Chap 56

start
Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

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OBJECTIVES:
After studying Chapter 56, the reader should
be able to:
• Prepare for ASE Engine Performance (A8)
certification test content area “B” (Ignition
System Diagnosis and Repair).
• Explain how ignition coils create 40,000 volts.
• Discuss crankshaft position sensor and
pickup coil operation.
• Describe the operation of waste-spark and
coil-on-plug ignition systems.

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KEY TERMS:
bypass ignition
coil-on-plug (COP) ignition (also coil-by-plug, coil-near-

plug, coil-over-plug) • compression-sensing ignition
detonation • distributor ignition (DI) • distributor ignition

system (DIS) • divorced coil • dwell
e coil • electronic control unit (ECU) • electronic ignition

(EI) • electronic ignition system (EIS) • electromagnetic
interference (EMI) • electronic spark timing (EST)
Continued
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KEY TERMS:
Hall-effect switch • high energy ignition (HEI)
igniter • ignition coil • ignition control (IC) • ignition

control module (ICM) • ignition timing • inductive
reactance • initial timing • ion-sensing ignition • iridium
spark plugs
knock sensor (KS)
magnetic pulse generator • magnetic sensor • married

coil • mutual induction
optical sensors
Continued
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KEY TERMS:
paired cylinders • pickup coil (pulse generator) • ping •
polarity • primary ignition circuit • primary winding
saturation • Schmitt trigger • secondary ignition circuit •

secondary winding • self-induction • spark knock •
platinum spark plugs • spark output (SPOUT) • switching
tapped transformer • transistor • triggering • true

transformer • turn ratio
up-integrated ignition
waste-spark ignition

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The ignition system includes those parts and wiring
required to generate and distribute a high voltage to
the spark plugs.
A fault anywhere in the primary (low-voltage) ignition

circuit can cause a no-start condition.
A fault anywhere in the secondary (high-voltage)

ignition circuit can cause engine missing, hesitation,
stalling, or excessive exhaust emissions.

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IGNITION SYSTEM OPERATION
Ignition systems include components and wiring necessary to create
and distribute 40,000 volts or more. All systems apply battery
voltage to the coil positive side, and pulse the negative to ground.
When the coil negative lead is grounded, the primary (low-voltage)

circuit of the coil is complete and a magnetic field is created around
the coil windings. When the circuit is opened, the magnetic field
collapses and induces a high-voltage spark in the secondary winding
of the ignition coil.
Early ignition systems used a mechanically opened set of contact

points. Electronic ignition uses a sensor, such as a pickup coil and
reluctor (trigger wheel) to signal an electronic module that makes
and breaks the primary connection of the ignition coil.
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NOTE: Distributor ignition (DI) is the term specified by the Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE) for an ignition system that uses a distributor.
Electronic ignition (EI) is the term specified by the SAE for an ignition
system that does not use a distributor.

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IGNITION COILS
The ignition coil creates a high-voltage spark by electromagnetic
induction. Many contain two separate, electrically connected
windings of copper wire.
Figure 56–1 Internal construction of
an oil-cooled ignition coil. Notice that
the primary winding is electrically
connected to the secondary winding.
The polarity (positive or negative) of
a coil is determined by the direction
in which the coil is wound.
Other coils are true

transformers in which
primary and secondary
windings are not
electrically connected.
Continued
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The center of a coil contains a core of laminated soft iron which
increases magnetic strength of the coil. Surrounding the core are
about 20,000 turns of fine wire (approximately 42 ga.), called the
secondary coil windings.
Surrounding the secondary windings are approximately 150 turns of

heavy wire (approximately 21 ga.), called the primary coil
windings. The secondary winding has about 100 times the number
of turns of the primary winding, referred to as the turns ratio
(approximately 100:1).
In many coils, these windings are surrounded with a thin metal

shield and insulating paper and placed into a metal container to help
retain the magnetic field produced in the windings. Many coils
contain oil to help cool the ignition coil.
Continued
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Other coil designs, such as those used on GM’s high energy
ignition (HEI) systems, use an air-cooled, epoxy-sealed E coil. The
E coil is so named because the laminated, soft-iron core is E-shaped,
with the coil wire turns wrapped around the center “finger” of the E
and the primary winding wrapped inside the secondary winding.
Figure 56–2 Typical air- Figure 56–3 Cutaway of a General Motors Type II
cooled epoxy-filled E coil. distributorless ignition coil. Note that the primary
windings are inside of the secondary windings.
Continued
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The positive terminal of the coil attaches to the ignition switch,
which supplies current from the positive battery terminal. The
negative terminal is attached to an ignition control module (ICM
or igniter), which opens and closes the primary ignition circuit by
opening or closing the ground return path of the circuit.
The labeling of positive (+) and negative (–) of the coil indicates
that the positive terminal is more positive (closer to the positive
terminal of the battery) than the negative terminal of the coil. This
condition is called the coil polarity, and must be correct to ensure
that electrons will flow from the hot center electrode of the spark
plug on DI systems.
The polarity of an ignition coil is determined

by the direction of rotation of the coil windings.
Continued
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Self-Induction When current starts to flow into a coil, an opposing
current is created in the windings of the coil. This opposing current
generation is caused by self-induction and is called inductive
reactance.
Inductive reactance is similar to resistance because it opposes any

changes (increase or decrease) in current flow in a coil.
When an ignition coil is first energized, there is a slight delay of

approximately 0.01 second before the ignition coil reaches its
maximum magnetic field strength, called saturation.
Continued
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Mutual Induction In an ignition coil there are two windings, a
primary and a secondary winding. When a change occurs in the
magnetic field of one coil winding, a change also occurs in the other
coil winding.
If the current is stopped from flowing (circuit is opened), the

collapsing magnetic field cuts across the turns of the secondary
winding and creates a high voltage in the secondary winding.
This generation of an electric current in both coil windings is called

mutual induction. The collapsing magnetic field also creates a
voltage of up to 250 volts in the primary winding.
Continued
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How Ignition Coils Create 40,000 Volts All ignition systems use
electromagnetic induction to produce a high-voltage spark from the
ignition coil. Electromagnetic induction means a current can be
created in a conductor (coil winding) by a moving magnetic field.
The magnetic field in a coil is produced by current flowing through

the primary windings. Current for the winding is supplied through
the ignition switch to the positive terminal of the coil. The negative
terminal is connected to the ground return through an electronic
ignition module (igniter).
If the primary circuit is completed, current can flow through the

primary coil windings and create a strong magnetic field in the coil.
Continued
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When the primary coil winding ground return path connection is
opened, the magnetic field collapses and induces a voltage of from
250 to 400 volts in the primary winding of the coil and a high-voltage
(20,000 to 40,000 volts ) low-amperage (20 to 80 mA) current in the
secondary coil windings. This high-voltage pulse flows through the
coil wire, distributor cap, rotor, and spark plug wires to the spark
plugs. For each spark that occurs, the coil must be charged with a
magnetic field and discharged.
The ignition components that regulate the current in the coil primary
winding by turning it on and off are known collectively as the
primary ignition circuit. The components necessary to create and
distribute the high voltage produced in the secondary windings of the
coil are called the secondary ignition circuit.
See Figure 56–4.

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Figure 56–4 Typical primary and secondary electronic ignition using a ballast resistor and a
distributor. To protect the ignition coil from overheating at lower engine speeds, many
electronic ignitions do not use a ballast resistor but use electronic circuits within the module.
Continued
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The ignition circuits include the following components:
Primary Ignition Circuit
1. Battery
2. Ignition switch
3. Primary windings of coil
4. Pickup coil (crank sensor)
5. Ignition module (igniter)
Secondary Ignition Circuit

1. Secondary windings of coil
2. Distributor cap and rotor (if the
vehicle is so equipped)
3. Spark plug wires
4. Spark plugs
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What is a “Married” and “Divorced” Coil Design?
An ignition coil contains two windings, a primary winding and a secondary,
and these windings can be either connected at one end or kept separated.
Married—also called a tapped transformer design. The primary winding is
electrically connected to the secondary. This commonly used in older
distributor type ignition system coils, as well as many coil-on-plug designs.
The inductive kick, called flyback voltage, created when the primary field
collapses is used by the PCM to monitor secondary ignition performance.
Divorced—Also called a true
transformer design, used by most
waste-spark ignition coils to keep
both the primary and secondary
winding separated.
Figure 56–5 A tapped- (married) type ignition
coil where the primary winding is tapped
(connected) to the secondary winding.

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IGNITION SWITCHING AND TRIGGERING
For any ignition system to function, the primary current must be turned on to
charge the coil and off to allow the coil to discharge, creating a high-voltage
spark. This turning on and off of the primary circuit is called switching.
The unit that does the switching is an electronic switch, such as a power
transistor. This power transistor can be located in any of the following
locations:
In the ignition control module (ICM)

In the PCM (computer)
NOTE: On some coil-on-plug systems, the ICM is part of the ignition

coil itself and is serviced as an assembly.
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The device that signals switching of the coil on and off is called the
trigger. It is typically a pickup coil in some distributor-type
ignitions and a crankshaft position sensor (CKP) on electronic
(waste-spark and coil-on-plug) and many distributor-type ignitions.
There are three types of devices used for triggering, including the
magnetic sensor, Hall-effect switch, and optical sensor.

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PRIMARY CIRCUIT OPERATION
To get a spark out of an ignition coil, the primary coil circuit must
be turned on and off. This primary circuit current is controlled by
a transistor (electronic switch) inside the ignition module or
(igniter) that in turn is controlled by one of several devices:
Pickup coil (pulse generator) Most manufacturers use the
rotation of the distributor shaft to time the voltage pulses. The
magnetic pulse generator is installed in the distributor housing.
The pulse generator consists of a trigger wheel (reluctor) and a
pickup coil. The pickup coil signal triggers the transistor inside
the module and is also used by the computer for piston position
information and engine speed (rpm).
See Figures 56–6 and 56–7.

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Figure 56–6 Operation of a typical pulse generator (pickup coil). At the bottom is a line drawing
of a typical scope pattern of the output voltage of a pickup coil. The module receives this
voltage from the pickup coil and opens the ground circuit to the ignition coil when the voltage
starts down from its peak (just as the reluctor teeth start moving away from the pickup coil).
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Figure 56–7 The varying voltage signal from the pickup coil triggers the ignition module. The
ignition module grounds and ungrounds the primary winding of the ignition coil, creating a
high-voltage spark.
The pickup coil consists of an iron core wrapped with fine wire, in a
coil at one end and attached to a permanent magnet at the other end.
The center of the coil is called the pole piece. Continued
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Hall-effect switch—A Hall-effect switch also uses a stationary
sensor and rotating trigger wheel (shutter). Unlike a magnetic
pulse generator, the Hall-effect switch requires a small input
voltage to generate an output or signal voltage.
Figure 56–8 Hall-effect switches use metallic shutters to shunt magnetic lines of force away
from a silicon chip and related circuits. All Hall-effect switches produce a square wave output
for every accurate triggering.
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Hall effect is ability to generate a voltage signal in semiconductor
material (gallium arsenate crystal) by passing current through it in one
direction and applying a magnetic field to it at a right angle to its
surface. If the input current is held steady and the magnetic field
fluctuates, an output voltage is produced that changes in proportion to
field strength.
Most Hall-effect switches in distributors have a Hall element or

device, a permanent magnet, and a rotating ring of metal blades
(shutters) similar to a trigger wheel.
Some blades are designed to hang down, typically Bosch and

Chrysler systems; others may be on a separate ring on the
distributor shaft, typically GM and Ford Hall-effect distributors.
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When the shutter blade enters the gap between the magnet and the
Hall element, it creates a magnetic shunt that changes the field
strength through the Hall element.
This analog signal is sent to a Schmitt trigger inside the sensor
itself, which converts the analog signal into a digital signal.
Figure 56–9 Shutter blade of a rotor as
it passes between the sensing silicon
chip and the permanent magnet.
A digital (on or off) voltage

signal is created at a varying
frequency to the ignition
module or onboard
computer.
See Figure 56–10.

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Figure 56–10 Some Hall-effect sensors look like magnetic sensors. This Hall-effect camshaft
reference sensor and crankshaft position sensor have an electronic circuit built in that creates
a 0- to 5-volt signal as shown at the bottom. These Hall-effect sensors have three wires: a power
supply (8 volts) from the computer (controller); a signal (0 to 5 volts); and a signal ground.
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Magnetic crankshaft position sensor Uses the changing
strength of the magnetic field surrounding a coil of wire to signal
the module and computer. This signal is used by the electronics
in the module and computer as to piston position
and engine speed (rpm). See Figures 56–11 and 56–12.
Optical sensors Use light from a LED and a phototransistor to

signal the computer. An interrupter disc between the LED and the
phototransistor has slits that allow the light from the LED
to trigger the phototransistor on the other side of the disc. Most
optical sensors (usually located inside the distributor) use two
rows of slits to provide individual cylinder recognition (low-
resolution) and precise distributor angle recognition (high-
resolution) signals.
See Figure 56–13

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Figure 56–11 A magnetic sensor uses a permanent magnet surrounded by a coil of wire. The
notches of the crankshaft (or camshaft) create a variable magnetic field strength around the
coil. When a metallic section is close to the sensor, the magnetic field is stronger because
metal is a better conductor of magnetic lines of force than air.
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Figure 56–12 A typical magnetic crankshaft position sensor.
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Figure 56–13 (a) Typical optical distributor. (b) Cylinder I slit signals the computer the piston
position for cylinder I. The I-degree slits provide accurate engine speed information to the
computer.

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Optical Distributors Do Not Like Light - Part 1
Optical distributors use light emitted from LEDs to trigger phototransistors.
Most optical distributors use a shield between the distributor rotor and the
optical interrupter ring. Sparks jump the gap from rotor tip to distributor
cap inserts. This shield blocks the light from the electrical arc from
interfering with the detection of the light from the LEDs.
Figure 56–14a
An optical distributor on a
Nissan 3.0 L V-6 shown with
the light shield removed.

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Optical Distributors Do Not Like Light - Part 2
If this shield is not replaced during service, the signals are reduced and
the engine may not operate correctly. This can be difficult to detect
because nothing looks wrong during an inspection. Remember all optical
distributors must be shielded between the rotor and the interrupter ring.
Figure 56–14b
A light shield being installed
before the rotor is attached.

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The Tachometer Trick
When diagnosing a no-start or intermittent missing condition, check the
operation of the tachometer. If the tachometer does not indicate engine
speed (no-start condition) or drops toward zero (engine missing), then the
problem is due to a defect in the primary ignition circuit. The tachometer
gets its signal from the pulsing of the primary winding of the ignition coil.
The following components in the primary circuit could cause the tach to not
work when the engine is cranking.
• Pickup coil • Ignition module (igniter)

• Crankshaft position sensor • Coil primary wiring
If the vehicle is not equipped with a tachometer, connect a handheld
tachometer to the negative terminal of the coil. Remember the following:
• No tach reading means the problem is in the primary ignition circuit.
• Tachometer reading okay means the problem is in the secondary
ignition circuit or is a fuel-related problem.

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DISTRIBUTOR IGNITION
GM HEI Electronic Ignition
Standard equipment on GM vehicles.
Some use a coil in the distributor cap
and some models use an externally
mounted ignition coil.
The large-diameter distributor cap
provides additional space between
the spark plug connections to help
prevent crossfire.
Figure 56–15 An HEI distributor.
Defective HEI coils must be replaced

with the exact replacement style.
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Most HEI distributors use 8-mm
diameter spark plug wires that
use female connections to the
distributor cap towers.
Figure 56–16 A typical General Motors HEI
coil installed in the distributor cap. When the
coil or distributor cap is replaced, check that
the ground clip is transferred from the old
distributor cap to the new. Without proper
grounding, coil damage is likely.
There are two designs of HEI coils. One uses

red and white wire as shown, and the other
design, which has reversed polarity, uses red
and yellow wire for the coil primary.
HEI coils differ and can be

identified by the colors of the
primary leads.
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The correct color of lead coil must be used for replacement. The
colors of the leads indicate the direction in which the coil is wound,
and its polarity.
Figure 56–17
This uses a remotely
mounted ignition coil.
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Ford Electronic Ignition All function similarly, though over the
years the system has been called by various names.
The EEC IV system uses the thick-film-integration (TFI) ignition

system. This system uses a smaller control module attached to the
distributor and uses an air-cooled epoxy E coil. See Figure 56–18.
TFI means all electronics are manufactured on small layers built up

to form a thick film. Construction uses pastes of different electrical
resistances deposited on a thin, flat ceramic material by a process
similar to silk-screen printing, connected by tracks of palladium
silver paste.
The chips that form the capacitors, diodes, and integrated circuits are
soldered directly to the palladium silver tracks. The thick-film
manufacturing process is highly automated.
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Figure 56–18 Wiring diagram of a typical Ford electronic ignition.
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Operation of Ford Distributor Ignition Ford DI systems function
in basically the same way regardless of year and name.
Under the distributor cap and rotor is a magnetic pickup assembly,

which produces a small alternating electrical pulse when the
distributor armature rotates past the pickup assembly (stator). This
low-voltage pulse is sent to the ignition module.
The ignition module switches off the primary ignition coil current
(through transistors). When the ignition coil primary current is
stopped quickly, a high-voltage “spike” discharges from the coil
secondary winding. The coil current is controlled in the module
circuits by decreasing dwell (coil-charging time).
See Figure 56-19.

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Figure 56–19 Schematic of a Ford TFI-IV ignition system. The SPOUT connector is unplugged
when ignition timing is being set.
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Chrysler Distributor Ignition The first domestic manufacturer to
produce electronic ignition as standard equipment.
The Chrysler system consists of a pulse generator unit in the

distributor (pickup coil and reluctor). Chrysler’s name for their
electronic ignition is electronic ignition system (EIS), and the
control unit (module) is called the electronic control unit (ECU).
The pickup coil in the distributor (pulse generator) generates the

signal to open and close the primary coil circuit.
See figure 56–20.
Continued
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Figure 56–20 A Chrysler electronic ignition distributor. This unit is equipped with a vacuum
advance mechanism that advances the ignition timing under light engine load conditions.
PICKUP
COIL
RELUCTOR
Continued
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WASTE SPARK IGNITION
Waste-spark ignition is another name for distributorless
ignition system (DIS) or electronic ignition (EI). Waste-spark
ignition was introduced in the mid-1980s and uses the onboard
computer to fire the ignition coils.
First used on some Saabs and General Motors engines. A four-

cylinder engine uses two ignition coils and a six-cylinder engine
three coils. Each is a true transformer in which the primary
winding and secondary winding are not electrically connected.
Each end of the secondary winding is connected to a cylinder

exactly opposite the other in the firing order, which is called a
paired cylinder. See Figure 56–21.
Continued
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Figure 56–21 A waste-spark system fires one cylinder while its piston is on the compression
stroke and into paired or companion cylinders while it is on the exhaust stroke. In a typical
engine, it requires only about 2 to 3 kV to fire the cylinder on the exhaust strokes. The
remaining coil energy is available to fire the spark plug under compression (typically about 8 to
12 kV).
This means both spark plugs
fire at the same time. When
one cylinder (eg. 6) is on the
compression stroke, the other
cylinder (3) is on exhaust.
The spark that occurs on the
exhaust stroke is called the
waste spark, because it does
no useful work and is only
used as a ground path for the
secondary winding of the
ignition coil.
Continued
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The voltage required to jump the spark plug gap on cylinder 3 (the
exhaust stroke) is only 2 to 3 kV and provides the ground circuit
for the secondary coil circuit.
The remaining coil energy is used by the cylinder on compression

stroke. One spark plug of each pair always fires straight polarity
and the other cylinder always fires reverse polarity.
Spark plug life is not greatly affected by the reverse polarity. If

there is only one defective spark plug wire or spark plug, two
cylinders may be affected.
Continued
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Coil polarity is determined by the direction the coil is wound (left-
hand rule for conventional current flow) and cannot be changed.
Each spark plug for a particular cylinder always will be fired either
with straight or reversed polarity, depending on its location in the
engine and how the coils are wired.
Figure 56–22 The left-hand rule states that if a coil is grasped with the left hand, the fingers will
point in the direction of current flow and the thumb will point toward the north pole.
When a cylinder is on the

compression stroke, such
as number 1, the paired
cylinder (number 4) is on
the exhaust stroke.
Continued
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During the next rotation of the crankshaft, cylinder 4 is on the
compression stroke and number 1 on the exhaust stroke
Cylinder 1—Always fires straight polarity, one time,

requiring 10 to 12 kV and one time, requiring 3 to 4 kV.
Cylinder 4—Always fires reverse polarity, one time,
requiring 10 to 12 kV and one time, requiring 3 to 4 kV.
NOTE: With a distributor-type ignition system, the coil has two air gaps
to fire: one between the rotor tip and the distributor insert (not under
compression forces) and the other in the gap at the firing tip of the spark
plug (under compression forces). A DIS also fires two gaps: one under
compression (compression stroke plug) and one not under compression
(exhaust stroke plug).
Continued
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Odds Fire Straight
Waste-spark ignition systems fire two spark plugs at the same time. Most
vehicle manufacturers use a waste-spark system that fires the odd-
numbered cylinders (1, 3, and 5) by straight polarity (current flow from the
top of the spark plug through the gap and to the ground electrode). The
even-numbered cylinders (2, 4, and 6) are fired reverse polarity, meaning
that the spark jumps from the side electrode to the center electrode.
Some vehicle manufacturers equip their vehicles with platinum plugs with
the expansive platinum alloy only on one electrode as follows:
• On odd-numbered cylinders (1, 3, 5), the platinum is on the
center electrode.
• On even-numbered cylinders (2, 4, 6), the platinum is on the
ground electrode.
Replacement plugs use platinum on both electrodes (double platinum) and
can, therefore, be placed in any cylinder location.
Continued
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Waste-spark ignitions require a sensor (usually a crankshaft sensor)
to trigger the coils at the correct time. See Figure 56–23.
The crankshaft sensor cannot be moved to adjust ignition timing.

Ignition timing is not adjustable. The slight adjustment of the
crankshaft sensor is designed to position the sensor exactly in the
middle of the rotating metal disc for maximum clearance.
Some engines do not use a camshaft position sensor, but rather

double Hall-effect crankshaft sensors and again, ignition timing is
not adjustable.
Continued
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Figure 56–23 Typical Ford EDIS 4-cylinder ignition system. The crankshaft sensor, called a variable-
reluctance sensor (VRS), sends crankshaft position and speed information to the EDIS module.
A modified signal is sent to the computer as a profile ignition pickup (PIP) signal. The PIP is used by
the computer to calculate ignition timing, and the computer sends a signal back to the EDIS module
as to when to fire the spark plug. This return signal is called the spark angle word (SAW) signal.

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IGNITION CONTROL CIRCUITS
Ignition control (IC) is OBD-II terminology for the output signal
from the PCM to the ignition system that controls engine timing.
Previously, each manufacturer used a different term to describe

this signal. Ford referred to this signal as spark output (SPOUT);
GM referred to it as electronic spark timing (EST). This signal
is now referred to as the ignition control (IC) signal.
The signal is usually digital output sent to the ignition system as a

timing signal. If the system is equipped with an ignition module,
this signal is used by the ignition module to vary timing as engine
speed and load changes.
Continued
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If the PCM directly controls the coils, such as most coil-on-plug
ignition systems, then this IC signal directly controls the coil
primary and there is a separate IC signal for each ignition coil.
The IC signal controls the time that the coil fires; it either advances
or retards the timing. On many systems, this signal controls the
duration of the primary current flow in the coil, which is referred to
as the dwell.

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BYPASS IGNITION CONTROL
A bypass ignition is common on GM distributor ignition (DI) and
waste-spark ignition engines. The engine starts using the ignition
module for timing, and switches to the PCM after engine start.
Figure 56–24
Typical wiring diagram of a V-6 distributorless (direct fire) ignition system.
Continued
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The bypass circuit-includes four wires:
Tach reference (purple/white) This wire comes from the
ignition control (IC) module; used by the PCM as engine speed
information.
Ground (black/white) Used to ensure that both PCM and
ignition control module share the same ground.
Bypass (tan/black) Conducts a 5-volt DC signal from PCM to
the ignition control module to switch the timing control from the
module to the PCM.
EST (ignition control) (white wire) The ignition timing control
signal from the PCM to the ignition control module.
NOTE: It is this bypass wire that is disconnected before the ignition

timing can be set on many GM engines equipped with distributor ignition.
Continued
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Diagnosing a Bypass Ignition System An advantage of a bypass
ignition is that the engine will run without the computer because the
module can do coil switching and can, through circuits in the
module, provide some spark advance as engine speed increases.
This is a safety feature that helps protect the catalytic converter if the
ignition control from the PCM is lost.
If there is a problem, use a digital meter and check for the presence
of 5 volts on the tan bypass wire. If there is not 5 volts present with
the engine running, then the PCM or the wiring is at fault.
Continued
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Up-Integrated Ignition Control Most coil-on-plug and many
waste-spark-type ignition systems use the PCM for ignition timing
control.
This type of ignition control is called up-integrated because all

timing functions are interpreted in the PCM, rather than being split
between the ignition control module and the PCM.
The ignition module, if even used, contains the power transistor for
coil switching. The signal as to when the coil fires, is determined
and controlled from the PCM.
Unlike a bypass ignition control circuit, it is not possible to separate

the PCM from the ignition coil control to help isolate a fault.

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COMPRESSION-SENSING IGNITION
Some waste-spark ignition systems, such as on Saturns, use the
voltage required to fire the cylinders to determine cylinder position.
It requires higher voltage to fire a plug under compression than

when the spark plug is fired on the exhaust stroke. The electronics
can detect which of the two cylinders fired at the same time
requires higher voltage, indicating the cylinder on compression.
Engines equipped with compression-sensing ignition systems do

not require use of a camshaft position sensor to determine cylinder
number.

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COIL-ON-PLUG IGNITION
Coil-on-plug (COP) ignition is also called coil-by-plug, coil-near-
plug, or coil-over-plug ignition. One ignition coil is used for each
spark plug.
Figure 56–25 A coil-on-plug ignition
system.
This system eliminates spark

plug wires, often sources of
electromagnetic interference
(EMI) that can cause problems
to some computer signals.
See Figure 56–26.
Continued
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Figure 56–26 A typical coil-on-plug (COP) ignition system on a V-8 with a separate coil for each
cylinder.
Continued
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The vehicle computer controls the timing of the spark. Ignition
timing also can be changed (retarded or advanced) on a cylinder-by-
cylinder basis for maximum performance and to respond to knock
sensor signals.
Figure 56–27 Individual coils with

modules shown on the General
Motors 4.2-L inline 6-cylinder
light-truck engine. Note the
aluminum cooling fins (heat sink)
on top of each assembly.

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There are two basic types of coil-on-plug ignition, including:
Two-wire This design uses the vehicle computer to control
the firing of the ignition coil. The two wires include ignition
voltage feed and the pulse ground wire, which is controlled
by the computer. All ignition timing and dwell control are
handled by the computer.
Three-wire This design includes an ignition module at each
coil. The three wires include:
• Ignition voltage
• Ground
• Pulse from the computer to the built-in module
Many V-8s use a coil-near-plug system. Short secondary ignition
spark plug wires are used to connect the output terminal of the
ignition coil to the spark plug.
Continued
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Newer Chrysler engines use coil-over-plug-type ignition systems.
Each coil is controlled by the PCM, which can vary ignition timing
separately for each cylinder based on signals the PCM receives from
the knock sensor(s).
If the knock sensor detects that a spark knock has occurred after
firing cylinder 3, then the PCM will continue to monitor cylinder 3
and retard timing on just this one cylinder if necessary to prevent
engine-damaging detonation.
Never Disconnect a Spark Plug Wire When

the Engine is Running!
Ignition systems produce a high-voltage pulse necessary to ignite a lean
air-fuel mixture. If you disconnect a spark plug wire when the engine is
running, this high-voltage spark could cause personal injury or damage to
the ignition coil and/or ignition module.

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ION-SENSING IGNITION
In an ion-sensing ignition system, the spark plug itself becomes a
sensor. The ignition control (IC) module applies a voltage of about
100 to 400 volts DC across the spark plug gap after the ignition
event to sense the plasma inside the cylinder.
See Figure 56–28.
The coil discharge voltage (10 to 15 kV) is electrically isolated

from the ion-sensing circuit. The combustion flame is ionized and
will conduct some electricity, which can be accurately measured at
the spark plug gap.
Continued
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Figure 56–28 A DC voltage is applied across the spark plug gap after the plug fires and the circuit
can determine if the correct air–fuel ratio was present in the cylinder and if knock occurred.
Continued
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The purpose of this circuit includes:
Misfire detection (required by OBD-II regulations)
Knock detection (eliminates the need for a knock sensor)
Ignition timing control (to achieve the best spark timing for
maximum power with lowest exhaust emissions)
Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) control
Air–fuel ratio control on an individual cylinder basis
Ion-sensing ignition systems still function the same as conventional

coil-on-plug designs, but the engine does not need to be equipped
with a camshaft position sensor for misfire detection, or a knock
sensor because both of these faults are achieved using the
electronics inside the ignition control circuits.

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IGNITION TIMING
Ignition timing refers to when the spark plug fires in relation to
piston position. When spark occurs depends on engine speed, and
must be advanced as the engine rotates faster.
The ignition in the cylinder takes about 30 ms (3/1000 second).

This time is relatively constant throughout the engine speed range.
For maximum efficiency from expanding gases in the combustion

chamber, burning of the air–fuel mixture should end by about 10°
after top dead center (ATDC).
If burning is still occurring after that point, the expanding gases do

not exert much force on the piston because it is moving away from
the gases (the gases are “chasing” the piston).
Continued
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To achieve the goal of having the air–fuel mix completely burned by
the time the piston reaches 10° after top dead center, the spark must be
advanced (occur sooner) as engine speed increases. Timing advance is
controlled by the PCM on most vehicles.
Figure 56–29
Ignition timing marks are found on the harmonic
balancers that are equipped with distributor ignition.
Continued
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INITIAL TIMING
If the engine is equipped with a distributor, it may be possible to
adjust the base or the initial timing. The initial timing is usually set
to fire the spark plug between zero degrees (top dead center or TDC)
or slightly before TDC (BTDC).
Ignition timing changes as the

timing chain or gear wears.
Adjustment is often necessary
on high-mileage engines.
Waste-spark and coil-on-plug
ignitions can’t be adjusted.
Figure 56–30 The initial timing is where the
spark plug fires at idle speed. The
computer then advances the timing based
on engine speed and other factors. Continued
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KNOCK SENSORS
Knock sensors detect abnormal combustion, called ping, spark
knock, or detonation. When this occurs, rapid pressure increase
occurs in the cylinder, creating vibration in the block, detected by
the knock sensor.
The PCM uses the signal from the knock sensor (KS) to retard
ignition timing until knock is eliminated, reducing damaging effects
of the abnormal combustion on pistons and other engine parts.
Inside the sensor is a piezoelectric element that generates a voltage

when pressure or a vibration is applied. The sensor is tuned to a
range from 5 kHz to 10 kHz, depending on engine design. The
signal from the knock sensor is sent to the PCM, which retards
ignition timing until the knocking stops.
Continued
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Diagnosing the Knock Sensor If a knock sensor diagnostic trouble
code (DTC) is present, follow specified testing procedure. A scan tool
can be used to check the operation of the knock sensor, using the
following procedure:
Step #1 Start the engine and connect a scan tool to monitor ignition
timing and/or knock sensor activity.
Step #2 Create a simulated engine knocking sound by tapping on
the engine block or cylinder head with a soft-faced mallet.
Step #3 Observe the scan tool display. The vibration from the
tapping should have been interpreted by the knock sensor as a
knock, resulting in a knock sensor signal and a reduction in the
spark advance.
Continued
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A knock sensor can be tested using a digital storage oscilloscope.
Figure 56–31 A typical waveform

from a knock sensor during a spark
knock event. This signal is sent to
the computer which in turn retards
the ignition timing.
The timing retard is accomplished

by an output command from the
computer to either a spark advance
control unit or directly to the
ignition module.
Continued
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NOTE: Some engine computers are programmed to ignore knock sensor
signals when the engine is at idle speed to avoid having noise from a
loose accessory drive belt, or other accessory, interpreted as engine
knock. Always follow the manufacturer’s recommended testing procedure.
Replacing a Knock Sensor If replacing a knock sensor, be sure to

purchase the exact replacement needed, because they often look the
same, but the frequency range can vary according to engine design, as
well as where it is located on the engine. Always tighten the knock
sensor using a torque wrench and tighten to the specified torque to
avoid causing damage to the piezoelectric element inside the sensor.

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SPARK PLUGS
Figure 56–32 Parts of a typical spark plug.
Spark plugs are made

from ceramic insulators
inside a steel shell.
The threads of the shell
are rolled.
A seat is formed to create

a gastight seal with the
cylinder head.
Continued
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The physical difference in spark plugs includes:
Reach This is the length of the threaded part of the plug.
Heat range The heat range of the spark plug refers to

how rapidly the heat created at the tip is transferred to the
cylinder head. A plug with a long ceramic insulator path
will run hotter at the tip than a spark plug that has a
shorter path because the heat must travel further.
Type of seat Some spark plugs use a gasket and others

rely on a tapered seat to seal.
See Figure 56-33
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Figure 56–33 The heat range of a spark plug is determined by the distance the heat has to flow
from the tip to the cylinder head.
Continued
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Resistor Spark Plugs Most spark plugs include a resistor in the
center electrode, which helps to reduce electromagnetic noise or
radiation from the ignition system.
The closer the resistor is to the actual spark or arc, the more
effective it becomes. The value of the resistor is usually between
2,500 ohms and 7,500 ohms.
Continued
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Platinum Spark Plugs A small amount of the precious metal
platinum welded onto the end of the center electrode gives
platinum spark plugs their name.
Platinum is a grayish-white metal that does not react with oxygen

and will not erode away as can occur with conventional nickel
alloy spark plug electrodes.
Platinum is also used as a catalyst in catalytic converters where it

is able to start a chemical reaction without itself being consumed.
Continued
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Iridium Spark Plugs Iridium is a white precious metal and is the
most corrosion-resistant metal known. Most iridium spark plugs
use a small amount of iridium welded onto the tip of a small center
electrode 0.0015 to 0.002 inch (0.4 to 0.6 mm) in diameter.
The small diameter reduces the voltage required to jump the gap
between the center and the side electrode, thereby reducing possible
misfires. The ground or side electrode is usually tipped with
platinum to help reduce electrode gap wear.

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SUMMARY
1. All inductive ignition systems supply battery voltage to the
positive side of the ignition coil and pulse the negative side of
the coil on and off to ground to create a high-voltage spark.
2. If an ignition system uses a distributor, it is a distributor

ignition (DI) system.
3. If an ignition system does not use a distributor, it is called an

electronic ignition (EI) system.
Continued
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SUMMARY (cont.)
4. A waste-spark ignition system fires two spark plugs at the
same time.
5. A coil-on-plug ignition system uses an ignition coil for each

spark plug.

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end

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Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

coil-on-plug (COP) ignition (also coil-by-plug, coil-near-

detonation • distributor ignition (DI) • distributor ignition

e coil • electronic control unit (ECU) • electronic ignition

igniter • ignition coil • ignition control (IC) • ignition

knock sensor (KS)

magnetic pulse generator • magnetic sensor • married

saturation • Schmitt trigger • secondary ignition circuit •

tapped transformer • transistor • triggering • true

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

A fault anywhere in the primary (low-voltage) ignition

A fault anywhere in the secondary (high-voltage)

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

When the coil negative lead is grounded, the primary (low-voltage)

Early ignition systems used a mechanically opened set of contact

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

Other coils are true

Surrounding the secondary windings are approximately 150 turns of

In many coils, these windings are surrounded with a thin metal

The polarity of an ignition coil is determined

Inductive reactance is similar to resistance because it opposes any

When an ignition coil is first energized, there is a slight delay of

If the current is stopped from flowing (circuit is opened), the

This generation of an electric current in both coil windings is called

The magnetic field in a coil is produced by current flowing through

If the primary circuit is completed, current can flow through the

See Figure 56–4.

Secondary Ignition Circuit

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

In the ignition control module (ICM)

NOTE: On some coil-on-plug systems, the ICM is part of the ignition

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

See Figures 56–6 and 56–7.

Most Hall-effect switches in distributors have a Hall element or

Some blades are designed to hang down, typically Bosch and

A digital (on or off) voltage

See Figure 56–10.

Optical sensors Use light from a LED and a phototransistor to

See Figure 56–13

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

• Pickup coil • Ignition module (igniter)

Automotive Technology: Principles, Diagnosis, and Service, 3rd Edition ©©2008

Defective HEI coils must be replaced

There are two designs of HEI coils. One uses

HEI coils differ and can be

The EEC IV system uses the thick-film-integration (TFI) ignition

TFI means all electronics are manufactured on small layers built up

Under the distributor cap and rotor is a magnetic pickup assembly,

See Figure 56-19.

The Chrysler system consists of a pulse generator unit in the

The pickup coil in the distributor (pulse generator) generates the

See figure 56–20.

First used on some Saabs and General Motors engines. A four-

Each end of the secondary winding is connected to a cylinder

The remaining coil energy is used by the cylinder on compression

Spark plug life is not greatly affected by the reverse polarity. If

When a cylinder is on the

Cylinder 1—Always fires straight polarity, one time,

The crankshaft sensor cannot be moved to adjust ignition timing.