CIVE 2004

Compaction
 What is Compaction?

• Compaction is a simple form of ground

improvement to densify soils (fill materials
and natural soils) by application of
mechanical energy

• There is a reduction in the volume of air

with no significant change in the volume of
water in the soil reduction in void ratio
 Purposes of Compaction
• Compaction reduces compressibility
(settlement)

• Compaction increases the soil strength

• Compaction makes water flow through soil

more difficult reduces permeability

• Compaction reduces shrinkage

Phase Relationship

Solid Particles

Volume

Voids (air or water)

Phase Relationship relevant to Compaction

Ww
Water Content , w(%)  100%
Ws

Vv
Void Ratio , e 
Vs

Vv
Porosity , n 
V

Va
Air  voids content , Av 
V
Phase Relationship relevant to Compaction

To prove that

Gsw
d  (1  Av)
Gsw  1
 Factors affecting Compaction

• Water content of soil

• The type of soil being compacted

• The amount of compactive energy used

 Laboratory Compaction tests
Handle

In the laboratory, the compaction energy may be developed by

impact (most common), kneading or static means.

During impact or dynamic compaction, a hammer is allowed to

drop many times on a soil in a mould. The weight of the
hammer, height of drop, number of drops (blows), number of
soil layers and volume of mould are specified.

In soils containing some particles up to coarse gravel size,

compaction can be carried out by using a vibration hammer.
 Laboratory Compaction tests
Handle

• Equipment
Handle

collar (mould
extension)

Metal guide

Cylindrical
soil mould

Hammer for
compacting soil
Base plate
 Laboratory Compaction tests
British Standard Methods of test - BS1377:1990

BS Standard Compaction test (also known as

Standard Proctor test)
Soil sieved through 20mm sieve
Volume of mould = 1 litre = 1 x 10-3 m3
Weight of hammer = 2.5 kg
Drop of hammer = 0.3m
No. of layers = 3
No. of blows per layer = 27
 Laboratory Compaction tests
BS Heavy Compaction test (also known as
Modified Proctor test)
Soil sieved through 20mm sieve
Volume of mould = 1 litre = 1 x 10-3 m3
Weight of hammer = 4.5 kg
Drop of hammer = 0.45m
No. of layers = 5
No. of blows per layer = 27
 Laboratory Compaction tests
Why modified test?
In the past, because field compaction equipment was
lighter and gave relatively low compaction efforts, a
laboratory method (Standard Proctor test) that used a small
amount of compacting energy was devised.

The modified test was developed in the US during World

War II to achieve higher compaction required in the
construction of airfields to cater for heavy aircrafts. The test
is now used in connection with the design and construction
of roads to cater for heavy vehicles.
 Laboratory Compaction tests
Procedure:
• Several samples of the same soil, but at
different water contents, are compacted
according to the test specifications.
• The wet density and water content of each M
compacted samples are determined. 
V
• The dry density is then computed for each
sample. 
• A curve of dry densities v/s water content d 
is plotted. 1 w
 Laboratory Compaction tests
Results
The compaction curve is unique for a given soil type,
method of compaction and compaction effort.

Effect of water content

As the water content is increased, the water lubricates
the soil particles, making it easier to disturb the soil
structure and reorienting the particles into a denser
configuration. Air is progressively expelled from the voids
until a peak point is achieved.

The peak point of the curve corresponds to the maximum

dry density (MDD) and optimum water content (also
known as optimum moisture content, OMC).
 Laboratory Compaction tests
Effect of water content (contd)
MDD occurs at about 5% air-voids content. At this point,
much of the air remaining in the soil is in the form of
small enclosed bubbles which are surrounded entirely by
water. The air bubbles can no longer be removed from
the soil.

After the peak point, water starts to replace soil particles

in the mould, and since w is less than s, the dry density
decreases.

0, 5%, 10%, etc air-voids lines can be drawn on the dry

density-water content plot by using the equation:
 Laboratory Compaction tests
Effect of water content (contd)
Gsw
d  (1  Av)
Gsw  1

The zero air voids or saturation line represents the fully

saturated condition. It cannot be achieved by
compaction.

The line of optimums is a line drawn through the peak

points of several compaction curves obtained at different
compactive efforts for the same soil and is almost parallel
to the saturation line.
 Laboratory Compaction tests
Effect of compactive effort
Increasing compactive effort increases MDD but reduces
OMC.

Air-voids content at peak density remains more or less

the same.

At high water contents, there is insignificant increase in

dry density by increasing the compactive effort.
 Laboratory Compaction tests
Effect of soil type
The grain-size distribution, shape of the soil grains, specific
gravity of soil grains and type of clay minerals present
affect the dry densities that are achieved by compaction.

Highest dry densities are produced in well graded coarse-

grained soils with smooth rounded grains.

Uniform sands give a much flatter compaction curve and a

lower MDD.
 Field Compaction Specifications

There are two methods of specifying field compaction

works:
End-product specification: The level of compaction
expressed in terms of relative compaction is
specified.

Relative compaction =

Dry density achieved in the field

100%
MDD determined in a particular lab test
 Field Compaction Specifications
For example, a specification may state that the dry
density achieved in the field should not be less than
95% of MDD determined from the BS heavy
compaction test.

In addition, water content limits (dry of OMC and/or wet

of OMC) are specified and compaction is allowed to
proceed only if the natural water content of the soil in
the field is within these limits.

Method specification: All elements of the work to be

done are specified. The type and weight of the roller,
the number of passes and the layer thickness for a
given fill are specified.
 Field Compaction Control

Control of field compaction consists of a systematic

exercise whereby checks are carried out at regular
intervals to verify whether the compaction has been
done to specifications.

It is common to carry out field measurements of dry

density and moisture content for comparison with
laboratory test results.
 Field Compaction Control
Commonly used methods:
Destructive methods:
• Core cutter method – fine soils without
stones
• Sand cone method – granular soils

Non-destructive methods:
• Nuclear method – fine and granular soils
Nuclear density meter

Va
A (%)   100
V
Road pavement structure
Load Transfer to Subgrade
Deformation of Subgrade
 Subgrade strength
In road construction, the strength of the subgrade is the main
factor in determining the thickness of the pavement structure.

The performance of a pavement is dependent upon the

underlying subgrade, the material upon which the pavement
structure is built.

The subgrade strength is expressed in terms of its California

Bearing Ratio (CBR) value.
 CBR

The CBR test can be performed either in the field or in the

laboratory.

The test consists of causing a small plunger of standard area

to penetrate the ground surface or soil sample at a rate of
1mm per minute, while the load is recorded. In the lab, the
test is done either on unsoaked or soaked (for 4 days)
samples.
 CBR
In the lab, the test is done either on unsoaked or soaked (for
4 days) samples.

When a subgrade or sub-base material is tested, the increase

in strength due to the overlying road pavement can be taken
into account. Surcharge weights, in the form of annular discs,
can be placed on top of the test sample. One disc of 2kg
simulates the effect of approximately 70mm of superimposed
pavement.

Lab test is limited to soils having maximum particle size not

exceeding 20mm.
CBR
CBR
 CBR
Test results are plotted in the form of a load v/s penetration
diagram by drawing a curve through the experimental
points.

The plunger resistance at 2.5mm penetration is expressed

as a percentage of 13.24kN and that at 5.0mm penetration
is expressed as a percentage of 19.96kN.

The higher of these two percentages is taken as the CBR

value of the soil.
CBR
CBR
Typical CBR values