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Current status of waste management in Botswana: A mini-review

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DOI: 10.1177/0734242X18772097

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WMR0010.1177/0734242X18772097Waste Management & ResearchMmereki

Mini-review article

Waste Management & Research

Current status of waste management in

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DOI: 10.1177/0734242X18772097
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Daniel Mmereki

Abstract
Effective waste management practices are not all about legislative solutions, but a combination of the environmental, social, technical,
technically skilled human resources, financial and technological resources, resource recycling, environmental pollution awareness
programmes and public participation. As a result of insufficient resources, municipal solid waste (MSW) in transition and developing
countries like Botswana remains a challenge, and it is often not yet given highest priority. In Botswana, the environment, public health
and other socio-economic aspects are threatened by waste management practices due to inadequate implementation and enforcement
mechanisms of waste management policy. This mini-review paper describes the panorama of waste management practices in Botswana
and provides information to competent authorities responsible for waste management and to researchers to develop and implement an
effective waste management system. Waste management practices in Botswana are affected by: lack of effective implementation of national
waste policy, fragmented tasks and overlapping mandates among relevant institutions; lack of clear guidelines on the responsibilities of
the generators and public authorities and on the associated economic incentives; and lack of consistent and comprehensive solid waste
management policies; lack of intent by decision-makers to prepare national waste management plans and systems, and design and
implement an integrated sustainable municipal solid waste management system. Due to these challenges, there are concerns over the
growing trend of the illegal dumping of waste, creating mini dumping sites all over the country, and such actions jeopardize the efforts
of lobbying investors and tourism business. Recommendations for concerted efforts are made to support decision makers to re-organize
a sustainable waste management system, and this paper provides a reference to other emerging economies in the region and the world.

Keywords
Municipal solid waste, indiscriminate dumping, cost-effective solutions, policy reform, public participation, recycling incentives

Received 6th December 2017, accepted 27th March 2018 by Associate Editor Rodrigo Navia.

Introduction
Globally, various types of waste are being generated daily due to
changing consumption patterns, affluence, changing lifestyles,
rapid economic growth, rapid urbanization, increasingly heteroge-
neous nature of modern products and rapid population growth
(Dangi et al., 2017; Malinauskaite et al., 2017), the waste being
generated is not properly managed (Neffa Gobbi et al., 2017), and
waste management activities are having significant negative
impacts on the environment and public health (Guerrero et al.,
2013). Specifically, it is estimated that the world generates between
seven and ten billion tons of solid waste per year, which includes
household, commercial, industrial, civil construction and demoli-
tion waste, and municipal waste accounts for approximately two
billion tonnes of waste generated per year. It has been pointed out,
however, that two billion people have no regular access to solid
waste collection services (Besen and Fracalanza, 2016).
In recent years there has been increasing concern on environ-
mental sustainability, which has resulted in development of strat-
egies to reduce waste and improve waste recovery, resource
recycling of waste (Friedrich and Trois, 2013), and diversion of
waste from landfills for a sustainable living environment (dos
Muchangos et al., 2015; Zhuang et al., 2008). Due to the growing
concern over solid waste management’s effect on the environ-
ment and public health, it is necessary for developed and devel-
oping countries to increase resource recycling of waste and
control environmental pollution (Lino and Ismail, 2012).
In developed countries, waste management operations have
been given the highest priority. This has been followed by the
implementation of the 4Rs: ‘reduce, reclaim, reuse and recycling
or recovery’ for waste materials (Pires et al., 2011), the introduc-
tion of the waste hierarchy, and the adoption of the circular econ-
omy (European Commission, 2015), waste-to-energy (WtE)
(Kumar and Samadde, 2017; Malinauskaite et al. 2017) and zero
waste management, commonly referred to as a visionary waste
Department for Management Science and Technology Development,
Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam; Faculty of
Environment and Labour Safety, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi
Minh City, Vietnam
Corresponding author:
Daniel Mmereki, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City,
Vietnam.
Email: dani.mmereki2@tdt.edu.vn
2 Waste Management & Research 00(0)
management system. In particular, it has been noted that zero
waste (ZW) stimulates sustainable production and consumption,
optimum recycling and resource recovery, and restricts mass
incineration and landfilling (Zaman, 2015). On the other hand,
WtE is defined as ‘embracing various waste treatment processes
generating energy (for instance, in the form of electricity and/or
heat or producing a waste-derived fuel)’ (Malinauskaite et al.,
2017, p. 1). In addition, the circular economy is defined as ‘one
in which the value of products, materials and resources is main-
tained for as long as possible, minimising waste and resource
use (i.e. what used to be considered as “waste” can be turned
into a valuable resource)’ (European Commission, 2015, p. 2).
Furthermore, developed countries have more sources of financial
support to develop their waste management systems when com-
pared to developing countries (Mukhtar et al., 2017).
Studies (Mmereki et al., 2012a, 2012b, 2015; Nagabooshnam,
2012; Taye and Kanda, 2011) have shown that, despite the
existence of a comprehensive strategy towards waste manage-
ment, regulations and guidelines, ratification of conventions
and multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs), an effi-
cient solid waste (SW) management system in Botswana is still
lacking because of the gap between the policy in place and its
implementation. One of the reasons for this is that local author-
ities (LAs) (i.e. town, city and district councils) have proven
unable to solve or address the problems related to unsustaina-
ble MSW management practices and behaviour (Mmereki
et al., 2014). These factors are exacerbated by a lack of knowl-
edge about how to implement integrated programmes; ad hoc
or fragmented efforts and inadequate skills, financial, technical
and technological resources invested in the sector; a lack of a
consistent policy dealing with waste management; a lack of
institutionalization of the informal recycling sector; a lack of
research and development activities; a lack of engineered land-
filling and sanitary operations; a lack of introduction of recy-
cling incentives and enforcement; a lack of improved basic
infrastructure (Kgosiesele and Zhaohui, 2010; Nagabooshnam,
2012; Taye and Kanda, 2011); and a growing trend for illegal
dumping of waste, which creates mini dumping sites all over
the country (Serokolo, 2017). This may lead to significant neg-
ative environmental impacts and a loss of economic benefits
and valuable resources.
In this article, the aim is to improve current waste manage-
ment activities by describing the status of waste management in
Botswana, and identifying the major challenges and the issues
that affect the performance of MSW management. The main con-
tribution of this paper is to support decision makers to re-organ-
ize an effective waste management system, and provide a basis
for the development of efficient waste management systems in
other emerging economies in the region and the world, contribut-
ing towards environmentally sustainable and cost-efficient solu-
tions for MSW management.
Relevant information was obtained from published documentary
sources related to waste management, including conference papers,
books, academic sources and official documents from governments
and other agencies, online documents, public websites (e.g. the
Department of Waste Management and Pollution Control website),
and noting and identifying challenges and issues for waste manage-
ment practices and policies (e.g. on collection services and storage,
transportation, treatment, etc.) Relevant waste policy instruments
related to waste management policy were examined. The analysis of
the existing waste policy frameworks allowed the identification of
inadequacies of waste management practices in Botswana.
Regulation, legislative framework and
guidelines
Over the years, developed countries have implemented and deliv-
ered well-functioning waste management systems due to advanced
legislation, integrated and sustainable waste management
(ISWM), good practices for waste management operations and
guidelines during waste collection, and the designing and imple-
mentation of innovative technologies. For instance, countries in
Europe have adopted ZW policies (‘zero waste Europe’) as a strat-
egy to benefit the environment, indicating that waste needs to be
converted to new resources, mandating MSW treatment plants to
contain facilities for sorting recyclable materials, and being able
to operate the necessary recycling processes and have composting
and incineration plants (Alfaia et al., 2017; Fudala-Ksiazek et al.,
2016). In Botswana, policies associated with waste management
operations have been designed and promulgated, with a compre-
hensive waste management strategy, acts and regulatory guide-
lines, as shown in Table 1. In addition, the country has ratified
conventions for environmental protection, safety and reduction of
public health impacts. Most importantly, the Waste Management
Act of 1998, provides general definitions of waste (e.g. ‘solid
waste’, ‘commercial waste’, household waste’) (Republic of
Botswana, 1998b). Nevertheless, specific terms like ‘municipal
solid waste’ are not yet fully defined. It has to be noted that the
inconsistencies cause complexities in: defining waste manage-
ment activities and practices, effective planning and the efficiency
of operational issues; determining the physical composition of
waste and influencing factor responsibilities; designing guidelines
on the responsibilities of relevant stakeholders, including waste
policy makers and generators; enhancing reuse, resource recovery
and recycling; and awareness of good waste practices and the sus-
tainability of MSW management.
The main legal framework for waste management in Botswana
is the Botswana Waste Management Strategy (BWMS) (Republic
of Botswana, 1998a), which mentions waste management hierar-
chy as a solution towards sustainable waste management in the
country, with disposal being the least preferred option, and reuse,
recycling, etc., being the highest priorities. In addition, the strategy
highlights sustainable utilization of natural resources, the applica-
tion of the ‘polluter pays’ principle, and reduction, reuse and recy-
cling of waste.
Figure 1 illustrates the waste management hierarchy in
Botswana. In Botswana, however, inadequacies have been identified
with the waste management hierarchy, including addressing waste
Mmereki 3

Table 1.  National policies and regulations, and international protocols related to management of MSW in Botswana.

No. Policy Goals and objectives

1 Botswana’s Waste Management
Strategy 1998 (Republic of Botswana,
1998a)
2 Waste Management Act 1998
(Republic of Botswana, 1998b)
3 Air Pollution (Prevention) Act 1971
(Republic of Botswana, 1971)
4 Public Health Act 1981 (Republic of
Botswana, 1981)
5 Guidelines for the disposal of
waste in landfills 1997 (GTZ, 1997)
6 Environmental Impact Assessment
(EIA) and the 2012 EIA regulations
(Republic of Botswana, 2011)
7 Botswana Municipal Recycling
Guidelines, 2012 (Scheinberg et al.,
2012)
8 Basel convention on the control
of transboundary movements of
hazardous wastes and their disposal
(United Nations, 1989)
9 Stockholm convention on persistence of
organic pollutants (2001) (Tokuç, 2013)
Minimize and reduce waste in industry, commerce and private households.
Maximize environmentally sound waste reuse/recycling.
Promote environmentally sound waste collection, treatment and disposal.
To make provision for the planning, facilitation and implementation of
advanced systems for regulating the management of controlled waste in
order to prevent harm to human, animal and plant life (ecosystem).
To minimize pollution of the environment and to conserve natural resources.
To monitor and control air pollution.
Safeguarding public health in Botswana.
Provide pro-active steps to prevent pollution and to improve the standard
of waste disposal in Botswana by providing guidelines for environmentally
acceptable waste disposal for a spectrum of landfill sizes and types, and
providing a framework for cost-effective minimum waste disposal standards
within which to work and upon which to build.
To provide for environmental impact assessment to be used to assess the
potential effects of planned developmental activities.
To determine and to provide mitigation measures for effects of such activities
as may have a significant adverse impact on the environment.
To put in place a monitoring process and evaluation of the environmental
impacts of implemented activities; and to provide for matters incidental to the
foregoing projects.
Policy commitment to recycling and valorisation.
Ensure the availability of adequate disposal facilities, for the environmentally
sound management of hazardous wastes and other wastes, that shall be
located, to the extent possible, within it, whatever their place of disposal.
Ensure that persons involved in the management of hazardous wastes or
other wastes within it take such steps as are necessary to prevent pollution
due to hazardous wastes and other wastes arising from such management
and, if such pollution occurs, to minimize the consequences thereof for
human health and the environment.
Reduce or eliminate releases from stockpiles and wastes are managed in a
manner protective of human health and the environment.

MSW: Municipal solid waste.

of (Mmereki et al. 2014). One explanation for this scenario is the

Figure 1.  Hierarchy of waste management in Botswana.
Adapted from Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische
Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) (1997).
management practices in a broader perspective, the key principles
of waste prevention and payment by the polluter principle, and a
lack of cooperation among all the parties involved in waste man-
agement activities. Moreover, the waste management hierarchy
operates inversely; landfilling is still the most practised method of
disposal, and waste materials are being indiscriminately disposed
lack of technically skilled human resources to develop sustainable
waste management plans; inefficiency regarding operational
issues; a lack of basic infrastructure for waste reduction and sort-
ing; lack of selective collection; lower financial penalties; inade-
quate financial support to develop waste management plans; and
a lack of knowledge about solid waste management technologies.
The Department of Waste Management and Pollution Control
(DWMPC) facilitates the waste management and recycling
system, imposing fines on polluters and establishing environmen-
tally friendly waste management programmes (Kgosiesele and
Zhaohui, 2010). Researchers (Mmereki et al., 2016; Mukhtar
et al., 2017) have observed that the success of the waste manage-
ment hierarchy requires technically skilled human resources,
research and development activities on appropriate technologies,
effective planning, awareness on environmental and waste
management issues and landfilling towards engineered and sani-
tary operations, with leachate collection systems and gas
collection, and the development of innovative technologies such
4 Waste Management & Research 00(0)

Table 2.  Key agencies responsible for waste management control in Botswana.

Key agencies Responsibilities

Ministry of Environment, Natural
Resources Conservation and
Tourism
Ministry of Local Government
and Rural Development
Ministry of Health and Wellness
Ministry of Finance and
Economic Development
Ministry of Infrastructure and
Housing Development
Ministry of Land Management,
Water and Sanitation Services
Provides activities and technical information related to environmental management and
natural resources. Provides leadership on environmental protection and conservation of
the country’s natural resources towards achieving environmental sustainability.
Ensures the efficiency of the LAs through capacity building and policy development and
design.
Provides an overall oversight and delivery of health services for Botswana through a wide
range of health facilities and management structures. Designs and implements public
education campaigns on hygiene and sanitation.
Coordinates national development planning to mobilize and prudently manage available
financial and economic resources. Facilitates improvements in project implementation and
monitoring processes.
Provides serviced land and infrastructure to facilitate land development.
National physical planning, which involves the determination of optimal utilization and
proper organization of land space and development.
Provision of service infrastructure to facilitate land development.
Promoting efficiency in the execution of the mandate and delivery of services to the public
through information management and re-engineering processes.

LAs: Local authorities.

as incineration with or without energy and WtE facilities (Mmereki
et al., 2014). Therefore, it is necessary to train staff in developing
sustainable waste management systems and implement research
and development activities on the selection of appropriate tech-
nologies for waste management operations, financial capabilities
and the availability of experts and skilled workers, making
reforms to the current waste policy to have a clear assignment of
responsibilities for tasks relating to solid waste management oper-
ations. This can enhance the effective implementation of the waste
policy, including the waste management hierarchy and waste
management planning to further accelerate improvements towards
MSW efficiency and sustainability in Botswana.
Institutions with responsibilities
Important institutions associated with and responsible for solid
waste management in Botswana are the Ministry of Environment,
Natural Resources Conservation and Tourism, the Ministry of
Health and Wellness, the Ministry Local of Government and
Rural Development, the Ministry of Land Management, Water
and Sanitation Services, the Ministry of Infrastructure and
Housing Development, etc., as summarized in Table 2. From
Table 2, it can be observed that these institutions have different
mandates related to MSW management operations. In fact, in
Botswana, the Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources and
Tourism, through the DWMPC, is responsible for the develop-
ment of waste management policies, monitoring of treatment and
disposal activities and facilities, waste management trade opera-
tions and environmental pollution control (Mmereki et al., 2014).
The DWMPC also issues licenses and permits to local waste
recovery and recycling companies and waste service providers.
On the other hand, the Department of Environmental Affairs has
a mandate to protect the environment. In addition, the LAs (e.g.
town, city, district councils, etc.) are responsible for the provision
of basic sanitation services such as street cleaning, collection ser-
vices, infrastructure and operational facilities, sewage treatment
and solid waste management services. These ministries and
departments often have overlapping responsibilities without a
clear assignment of responsibilities for tasks relating to solid
waste management, thus hindering effective waste management
planning (Kgosiesele and Zhaohui, 2010; Nagabooshnam, 2012).
This indicates lower cooperation and synergy between the differ-
ent levels of government, which further hinders improvements
towards the effectiveness and sustainability of MSW manage-
ment, although it is a strategy emphasized under sustainable
waste management (Mmereki et al., 2016).
Moreover, in Botswana little is known about the adoption of
an integrated approach, where the public sector, private sector
and waste policy makers responsible for MSW management
work together to improve efficiency of operational issues, thus
leading to the implementation of ad hoc strategies for solid waste
management operations and an absence of coordination among
departments and ministries. This situation hinders uniformity in
dealing with MSW management issues, in particular further
design of improvement initiatives on MSW management, and
further accelerating the effectiveness of waste management oper-
ations in Botswana. Even though public participation and
involvement is viewed in the literature as an important compo-
nent in ISWM (Alfaia et al., 2017), it is rarely practised in transi-
tion and developing countries like Botswana. Other hindrances to
the coordination of waste management activities and operations
in transition and developing countries such as Botswana include
the lack of a designated agency to coordinate waste management
programmes and activities to which all the agencies report, and
lack of clear roles and responsibilities of generators and public
actors for waste management operations (Mmereki et al., 2016).
In addition, in Botswana, the institutional set up associated with
waste management issues is characterized by lower levels of
Mmereki 5
Table 3.  Mean per capita waste generation by locality.
Locality Waste disposed Waste disposed
[m3 person−1 year−1] [kg person−1 year−1]
Rural 0.62 0.2
Urban 2.32 1.32
Source: adapted from Kgosieele and Zhahoui (2010).
cooperation among stakeholders; inadequate training of staff for
enhancing and improving initiatives for and operation of solid
waste management and the development of sustainable waste
management plans; the lack of an integrated framework regard-
ing guidelines on the monitoring and management of waste to
reduce the amount of waste landfilled or indiscriminately dis-
posed of, and its significant negative environmental and public
health impacts; a lack of procedures and institutional mecha-
nisms for the monitoring and enforcement of the regulations; and
a lack of financial capacity, human capacity and technical exper-
tise to develop and improve initiatives for and operations of
SWM (Mmereki et al., 2014).
In Botswana, one of the main obstacles to approving and
implementing the Botswana Recycling Guidelines of 2012 has
been the lack of political intent and leaders’ advances in waste
management issues and operations. As noted by various scholars
(Al-Khatib et al., 2010; Kwailane et al., 2016), enforcement of
waste policy is influenced by political intent and leaders’ interest.
Therefore, it is necessary that SW management issues are included
in the manifestos and agendas of political parties, and leaders
should show interest in waste management operations, in particu-
lar to safeguard the environment and public health.
In summary, in Botswana, cooperation among the different
levels of government (i.e. departments, ministries, municipali-
ties, etc.), effective planning and the development of a designated
agency to improve the efficiency of waste management opera-
tions, prioritizing integrated solid waste management practices
and environmentally sustainable strategies, aimed at reducing
environmental and health risks, is critical. Moreover, in-depth
research is needed to understand the underlying factors that sig-
nificantly influence the development and shape the present waste
management practices, involving the characteristics of the soci-
ety, government administration and economic status with regards
to waste management issues.
Physical composition of waste in
Botswana
Waste composition depends on a number of factors such as living
standards, changing consumption habits and patterns, income
and cultural traditions (Gu et al., 2017; Guerrero et al., 2013;
Kumar et al., 2009). In addition, it has been noted that solid waste
is generated from diverse sources, including institutions com-
mercial, industrial and municipal services, and household sources
(Dladla et al., 2016). A study conducted in Gaborone, Botswana,
by Nagabooshnam (2012) reported that waste was generally
classified into five categories: general waste, solid clinical waste,
soil, garden waste and construction and demolition waste.
Moreover, the study found that general waste may be primarily
divided into two sub-categories, namely organic (e.g. food waste,
garden waste, paper and cardboard, wood and other organic mate-
rials) and inorganic (bottles, cans, plastics, glass, electronics
waste (e-waste), metals and other kinds of waste). Similar condi-
tions might exist in most towns and cities in Botswana because
the country is experiencing increased population size and afflu-
ence (Kweilane et al., 2016).
Although the LAs in Botswana collect and manage MSW, a
major challenge is the lack of reliable data on the quality and
quantity of waste generated. Moreover, there is a dearth of
research and development activities, leading to a lack of reliable
and/or official data on the annual quality and quantity of waste
generated and the waste characteristics, and physical and chemi-
cal waste composition in towns, cities and villages. The most
comprehensive study on the per capita generation rate in
Botswana was in 2001, giving estimates between rural areas and
urban areas. The per capita generation rates are shown in Table 3
(Kgosieele and Zhahoui, 2010). Based on Table 3, per capita gen-
eration is higher in urban areas than in rural areas. These differ-
ences may be due to changes in lifestyle and living standards,
rapid population growth, increasingly heterogeneous nature of
new products, higher consumption patterns, economic growth
and rapid urbanization. As in many other transition and develop-
ing countries, however, the data on per capita generation in
Botswana is becoming relatively obsolete (Mmereki et al., 2015),
and may not adequately reflect current per capita waste genera-
tion and consumption patterns accurately, hindering the facilita-
tion of effective MSW management by LAs and the analysis of
the relationship between the quality and quantity of waste gener-
ated and management practices. Accordingly, the actual scenario
for the amount of waste generated in Botswana may be different
from these estimates; these values were not reported or verified
on the basis of an in-depth quantitative and qualitative survey of
solid waste generated, collected and disposed of in landfills,
physical composition and relative percentage of organic waste in
municipal solid waste, and the percentage of recyclables, inert
materials and compostables. Also, information on the proportion
of organic matter in waste generated in Botswana is lacking, with
limited examples of physical waste composition from specific
towns, cities and villages. Generally, information on the genera-
tion and composition of waste is at best unreliable or relatively
obsolete and poorly documented. Thus, it is a challenging task to
estimate the basis of current solid waste generation and to accel-
erate improvement of waste management operations. It can be
assumed, however, that a significant quantity and quality of
waste may be generated from household, commercial and institu-
tional sources, including paper, cans used for beverages, bottles,
e-waste and food waste due to rapid economic development,
increased population size and affluence (Kweilane et al., 2016).
For instance, it is reported that MSW generation is not simply a
product of society; it is related to the level of development and
6 Waste Management & Research 00(0)
rates of social and economic change within that society, and the
form of life adopted by it in order to achieve modernity (Alfaia
et al., 2017).
Previous research has reported that the composition of waste
is determined by various aspects, such as geographic region,
population size, social conditions and people’s eating habits
(Alfaia et al., 2017; Campuzano and González-Martínez, 2016),
as well as the predominant economic activities (Bernache-Perez
et al., 2001; Gu et al., 2017), and even the season of the year
(Alfaia et al., 2017; Contreras et al., 2010). In addition, solid
waste generation is related to regional culture, since the concepts
of waste, cleaning practices and dirtiness differ and are directly
related to regional customs and habits (Gallardo et al., 2018;
Wilson et al., 2012). Thus, it is assumed that the quantity and
quality of waste generated in towns and cities in Botswana may
be relatively higher than in the villages because of higher levels
of packaging, affluence, rural–urban migration and people’s eat-
ing habits in these areas. Rapid economic growth, an increased
population, rapid urbanization and weak enforcement of appro-
priate management strategies by the authorities may also lead to
increased quantities of solid waste and the emergence of ecologi-
cal problems. At the same time, the lack of a strategy for source
separation from different waste sources in Botswana may also
lead to unsustainable practices. Another important factor that has
an impact on the generation of waste in Botswana may be the
lack of utilization of biodegradable waste, which may increase
the amount of materials in the waste stream. In most of the towns,
cities and villages in Botswana, there is no initial data on the
percentage of recyclable materials, thus limiting a comparison
with developed countries, and other developing and transition
countries. This absence of recent reliable and/or official data on
waste composition and generation affects the basis for an
improved waste policy, changes in the waste collection system
and feasible options to further improve waste management prac-
tices and the effectiveness of planning. In order to develop an
efficient and effective waste management system, it is essential
to conduct an in-depth study on the actual quality and quantity of
waste generated.
Storage and collection
The availability of an efficient collection system of MSW based
on the concept of ISWM is a critical component to delivering a
well-functioning system (Alfaia et al., 2017). Waste storage and
collection in Botswana is not presently well-organized due to the
irregular supply of containers, collection frequency, a lack of
selective collection systems at the household level and a lack of
optimized waste sorting systems. Notably, most of urban and
rural areas in Botswana are characterized by a lack of storage
facilities at the source of solid waste, which limits the effective-
ness of waste segregation and collection system. Moreover, the
supply of different collection containers and temporary storage
equipment such as plastic bags or open bins, street bins and com-
munal collection points to residents, businesses, institutions, etc.,
is inadequate. The collection containers and temporary storage
equipment in various towns, cities and major villages in Botswana
are neither properly maintained nor properly designed. In towns
and cities, each household pays (service levy fee) for the collec-
tion of waste. In rural areas, however, collection at the household
level is free.
A comparison between LAs in urban and rural areas in
Botswana revealed that urban areas have relatively improved
quality and coverage of collection services (Mmereki et al.,
2012a). This situation shows the existence of inequalities between
urban and rural areas in terms of provision of waste management
services due to imbalances in infrastructural development
between urban and rural areas, which may inhibit the expansion
of collection services in rural areas. Logistical issues often mean
that the collection of waste still remains low or irregular, leading
to more challenges in the realization of long-term SWM sustain-
ability in most of the urban and rural areas in Botswana. In addi-
tion, collection services in most LAs in Botswana is insufficient
to deliver a well-functioning collection system due to insufficient
funding and limited sources of financial support to develop their
collection systems (Mmereki et al., 2012b).
Collection services in most councils in Botswana are under-
taken through municipal-based vehicles or contracted waste col-
lection service providers (i.e. direct service provision – mainly
through contract bidding, etc.), but the waste management opera-
tions are not run satisfactorily to collect solid waste and transport
their waste to disposal sites (Mmereki et al., 2012b). Generally,
the bins are most common for both organic and inorganic waste
(Nagabooshnam, 2012). Most municipalities in towns and cities
in Botswana have not developed and implemented waste segrega-
tion at source due to the absence of sorting facilities. As such, in
most urban and rural areas in Botswana, hazardous and non-haz-
ardous, recyclable, biodegradable and compostable materials are
commingled and placed together at waste sources, owing to insuf-
ficient waste segregation at source. This situation has resulted in
poor collection efficiency and an accumulation of waste in resi-
dential neighbourhoods, over-spillage of waste content and
destruction by stray animals such as dogs, which poses a serious
threat to public health and the environment. In Botswana, how-
ever, information on the average collection efficiency for MSW
in rural and urban areas is non-existent. In contrast, the collection
efficiency in Indian cities and states is about 70% (Gupta et al.,
2015), while in Brazil it is less than 80% in the North-east
Region, more than 94% in the South Region, and 97.40%,
94.38% and 93.70% in the South-east, South and Mid-west
regions, respectively (Alfaia et al., 2017). The storage bins in
most of the LAs in Botswana may be classified as either movable
or fixed bins. The fixed bins are more durable but their locations
cannot be changed once they have been placed in an area, while
the location of moveable bins is flexible during transportation
and emptying, but durability is a major challenge due to insuffi-
cient maintenance. In some instances, the storage bins are dilapi-
dated. This is inappropriate because of aesthetic pollution and
may lead to the outbreak of disease (Mmereki et al., 2012b).
Mmereki 7
Similar observations have been made in other developing and
transition countries like Brazil (Alfaia et al., 2017) and in Indian
cities (Gupta et al., 2015). This situation requires the provision of
extensive MSW collection services and the implementation of
waste segregation, particularly at the household level.
Data on the separation and sorting of MSW in Botswana
reveals that the informal recycling sector is the predominant sec-
tor for door-to-door collection of recyclable materials, but does
not necessarily operate recovery or recycling facilities
(Nagabooshnam, 2012). In this instance, the main types of waste
separated and sorted from commingled waste by scavengers and
waste pickers include plastics, glass, paper, bottles, cans used for
beverages and metals, which are later sold to the recovery compa-
nies and scrap yards, in particular in cities like Gaborone and
Francistown. Most importantly, waste materials recovered by
scavengers and waste pickers are sent to existing licensed recov-
ery companies such as Duma Tau and non-governmental organi-
zations (NGOs) such as Somarelang Tikologo in Gaborone
(Nagabooshnam, 2012), which ultimately ship the recyclable
materials for further processing in neighbouring countries, namely
Zimbabwe and South Africa, while construction and demolition
waste is illegally disposed of in open spaces or stockpiled at dis-
posal sites (Mmereki et al., 2015). The informal recycling sector
in Botswana creates successful front-end waste management solu-
tions, and recovery and waste separation systems for plastics, cans
used for beverages, paper, etc., which might save a considerable
amount of money for managing waste in Botswana. It has been
noted that the informal recycling sector can reduce the quantity of
waste going to landfills and/or disposal sites; waste pickers are
regarded as the actors of the socio-technical solid waste manage-
ment and recycling system (Besen and Fracalanza, 2015). Despite
the popularity of this sector in Botswana, there is still no consen-
sus regarding how best it could be improved and institutionalized
to reduce wastage (i.e. modernize their recovery techniques and
help transfer skills). Therefore, it is necessary to improve training
of staff on waste reduction and raise public awareness about waste
segregation and sorting through more accurate information dis-
semination and campaigns on good waste practices and sustaina-
bility of MSW operations (i.e. the principle of improving the
efficiency of waste minimization).
Transportation
The availability of good transportation routes, improved waste
routing, closer disposal facilities and well-maintained municipal
service vehicles are critical components regarding further devel-
opment of waste management systems (Agamathu et al., 2009;
Mukhtar et al., 2017; Wilson, 2007). Meanwhile, in Botswana, the
transportation of MSW starts after residences, commercial and
institutional outlets have collected and stored unsorted waste in
plastic bags or open bins, street bins and communal collection
points, and thereafter transported to landfills and dumpsites
(Mmereki et al., 2012a; Nagabooshnam, 2012). Each council
authority in the towns, cities and major villages may contract
waste management companies through bidding or use its own
vehicles for the transportation of MSW to disposal sites.
Apparently, the municipal cooperatives or contracted waste man-
agement companies are responsible for the transportation and dis-
posal of waste as scheduled by the LAs. The contracted waste
management companies and carriers must be licensed by the
DWMPC (Mmereki et al., 2014). After the issuance of a license,
however, the monitoring and/or inspection of waste-carrying
vehicles regarding whether there is adherence to the regulations or
not is somewhat limited. The irregular inspection of these waste
vehicles, besides enabling inadequate transportation of wastes,
contributes to lower levels of collection efficiency. In most cities,
towns and villages in Botswana three major challenges are
observed in terms of the transportation of MSW. The first is that at
the collection points, the municipal cooperatives or waste collec-
tion service providers do not sort the recyclables when loading
waste into trucks or designated vehicles, but commingle it and
move it to other locations or disposal sites (Taye and Kanda,
2011), leading to the loss of valuable recyclables; no benefits are
retrieved from the waste collected. The second challenge is the
lack of transfer stations in Botswana, which leads to waste being
disposed of without sorting prior to its disposal in conventional
landfills, sanitary landfills and dumpsites or being indiscrimi-
nately disposed of. In addition, it is common for individuals to
transport their own waste to disposal sites, and some end up indis-
criminately discarding waste in undesignated areas. After waste is
co-disposed of in the landfills and disposal sites in most towns and
cities in Botswana, scavengers (Guerrero et al., 2013) or waste
pickers sort out recyclables or recover materials from waste. The
third challenge is the long distance haulage of waste to the dis-
posal sites, which may lead to leakage or spillage along the route
during transportation to disposal facilities. This is common prac-
tice in the whole country. In Botswana, location space is a major
concern for landfilling; there is available land in rural areas or the
outskirts of towns and cities for the construction of new sanitary
landfills, but not in urban areas, since is it considered improper to
place these sites close to residential areas. Thus, most landfills in
Botswana are built in rural areas or distant locations outside the
towns and cities, which could increase the costs associated with
the transportation logistics of waste. Data for comparison pur-
poses at national, rural and urban levels in Botswana, however, is
lacking or non-existent. Similar observations on the location of
landfills have been made in Brazil (Alfaia et al., 2017).
Thus, most of the recyclable and compostable materials in
Botswana that could be recycled or sent for compositing are dis-
posed of in landfills and/or undesignated sites or indiscriminately
disposed of, which ultimately leads to increased quantities of
waste, costs, space for new landfills and environmental risks.
Moreover, the amount of MSW that has to be treated may become
much larger and thereby proportionally increasing the associated
costs. Similar observations on municipal waste management have
been made in several transition and developing cities and urbaniz-
ing regions in Africa (Dladla et al., 2016), South America (Alfaia
et al., 2017) and Asia (Agamathu et al., 2009; Contreras et al.,
8 Waste Management & Research 00(0)
Figure 2.  Most preferred methods of waste disposal. Adapted
from Dladla et al. (2016).
2010). Over and above this, there is a lack of, or inadequate train-
ing for operatives handling waste in the towns, cities and villages
in Botswana, leading to insufficient application of appropriate
waste management procedures. Again inequalities of transporta-
tion between towns, cities and villages are evident. In Botswana,
towns and cities tend to receive more government funding and
financial support, contributing to effective transportation systems
for waste management operations. It can be concluded that, for the
effectiveness of waste management operations, this should be
tackled through improved MSW vehicle routing, the availability of
well-maintained vehicles, and improved training of waste person-
nel to improve the efficiency of waste management operations,
optimize the recovery of materials from the waste stream and
reduce the distances travelled to the disposal sites.
Treatment and disposal activities
Botswana is regarded as one of the frontrunners in the successful
implementation of a basic waste management system in terms of
legislation, planning and infrastructure (Karani and Jewasikiewitz,
2007; Kwailane et al., 2016). The most commonly accepted
methods of waste disposal are landfilling and dumpsites or indis-
criminate dumping (Mmereki et al., 2012a), with limited waste
recovery and recycling activities (Kgosiesele and Zhaohui, 2010;
Mmereki et al., 2012b). Similar findings have been made in most
transition and developing countries in Africa, which indicates
that landfilling and/or indiscriminate dumping are the most com-
monly used methods of MSW disposal, posing a serious threat to
the environment and public health. In Botswana, like many other
transition and developing countries, treatment and disposal facil-
ities in most cities, towns and villages are not well-established
for the disposal of MSW in an environmentally sound manner. It
is, however, important to highlight that waste treatment and dis-
posal activities in Botswana have a wide range of stakeholders:
organized waste pickers, small-scale dealers of recovered materi-
als and door-to-door waste collectors, although this does not yet
cover the majority of rural areas. The bulk of the waste generated
in most towns, cities and villages in Botswana is still co-disposed
due to limited sorting facilities. Commingling of general waste
with hazardous waste such as healthcare waste and hazardous
household products results in contamination of the waste stream
and the loss of a valuable fraction of the recyclables. Meanwhile,
most towns and cities in Botswana such as Jwaneng, Francistown,
Selebi Phikwe, Francistown, Orapa and Lobatse have developed
sanitary landfills as a technique applied to deal with MSW
(Mmereki et al., 2014). None of the sanitary landfills in these
towns and cities are known to have a complete engineered sys-
tem, with gas collection and leachate collection systems.
Moreover, there are no landfills for the disposal of hazardous
waste, and there is a lack of treatment facilities for construction
and demolition waste.
Following the decommissioning in 2008 of the open dump and/
or landfill in Gaborone City, the GaModubu sanitary landfill is still
the only facility dealing with MSW from Gaborone City and the
Greater Gaborone Region, covering Tlokweng, Mogoditshane and
Molepolole. Although the number of landfills in towns, cities and
villages is significant, it should be noted that in Botswana the basis
for effective compliance or monitoring and supervision has not yet
been fully implemented. In contrast, most villages in Botswana
still use open dumps, which pose environmental health risks due to
the lack of engineering applications and sanitary conditions.
Data on the disposal of MSW in most of the towns, cities and
villages in Botswana shows that it is characterized by indiscrimi-
nate disposal or open burning to reduce the volume of waste,
giving rise to serious unpleasant odours, air pollution, etc.
(Mmereki et al., 2012a). Similar observations about the methods
of waste disposal were found for other transition and developing
countries in Africa, including Botswana, as shown in Figure 2. In
one of the local newspapers in Botswana, it was recently noted
that ‘There are concerns over the growing trend of illegal dump-
ing of waste creating mini dumping sites all over the country and
such actions jeopardize efforts of lobbying investors and tourists
to the country’ (Serokolo, 2017, p. 1). As such, in Botswana,
treatment and disposal activities are faced with a myriad of chal-
lenges due to limited sources of financial support, skills to
research on alternative methods of waste treatment and disposal,
a lack of engineered and sanitary landfills, inadequate enforce-
ment of policies and implementation of effective MSW manage-
ment practices and a lack of institutionalization of the informal
sector (Mmereki et al., 2014; Taye and Kanda, 2011).
In 2012, Botswana developed and prepared the Botswana
Recycling Guidelines, to employ the best innovative technolo-
gies, including biological treatment, composting, incineration and
ultimate disposal. The recycling guidelines are in line with the
defined objectives of the Botswana Waste Management Strategy.
The implementation of definitions, recycling targets and out-
comes, however, including ‘planning and organizing valorisa-
tion’, ‘technical and operational guidelines’ (e.g. buy-back and
drop-off centres), ‘guidelines relating to finances’ (e.g. financial
incentives for recycling), and ‘guidelines for modernising the ena-
bling environment’ (e.g. public–private partnerships (PPPs))
(Scheinberg et al., 2012, p. 1), and a list of main strategies and
responsibilities for the recycling of solid waste, has not yet been
fully accomplished (Mmereki et al., 2012a). After five years
of design and preparation of the Botswana recycling guidelines,
little has been done to guarantee follow-up, implementation and
enforcement of the regulations to optimize recycling and reduce
Mmereki 9
environmental impacts. Reliable data on the amount of waste
being recycled and the units reaching neighbouring countries for
recycling are currently lacking or unavailable. Recycling activi-
ties in Botswana have not gained attention due to ineffective plan-
ning. The most recent data shows that despite being regulated by
the Waste Management Act, some formal sector companies have
not employed adequate and innovative techniques for recovering
materials (Mmereki et al., 2014), leading to fewer materials being
recovered in an unsustainable manner, which poses a threat to
public health and the environment. Owing to this lack of imple-
mentation, the Botswana recycling guidelines pollution control
requirements, with an awareness of environmental and waste
management issues in mind, have not yet been fully put into prac-
tice in most recovery activities, with limited public safety and pro-
tection of the environment. For instance a study in Lobatse,
Botswana, by Kwailane et al. (2016, p. 122) observed that
‘although the Lobatse Town Council charge people who litter,
they are not responsible for collecting the money for the penalties
they have charged. Apparently, law enforcement is expected to be
implemented by the police officers while payment of penalty
charges is made at the Revenue Office’.
Thus, it is clear that although Botswana has successfully
developed its Botswana Recycling Guidelines, progress on
implementation to stimulate the economy by creating more new
jobs for waste pickers and the waste recycling industry has been
very slow or non-existent. As observed by Dladla et al. (2016), in
African countries including Botswana, recycling is still consid-
ered to be the least preferred method of waste disposal, as shown
in Figure 2, despite its associated benefits, which include pro-
longing the life of landfill sites, and less usage of raw materials in
production. More effort is needed to improve the training of staff;
increase awareness of the public towards sustainable MSW man-
agement; incorporate public awareness in SWM planning and
system design and the design of landfilling towards engineered
and sanitary operations; enhance reuse, resource recovery and
recycling of MSW; introduce recycling incentives and the
enforcement of waste management policy; improve funding sys-
tems and identify sources of financial support; institutionalize the
informal sector to reduce waste generated; and not try to dupli-
cate other countries’ experiences or processes but to look at the
country’s local context, society and government administration.
Challenges
Environmental pollution.  The management of SW in Botswana
remains a major concern, which poses a serious threat to the envi-
ronment and to public health (Mmereki et al., 2016). In particu-
lar, this situation is exacerbated by indiscriminate dumping by
individuals and industries and uncollected domestic waste, which
lead to SW entering waterways through various channels such as
storm-water drains and waste finding its way into undesignated
areas, in particular streams and highways, pathways, fields and
public spaces (Kwailane et al., 2016). This may cause blockages
of storm-water drains and odours in affected neighbourhoods.
Although landfilling is not considered the most appropriate solu-
tion due to numerous environmental and health impacts (Alfaia
et al. 2017), it is a widely accepted method of waste disposal in
many transition and developing countries like Botswana. Gener-
ally, in Botswana, most of the landfills are not adequately engi-
neered and are unlined, and lack efficient sanitary operation. In a
study conducted in Gaborone Landfill, Botswana, it was found
that seepage from the landfill to its surrounding subsurface envi-
ronment may result in subsurface contamination (Ngole et al.,
2002). Similar findings were observed by Ranganai et al. (2004),
indicating that leachate plumes from an unlined Gaborone land-
fill may have adverse effects on its surface and subsurface envi-
ronments. The study also found that one of the leachate plumes
appeared to be moving south-east towards the Notwane River
and another possibly to the north-east. Unlined landfills would
not only cause adverse effects on the environment, but also affect
plants, public health and animal life. On the other hand, a study
in Francistown, Botswana, showed that backyard incineration or
indiscriminate burning of waste such as plastics is prevalent in
some neighbourhoods, causing acute plumes of smoke and the
release of noxious substances like dioxins and furans into the
environment (Mmereki et al., 2012b). Similar observations were
found in other developing countries like Nigeria, Ghana and Tan-
zania (Dladla et al., 2016), which indicated that the burning of
plastics releases furans and dioxins, contributing to pollution and
global warming.
Other factors that contribute to environmental pollution in
Botswana include communal dumping or burial of waste, waste
accumulation and unsanitary operations (Nagabooshnam, 2012).
Although pollution is linked to indiscriminate dumping in
Botswana, pollution and chemical contamination have not been
adequately researched. Alternative methods such as designing engi-
neered landfills and sanitary operations need concerted actions,
including municipal solid waste reduction and source separation,
particularly at the household level. The environmental risks associ-
ated with indiscriminate dumping require further evaluation.
As mentioned above, it is evident that Botswana might face a
myriad of challenges with regards to waste management opera-
tions. For example, it is reported that the implementation of the
measures targeting waste related environmental pollution, includ-
ing penalties and charges for polluters, as stated in the Waste
Management Act, the reduction of organic waste in landfills, and
also a lack of technical competence and knowledge of waste
treatment systems still remain major challenges (Mmereki et al.,
2015). Most importantly, the lack of ISWM, addressing waste-
related environmental pollution issues in an integrated manner is
among the challenges for waste management operations in
Botswana (Mmereki et al., 2017). As noted in the literature
(Alfaia et al. 2017), the concept of ISWM calls for the delivery of
a well-functioning system, including public health protection,
environmental protection, resource conservation and manage-
ment, ‘good governance’, financial sustainability and proactive
policies. Thus, Botswana needs to learn from transition and
developing and countries such as Brazil (Alfaia et al. 2017) and
10 Waste Management & Research 00(0)
Asian countries (Agamathu et al., 2009), and developed countries
such as the USA (Wilson, 2007), Japan (Gu et al., 2017) and
European Union members (Mukhtar et al., 2017) to implement
measures for further improvement of waste management systems.
In summary, although Botswana has been successful in the
formulation of policies, it has not adequately progressed
towards the mitigation of adverse environmental impacts,
which would contribute to further development of waste man-
agement systems. Thus, waste management operations in
Botswana will continue to be a challenge in the future. Some of
the contributing factors to this situation in Botswana include:
lack of knowledge on waste management technologies and
experience; inadequate sources of financial support for waste
management operations; and a lack of monitoring measures and
compliance. Most importantly, political advances in waste man-
agement operations, sufficient collection and disposal systems,
greater involvement of civil society, and significant advances in
the management of waste are critical aspects for the develop-
ment of an ISWM system (Mmereki et al., 2016).
Lack of economic incentives.  Fundamentally, it has been noted
that the costs of managing waste are very high (Wilson, 2007). In
developed countries, subsidies, levies and comprehensive drop-
off centres are established for recycling purposes, and companies
are even given subsidies to set up recycling plants, which ensures
that treatment plants can get enough waste for cost-effective
treatment (Mmereki et al., 2016). In Botswana, however, a major
challenge to the development of sustainable management of its
waste is the lack of economic incentives (subsidies, levies, a
comprehensive economic incentive model for MSW recovery
and recycling activities, limited financial support for waste man-
agement operations, etc.), in particular the introduction of recy-
cling incentives for recovery companies and individuals. Thus,
the provision of a mix of mandatory instruments with economic
incentives to promote efficient management practices has not yet
been implemented (Mmereki et al., 2012b). Recovery activities
(for example of plastics, PET bottles, cans used for beverage,
paper, etc.) in Botswana have gained attention, but lack recogni-
tion in the legal provisions. Presently, in Botswana, economic
incentives are provided by recovery companies, which buy recy-
clables from waste pickers and scavengers and pay a fee to them.
These economic incentives offered by recovery companies are
not standardized (i.e. no standardized fee in accordance with the
legal provisions) and are still far below the minimum necessary
for waste pickers to sustain their lives. Moreover, most munici-
palities in Botswana have not established and/or launched recy-
cling centres. It is important to highlight that waste pickers who
have engaged in recycling initiatives are unorganized and not
officially recognized, compared to those in other transition and
developing countries like Brazil, which has already recognized
waste pickers in the Brazilian classification of occupations, and
launched recycling centres (Alfaia et al., 2017). The lack of eco-
nomic incentives impedes the setting up of recycling projects and
plants, and the implementation of reverse logistics. Although
government funding of LAs in towns, cities and villages is
available, there is no univocal incentive system, in particular
with regards to recycling activities for the improvement of envi-
ronmental sustainability. The near absence of economic incen-
tives in waste management operations creates challenges in the
improvement of waste management efficiency, owing to the lack
of implementation of Botswana’s recycling guidelines.
Thus, it is clear that although Botswana has developed recy-
cling guidelines, it is not making progress in recycling activities
because implementation is lacking or non-existent, hence the
introduction of recycling incentives and enforcement remains a
daunting task. Because the recovery of cans used for beverages,
plastics, PET bottles, glass bottles, metals and paper is achieved by
waste pickers (Kgosiesele and Zhaohui, 2010; Nagabooshnam,
2012) and incentivized by recovery companies (Mmereki et al.,
2014), concerted efforts and the coordination of programmes are
needed by the relevant stakeholders, including waste policy mak-
ers, the public, waste managers, etc. Moreover, the introduction of
economic incentives such as a levy system, subsidies and a com-
prehensive economic incentive model in MSW management,
policy reform and update, and the implementation of the Recycling
Guidelines to respond to the emerging challenges of waste man-
agement, in particular for recycling and reuse, are critical.
Public–private partnership. At present in Botswana, public–
private partnerships are not well-established in waste manage-
ment operations. In particular, public–private partnerships in the
design of landfilling towards engineered and sanitary operations,
incineration of municipal solid waste and national waste manage-
ment plans are almost absent. The only cooperation and/or part-
nerships between the public sector and private sector companies
are mostly through contracts for the provision of waste collection
and disposal services. In most cases, the provision of waste
recovery is made through the help of the informal sector, often
ignoring environmental protection (Taye and Kanda, 2011).
Because of the lack of well-established public–private partner-
ships in MSW management operations nationally in Botswana,
there is a weak fee system, an absence of a well-mobilized pri-
vate sector to provide infrastructure such as transfer stations and
landfilling. Again there are uncoordinated and ad hoc pro-
grammes, limited public and civil society participation, and
insufficient experience of public–private partnerships. Unlike
transition and developing countries such as Brazil (Alfaia et al.,
2017), where most sanitary landfills are managed by private
companies hired by municipalities, in Botswana sanitary landfills
are managed by LAs. In addition, the recommendations and set
of goals to be achieved by the Botswana Recycling Guidelines
(Scheinberg et al., 2012) to establish public-private partnerships
for recycling services and introduce private finance structures for
public–private partnerships, all the Botswana public–private part-
nerships, commonly referred to as outsourcing, are currently
being sponsored by the government as the sole source of revenue
for the private sector (Mmereki et al., 2014). This inevitably limits
private sector participation in waste management operations. The
involvement and participation of the two sectors on waste man-
agement operations is shown in Table 4.
Mmereki 11
Table 4.  Service provision between the public and private
sector.
Service Service providers
Public sector Private sector
Administration, awareness  –
Recovery collection – 
Resource recycling – –
Garbage collection  
Yard material collection  
Household special depot – –
Rehabilitation of closed  –
landfills
Landfills management and  –
administration
Landfill sites operations  –
Adapted from Mmereki (2015).
Implementation of the waste recycling industry. Data from
various studies (Kgosiesele and Zhaohui 2010; Mmereki et al,
2014) making reference to waste management operations show
that the implementation of waste recycling guidelines has not
become a reality in most of the LAs in Botswana. Waste recovery
has been established in urban areas such as Gaborone City (i.e.
involving various NGOs and private companies) (Nagaboosh-
nam, 2012). It is noteworthy to highlight that the collection of
recyclables is predominantly done by the so-called ‘informal
recycling sector’, using archaic techniques, but processing of
recyclables does not occur in the country (i.e. it is undertaken in
neighbouring countries such as South Africa and Zimbabwe)
(Mmereki et al., 2014). The issue of waste recycling is complex,
and needs experience, technically skilled human resources,
reverse logistics, state-of-the-art technologies and the setting up
of recycling targets. The selection of feasible options requires the
implementation of environmentally friendly approaches, public–
private partnerships and cooperation among stakeholders (Mmer-
eki et al., 2016). In Botswana, however, the waste recycling
industry has not gained priority and remains nascent; waste pro-
cessing only covers some waste streams such as cans used for bev-
erages, paper, PET bottles, metals, etc. In addition, data on waste
recovery and recycling is not readily available. As such, it is not
easy for waste policy makers to know how much is recovered and
recycled, which limits the country in determining the recovery and
recycling efficiency of recycling industry. In contrast, countries
such as Japan, Brazil and the USA have readily available data on
recycling rates for different recyclables such as paper, PET bottles
and aluminium cans, and Brazil is considered to be the global
leader in aluminium recycling. For instance, in 2014, the alumin-
ium recycling rate was 98.4% in Brazil. On the other hand, it was
87.4% in Japan and 66.5% in the USA (Alfaia et al., 2017).
Thus, it is evident that although Botswana has made progress in
development of waste management policies, the implementation
has been slow and weak. Botswana’s lack of policy implementa-
tion compares to other African countries, which are still far
from the policy design, adoption and implementation of effective
measures applied in developed countries (dos Muchangos et al.,
2015). As such, more concerted effort is needed to train staff on
waste management operations, to involve the public, private sec-
tor, civil society and key stakeholders to ensure that recycling
activities are implemented and recycling incentives are intro-
duced, and improve basic infrastructure such as waste sorting
facilities, which would respond to growing future waste quanti-
ties generated. Table 5 shows the issues that stand out for MSW
management operations in Botswana.
Comparison between waste
management in Botswana and other
countries in Africa
Studies (Gu et al., 2017; Mmereki et al., 2016; Mukhtar et al.,
2017) have shown that reliable and available data on waste gen-
eration and composition, effective and efficient collection sys-
tems, source separation, environmentally friendly treatment and
disposal systems are important aspects of ISWM for prevention of
environmental health risks resulting from waste management
practices. Moreover, it has been noted that ISWM is a critical con-
cept in delivering a well-functioning waste management system
(Alfaia et al., 2017; Bufoni et al., 2016; Mmereki et al., 2016), but
it is not an easy concept to adopt if there is limited political
advancement and interest from leaders in waste management
operations, for the development of solutions and their evaluation
(Mmereki et al., 2016). Past research in African countries (Dladla
et al., 2016; Mmereki et al., 2016), has shown that waste manage-
ment operations have not gained satisfactory attention or deliv-
ered a well-functioning waste management system due to
inadequate environmental control; lack of controlled landfill; lim-
ited institutional, technical, technological and financial resources;
and technically skilled human resources. These countries don’t
have well-established waste management operations: waste gen-
erators resort to illegal and unsustainable practices such as indis-
criminate dumping and opening burning, which may lead to the
loss of vast amounts of solid waste that could be recycled and
contamination of the environment. The status in terms of final
waste disposal in African countries is shown in Figure 3. It can be
noted that the recycling of waste is the least preferred method of
waste disposal although it is the most appropriate solution for
waste diversion and reduction. Thus, African countries have
higher quantities of waste sent to disposal sites, mainly due to the
limited programmes for waste recycling (e.g. limited source sepa-
ration, selective collection systems and use of organic waste in
various ways in the agricultural chain) that have not been imple-
mented. With the exceptions of South Africa and Ethiopia, it can
be observed that waste management operations in other African
countries remain a great challenge. Most of the waste manage-
ment steps in these countries are still in their infancy, which may
pose a threat to the environment and public health. In the case of
South Africa, the condition appears to be progressive in SW man-
agement (Friedrich and Trois, 2013) which may result in the pro-
tection of the environment and public health.
12 Waste Management & Research 00(0)

Table 5.  Overview of waste management challenges in Botswana.

Resource Related problems

Regulations, policy Lack of rigorous enforcement of local regulation and consistent policies.
frameworks and Implementation of programmes and local regulations at a relatively lower scale by the municipalities.
guidelines Out-dated policies, current policies and regulations (e.g. Waste Management Act, 1998 (Republic of
Botswana, 1998b), Air Pollution Act (Republic of Botswana, 1971)) do not address several aspects
(source segregation, WtE, etc.) of MSW.
Commingled collection and disposal – no fully utilized source segregation of waste.
Lack of waste minimization measures to safeguard the environment, public health and safety, and
absence of procedures for monitoring moisture content of MSW.
Broad content (e.g. no clear definition of what is covered under waste management principles for
all waste streams, for example MSW).
Lack of auditing of recovery amounts and waste management methods (e.g. every MSW
management step and compliance measures in place).
No policy measures promote systematic and fundamental approaches for waste management
problems (e.g. BAT Best Available).
Technology Lack of knowledge about existing alternative technologies by the LAs and technological application.
Educational awareness Lack of public awareness and capacity building programmes.
and public participation Lack of information and educational programmes on waste-related awareness and understanding
of MSW issues.
Ineffective representation and participation of local communities in decision-making processes.
Cooperation among Lack of coordination between different stakeholders, organizations and municipalities on waste
stakeholders management issues.
Weak approaches and institutional structures for promoting dialogue among stakeholders.
Infrastructure and Insufficient maintenance of available machinery and equipment, low utilization rate of waste.
equipment Limited infrastructure: collection and disposal logistics.
Administrative Overlapping and/or duplicated functions and responsibilities among relevant ministries.
Inadequate planning, monitoring and evaluation of performance activities.
Lack of coordination of waste management policy during implementation among relevant
departments (e.g. DWMPC, town and city councils) and ministries (e.g. Ministry of Land
Management, Water and Sanitation Services, Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources,
Conservation and Tourism).
There is a lack of a reliable and up-to-date database on the initial quantities of waste.

BAT: Best Available Techniques; DWMPC: Department of Waste Management and Pollution Control; LAs: Local authorities; MSW: Municipal
solid waste.

Figure 3.  Status of waste disposal in selected African Figure 4.  Proportions of the physical composition of waste in
countries. Adapted from Dladla et al. (2016). Gaborone, Botswana (Nagabooshnam, 2012).

It has been noted that the country’s economic development is

positively correlated to the per capita waste generation. As the
population becomes more affluent, it generates more waste and
also influences the composition of waste generated (Gu et al.,
2017; Gupta et al., 2015; Mmereki et al., 2016).
Therefore, due to rapid economic growth, changes in lifestyles
and living standards, MSW in Botswana is expected to increase
with some variations in its physical composition which may lead to
environmental and social problems. For instance, the physical com-
position for Gaborone (the capital of Botswana) is shown in Figure
4 (Nagabooshnam, 2012) which my lead to complexity of waste
management due to the increasing heterogeneous nature of waste
generated. In recent years, Gaborone has experienced the most
rapid population growth (i.e. more than 250,000 people),
economic growth and rapid urbanization compared to other African
cities, and has a wide range of economic opportunities, facilities
and amenities, and rapid urbanization (Centre for Applied Research,
2013), which could influence the quality and the quantity of waste
generated. The situation regarding the physical composition of
Mmereki 13
Table 6.  Comparison of investment in MSW between selected
transition and developing and developed countries.
City Investment per inhabitant per year [US $]
Brazilian cities 48
Rio de Janeiro 48
São Paulo 32
Brasília 35
Tokyo 386
Barcelona 172
Paris 140
New York 80
Gaborone Unavailable
waste may be similar to the rest of the urbanizing places in the
country. It is worth noting that most of the biodegradables are based
on people’s consumption patterns, which generate kitchen waste
and compound wastes. As a result, there is an urgent need for an
efficient system of collection in Botswana to forestall disease epi-
demics and significant negative environmental impacts, and also
for energy recovery and production. Available data have reported
that the physical composition of waste in Botswana is not different
from that reported in the literature in other transition and develop-
ing and countries in Africa, with biodegradable organic wastes
always being the highest fraction by volume and weight. The bulk
of the waste generated in these countries is accounted as organic
waste (Dladla et al., 2016). Reliable data on the physical composi-
tion of MSW, however, remains absent for these countries. In Asian
countries such as Bangladesh and Pakistan, the organic component
is higher than 65% (Mmereki et al., 2016), whilst the share in other
developed countries such as Japan and developing countries such as
the Republic of Korea is below 30% (Gu et al., 2017). This is not
uncommon due to the fact that, in many countries, the relatively
large amounts of organic wastes generated come from a heavy reli-
ance on disposable materials and increased packaging of products
(Mmereki et al., 2016). It has to be noted, however, that the higher
proportions of organics leads to increased density and moisture
content present in the waste streams, which are critical aspects to
take into account when designing the collection, transportation and
treatment systems. Nevertheless, researchers have indicated that
‘making comparisons is complex because of the different waste
classifications used in each of the countries or regions’ (Vergara and
Tchobanoglous, 2012, p. 282). In Botswana, due to the fact that the
majority of biodegradable organic waste is indiscriminately dis-
posed of and landfilled or disposed of in open dumps, it could rep-
resent a loss of valuable resources for recovery and recycling, and
pose significant negative environmental health risks. In summary,
this biodegradable organic waste represents the potential for recy-
cling to reduce indiscriminate disposal and improve environmental
health, and for the design of composting plants or biogas treatment
plants to produce compost or domestic energy as a sustainable
waste management option.
In terms of investment in waste management, data on the costs
of waste management operations and investment from municipali-
ties in towns, cities and villages in Botswana remains unavailable.
The funding for SW management in Botswana is provided by the
government through municipalities, although it is not separated
from the budgets for other projects. The lack of separate invest-
ment for waste management operations impedes the design of
sanitary operations, training of staff, and the implementation and
enforcement of efficient operational waste management practices
and policies. It can be noted that this is a key component in deter-
mining the economics of the whole SWM system. Table 6 shows a
comparison of investment on MSW between selected transition
and developing, and developed countries.
While transition and developing countries such as Brazil (Souza
et al., 2014) and China (Ji et al., 2016) have implemented waste
management plans, this remains an extensive challenge in
Botswana. For instance, in 2014 China improved and implemented
new emission standards for pollution control on MSW incineration,
translating into the implementation of stricter emission limits than
the previous standards (Zhou et al., 2014). Furthermore, in 2010
Brazil adopted the National Policy on Solid Waste (NPSW), with
most cities having made progress in waste management operations.
Although Brazil has made significant progress, it still requires fur-
ther modification in all aspects to mitigate adverse environmental
impacts (Alaifa et al., 2017; Souza et al., 2014). In the European
member states, zero residue programmes exist, requiring a progres-
sive reduction in the disposal of biodegradable MSW in landfill,
aimed at reducing the amount of landfilled biodegradable organic
matter to 35% by 2016 (Alaifa et al., 2017). In contrast, Botswana’s
environmental progress remains a daunting task compared to these
countries due to the lack of MSW management plans’ insufficient
implementation of waste management policies. Therefore, waste
management operation targets have not yet been set or are unclear.
This lack of waste management plans and implementation of waste
management policies is a major challenge for developing an effec-
tive waste management system. In order to address waste manage-
ment challenges, there is an urgent need for concerted efforts to
establish sound solutions, involve the relevant stakeholders and
engage the public and civil society in waste management operations
to improve waste management systems in African countries to safe-
guard public health, safety and the environment.
Waste management in developing–
transition countries around the globe:
Policies and future intentions
In parallel to the above, this section elaborates and develops a
discussion on waste management policies in developing–transi-
tion countries around the globe. In particular, the discussion will
focus on developing–transition countries from Europe, Africa,
North America, South America, the Pacific and Asia. This
approach allows an in-depth discussion to make comparisons
with other countries in the world.
Estonia
In Estonia, a developing–transition country in Europe, its waste
management systems had to be built from scratch, mirroring
the EU legal framework and policies. The priorities of its first
14 Waste Management & Research 00(0)
national waste management plans were the closing of old dump-
sites and building new landfills that would meet EU standards,
abolishing the Soviet-era regulatory system, and creating the
facilities and infrastructure for recycling and composting
(Malinauskaite et al., 2017). It has been noted, however, that
landfilling is the common practice in Estonia even though it is of
low priority in accordance with the waste hierarchy (European
Commission, 2015). It seems that Estonia is now taking a lead
and topping the EU league tables in terms of waste avoidance and
recycling in capital cities (based on Eurostat data for 2012)
(Eurostat, n.d). The reason is that Estonia has developed a
National Waste Management Plan (NWMP 2014-2020)
(Zamparutti et al., 2017), which ‘places an emphasis on further
reduction of landfilling and the promotion of recycling: the
NWMP highlights the need to meet the EU’s 2020 targets to recy-
cle at least half of four key household waste streams – glass, met-
als, paper, and plastic’ (Zamparutti et al., 2017, p. 1).
Regarding its MSW management system, it has been observed
that Estonia has had a major transformation of a shift from pre-
dominant reliance on landfilling to a high level of energy recovery
(Malinauskaite et al., 2017; OECD, 2017). One of the major trans-
formations in Estonia was the introduction of a landfill tax in 1990,
which has also contributed to the diversion of waste from landfills.
It has been reported that the rate of the landfill tax depends on the
type of waste, where the Environmental Charges Act (Malinauskaite
et al., 2017) establishes that increased rates for environmental
charges are applied if waste is landfilled in quantities larger than
those permitted (if these limits are exceeded, then every tonne dis-
posed over the limit will incur a charge of 5–500 times more than
the standard fee, depending on the category (hazardousness) of
waste) (Fischer, 2013; Malinauskaite et al., 2017). It has been
highlighted that in 2008, another important transformation also
took place in Estonia: the introduction of a ban on the landfill of
unsorted municipal waste, requiring the municipalities to organize
source separation of paper and cardboard, green garden waste and
hazardous waste, as well as packaging waste, through the public
collection system (Malinauskaite et al., 2017).
In 2013, the construction of an incineration plant and several
mechanical biological treatment (MBT) facilities has led to a
drastic reduction of landfilled municipal waste (from 14% of the
total waste in 2013 to 8% in 2014, and 5% in 2015). At the same
time, it has been observed that incineration of municipal waste
has increased dramatically from 16% in 2012 to 56% in 2014,
becoming the main municipal waste treatment option and reach-
ing overcapacity by 2015. With regards to biodegradable munici-
pal waste (BMW), it has been reported that the NWMP gives a
general priority to separate bio-waste from mixed MW; the
NWMP suggests separate collection of garden waste in cities
(Moora, 2011).
Due to these transformations, it has been established that
Estonia has moved from generating the largest share of waste in
2004, 445 kg per capita, to the lowest (359 kg per capita) in 2015
in comparison with the two other Baltic states (Latvia and
Lithuania). One of the explanations for this waste reduction is
that since 2008, using EU and domestic funds, municipalities in
Estonia have built about 100 collection points across the country
for recyclables, garden and park waste, household hazardous
waste and electrical and electronics equipment, thereby increas-
ing the recycling of MSW. For example, it is reported that Estonia
has significantly increased recycling from 18% in 2013 to 31% in
2014, while composting has remained at the same level of 6%
(European Commission, 2017). In order to further increase recy-
cling, it has been reported that the capital city of Estonia, Tallinn,
implemented the most advanced scheme for recyclable waste,
providing containers for recyclable waste near residential build-
ings, and reached a separate collection rate of 53% for all munici-
pal solid waste in 2012, the third highest among EU capital cities:
85% of glass and 74% of paper waste were collected (OECD,
2017). It has been acknowledged, however, that one of the main
barriers to waste management planning in Estonia is the lack of
information on actual waste composition (European Commission,
2017). In addition, research has reported that despite progress
being made in recycling in Estonia, particularly in Tallinn,
Estonia has yet to meet its EU target due to a lack of competence
and resources to fulfil their waste management responsibilities,
and the weak waste management cooperation of local govern-
ments. In order to improve waste management planning, it
has been established that the European Commission (DG
Environment) has called for stronger local government oversight
of waste management, and also the introduction of taxes on MSW
sent to incineration and to MBT facilities to create stronger
incentives for recycling. In parallel to the above-mentioned, there
is also a need to improve cooperation between the public and
private sectors for securing sustainable waste management sys-
tems. Essentially, Estonia intends to establish a stable long-term
strategy-driven by institutional framework to move towards a
circular economy, strengthen data gathering and information sys-
tems for waste management and monitor the potential impacts of
existing and former waste sites (Malinauskaite et al., 2017).
South Africa
South Africa has made the greatest commitment to sustainable
development, and consequently remains in the forefront of envi-
ronmentally sound waste management practices and policies
amongst developing countries, and is committed to implementing
a world-class system that will improve waste management in the
country (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2012). Associated
with a growing economy and population, waste generation is
increasing now and in the near future, while a number of issues
continue to be challenges for the establishment of effective waste
management. Since 2006, South Africa has developed a number
of key policy and regulatory instruments, the National Waste
Management Strategy (NWMS), which emphasizes the need for
integrated waste management, implying coordination of functions
within the waste management hierarchy (Matete and Trois, 2008;
Nahman and Godfrey, 2010), offering a holistic approach to the
management of waste materials and providing a systematic
Mmereki 15
method for waste management during the potential waste product
lifecycle. This, in turn, addresses waste avoidance, reduction, re-
use, recycling, recovery and treatment, and safe disposal as a last
resort (Department of Environmental Affairs, 2012).
In 2008, South Africa promulgated the National Environ­
mental Management Waste Act (Act 59 of 2008) (NEMWA)
(Nahman and Godfrey, 2010), which further entrenched the
waste management hierarchy in the legal framework governing
waste in the country. The NEMWA states that instruments for
integrated waste management should institute measures to either
prevent pollution from occurring, or to minimize and rectify the
pollution or degradation where it cannot reasonably be avoided.
The most innovative feature of the act is the preference for the
regionalization of solid waste management services, which
placed significant emphasis on the development of integrated
waste management plans (IWMP) (Department of Environmental
Affairs, 2012). The diversion of waste from landfill through
waste minimization and recycling is a national policy objective
under the White Paper on Integrated Pollution and Waste
Management, the NWMS and Waste Act (Department of
Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT), 2000). Moreover,
the NWMS caveats the polluter pays principle (PPP), whereby
all generators, including households and companies, are respon-
sible for paying the costs associated with the waste they generate
(Nahman and Godfrey, 2010). The authorities have recently
developed a National South African Implementation Plan and
expect to review the waste management system in light of the
NEMWA. Thus, these policies have proved to be very effective
mechanisms for South Africa to develop international coopera-
tion in dealing with complex waste management issues, and
showing the country’s drive towards an efficient world-class
system for waste management.
Sanitary landfills with leachate and gas recovery may be too
expensive for most African cities, with the exception of countries
such as South Africa, which comply with minimum standards,
with the availability of landfill gas recovery systems in a few
places. South Africa has the highest recovery rates for landfill gas
in Sub-Saharan Africa. For instance, in 2012, 1554 × 106 Nm3 of
methane gas was generated and 772 × 106 Nm3 was collected in
South Africa. It is expected that 1705 × 106 Nm3 will be gener-
ated and 1194 × 106 Nm3 will be collected in 2025. In contrast, in
2012, the potential energy recovery from waste generated through
incineration was 208,926 TJ year−1 and landfill gas recovery was
55,420 TJ year−1, and methane gas collected through incineration
was 104,463 TJ year−1 and landfill gas recovery was 27,710 TJ
year−1. Moreover, the potential energy recovery from waste gen-
erated through incineration and landfill gas recovery was
expected to be 243,576 TJ year−1 and 61,211 TJ year−1, respec-
tively; and that collected through incineration will be 170,503 TJ
year−1 and landfill gas recovery will be 42,847 TJ year−1 for 2025
(Scarlat et al., 2015). Therefore, South Africa still needs to imple-
ment significant technological advances and innovations in the
collection of its methane and energy recovery, which may add
considerable energy potential to the market.
A number of industry-initiated buy-back and deposit-refund
schemes have been developed in South Africa for glass and plas-
tics beverage containers and steel beverage cans (Nahman and
Godfrey, 2010). Again, the waste recycling industry (commercial
recycling), waste buy-back centres, garden waste drop-off cen-
tres, the separation of different waste streams and WtE (incentiv-
ized by the potential to generate carbon credits and their
associated revenues) and economic instruments (EIs) (Nahman
and Godfrey, 2010), are seen as prospects towards efficient waste
management, but these stimulating efforts have so far been rela-
tively ineffective in some regions of South Africa.
It is worth noting that South Africa has future intentions for its
MWS management system. These include incentivizing energy
recovery schemes and the incorporation of waste categorization
into the national waste information regulations, which would be
mandatory for the waste management industry, and a transition to
the concept of the ‘green economy’.
Mexico
Mexico is experiencing rapid economic growth and an urbaniza-
tion process: approximately 70% of the population is concentrated
in its 10 largest cities, causing a change in the population’s con-
sumption patterns, which has resulted in a more heterogeneous
composition of SW and an increase in its generation rate
(Buenrostro et al., 2001; Buenrostro and Bocco, 2003). The quan-
tity of waste generated in Mexico increased from 29 million tons
in 1997 to 42 million tons in 2012, with an estimated increase of
44% for the 15-year period. The system does not include modern
techniques to establish efficient management of MSW, particu-
larly in rural areas and small cities, and this results in the disposal
of waste in natural depressions or vacant lots, leading to unsuita-
ble waste management practices (Rodriguez et al., 2015). In
recent years, MSW management has improved with the establish-
ment of landfills to eliminate the disposal of waste in open dumps.
In contrast, MSW disposal in open dumps still prevails in rural
areas and small- and medium-sized cities; and in most landfills the
segregation of waste is insufficient, consequently discarding a
large quantity of waste that has the potential to be recycled. Due
to an enormous conceptual confusion in Mexican legislation,
municipalities are unable to administer legislation, plan sustaina-
ble SW management, and have the financial means and the techni-
cal and human infrastructure, which poses various challenges
such as inadequate sanitary landfills, and a lack of adequate SW
collection and disposal systems (Buenrostro et al., 2001;
Buenrostro and Bocco, 2003). In Mexico, the people do not sepa-
rate solid wastes, which results in a very significant increase of
total waste volume and weight, with inadequate facilities to store
these residues (Santibañez-Aguilar et al., 2013), which requires
the application of proper environmental, institutional, financial,
economic and social tools to guarantee sustainable waste manage-
ment. A study conducted by Rodriguez et al. (2015) has observed,
however, that recycling of waste is predominantly done by people
with low incomes, who collect the materials from landfills and
16 Waste Management & Research 00(0)
sell them to recycling establishments; the number of this type of
company has increased in the cities, influenced by an increase in
the prices of secondhand materials (Rodriguez et al., 2015).
Studies have indicated (Guerrero et al., 2013; Rodriguez et al.,
2015) that a combination of these factors has promoted recycling
in homes, reducing the quantity of waste disposed of in open
dumps and landfills. Most importantly, strategies such as electric
energy cogeneration from degraded materials in landfills releas-
ing methane and the separation of these materials for composting
are being explored in Mexico (Islas et al., 2007; Rodriguez et al.,
2015).
Samoa
In Samoa, solid waste management is a major issue due to
increased quantities of waste generated annually, which is often
associated with economic growth, higher industrialization, a rise
in the population and higher standards of living (Mohee et al.,
2015). Richards and Haynes (2014) have highlighted that solid
waste management in Samoa, like other islands in the Pacific, is
affected by limited availability of suitable land for landfills, lim-
ited institutional and human resources capacity, and the remote-
ness of many Pacific island countries and territories (PICTs),
resulting in high capital and operating costs. In Samoa, the Waste
Management Act 2010 covers collection, management, and dis-
posal and recycling of waste, and also provides for the licensing
of waste operators, permits for dumping, sets environmental
standards for the management of waste, and provides for the
involvement of society in waste management (Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment, 2010; Richards, n.d).
Although specific data on the kinds of waste generated is not
available in Samoa, it has, however, been noted that MSW in
Pacific island countries generally includes a higher proportion
organic waste – nearly 60% by weight – of organic or biodegrad-
able materials followed by recyclable substances, like paper,
plastics, glass and metals, which constitute between 6% and 12%
of the waste by weight (Asian Development Bank (ADB), 2014).
In terms of collection and transfer of MSW, however, unconven-
tional collection systems are widely accepted by households –
raised platforms and ‘wheelie bin’ systems, which completely
disrupt the waste management flow; and waste generators resort
to illegal and unwanted practices like dumping at forbidden sites
and the backyard, ultimately leading to the burning of wastes. For
households in Samoa, green composting of waste and waste seg-
regation of components like food waste is predominantly in use
(ADB, 2014). Landfilling, in particular the semi-aerobic landfill
method, a sanitary landfill method in which leachate and landfill
gas are continuously removed from the waste mass through a sys-
tem of leachate collection and gas venting pipes (Richards and
Haynes, 2014), is practiced for the disposal of materials in Samoa
even though it is the least desired option according to the waste
management hierarchy (Mohee et al., 2015). Several waste man-
agement projects have been (or are being) implemented in
Samoa, namely organic waste composting, a major component of
the J-PRISM project (2011–2016), where pilot programmes are
being (or will be) implemented, a Secretariat of the Pacific
Regional Environment Programme (SPREP) project (2012–
2014) for the feasibility of reusing electrical and e-wastes, and a
study on the feasibility of establishing a reverse logistics and
recycling port in Samoa (Richards and Haynes, 2014). Waste
recycling initiatives have been adopted on an ad hoc basis due to
the lack of education and sensitization of the community and lack
of interests by decision makers on such matters. Nevertheless,
the government has not yet developed and promoted long-term
island-wide waste minimization, waste reduction and recycling
programmes, although it is committed to introducing these initia-
tives (ADB, 2014). In December 2005, Samoa, with the assis-
tance of the Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA)
completed the transformation of the Tafaigata dumpsite into a
semi-aerobic landfill, although it filled up faster than expected
due to increased waste generation, which might be influenced by
changes in lifestyles and the use of more disposable products, or
improvements in the collection service (Secretariat of the Pacific
Regional Environment Programme (SPREP), 2009). Considering
all these shortcomings, through seed-financing JICA and SPREP
have developed options that need to be taken in the SWM sector,
including: (a) the banning of uncovered MSW transfer trucks; (b)
improved monitoring of MSW collection contracts; and (c) the
strengthening of overall long-term planning for the sector (ADB,
2014), and also integrated solid waste management, and consid-
ering energy from waste (EfW) incineration as an option for
reducing the volume of waste and generating electricity (SPREP,
2009).
Philippines
The Philippines, like most developing countries in Asia and the
Pacific region, faces more pronounced waste management chal-
lenges in its urban metropolitan centres. As reported by the
World Bank in 2001, cities within Metro Manila generate almost
25% of the country’s total waste, which is attributed to the high
population density that brings about high levels of concentration
and consumption of packaged foodstuffs and goods (Magalang,
2014). Three key trends characterize solid waste management
issues in the Philippines, namely an increase in the absolute vol-
ume of waste generated; a change in the quality or make-up of
waste generated; and waste disposal methods. It has been estab-
lished that when solid waste is generated from different sources
such as commercial, institutional, household and community
activities, three technical measures such as incineration, landfill
and, most recently, refuse-derived fuel (RDF) are used to treat
and dispose of these waste materials (Sapuay, 2016). The man-
agement of waste nationally is guided by the Philippine
Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 (Sapuay, 2016),
which sets out a paradigm shift that waste is a resource that can
be recovered, and puts an emphasis on segregation at source,
source reduction, and minimization of waste generated at source
and resource recovery, with recycling and reuse of wastes as the
Mmereki 17
most preferred options for solid waste management (Magalang,
2014). The Republic Act 9003 (RA 9003) (Sapuay, 2016) is one
of the guiding principles for local government units (LGUs) to
set up solid waste management boards, formulate their 10-year
solid waste management plans, build materials recovery facili-
ties (MRFs) and final disposal facilities (such as engineered
sanitary landfills). Moreover, in 2004, the National Solid Waste
Management Commission (NSWMC) released the National
Solid Waste Management Framework (NSWMF) (Acosta et al.,
2012), which emphasized measures that encourage waste avoid-
ance, reduction and recycling as highlighted by RA 9003 and
also mandatory targets for solid waste diversion, in particular
25% waste diversion in the first three years of the Act, increas-
ing every three years thereafter (Acosta et al., 2012). There are
other relevant laws to the implementation of RA 9003, such as
the Clean Air Act (Sapuay, 2016) for refuse-derived fuel. The
Philippines has shifted to more efficient collection and disposal
by using engineered sanitary landfills and RDF as a means to
divert portions of municipal solid waste, banning incineration
due to toxic emissions from such facilities (Sapuay, 2016).
Sapuay (2016) highlighted that the international cement manu-
facturers operating in the Philippines such as Holcim, La Farge
and Cemex mainly used RDF. It has been noted, however, that
with the increasing population and the consequent increase in
solid waste generation, the Philippines is faced with limited
spaces to establish solid waste disposal facilities due to limited
change in solid waste management practices and policies, high-
lighting the inefficiency of solid waste management among the
LGUs. Thus, this requires sustainable strategies to manage solid
waste efficiently, using technical and technological options to
manage waste as a form of resource. In order to effectively
address solid waste in the future the Philippines has approved
RDF as an acceptable technology to aid the country’s waste
diversion goals, establishing facilities around the country to ulti-
mately achieve zero waste (Acosta et al., 2012; Sapuay, 2016).
Chile
In Chile, solid waste management has become a serious environ-
mental issue due to rapid economic growth, rapid urbanization
and a rising standard of living, which ultimately led to increasing
quantities of waste being generated during the last decade. A
waste management system was not developed until 1990, as
waste was being disposed of at illegal dumpsites. Over the years,
the Chilean government has been working hard to implement a
sustainable MSW management system. Currently in Chile, 60%
of waste is disposed of through sanitary landfills, while uncon-
trolled waste (16%) and illegal waste (24%) is still dumped at
low-level dumpsites (Hamatschek and Faulstich, 2010).
Currently, however, MSW is deposited at sanitary landfills with-
out any pre-treatment, which may lead to emissions of green-
house gases associated with waste treatment and final disposal.
Moreover, it has been noted that Chile has not set enough value
on adequate MSW management or the development of services
related to waste management and energy recovery (González
Martínez et al., 2012). There is no energy recovery programme
for MSW in the country, and incineration is viewed as too expen-
sive an alternative for local governments to consider as an appro-
priate solid waste management technology. With the increased
energy demand from urbanization in Chile, it has been found that
energy recovery from MSW in the Metropolitan Region of
Santiago de Chile (MRS) from captured landfill gas, financed by
Clean Development Mechanisms (CDM) projects, has, however,
so far only been realized in the Central Loma Los Colorados I
station with an installed capacity of 2 MW. In the planned phase
II, the capacity will be extended to 14 MW, and an additional
expansion to reach 28 MW is planned for the year 2024 (González
Martínez et al., 2012). The key stakeholders in MSW manage-
ment are the public, the private sector, the civil society and
NGOs. It has been noted that MBT has been applied successfully
in Chile, with the primary collectors salvaging materials com-
prising the informal waste sector (González Martínez et al.,
2012), which has achieved a recycling rate of almost 14%.
Moreover, the country has introduced formal recycling activities
in some municipalities, which include recycling programmes to
cover composting, selective collection and drop-off systems for
certain residues, and recycling activities such as education and
campaigns to enhance awareness of the environmental benefits
of recycling practices among the residents of these communities
(Braütigam et al., 2012). There is a legal framework for the infor-
mal waste sector: the existence of alliances with production com-
panies guaranteeing a reliable industrial market for secondary
raw materials and the expansion of activities beyond the collec-
tion of recyclables (González, 2011). Given this scenario, MSW
incineration and selective collection of bio-waste are viewed as
options for future management of MSW by the Chilean govern-
ment for reaching a sustainable waste management system, and
will be increased in the coming years, aiming for greater energy
and material recovery despite landfilling the generated wastes
(Navia and Bezama, 2008).
Further policy suggestions
To improve the efficiency of the current situation of waste man-
agement operations and further development of waste manage-
ment systems, a potential indicative action plan is suggested as
illustrated in Figure 5. The specific suggestions related to the
indicative action plan are as follows.
1. Implementation of feasible and alternative measures to
improve waste management operation efficiency, such as
determining MSW generation for different dimensions, physi-
cal compositions and chemical compositions, reforming pol-
icy measures and designing target-oriented policies and time
frames for the attainment of goals and quantifiable targets and
operational plans; and integration of the existing guidelines
considering the experiences learned from frontrunners such as
Japan, Brazil, the USA and the European Union member
states. The country should not directly adopt the approaches
used by others, however; it must learn from the frontrunners
18 Waste Management & Research 00(0)
Figure 5.  An indicative action plan for municipal solid waste management practices in Botswana. Adapted from Kumar et al.
(2009), modified by the author.
and develop proper MSW strategies considering its own limi-
tations. For the successful implementation and delivery of a
well-functioning waste management system, it is critical to
consider improved training of staff on all the components of
waste management operations, and reforming waste manage-
ment practices and policies considering the scientific, social,
political, technological, technical and economic aspects.
2. Design of landfilling towards engineered and sanitary opera-
tions and the implementation of source separation. It is
important to have lined landfills, with leachate collection and
gas collection systems. LAs, in particular the town, city and
district councils in Botswana, should promote source separa-
tion and implement sorting facilities for selective collection
at the household level.
3. The waste management policy also needs to be amended and
updated to introduce recycling incentives and enforcement,
starting with the commercial waste producers and institu-
tionalizing the informal recycling sector. The legislation
should include:
•• The development of guidelines on the responsibilities of
the generators and public authorities, and on the associ-
ated economic incentives.
•• Establishment of policy targets and comprehensive policy
assessments, technology assessment and the development
of a well-functioning system following the concept of
ISWM.
•• Development of actions for society in order to realize
public participation and involvement of everyone in waste
management operations.
4. Implementation of composting of organic matter would be
critical and key to promoting the conversion of organic waste
into agricultural nutrients, and incineration with or without
energy could reduce the environmental impacts and maxi-
mize energy generation.
5. Strengthening public–private partnerships to improve basic
infrastructure and optimize waste recovery.
Implications of future potential
measures
Although Botswana has been successful in the development of
infrastructure and policy planning, which placed an emphasis on
waste reduction through the waste management hierarchy, pro-
gress in implementing these measures has been slow to reduce
Mmereki 19
the amount of waste generated and its significant negative envi-
ronmental health risks. This therefore calls for waste policy
reform and adjustments to waste management operations in
Botswana such as the collection systems, channels and basic sort-
ing facilities; the application of source separation, waste treat-
ment and disposal of MSW; public participation and awareness;
identifying opportunities for strategic partnerships with the pri-
vate sector, municipalities and NGOs; the design and delivery of
staff training activities on integrated MSW management; the
design of landfilling towards engineered and sanitary operations;
and the introduction of a combination of regulation with eco-
nomic incentives, environmental improvements and institution-
alization of the informal recycling sector.
There are future challenges for waste management operations
in Botswana. Increased population size and affluence, rapid
urbanization and economic growth combined with residential
lifestyle changes and consumption patterns as well as product
obsolescence would impact on both the increased quantity and
physical and chemical composition of waste, particularly in the
urban areas. Official and/or reliable data concerning waste gen-
eration, influencing factors and waste forecasts in Botswana are,
however, lacking. The situation is further exacerbated by a lack
of data on waste generation patterns in towns, cities and villages
and the flows of waste products in the socio-economic system.
Therefore, it is necessary to determine the quality and quantity of
waste generated and influencing factors. Accordingly, an in-
depth analysis of the physical and chemical composition of waste
and the assessment of environmental risks associated with waste
management operations should be performed.
Thus, the challenges of ISWM are overwhelming, as towns,
cities and villages in Botswana are grappling with a lack of basic
infrastructure, the implementation of source separation and sort-
ing facilities, cooperation among stakeholders and heightening
environmental pollution. Although the primary concern for
ISWM is the delivery of a well-functioning waste management
system, recycling, waste recovery activities and environmental
control are lacking in most towns, cities and villages in Botswana.
Some amounts of waste will be generated and should be properly
treated and safely disposed of. These waste streams should be
managed in such a way that waste is reduced and negative envi-
ronmental impacts are minimized, maximizing the environmen-
tal, social and economic benefits, and contributing to sustainable
development.
Indiscriminate dumping in open spaces and landfills without
proper treatment and disposal are problems that are widespread
in Botswana, which corresponds to public attitudes, commit-
ment and environmental awareness, contributing to public health
and environmental problems. In general, waste management
operations still lack an integrated management framework, and
thus waste is inappropriately disposed of in disposal sites. In
most of the towns, cities and villages in Botswana, waste is dis-
posed of in conventional landfills. Nevertheless, containment of
these landfills is inadequate: they are open and unlined, without
leachate collection systems in the basements, and they also lack
pre-treatment facilities, which has the potential to impact and
degrade the quality of groundwater. There is a need to improve
the design of landfills towards engineered and sanitary opera-
tions, develop pre-treatment facilities and transfer stations, and
effective monitoring and management of the disposal sites.
Landfills must have waste pre-treatment facilities prior to dis-
posal. Existing approaches and experiences should be evaluated
at the national level with regard to practices for the improvement
of waste management services, particularly for villages, due to
existing infrastructural imbalances. In addition, scavenging
activities and the informal sectors should be institutionalized to
minimize environmental impacts.
Although a number of departments (see Table 2), and LAs in
Botswana are involved in waste management operations, their
functions are always overlapping and duplicating efforts. In addi-
tion, there is no designated agency to coordinate waste manage-
ment activities. Often times, a lack of coordination of waste
management activities among the relevant stakeholders, including
waste policy makers, civil society and the private sector, impedes
the improvement of staff training, improvements in basic infra-
structure, the introduction of recycling incentives, and enforce-
ment and institutionalization of the informal recycling sector. On
the central and local government side, however, the lack of techni-
cal, financial and technological resources, and technically skilled
human resources, the absence of selective collection systems, an
inadequate treatment infrastructure for waste, and an inadequate
implementation policy and regulatory provisions, are the key fac-
tors that are challenging recycling activities in Botswana today.
Thus, there is a need to train staff to research on sustainable MSW
management activities, incorporate awareness on MSW manage-
ment policy, and develop guidelines on the responsibilities of the
generators, public authorities and private sector.
Because of the lack of sorting facilities in Botswana, almost
all waste generated within villages, towns and cities, be it domes-
tic, construction and demolition waste or organic waste is co-
disposed in landfills. Innovative methods like incineration,
composting and recycling are some of the methods that should be
utilized to convert waste to other useful purposes such as the con-
version of waste to energy and the conversion of organic waste
for the agricultural system chain.
Conclusions
This paper describes the current state and the challenges of waste
management in Botswana. In general, waste management opera-
tions in Botswana are becoming a major concern due to the inad-
equacies of waste management policy, inadequate investment in
waste management operations, a lack of official and/or reliable
data on the physical composition of waste generated, uncoordi-
nated programmes, a lack of guidelines on the responsibilities of
the generators and public authorities and the associated economic
tools, and inadequacy towards engineered landfilling and sani-
tary operations. The key challenges to waste management opera-
tions in Botswana are a lack of public-private partnerships, a lack
20 Waste Management & Research 00(0)
of environmental pollution control measures, and a lack of eco-
nomic incentives, enforcement and implementation for the waste
recycling industry.
Several transition and developing countries in Africa are still
grappling with indiscriminate dumping, limited staff training for
waste management operation, and extensive environmental
impacts. Progress in MSW management operations, in particular
with regards to improved basic infrastructure, is relatively slow
in these countries for which the reasons are obvious – inadequate
financial and policy support, lax enforcement of the existing reg-
ulations, a lack of technically skilled manpower, staff training
and knowledge on waste management technologies, limited pub-
lic participation and education, and a lack of involvement of the
civil society. With the exception of transition and developing
countries such as Brazil and South Korea, which appear to be
progressive in ISWM, the management of waste reported in
African countries is faced with a myriad of challenges. This mini-
review provides information to support decision makers to re-
organize an effective waste management system and assist other
emerging economies in the region and the world to improve
waste management efficiency.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to Emily Lyons for proofreading the paper.
Contributions made by different researchers and their technical
assistance are acknowledged.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to
the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author disclosed receipt of the following financial support for
the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This
research is funded by the Foundation for Science and Technology
Development of Ton Duc Thang University (FOSTECT), website:
http://fostect.tdt.edu.vn, under grant FOSTECT.2017.BR.01.
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