it to cool rapidly. The lower layer 2B consist of a dike with a
basaltic-diabase composition. This layer is the main vent where the basic melt intrudes to the
ocean floor surface, and the continuous horizontal extension of the oceanic crust and the
continuous injection of melts produces hundreds of these dikes. Layer 3 is composed of slow
cooled gabbro and layered peridotite layers. Layer 4 is composed of the refractory residuals of
the partially molten peridotite, such as Harzburgite, Dunite, etc., as well as metamorphosed
peridotites.

Figure 3: Major Divergent margins in the world

 1.1. Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalts
Mid-ocean ridge basalts or MORB is a type of basalt that dominates ocean ridges. It is formed
from the partial melting of mantle Lherzolite, yielding a basic, or mafic melt, which in turn
produces mafic rocks rich in pyroxene, and can contain calcic plagioclase and olivine. MORBs
are low SiO2 (45-52%), low potassium (<1% K2O) tholeiites2 with high magnesium (~7-10%
MgO), aluminum (15-16% Al2O3), and compatible element3 concentrations. The nature of the
origin of MORB is evident in the low concentrations of 87Sr/86Sr ratios, low volatile and
incompatible element4 concentrations, and high compatible element concentrations. This
indicates that MORB came from a depleted mantle source, meaning that the mantle Lherzolite
source experienced multiple partial melting, therefor removing the mobile incompatible
elements.
MORB can be further classified into two, based upon the concentration of minor and trace
elements in the rock.
1.1.1. Normal MORB (N-MORB)
N-MORB are MORB that are
strongly depleted in highly
incompatible elements, such as
large ion lithophile (LIL)
elements5, high field strength
(HFS) elements6, and light rare
earth elements (LREE). These
characteristic shows that N-MORB
magma, and the rock that it forms,
Figure 4: Chondrite-normalized rare Earth elements (REE)
represent 20-30% partial melting of for E- and N-MORB
the depleted mantle source.
1.1.2. Enriched MORB (E-MORB)
E-MORB is the opposite of N-MORB, in a sense that it has greater
concentrations of highly incompatible elements relative to N-MORB,
hence the term “enriched”. There are several hypotheses that seeks to
answer on how E-MORB are formed, Earth Materials discussed 3 of these
hypotheses.
 First, E-MORB may represent smaller degrees of partial melting,
around 10-15%, which explains the more incompatible element-
rich E-MORB melts.
 Second, E-MORB magma might be derived from a deep mantle
source that has not undergone previous melting cycles.
 Third, E-MORB magma might be a product of magma mixing,
assimilation, and/or partial melts derived from recycled subducted
oceanic crust.
 Table 1: Trace element abundancies in N-MORB and E-MORB in ppm

While MORB dominate the rocks present in divergent margins, other rock types
can also be seen in varying proportions. Oceanic ridges also produce high
aluminum basalts, with Al2O3 concentrations >16%, andesite, trachyte, icelandite
(an iron-rich, aluminum-poor andesite), ferro-basalt, hawaiite, mugearite,
trachybasalt, trachyandesite, dacite, and rhyolite. Andesitic to rhyolitic rocks
found in divergent margins are typically have higher TiO 2 concentrations
(>1.3%) compared to the more common variety found in convergent plate
margins.

Divergent margins generate most of the ocean floor rocks, which represent
~70% of the Earth’s surface. This means that MORB and the underlying gabbro
and peridotite layer constitute most of the rocks found in young oceanic basins.

2. Convergent Plate Boundaries

While MORB dominate most of the rocks found in divergent margins, a vast, and chemically
diverse igneous assemblages are formed and
found in convergent plate margins. Convergent
boundaries, as oppose to Divergent boundaries,
is a region in the Earth’s crust where two plates
collide. Subduction is a process commonly seen
in convergent plate margins. It involves the
sinking of a denser plate beneath a less dense
one and enters the asthenosphere. Usually, the
subducting plate (the sinking plate) is a denser
oceanic plate, while the overlying plate can be Figure 5:
either be a continental plate, or another oceanic
plate.
Convergent margins form structures such as trenches, and a volcanic arc chains parallel to the
trench. Volcanic arc chains are the sites where convergent magmatism occurs and can form
thousands of kilometers inside the overlying plate, and away from the trench.
Convergent margins produce a variety of igneous rocks, from mafic and intermediate rocks
such as basalt, andesite, and dacite, to felsic rocks such as rhyolite, granodiorite, etc.
Unlike in divergent margins, where the main source of magmatism is caused by
decompression melting, convergent margin magmatism is controlled by many factors,
which altered the composition of the melts, yielding a wide variety of igneous rocks. These
factors are as follows:
  The composition of the overlying
plate. If the convergent margin is
an oceanic-oceanic type, where
a younger, less dense, and
basaltic oceanic lithosphere serves
as the overlying layer, the magma
produced are typically mafic to
intermediate in composition. Figure 6:
If the convergent margin is an
oceanic-continental type, where the less dense, thicker, and intermediate to
felsic continental lithosphere serves as the overlying layer produces melts rich in
felsic constituents such as potassium, which forms intermediate to felsic rocks.
 The composition of the rock experiencing anatexis/partial melting can affect the
composition of the melts produced. These rocks may be a peridotite mantle wedge,
the basement of the overlying plate (may it be felsic continental basement, or a
mafic oceanic crust), the subducting oceanic crust, and/or pelagic sediments.
 The addition of volatiles from hydrous minerals such as amphiboles, micas,
serpentine, and pelagic sediments through the subduction of an oceanic crust
lowers the melting point of the overlying mantle peridotite wedge, causing it to
undergo flux melting.
 The magma produced in the subduction undergoes differentiation, through
fractionation, assimilation, and magma mixing, as well as metamorphic reactions.
This alters the composition of the melts produced.
 The dip angle of the subduction zone affects the composition of the melts
produced in the convergent margin by controlling the thickness of the mantle
wedge over the subducting
crust. A Marianas-type
margin, old, cold, and dense
crust tends to have steep dip
angles when subducting. This
produces a thick overlying
mantle wedge, which gives
the mantle wedge more
influence in the composition
of the melt being produced in
the subduction zone. A
Cordilleran-type margin,
young, warm, and buoyant Figure 7:
lithosphere tends to favor shallow dip angles, which conversely produces a thinner
overlying mantle wedge. A thin overlying mantle wedge reduces its influence in the
composition of the melt produced in the subduction zone.

Despite of diverse magma compositions in convergent margins, the rock type that
dominates this tectonic setting are largely intermediate to felsic in composition. These
rocks are rich in SiO2, alkali feldspars, and other incompatible elements such as LIL,
LREE, and volatiles (CO2, H2O, etc.). These calc-alkali suites are relatively depleted in
immobile compatible elements such as FeO, MgO, HFS, and HREE. The signature rock
associations found in convergent margin is the Basalt, Andesite, Dacite, and
Rhyolite (BADR) association. BADR associations comes from the same basaltic
magma, which undergone differentiation to produce its more silicic end members.

 Convergent margin Basalts are volcanic rocks with 45-52% SiO2

concentrations. They typically occur in aphanitic to aphanitic-porphyritic textures,
with plagioclase phenocrysts. These basalts can be classified according to the
major and minor element concentrations present; these are Arc Tholeiites, and
Calc-Alkaline Basalts.
o Arc Tholeiites differ from Oceanic Tholeiites (MORB, etc.) by having
relatively higher Al2O3 concentrations (>16 wt.%)
o Calc-Alkaline Basalts differ from arc tholeiites by having higher alkali
concentrations, specifically in K2O, and having lower FeO concentrations.
This is because the daughter melts that would eventually form MORB
experiences the early crystallization of MgO-rich minerals, enriching the
melt in FeO.
 Andesites are volcanic rocks with a 52-63% SiO2 composition. These rocks
occur with porphyritic to aphanitic texture, with euhedral plagioclase and
hornblende phenocrysts, with minor amounts of pyroxene and biotite crystals.
Andesites can be classified base on the range of its silica composition.
o Basaltic Andesites have silica content around 52-57%.
o Silicic Andesites, as the name suggests, is the more felsic andesite with
57-63% silica content.

Andesite, and its plutonic counterpart Diorite, constitute most of the rocks that
make up a continental crust. This is one proof of the importance of subduction
zones in the development of continental crust. The presence of andesite in a
subduction zone is an indication that:

o the subduction angle is >25°,

o a thick continental crust is experiencing anatexis,
o and the partial melting of the oceanic crust in depths of 70 – 200km,

and these conditions stimulate andesite production.

 Dacites serves as an intermediate volcanic rock between Andesites and

Rhyolites. These rocks are rich in SiO2 (63-68%), landing in between the silica
contents of andesite and rhyolite. These minerals are rich in quartz (20-60%
after IUGS charts), and plagioclase (65-100%), and are generally poor in alkali
feldspars. These rocks occur in aphanitic textures, as well as in porphyritic,
where phenocrysts are typically subhedral to euhedral in form.
 Trachyandesites or Latites/Shoshonites are composed of ~66-69% silica, in
the form of alkali and plagioclase feldspars and quartz. It serves as an
intermediate rock between andesite and trachyte. Trachyandesites typically
 contain plagioclase phenocrysts in the form of andesine and oligoclase, with a
groundmass of orthoclase. Shoshonites is a variety of Latites that have a
considerable K2O concentrations compared to regular Latite.
 Rhyolite, and Rhyodacite are the siliceous endmembers of the BADR
association. Rhyolite is a volcanic rock that is composed of >63% silica. This
high silica content is the reason why Rhyolites are associated with explosive
volcanic eruptions, since siliceous magma has a relatively high velocity and high
volatile contents. This causes Rhyolites to occur as having aphanitic, aphanitic-
porphyritic, and pyroclastic textures. Rhyodacites serves as an intermediate rock
between Dacite and Rhyolite, having silica concentrations of around ~68-73%.

With knowing these associations, it can be noted that aside from the variation in
silica content, potassium (in the form of K2O) content also varies as seen in
potassium-poor arc tholeiites and potassium-rich shoshonites. This concentration
variation is linked to the thickness of the overlying crust. Low potassium tholeiites
dominate the association when the overlying crust thickness is around ~0 – 20 km,
while calc-alkaline endmembers dominate with crust thickness of around ~20 – 40
km, and potassium-rich endmembers such as shoshonites dominate when crust
thickness is >40 km.

Convergent margins come in three types, depending on the types of crust involved
in the margin. The type of crust involved in a convergent margin can heavily
influence the melts being produced, as well as the structures that will form.

2.1. Island Arcs

Island arcs are a chain of volcanic islands formed from the convergent margin that involves the
collision of two oceanic crust. The overlying mantle wedge
and crust experiences flux melting through volatiles inside
hydrous minerals and sediments. This produces basaltic to
intermediate melts, causing the rock suites that dominates
island arcs to follow this composition trend.
 Rocks that are commonly present in
convergent margins can be found in
association in island arcs, except for
the more felsic endmembers of the
BADR association. Diorites, Quartz
Diorite, and Granodiorites typically
underlie island arcs as the dominant plutonic rock suites.
 Arc Tholeiites occur in the oceanward side of the island arc. These have
similar compositions with MORB, an indication that the arc formed from a
depleted mantle source, and the flux melting of the crust involved in the
subduction zone. MORB and Arc Tholeiites differ by the latter having
higher concentrations of K2O and LIL elements, and lower HFS element
concentrations.
 Tonalites are plagioclase-rich plutonic rocks with 20-60% Quartz
concentrations. These rocks, along with Trondhjemites (sodium
 plagioclase-rich tonalites) and Granodiorite form the TTG Association,
which dominate archean rocks.
 Boninites are magnesium-rich (MgO + total FeO > 0.7) intermediate
volcanic rocks with a silica-saturated
groundmass. These rocks contain
orthopyroxene phenocrysts and lacks
plagioclases. Boninites have high Cr
(300-900 ppm), and Ni (100-450 ppm)
concentrations, as well as high volatile
and LREE concentrations, and are
generally depleated in HREE and HFS
elements. These concentrations are an
indication that Boninites originate from
primitive-derived mantle magma
produced in the early stages of the subduction cycle. This means that
Boninites are produced by subduction-related melting in young island arcs.
It is suggested by Van der Laan, et.al. that Boninites are produced by high
temperature, low pressure melting of previously subducted oceanic
lithosphere.
 Adakites are silica-rich rocks (>56%) with high Sr/Y and La/Yb ratios, and
low HFS element concentrations. It has been thought that Adakites were
derived by the slab melting of eclogite and/or garnet amphibolite from the
subducting oceanic lithosphere. Adakites can also occur in continent-
continent convergent zones as a result of the shallow slab subduction of
the continental lithosphere.
2.2. Backarc Basins
Backarc basins are a result of horizontal extension of the overlying lithosphere caused by
“trench pull” forces in subduction zones, where the trench and volcanic arc created in the
convergent zone moves seaward. Like with
any convergent zone structures, the melts
produced in backarc basins depends on the
thickness of the overlying lithosphere, in this
case, the lithosphere undergoing horizontal
extension. Backarc basins gives rise to a
diverse suite of volcanic rocks, form mafic
rocks in the form of basalts, to dacites. Due to
the unique circumstance that it has, Backarc
basins gives rise to a chemically unique form
of basalt called Backarc basin Basalts (BAB).
 Backarc Basin Basalts
(BAB) are chemically
similar to both MORB and arc tholeiites. Relative to MORB, BAB display
higher concentrations of H2O, alkali elements, and LIL elements, and are
relatively depleted in TiO2, Y, and Nb. The similarities with MORB is likely
tied to the similar origins of the two melts, where most of the melt are
 derived from mantle peridotite under the basin. It is likely that
decompression caused by the horizontal extension of the overlying
lithosphere, combined with flux melting induced by the subducting crust
contributed in the partial melting of the mantle peridotite.
2.3. Continental Margins
Continental margins resulted from the subduction that involves a dense, basaltic
oceanic lithosphere and a less dense, thicker intermediate continental lithosphere.
Hydrous melts from the subducting lithosphere interact with the overlying mantle
wedge and continental lithosphere, resulting into more silicic rock associations than
those found in island arcs, with melts enriched in K2O and SiO2.
 The more felsic endmembers of the BADR association, and their plutonic
counterparts dominate continental margins, with Granodiorite, Diorite,
Granite, and Tonalite as the dominating the plutons. Magma in these
margins form composite volcanoes that are andesitic to rhyolitic in
composition.
 Shoshonites are dark-colored, potassium-rich trachyandesites that
commonly contains olivine to pyroxene phenocrysts, and a groundmass
containing plagioclase, alkali feldspar, olivine, pyroxene, and leucite. These
rocks typically occur in thickened lithosphere far away from the trench,
continental collision zones, and some backarc basins.
2.4. Continental Collision Zones
Oceanic-continental collision typically ends with the subducting ocean lithosphere
dragging a continental lithosphere. Once the oceanic crust fully subduct, two
continental crust will meet in a collision. Continents doesn’t readily subduct, but
rather underplates the overlying continental crust, resulting in the folding of both
crust and the melting of their bases. The melts produced in these collision zones
are rich in Al2O3, K2O, and SiO2, which in turn produce granitic and rhyolitic
rocks.
 Granites serves as the basement of every continental crust and mountain
ranges and are classified based on their composition and origin.
o M-Type Granites are derived from mantle-derived melts (indicated
by low Sr87/Sr86 ratios), and are associated with calc-alkaline
tonalites, quartz diorites, and gabbro.
o I-Type Granites are generated by the melting of an igneous
protolith that can either be the down going oceanic lithosphere, or
the overlying mantle wedge. This type of granite is enriched in Na 2O
and Ca2O and contain lower concentrations of Al2O3. Its low Sr87/Sr86
ratios is an indication that I-Type Granites are derived from a
mantle source. Due to its origin, I-Type Granites contain mafic
minerals, such as hornblende, biotite, magnetite, and sphene.
o S-Type Granites are produced by the melting of sedimentary
crustal rocks in continental collision zones. This granite is depleted
in Na2O and is enriched in Al2O3. Its high Sr87/Sr86 ratios is an
indication that these melts undergone a previous sedimentary cycle.
 o A-Type Granites are anorogenic rocks, meaning that its formation
is not linked to any subduction or collision processes. These rocks
are enriched in alkaline elements, as well as high magnesium/iron
concentrations, HFS elements and rare earth elements. Due to the
nature of its formation, A-type granites are not prevalent in
continental collision zones.

Table () illustrates the unique characteristics of each type of granite.

Table (): The unique features of each type of granite

2.4.1. Alpine Orogenic Complexes

Alpine orogenic complexes are fault-bounded, deformed rock sequences
that mark the site of present or former convergent margins. Unlike those
rocks found in subduction and divergent zones, which developed in situ
through magmatism, alpine orogenic complexes have been transported
away from their original formation location through thrust faulting and
shearing. These sequences have their original layering disturbed due to
the fashion that they are transported.
Alpine Orogenic Complexes are typically oceanic in origin, where parts of
the crust material are uplifted by its parent crust’s subduction. It can be
pelagic sediments, basalt, and even ultrabasic mantle slices.