Lec. No.

19: Disaster Management - Natural Disasters - Meaning and nature of

natural disasters, their types and effects - Floods, drought

The word Disaster is from a French word Disaster meaning bad or evil star. Disaster
means a situation in which there is a sudden disruption of normalcy within society causing
widespread damage to life and property. A disaster can be either natural [rain, flood, cyclone,
storm, landslides, earthquake, volcanoes] or manmade [war including biological, arson,
sabotage, riots, accident (train, air, ship), industrial accidents, fires (forest fires), bomb
explosions, nuclear explosions and ecological disasters] or complex disasters, where there is
no single root cause, are more common in developing countries. A specific disaster may
spawn a secondary disaster that increases the impact. A classic example is an earthquake that
causes a tsunami, resulting in coastal flooding; changing the land in to saline problem soils
and poor quality of water sources ultimately affecting crop production.
Disaster:
• A disaster is a natural or manmade event which results in widespread human loss, loss
of livelihood, property and life often resulting in permanent changes to human
societies, ecosystems and environment.
• The damage caused by disasters is immeasurable and varies with the geographical
location, climate and the type of the earth surface/degree of vulnerability which
influences the mental, socio-economic, political and cultural state of the affected area.
• A Disaster is an event that occurs in most cases suddenly and unexpectedly, causing
severe disturbances to people, objects and environment, resulting in loss of life,
property and health of the population.
• Disaster causes disruption in normal pattern of life, generating misfortune, helplessness
and suffering affecting the socio-economic structure of a region/country to such an
extent that there is a need for assistance or immediate outside intervention

Generally, disaster has the following effects in the concerned areas,

1. It completely disrupts the normal day to day life

2. It negatively influences the emergency systems
3. Normal needs and processes like food, shelter, health, etc. are affected and deteriorate
depending on the intensity and severity of the disaster.
The studies made so far on disaster concluded that all disasters can be seen as being
human-made, their reasoning being that human actions before the strike of the hazard can
prevent it developing into a disaster which indicated the result of human failure to introduce
appropriate disaster management measures. In addition the myths about disaster,
• It Can’t Happen to Us.
• The Nature’s forces are so Deadly the Victims will Die anyway.
• There is Nothing We Can Do also worsens the problem.
Thus, a disaster may have the following main features:-
• Unpredictability
• Unfamiliarity
• Speed
• Urgency
• Uncertainty
• Threat
Risk: Risk is a measure of the expected losses due to a hazardous event of a particular
magnitude occurring in a given area over a specific time period. Risk is a function of the
probability of particular occurrences and the losses each would cause. The level of risk
depends on:
• Nature of the Hazard
• Vulnerability of the elements which are affected
• Economic value of those elements
Vulnerability: It is defined as “the extent to which a community, structure, service, and/or
geographic area is likely to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of particular hazard, on
account of their nature, construction and proximity to hazardous terrain or a disaster prone
area”
Hazards: Hazards are defined as “Phenomena that pose a threat to people, structures, or
economic assets and which may cause a disaster. They could be either manmade or naturally
occurring in our environment.”
Types of Disaster
Hazards are routinely divided into natural or human-made, although complex disasters, where
there is no single root cause, are more common in developing countries. A specific disaster
may spawn a secondary disaster that increases the impact. A classic example is an earthquake
that causes a tsunami, resulting in coastal flooding; changing the land in to saline problem
soils and poor quality of water sources ultimately affecting crop production. Based on the
devastation, these are further classified into major/minor natural disaster and major/minor
manmade disasters.
Natural disasters
Arise without direct human involvement, but can become more severe because of human
actions prior, during or after the disaster itself. Also, one specific event may spawn another
type of disaster as indicated already. For example, a hurricane may cause flooding by
excessive rain or by pulling seawater onshore, also called a storm surge. A volcanic eruption
is particularly prone to spawning additional events like earthquakes, structural fires and
wildfires, flooding from melting of mountain snow and ice, landslides, mudslides,
thunderstorms and, if the volcano is located in or near the ocean, tsunamis. Thus a natural
disaster is the effect of a natural hazard (e.g., flood, tornado, hurricane, volcanic eruption,
earthquake, or landslide). It leads to financial, environmental or human losses.
A natural hazard will hence never result in a natural disaster in areas without vulnerability,
strong earthquakes in uninhabited areas. The term natural has consequently been
disputed because the events simply are not hazards or disasters without human
involvement (Alexander, 2002).
• Land movement disasters
✓ Avalanches
✓ Earthquakes
✓ Lahars
✓ Volcanic eruptions
• Water disasters
✓ Floods
✓ Limnic eruptions
✓ Tsunami
• Weather disasters
✓ Blizzards
✓ Cyclonic storms
✓ Droughts
✓ Hailstorms
✓ Heat waves
✓ Tornadoes
 • Fire
• Health and diseases
✓ Epidemic
✓ Famine
• Space
✓ Gamma ray bursts
✓ Impact events
✓ Solar flares
✓ Supernovae and hypernovae
Man-made disaster
Disasters caused by human action, negligence, error, or involving the failure of a system are
called man-made disasters. Man-made disasters are in turn categorized as technological or
sociological. Technological disasters are the results of failure of technology, such as
engineering failures, transport disasters, or environmental disasters. Sociological disasters
have a strong human motive, such as criminal acts, stampedes, riots and war.
Major manmade disaster:
• Setting of fires
• Epidemics
• Deforestation
• Pollution due to prawn cultivation
• Chemical pollution.
• Biological Pollution
• Wars
Minor manmade disaster:
• Road / train accidents, riots
• Food poisoning
• Industrial disaster/ crisis
• Theft and Destruction of Tourism Infrastructure
• Hijacking and Terrorism
• Social and Cultural Disaster
• Environmental pollution
Disasters affecting India
▪ Earthquake
▪ Volcanic eruption
▪ Tsunami
▪ Cyclone
▪ Flood
▪ Landslide
▪ Bushfire
▪ Drought
▪ Major accident (fire, explosion, hazmat)
General Effects of Disaster
▪ Loss of life
▪ Injury
▪ Damage to and destruction of property.
▪ Damage to and destruction of production.
▪ Disruption of lifestyle
▪ Loss of livelihood.
▪ Disruption to essential services
▪ Damage to national infrastructure
▪ Disruption to governmental systems
▪ National economic loss
▪ Sociological and psychological after effect.
Flood
The term "flood" is a general or temporary condition of partial or complete inundation
of normally dry land areas from overflow of inland or tidal waters or from the unusual and
rapid accumulation or runoff of surface waters from any source. Flood is usually an overflow
of excessive water that submerges land and the inflow of tide onto land. Flooding and flash
flooding are the deadliest of natural disasters. Floodwaters claim thousands of lives every
year and render millions homeless. One of the more frightening things about flooding is that
it can occur nearly anywhere, at any time. It can result from excess water jams on rivers, even
moderate rain, or a single very heavy downpour as it occurred in Himachal Pradesh recently.
Floods usually cause large-scale loss of human life and wide spread damage to properties.
This damage is known as flood damage. Unimaginable damage will be caused to agriculture;
thereby affects government planning and this will upset the financial budgeting, thereby
slowing down the economy as a whole.
What causes Flood?
Heavy down pore in the form of rain, brings down more water than can be disposed of
by combined factors natural and manmade systems causes flooding. The rivers overflow
embankments may be breached. Generally rains following storm and hurricane are heavy and
bring unmanageable amount of water causing flash floods.
Monsoon rainfalls can cause disastrous flooding in some equatorial countries, such as
Bangladesh, due to their extended periods of rainfall. Heavy rain caused substantial damage
across Eastern Europe in the summers of 2003 and 2005. Normally riverine floods occur only
in winter as a result of heavy rain in combination with melting of snow and glaciers in spring.
A flood occurs when an area of land, usually low-lying, is covered with water. The worst
floods usually occur when a river overflows its banks. An example of this is the January 1999
Queensland floods, which swamped south-eastern Queensland. Floods happen when soil and
vegetation cannot absorb all the water ; water then runs off the land in quantities that cannot
be carried in stream channels or kept in natural ponds or man-made reservoirs.
Periodic floods occur naturally on many rivers, forming an area known as the flood
plain. These river floods usually result from heavy rain, sometimes combined with melting
snow, which causes the rivers to overflow their banks. A flood that rises and falls rapidly with
little or no advance warning is called a flash flood. Flash floods usually result from intense
rainfall over a relatively small area. Coastal areas are occasionally flooded by high tides
caused by severe winds on ocean surfaces, or by tidal waves caused by undersea earthquakes.
Factors that help determine whether a flood is minor or major:
Deep snow cover. Deep snow can melt into a lot of water. Deep snow very rarely causes
flooding by itself. Often, heavy rain and rapid warm ups combine with rapidly melting snow
to cause major flooding problems. Fortunately, slowly warming temperatures along with
below freezing overnight temperatures through most of March into April reduced flooding
from melting snow. Forecasters were originally concerned that the deep snow would pose
significant problems during the spring thaw.
Frozen ground: Frozen soil can not absorb as much water as unfrozen soil. Rain or rapid
snow melt at frozen soil can cause flooding that wouldn't have occurred if the soil were not
frozen.
Wet or saturated soil: Saturated soil can't absorb rain and water from melting snow. The
excess water becomes runoff that rapidly flows into rivers and streams. Unsaturated soil acts
like a sponge, absorbing some of the water from rain or snow melt. Saturated soil by itself
does not cause flooding. Usually, heavy rain or rapid snow melt combined with saturated soil
causes the flooding.
Full reservoirs: Reservoirs are large, mostly man-made basins that hold water for irrigation
and drinking. Reservoirs can alleviate river flooding by absorbing and spreading out flood
crests flowing down the river. This would reduce the height in which the water rises
 downstream of the reservoir. If the reservoir is already full, then it can not absorb any water
from swollen rivers.
High river and stream levels: Streams or rivers that are already at bankfull can be a
precursor to major flooding. Heavy rain or rapid snow melt that flows into an already full
river will cause the river to overflow its banks and flood nearby locations.
Ice-covered rivers. As rain or melting snow Fall River, ice at the surface cracks and breaks
up into chunks that float downstream. These chunks of ice can form a dam as they run into
barriers, such as bridges, along the rivers. The ice dams cause water to rise rapidly behind
them, flooding many upstream locations. If the dam suddenly breaks, water can also flood
downstream locations. Large chunks of ice can also damage bridges and other structures.
Widespread, heavy rain: This is perhaps the most important and influential factor of them
all. Long periods of heavy rain can cause flooding even if all other factors are unfavorable for
flooding. Often, heavy rain is a cause of some of the factors listed above such as wet soils,
high stream levels and full reservoirs. The Midwest flooding during the summer of 1993 and
the Southeast flooding caused by the remnants of Tropical Storm Alberto in 1994 are a couple
of examples of flooding caused by heavy rain.
Whether or not these factors cause flooding often depends on daily weather conditions
over the region such as temperature and precipitation. This makes long range flood forecasts
very difficult to pin down, which is the main reason why hydrologists often forecast long
range flood potential rather than actual long range flood forecasts.
Effects of Flood:
There are various types of effects caused by flood and that can be categorized into three
types, namely, primary, secondary and tertiary. The primary effects of flood damage
include physical damages like damage to bridges, cars, buildings, sewer systems, roadways,
and even casualties like people and livestock death due to drowning. The primary effect of
floods is due to direct contact with the flood waters. The velocity of water tends to be high in
floods and consequently, discharge increases as velocity increases. Because of excess rainfall,
the rivers and streams flow with higher velocities wherein they are able to transport larger
particles like rocks as suspended load. Such large particles include not only rocks and
sediment but during a flood it could also include large objects such as automobiles, houses
and bridges. Massive amounts of erosion during the floods can undermine bridge structures
and buildings causing their collapse.
During floods, water will also enter human built structures causing water damage. The
flood damage to houses include ruining of furniture, damage to the floors and walls of the house
and damage to any other item that comes in contact with the water. Automobiles on the roads get
stranded in the floods and they get carried away by the flood waters or water enters into the
automobile, which results in damage that cannot be easily repaired. The flood water carries
sediment as suspended load. As the flood waters recede, the sediments get deposited and things
and structures including the interior of buildings usually get covered with a thick layer of stream-
deposited mud. Farmlands affected by floods face a huge loss as they usually result in crop loss.
Livestock, pets, and other animals are often carried away by the strong currents of the flood
water. Humans who get caught in the high velocity flood waters often get drowned.
Among the secondary effects of flood damage are the disruption of many essential
services like gas and electricity. Flood damage also includes the contamination of the
drinking water supply, if sewage treatment plants are flooded. This poses a greater threat
because this may result in disease and other health hazards, especially in under developed
countries. The public transportation systems may also be disrupted during floods, resulting in
shortages of food and other supplies.
Tertiary effects of flood damage are generally long-term effects like the location of river
channels that may change because of flooding; fewer new channels will develop, leaving the
old channels dry. Farmlands with crops get destroyed by the sediment deposition caused by
the floods. People may not be able to make it to their workplace due to disruption of services.
The floods may also result in destruction of wildlife habitat. Although floods have some
advantages floods cause havoc to life and property of mankind. By following various
preventive measures the effects of flood damage can be reduced to a great extent.
Risk Reduction/Mitigation, Risk Transfer: Consistent rains started on November 8 and by
the end of November, the level in the reservoir had reached its limit, which was emplty
before Diwali. Water in the Chembarambakkam reservoir stood at 22 ft at this time. Since
more than 500 mm rainfall was predicted over 1 and 2 December, bringing down the level of
water in the reservoir from 22 to 18 feet may be a viable solution. By around 10 pm, the
water was being released at 29,400 cusec into the Adyar river, as engineers feared a breach of
Chembarambakkam’s boundary. Panicking officials opened the sluice gates, hoping Adyar
would absorb the gushing water. But soon its embankments were overrun. By midnight of
December 2, Adyar, which flows through the heart of Chennai, had gone completely under.
Emergency Reponses: The recent experience clearly shows the need for early warning and
dissemination of reliable information about floods and rescue, also the lack of coordination
among the multiple authorities. The NDRF, during Chennai Flood Coordination between 50
teams, each with strength of 45 men played a key role in rescuing flood-affected people in
Chennai. In all, they succeeded in rescuing over 20,000 people. NDRF personnel are using
social media and the internet to reach out the affected people continuously. Various key
ministries and nodal agencies concerned with the emergency response and the Cabinet
Secretary asked the Ministries concerned to provide necessary assistance in a coordinated
manner to the state government, ensuring that the rescue and evacuation of the people is their
top priority.
Drought
Most people think that a drought is of a period of hot, dry weather with too little rain.
While any or all of those conditions can be present during a drought, the definition of drought
is really more subtle and complex. Drought is not purely a physical phenomenon that can be
defined by the weather. Rather, at its most essential level, drought is defined by the delicate
balance between water supply and demand. Whenever human demands for water exceed the
natural availability of water, the result is drought.
Different Ways of Viewing and Defining Drought
Which type of drought people mean when they talk about “drought” often depends on
who they are, they kind of work they do, and the perspective that gives them. Farmers and
ranchers are most often concerned with agricultural drought, for example, and agricultural
drought is also the type of drought that worries people in the grocery and meat business or
people in farm communities that depend indirectly on agricultural income for their
livelihoods. Urban planners usually mean hydrological drought when they talk about drought,
because water supplies and reserves are key components in managing urban growth. The
most common use of the term “drought” refers to meteorological drought, because that is the
drought condition most familiar to the general public and the one most easily identified.
What Causes Drought?
Drought can be caused by too little precipitation (rain and snow) over an extended
period, as most people assume, but drought can also be caused by increased demand for the
available supply of usable water even during periods of average or above average
precipitation. Another factor that can affect water supply is a change in water quality, say
Siruvani water which most people prefers. Contaminated water say in Tiruppur area
especially near Orathupalayam areas (Tiruppur, Chennimalai) wherein water is contaminated
by industrial pollution. If some of the available water sources become contaminated--either
temporarily or permanently--that decreases the supply of usable water, makes the balance
between water supply and demand even more precarious, and increases the likelihood of
drought.
Types of Drought
There are three conditions that are generally referred to as drought:
Meteorological drought—This type of drought all about the weather and occurs when there
is a prolonged period of below average precipitation, which creates a natural shortage of
available water.
Agricultural drought—This type of drought occurs when there isn’t enough moisture to
support average crop production on farms or average grass production on range land.
Although agricultural drought often occurs during dry, hot periods of low precipitation, it can
also occur during periods of average precipitation when soil conditions or agricultural
techniques require extra water.
Hydrological drought—This type of drought occurs when water reserves in aquifers, lakes
and reservoirs fall below an established statistical average. Again, hydrological drought can
happen even during times of average or above average precipitation, if human demand for
water is high and increased usage has lowered the water reserves.
Effects of Drought
Drought can have serious health, social, economic and political impacts with far-reaching
consequences. Water is one of the most essential commodities for human survival, second
only to breathable air. So when there is a drought, which by definition means having too little
water to meet current demands, conditions can become difficult or dangerous very quickly.
The consequences of drought:
Rise in Temperature: Droughts may be linked to a rise in temperature which may bring
insects like locusts and mosquitoes.
Hunger and famine: Drought conditions often provide too little water to support food crops,
through either natural precipitation or irrigation using reserve water supplies. The same
problem affects grass and grain used to feed livestock and poultry. When drought undermines
or destroys food sources, people go hungry. When the drought is severe and continues over a
long period, famine may occur.
Disease: Drought often creates a lack of clean water for drinking, public sanitation and
personal hygiene, which can lead to a wide range of life-threatening diseases.
Thirst: All living things must have water to survive. People can live for weeks without food,
but only a few days without water.
Land Degradation: If there is no water the plants holding down the soil will die, and winds
can quickly strip the land of topsoil. The natural habitat of native animals is damaged and
some may not survive. Wetlands and lakes may dry up.
Wildfires : The low moisture and precipitation that often characterize droughts can quickly
create hazardous conditions in forests and across range lands, setting the stage for wildfires
that may cause injuries or deaths as well as extensive damage to property and already
shrinking food supplies.
Social conflict and war : When a precious commodity like water is in short supply due to
drought, and the lack of water creates a corresponding lack of food, people will compete—
and eventually fight and kill—to secure enough water to survive.
Migration or relocation: Faced with the other impacts of drought, many people will flee a
drought-stricken area in search of a new home with a better supply of water, enough food,
and without the disease and conflict that were present in the place they are leaving.
Economy: The country's economy may suffer as it may have to import food and support
farmers and unemployed and starving people.
Questions

1. Name the measure of expected losses due to a hazardous event occurring in a given area
over a specific time period
2. What are the characteristic features of Disaster?
3. What are the ethics about disaster?
4. List out the types of disasters
5. What are Blizzards?
6. What are the factors that determines, whether a flood is minor or major?
7. Write shortly about different types of drought
8. What are the consequences of drought?
9. Differentiate between Meteorological and Hydrological drought.
 Lec. No: 20. Cyclone, earthquakes, Landslides, avalanches
CYCLONES
Cyclonic - refers to a region of low atmospheric sea level pressure; or, the wind
system around such a low pressure center that has a clockwise rotation in the Northern
Hemisphere and a counterclockwise rotation in the Southern Hemisphere (NOAA). In
meteorology, a cyclone is the rotation of a volume of air about an area of low atmospheric
pressure. Cyclones are responsible for a wide variety of different meteorological phenomena
such as tropical cyclones and tornadoes. Because of this, most weather forecasters avoid
using the term cyclone without a qualifying term.
Cyclone - Structure. The center of a cyclone is a low-pressure region. Pressure gradient force,
from high- to low-pressure regions, causes high wind around these regions.
Cyclone - Types of Cyclones
• Cyclone - Tropical cyclones
• Cyclone - Extratropical cyclones
• Cyclone - Subtropical cyclones
• Cyclone - Mid-latitude cyclones
• Cyclone - Polar low
• Cyclone - Arctic cyclone
• Cyclone - Mesocyclones
• Cyclone - Tornadoes
• Cyclone - Martian cyclones

Tropical cyclone - Structure and classification

A strong tropical cyclone consists of the following components.
Surface low: All tropical cyclones rotate around an area of low atmospheric pressure near the
Earth's surface. The pressures recorded at the centers of tropical cyclones are among the
lowest that occur on Earth's surface at sea level.
Warm core: Tropical cyclones are characterized and driven by the release of large amounts
of latent heat of condensation as moist air is carried upwards and its water vapor condenses.
This heat is distributed vertically, around the center of the storm. Thus, at any given altitude
(except close to the surface where water temperature dictates air temperature) the
environment inside the cyclone is warmer than its outer surroundings.
Central Dense Overcast (CDO): The Central Dense Overcast is a dense shield of very
intense thunderstorm activity that make up the inner portion of the hurricane. This contains
the eye wall, and the eye itself. The classic hurricane contains a symmetrical CDO, which
means that it is perfectly circular and round on all sides.
Eye: A strong tropical cyclone will harbor an area of sinking air at the center of circulation.
Weather in the eye is normally calm and free of clouds (however, the sea may be extremely
violent). Eyes are home to the coldest temperatures of the storm at the surface, and the
warmest temperatures at the upper levels. The eye is normally circular in shape, and may
range in size from 8 km to 200 km (5 miles to 125 miles) in diameter. In weaker cyclones, the
CDO covers the circulation center, resulting in no visible eye.
Eyewall: A band around the eye of greatest wind speed, where clouds reach highest and
precipitation is heaviest. The heaviest wind damage occurs where a hurricane's eyewall
passes over land.
Outflow: The upper levels of a tropical cyclone feature winds headed away from the center
of the storm with an anticyclonic rotation. Winds at the surface are strongly cyclonic, weaken
with height, and eventually reverse themselves. Tropical cyclones owe this unique
characteristic to the warm core at the center of the storm.
Tropical cyclone - Intensities of tropical cyclones
Tropical cyclones are classified into three main groups: tropical depressions, tropical
storms, and a third group whose name depends on the region.
A tropical depression is an organized system of clouds and thunderstorms with a
defined surface circulation and maximum sustained winds of less than 17 metres per second
(33 knots, 38 mph, or 62 km/h). It has no eye, and does not typically have the spiral shape of
more powerful storms. It is already becoming a low-pressure system, however, hence the
name "depression".
A tropical storm is an organized system of strong thunderstorms with a defined
surface circulation and maximum sustained winds between 17 and 33 meters per second
(34–63 knots, 39–73 mph, or 62–117 km/h). At this point, the distinctive cyclonic
shape starts to develop, though an eye is usually not present. Government weather services
assign first names to systems that reach this intensity (thus the term named storm).
At hurricane and typhoon intensity, a tropical cyclone tends to develop an eye, an area
of relative calm (and lowest atmospheric pressure) at the center of the circulation. The eye is
often visible in satellite images as a small, circular, cloud-free spot. Surrounding the eye is
the eye wall, an area about 10 to 50 miles (16 to 80 kilometers) wide in which the strongest
thunderstorms and winds circulate around the storm's center.
The circulation of clouds around a cyclone's center imparts a distinct spiral shape to
the system. Bands or arms may extend over great distances as clouds are drawn toward the
cyclone. The direction of the cyclonic circulation depends on the hemisphere; it is
counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
Maximum sustained winds in the strongest tropical cyclones have been measured at more
than 85 m/s (165 knots, 190 mph, 305 km/h). Intense, mature hurricanes can sometimes
exhibit an inward curving of the eye wall top that resembles a football stadium: this
phenomenon is thus sometimes referred to as stadium effect.
Eye wall replacement cycles naturally occur in intense tropical cyclones. When
cyclones reach peak intensity they usually - but not always - have an eye wall and radius of
maximum winds that contract to a very small size, around 5 to 15 miles. At this point, some
of the outer rainbands may organize into an outer ring of thunderstorms that slowly moves
inward and robs the inner eye wall of its needed moisture and momentum. During this phase,
the tropical cyclone is weakening (i.e. the maximum winds die off a bit and the central
pressure goes up). Eventually the outer eyewall replaces the inner one completely and the
storm can be the same intensity as it was previously or, in some cases, even stronger.
Tropical cyclone - Categories and ranking
Hurricanes are ranked according to their maximum winds using the Saffir-Simpson
Hurricane Scale. A Category 1 storm has the lowest maximum winds, a Category 5 hurricane
has the highest. The rankings are not absolute in terms of effects. Lower-category storms can
inflict greater damage than higher-category storms, depending on factors such as local terrain
and total rainfall. For instance, a Category 2 hurricane that strikes a major urban area will
likely do more damage than a large Category 5 hurricane that strikes a mostly rural region. In
fact, tropical systems of less than hurricane strength can produce significant damage and
human casualties, especially from flooding and landslides.
The National Hurricane Center classifies hurricanes of Category 3 and above as
Major Hurricanes. The Joint Typhoon Warning Center classifies typhoons with wind speeds
of at least 150 mi/h (67 m/s or 241 km/h, equivalent to a strong Category 4 storm) as Super
Typhoons. The definition of sustained winds recommended by the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) and used by most weather agencies is that of a 10-minute average. The
weather service defines sustained winds based on 1-minute average speed measured about 10
meters (33 ft) above the surface.
Tropical cyclones can result in extensive flooding and storm surge, as happened with:
• Bhola Cyclone, striking East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) in 1970,
• Typhoon Nina, striking China in 1975,
• Tropical Storm Allison, which struck Houston, Texas in 2001 and
• Hurricane Katrina, which left most of New Orleans under water in 2005.
Much of the flooding was due to the failure of the city's levee system.
Other storm systems
Many other forms of cyclone can form in nature. Several of these relate to the
formation or dissipation of tropical cyclones. An extratropical cyclone is a storm that derives
energy from horizontal temperature differences, which are typical in higher latitudes. A
tropical cyclone can become extratropical as it moves toward higher latitudes if its energy
source changes from heat released by condensation to differences in temperature between air
masses; more rarely, an extratropical cyclone can transform into a subtropical storm, and
from there into a tropical cyclone. From space, extratropical storms have a characteristic
"comma-shaped" cloud pattern. Extratropical cyclones can also be dangerous because their
low-pressure centers cause powerful winds.
A subtropical cyclone is a weather system that has some characteristics of a tropical
cyclone and some characteristics of an extratropical cyclone. They can form in a wide band
of latitude, from the equator to 50°. Although subtropical storms rarely attain hurricane-
force winds, they may become tropical in nature as their core warms. In the United Kingdom
and Europe, some severe northeast Atlantic cyclonic depressions are referred to as
"hurricanes," even though they rarely originate in the tropics. These European windstorms
can generate hurricane-force winds but are not given individual names. However, two
powerful extratropical cyclones that ravaged France, Germany, and the United Kingdom in
December 1999, "Lothar" and "Martin", were named due to their unexpected power
(equivalent to a category 1 or 2 hurricane). In British Shipping Forecasts, winds of force 12
on the Beaufort scale are described as "hurricane force."
Tornado: A Tornado (often referred to as a twister or, erroneously, a cyclone) is a violent,
dangerous, rotating column of air that is in contact with both the surface of the earth and a
cumulonimbus cloud or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud. Tornadoes come in many
shapes and sizes, but are typically in the form of a visible condensation funnel, whose narrow
end touches the earth and is often encircled by a cloud of debris and dust. Most tornadoes
have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (177 km/h), are approximately 250 feet (80 m)
across, and travel a few miles (several kilometers) before dissipating. The most extreme can
attain wind speeds of more than 300 mph (480 km/h), stretch more than two miles (3 km)
across, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more than 100 km).
Earthquakes
An earthquake is a sudden movement of the Earth caused by the abrupt release of
energy that has accumulated over a long time. Most earthquakes occur at the boundaries
where the plates of the Earth’s outer layer meet. In fact, the location of earthquakes and the
kind of ruptures they produce help scientists define the plate boundaries. Most destructive
quakes, however, are caused by dislocations of the crust. The crust may bend and then, when
the stress exceeds the strength of the rocks, break and “snap” to a new position.
It is a sudden shake of the Earth's crust caused by the tectonic plates colliding. The
vibrations may vary in magnitude. The underground point of origin of the earthquake is
called the "focus". The point directly above the focus on the surface is called the "epicenter".
Earthquakes by themselves rarely kill people or wildlife. It is usually the secondary events
that they trigger, such as building collapse, fires, tsunamis (seismic sea waves) and
volcanoes, that are actually the human disaster. Many of these could possibly be avoided by
better construction, safety systems, early warning and evacuation planning. Earthquakes are
caused by the discharge of energy accumulated along geologic fault.

Earthquake Prediction
From a geologic perspective we can predict where most earthquakes will occur: along
the plate boundaries. We can also predict the average rate of occurrence (over millions of
years). Such predictions are not terribly useful for society, although they are not without
value since they indicate our understanding of the basic processes of earthquakes. However,
although predicting the exact time of an earthquake would be valuable, it does not solve all of
our problems.
The best preparation for earthquakes is adequate building construction. The
information scientists try to provide is the level of shaking expected in a given region. We try
to map the surficial geology, the potential size and location of earthquakes. In essence, long-
term preparation guided by predictions of the potential level of shaking in a region is the best
way to prepare for earthquakes.
There are three types of plate boundaries: Spreading zones, transform faults, and
subduction zones.
Spreading zones: At spreading zones, molten rock rises pushing two plates apart and
adding new material at their edges. Most spreading zones are found in oceans.
Transform faults are found where plates slide past one another. Earthquakes at
transform faults tend to occur at shallow depths and form fairly straight linear patterns.
Subduction zones are found where one plate overrides, or subducts, another, pushing
it downward into the mantle where it melts. Subduction zones are characterized by deep-
ocean trenches, shallow to deep earthquakes, and mountain ranges containing active
volcanoes. Geologists have found that earthquakes tend to recur along faults, which reflect
zones of weakness in the Earth’s crust. If a fault zone 2 experiences an earthquake, there is no
guarantee that all of the stress will be relieved. Another earthquake can still occur.
Earthquakes may occur in an area before, during, and after a volcanic eruption, but
they are not the cause or result of volcanic activity; rather they are the result of the active
forces connected with the volcanic eruption. The vibrations produced by earthquakes are
detected, recorded, and measured by instruments called seismographs. The jagged line made
by a seismograph—called a seismogram—reflects the changing intensity of the vibrations by
responding to the motion of the ground surface beneath the instrument. From the data
expressed in seismograms, scientists can determine the time, the epicenter, the focal depth,
and the type of faulting of an earthquake and can also estimate how much energy was
released.
The Richter scale is the best-known scale for measuring the magnitude of earthquakes.
• The scale is logarithmic, so a recording of 7, for example, indicates a disturbance with
ground motion 10 times as large as a recording of 6.
• A quake of magnitude 2 is the smallest quake normally felt by people.
• Earthquakes with a magnitude of 6 or more are considered major; great earthquakes
have magnitudes of 8 or more.
Initial effects of an earthquake are violent ground motions which can produce cracks or
fractures in the ground and liquefaction, where loose sandy soils with a high moisture content
separate and give the surface a consistency much like that of quicksand. As destructive as
earthquakes are, the resulting secondary effects such as landslides, tsunamis, fires, and floods
can be even more devastating.
Tsunamis
Tsunamis are waves generated by earthquakes or any large, sudden offset of the ocean
floor (caused by submarine landslides etc.). They are sometimes incorrectly called tidal
waves, they have nothing to do with the tides. A tsunami is a series of gigantic waves that
occur in the ocean or in other large bodies of water. Formed when a large amount of water is
rapidly displaced, tsunamis are often caused by an underwater disturbance such as an
earthquake, a landslide, an erupting volcano, or even a meteorite impact. Moving outward
from their initial source, the waves travel very fast—up to 600 mph and can be as high as 60
feet and are very destructive. Obviously they affect coastal regions and are particularly
dangerous in the immediate vicinity of an earthquake. Tsunamis can also travel across
oceans, so a large earthquake along the coast of South America can produce a tsunami that
eventually travels to and damages coastal regions of Hawaii and or Japan. As they travel
across the ocean, they are very small in height, and unnoticeable. When they reach the shore,
the shallowing of the water produces an increase in wave height. They travel about as fast as
an airplane, so we have hours to warn distant localities. But they can strike within a few
minutes close to the earthquake.
Almost all the countries situated around the Bay of Bengal were affected by the
tsunami waves in the morning hours of 26 December 2004 (between 0900 – 1030 hrs IST).
The killer waves were triggered by an earthquake measuring 8.9 on the Richter scale that had
an epicenter near the west coast of Sumatra in Indonesia. The first recorded tsunami in India
dates back to 31 December 1881. An earthquake of magnitude 7.5 on the Richter scale, with
its epicenter believed to have been under the sea off the coast of Car Nicobar Island, caused
the tsunami. The last recorded tsunami in India occurred on 26 June 1941, caused by an
earthquake with magnitude exceeding 8.5. This caused extensive damage to the Andaman
Islands. There are no other well-documented records of Tsunami in India.
It was all quiet on the waterfront on the Sunday morning after Christmas in 2004 at
Kanyakumari, the famous Marina Beach in Chennai and elsewhere on the Kerala coast and
Andaman Nicober Islands. There was the excitement of a holyday with an offbeat mood with
swarms of people on the sea front: children playing cricket and man and women on their
morning work at the Marina. Elsewhere, fishermen were putting out to sea for the day’s
catch. Then all on a sudden, a curious thing happened. The holidaymakers at Kanyakumari
were awestruck when the sea receded from the shores.
In the present tsunami, India was the third country severely battered after Indonesia
and Srilanka. In India the State severely affected by tsunami are Tamilnadu, Pondicheri,
Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Andaman and Nicober Island. The following Table.1 shows the
average scenario of tsunami devastation in the respective areas (Source: DiMaRF, India-
2005).
Some of the significant earthquakes:
The Latur (Killari), Maharashtra, earthquake of September 30, 1993 is the most
devastating SCR earthquake in the world. Its epicentre was located in a region considered to
be aseismic. This earthquake occurred in the typical rural setting of India. The severity of the
destruction was compounded by the nature of 4 village settlements. While most of the
engineered structures survived the earthquake, the non-engineered ones were totally
damaged.
Over 10,000 lives were lost in this earthquake and several villages were destroyed.
With a magnitude 6.3 and focal depth less than 10 km, this earthquake is similar to other
moderate events in the Australian and Canadian shields. It is suggested that the repeat time of
moderate SCR earthquakes are of the order of hundreds of thousands of years. The recurrence
interval at Latur may also be of the same order, and the recorded human history may not
document any previous earthquakes. Thus, we have very little information about the
earthquake history of such regions and the earthquakes occur as a total surprise. This event
led to several studies, giving a new perspective to seismic hazard assessment in the
peninsular India. It also led to strengthening of the seismic network, upgrading several
existing facilities. The worst earthquake in the world poses little risk if no one lives in or uses
the region that is affected. The consequences of earthquake activity in December 2003
exemplify this point.
Landslides
Landslides are downward flows of rock, dirt, and other materials. Landslides can
cause a great deal of damage, especially when they are large, and they are a geological hazard
of concern around the world, as they can happen anywhere and at any time. A number of
steps can be taken to prevent landslides and reduce their severity, and these steps are often
used in areas where landslides are common, such as the infamous Devil's Slide in California.
In a landslide, the materials are dry, and can include rocks, dirt, trees, and structures
which happen to be pulled along with the falling material. Landslides are second only to
earthquakes in terms of financial loss. Landslides are a part of natural erosion processes, but
can also be influenced by human design and construction. Landslides can be caused by
earthquake, destabilization as a result of water flowing underground, the collapse of
overhanging rocks, and the simple battle with gravity. Human activities such as heavy
construction, undermining of the earth, and stripping groundcover like plants and trees can
also trigger landslides. When a landslide involves mud and wet material, it is known as a
mudslide; mudslides can follow storms and floods.
The steepness of a slope is the most significant factor that contribute to land-sliding.
Other factors such as soil type, water content, rock type, and bedding orientation
(sedimentary rocks) can influence the tendency to slide. Human landscaping can also upset
the stability of a slope. We must be careful when altering the slope of hills (where we like to
build) and insure that the region is well drained and well supported.
Surface Subsidence
In some regions, the extraction of groundwater (or petroleum) has produced tens of
feet of subsidence. If you recall, much of the available fresh water is stored beneath Earth's
surface, in the pore-spaces of rocks. We often tap those resources and drain the water for
drinking, irrigation, etc. If we pull something out of the ground, and don't replace it the
weight of the overlying material will cause subsidence.
Another cause of surface subsidence is the natural dissolution of limestone. Limestone
(which is very common in this area) slowly dissolves in water. The result is the formation of
caves. At times, the collapse of the cave roof may cause near-surface subsidence called sink
holes. Sink holes can be large and form suddenly, swallowing human structures in the
process. Most often the process is slow and the features are more stable (on our time scales).

Landslides in India
Landslides are one of the natural hazards that affect at least 5% of land area in India
exceeding 0.49 million km2. Landslides of different types occur frequently in
geodynamically active domains in Himalaya, Northeastern India as also in stable domains in
Western Ghats and Nilgiri Hills of southern India. Some of the worst landslides happened in
India are Great Malpa Rock Avalanche of 1998, the Alaknanda Tragedy of 1970 and
Amboori landslide of Kerala of 2001, which are still fresh in the minds of people as
nightmares.
Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh Starting August 4,2012 incessant rain battered
the Northern states Of Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu, triggering landslides,
cloud bursts and flash floods At least 34 people were killed and hundreds made homeless as
reported in Times of India dated 6, August 2012. A large number of people have been
affected after flash flooding of the river Bhagirathi triggered by a cloudburst near
Uttarkashi town in India’s hilly Uttarakhand state. More than 200 families living near the
river were evacuated. In Uttarkashi alone, 31 people were killed and six were still missing
following heavy rains,” Twenty three workers of the state-run UJVN Ltd’s Assi Ganga hydel
project were missing following a cloudburst in the upper hills of Uttarkashi district and were
declared dead.
Avalanches
Technically, an avalanche is any amount of snow sliding down a mountainside. It can
be compared to a landslide, only with snow instead of earth. Another common term for
avalanche is “snowslide”. As an avalanche becomes nearer to the bottom of the slope, it gains
speed and power, this can cause even the smallest of snowslides to be a major disaster.
Avalanches have always occurred in the mountainous regions of the world though
with the growth of winter-time recreations, fatalities have been on the rise since the 1950s.
Avalanches claim over 150 lives each year worldwide and hundreds more are injured or
trapped following an avalanche.9Ninety percent of all avalanches occur on moderate slopes
with an angle of 30° to 45° (snow tends not to accumulate on steeper slopes). Avalanches
occur when the gravity pushing the collection of snow at the top of the slope is greater than
the strength of the snow itself. Conditions affecting stability include the gravitational force
component of the snow and resisting forces, such as the frictional resistance of the slope or
the anchoring effect of shrubs. In general, avalanches are caused when this balance is lost and
when the forces exceed the resistance. Avalanches are rarely observed closely since they
normally occur during a short time period of one or two minutes. A change in temperature, a
loud noise, or vibrations are all that are necessary to trigger one of these snowfalls that begin
at a "starting zone." The avalanche continues downslope along the "track" and ultimately the
avalanche fans out and settles in the "runout zone."
Major Causes - Major causes of avalanches can be classified into fixed (prime factors) and
variable factors (exciting factors), such as weather conditions and the weight of the snow
cover, Avalanches occur when these factors are combined. The types and scale of avalanches
can differ depending on the combination of these various factors and their scale. Major prime
factors and exciting factors are shown in the following table.
Internationally, the Alpine countries of France, Austria, Switzerland, and Italy
experience the greatest number of avalanches and loss of life annually. The states of
Colorado, Alaska, and Utah are the most deadly.

Questions
1. What is an extra tropical cyclone? Write any one example.
2. Name the characteristic cloud pattern of extra tropical storms
3. Name the cyclone that hit India in the year 2011
4. Hudhud is an example for which type of cyclone?
5. The cyclone that hit India in the year 2013 is ---------------
6. What is Warm core?
7. Blizzards is an example for
a) Weather disasters b) Water disaster c) Fire disaster d) Space disaster
8. A strong tropical cyclone will harbor an area of sinking air at the center of
circulation called
 a) Eyewall b)Central Dense Overcast c) Eye d) all the above
9. What is Central Dense Overcast (CDO)?
10. List out the types of cyclones
11. Differentiate between tropical cyclone and extra tropical cyclone.
12. What are Mud Volcanoes?
13. What are plate boundaries? How it causes disaster?

14. Brief about Indian Ocean earthquake

15. Molten rock rises pushing two plates apart and adding new material at their edges
is a) Spreading zones b) Transform faults c) Subduction zones d) None of the
above
16. The Richter scale is used to measure the magnitude of
a)Earthquakes, b) Cyclones, c) Volcanoes d) none of these
17. What are the types of Earthquake?
18. What are Avalanches?
Lec. No: 21. Volcanic Eruptions, Heat and cold waves, Climatic change: global
warming, Sea level rise, ozone depletion

Volcanic Eruptions
Volcanoes occur because the Earth’s crust is broken into 17 major tectonic plates that
are rigid but float on a hotter, softer layer in the Earth’s mantle. Within the Earth’s mantle,
temperatures are hot enough to melt rock and form a thick, flowing substance called magma.
Magma is lighter than the solid rock that surrounds it—buoyant like a cork in water—and,
being buoyant, it rises. As the plates shift, they spread apart, collide, and/or slide past one
another. Volcanoes grow because of repeated eruptions. Most occur near the edge of plates or
along the edges of continents where one plate overlaps a second plate; this is called a
seduction zone. Active volcanoes seen on land occur where plates collide; however, most of
Earth’s volcanoes are hidden from view, occurring on the ocean floor. Volcanic eruptions
occur only in certain places and do not occur randomly. Some tend to be explosive when they
erupt, whereas others tend to be loosely flowing and nonexplosive. Some volcanoes may
exhibit only one characteristic type of eruption during an interval of activity; others may
display an entire range of types.

Types of Volcanoes

Strombolian: Huge clots of molten lava burst from the summit crater to form arcs through the
sky; lava clots combine to stream down the slopes of the volcano.
Vulcanian: A dense cloud of ash-laden gas explodes from the crater and rises high above the
peak; steaming ash forms a whitish cloud near the upper level of the cone.
Vesuvian: This type is named after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in Italy in AD 79. Great
quantities of ash-laden gas are violently discharged to form a cauliflower shaped cloud high
above the volcano.
Peléan: Large quantities of gas, dust, ash, and incandescent lava fragments are blown out of a
central crater, fall back, and form avalanches that move down the volcano at velocities as
great as 100 mph.
Hawaiian: This term is used for a fissure type eruption where molten, incandescent lava
spurts on the volcano’s rift zone and feeds lava streams that flow down the volcano, or or a
central-vent eruption where a fountain of fiery lava spurts to a height of several hundred feet
or more.
Phreatic: This type of eruption is driven by explosive expanding steam—a result of cold
ground or surface water coming into contact with hot rock or magma. The distinguishing
feature of phreatic eruptions is that they only blast out fragments of preexisting solid rock
from the volcanic conduit; no new magma is erupted.
Plinian: This is the most powerful type of eruption, involving the explosive ejection of
relatively viscous lava that can send ash and volcanic gas tens of miles into the air.
Also volcanoes generally fall into one of three general categories - active, dormant, and
extinct. An active volcano is one that is currently erupting or is continues to show signs of
the possibility that it could erupt. Dormant volcanoes are those that haven't erupted in quite
some time but the signs are there that it is possible they could again in the future. Extinct
volcanoes are those that are believed to no longer have the ability to erupt now or any time in
the future.
Some volcanoes are still quite dangerous as they fall into the classification of super
volcanoes. They are believed to still have the ability to erupt and to create a great deal of
havoc and destruction if that happens. Researchers and scientists keep a very close eye on
such volcanoes to prevent a natural disaster from taking place. We can divide volcanic
hazards into short term, and long term. The short term hazards are generally associated with
immediate effects of an eruption. The long term hazards can be more widespread and last for
some time.

Primary Volcanic Hazards

Lava flows can often be avoided personally, although often structures that we build are lost
to the steady march of lava.
Pyroclastic flows are very dangerous since they travel upwards of 150 km/hr they can
seldom be outrun. They are a mixture of superheated ash, gas, and rock and level or bury
pretty whatever is in their path.

Secondary Volcanic Hazards

Lahars are probably the most dangerous. They are volcanic mudflows. They also travel fast
and are generally mixtures of water, ash, pyroclastic material. The water may come from
lakes rivers or melted ice.
Ash falls is another hazard associated with volcanic eruptions. Ash can choke people and
collapse houses. They can also cause problems for airplane engines.
Landslides are common on steep-sided volcanoes and thus represent another secondary
hazard for those that live near a volcano.
Climate changes - throughout Earth's history, large volcanic eruptions have impacted the
climate. We can see evidence for incredible volcanic eruptions such as that which formed
crater lake. These voluminous events can alter the amount of sunlight reaching Earth by
ejecting ash into the high atmosphere.
Explosive volcanic eruptions can be dangerous and deadly. The fiery clouds and hot
lava that race down mountainsides destroy nearly everything in their path, including trees,
plants, insects, and other wildlife. Ash erupting into the sky falls back onto the Earth, creating
a blanket that can suffocate plants, crops, animals, and humans. They can also spark forest
fires near the volcano. Volcanic eruptions can also affect climate and weather patterns.
Eruptions produce sulfuric acid aerosols that form a layer of haze in the stratosphere. This
haze, which can remain in the atmosphere for years, reflects the Sun’s radiation and reduces
surface temperatures. On the other hand, volcanoes also provide many benefits to the
environment. The gaseous emissions from volcanic vents over hundreds of millions of years
formed the Earth’s earliest oceans and atmosphere, supplying the ingredients vital to evolve
and sustain life.
Some of the greatest impacts (and associated risks) from volcanic eruptions occur due
to the interaction of volcanic material with the hydrosphere and atmosphere. Volcanically
induced mudflows, for instance, occur when volcanic ash and debris interact with surface
waters (or ice). When the Nevado del Ruiz volcano in Colombia erupted in 1985 under a
cap of snow and ice, the resulting mudflows killed more than 23,000 people in a very short
time. However, much of the damage associated with the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo
in the Philippines occurred months and even years after the eruption, as monsoonal rains
mobilized the volcanic ash left behind on the flanks of the volcano. Atmospheric
contributions from major volcanic eruptions can also have significant global impacts
affecting climate and the geochemical cycling of various chemical elements. It is often the
case that the indirect consequences of these events can have greater economic,
meteorological, agricultural, and sociological impacts than the initial effects of the events.
Heat and Cold waves

A Heat Wave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, more than the normal
maximum temperature that occurs during the summer season in the North-Western parts of
India. Heat Waves typically occur between March and June, and in some rare cases even
extend till July. The extreme temperatures and resultant atmospheric conditions adversely
affect people living in these regions as they cause physiological stress, sometimes resulting in
death.
The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) has given the following criteria for Heat
Waves :
▪ Heat Wave need not be considered till maximum temperature of a station reaches
atleast 40*C for Plains and atleast 30*C for Hilly regions
▪ When normal maximum temperature of a station is less than or equal to 40*C Heat
Wave Departure from normal is 5*C to 6*C Severe Heat Wave Departure from normal
is 7*C or more
▪ When normal maximum temperature of a station is more than 40*C Heat Wave
Departure from normal is 4*C to 5*C Severe Heat Wave Departure from normal is 6*C
or more
▪ When actual maximum temperature remains 45*C or more irrespective of normal
maximum temperature, heat waves should be declared. Higher daily peak temperatures
and longer, more intense heat waves are becomingly increasingly frequent globally due
to climate change. India too is feeling the impact of climate change in terms of
increased instances of heat waves which are more intense in nature with each passing
year, and have a devastating impact on human health thereby increasing the number of
heat wave casualties.
Higher daily peak temperatures and longer, more intense heat waves are becomingly
increasingly frequent globally due to climate change. India too is feeling the impact of
climate change in terms of increased instances of heat waves which are more intense in
nature with each passing year, and have a devastating impact on human health thereby
increasing the number of heat wave casualties.

Health Impacts of Heat Waves

The health impacts of Heat Waves typically involve dehydration, heat cramps, heat
exhaustion and/or heat stroke. The signs and symptoms are as follows:
▪ Heat Cramps: Ederna (swelling) and Syncope (Fainting) generally accompanied by
fever below 39*C i.e.102*F.
▪ Heat Exhaustion: Fatigue, weakness, dizziness, headache, nausea, vomiting, muscle
cramps and sweating.
▪ Heat Stoke: Body temperatures of 40*C i.e. 104*F or more along with delirium,
seizures or coma. This is a potential fatal condition
India endured the hottest year in 2010 in recorded history even as cold wave to severe
cold wave conditions persist in north and north-west concurrently. Mean annual temperature
for the country as a whole during the last year was +0.93 deg Celsius above the 1961-1990
average. It was slightly higher than that of the year 2009, making 2010 as the warmest year
on record since 1901, an annual climate summary issued by India Meteorological Department
(IMD). The Earth's average temperature in 2010, as in 2005, was 58.12 degrees, which is
degrees above the 20th-century average of 57 degrees. It was the 34th consecutive
year that the global temperature was above average. The last below-average year
was 1976. Nine
of the Earth's 10 warmest years on record have occurred since 2001, and all 12 of the
warmest years have occurred since 1997.

Heat Wave, India.

A heat wave is a hot period, which lasts from a few days to a few weeks, and which
may be accompanied by high humidity. Severe heat waves could damage crop, and kill from
hyperthermia. If accompanied by drought, heat waves can lead to wildfires. As per the
assessment made by IMD, the 2007 extreme heat waves in India were considered to be the
fourth warmest year on record since 1901. In 2007, the annual average air temperature over
India was 0.55 0C above the averages between 1900 and 1961.1 Further, as per the
assessment, eight of the ten warmest years occurred in the decade 1997-2007. These warmest
years were 2002, 2006, 2003, 2007, 1998, 2004, 1999, and 2001, in the order of warmness.
In India, the heat waves during April to June 2007 led increasingly higher
temperatures. The heat waves were observed over coastal Andhra and Telangana during
May.2 The western Himalayan region was also warmer than normal during the last week of
March and April and the first week of May 2007. As per EMDAT data, these events claimed
more than 72 lives. The heat wave raised the maximum temperature above 57OC over the
northern and central parts of India during the first 10 days of June 2007, which killed 72
people during that period. The temperature anomalies of 2-10 June compared to the 1961 to
1990 average were higher over many parts of India
In India Jun 6, 2012: Heat wave caused over 100 deaths in Bengal. In Bengal majority of
deaths were reported from Asansol -Durgapur belt.There had been 43 deaths from Durgapur
and Asansol belt of Burdwan. Asansol and Durgapur is having a temperature of 47 degree
Celsius. Even Midnapore (west) is having a temperature of around 44 degree celsius.
Midnapore (west) recorded 18 deaths and similarly Purulia had 18 deaths, where the
temperature is hovering over 46 degree. Even in Kolkata there had been seven deaths. Five
deaths were reported from Behala-Thakurpukur area. An unidentified person died in
Rabindra Sarani. The temperature in Kolkata is above 40 degree Celsius. With the heat wave
continuing and the weather office yet to make any forecast about rain, most people prefer to
shut indoors and roads are comparatively empty and even shopkeepers are downing their
shutters early to keep the heat at bay. Even lawyers at Alipore court are on cease work to beat
the heat and thus the litigants are suffering.

In April and May 2016, India experienced a major heat wave. A national record high
temperature of 51.0 °C (123.8 °F) was set in the town of Phalodi, in the state of Rajasthan. A
total of over 160 people have died and 330 million affected. There are also water shortages.
Drought has worsened the heat wave. Over 500 people had died due to sunstroke
in Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. In 2017, heat waves typically set in across India during the
period from April to June, before the cooling monsoon rains arrive. But the heat this year
began a bit earlier than normal, with New Delhi recording it hottest March in seven years,

Cold Wave
A cold wave is a weather phenomenon and refers to a rapid fall in temperature within
a 24 hour period requiring substantially increased protection to agriculture, industry,
commerce, and social activities. The precise criterion for a cold wave is determined by the
rate at which the temperature falls, and the minimum to which it falls. This minimum
temperature is dependent on the geographical region and time of year
A cold wave can cause death and injury to livestock and wildlife. Exposure to cold
mandates greater caloric intake for all animals, including humans, and if a cold wave is
accompanied by heavy and persistent snow, grazing animals may be unable to reach needed
food and die of hypothermia or starvation. They often necessitate the purchase of foodstuffs
at considerable cost to farmers to feed livestock.
Also leads to
• freezing in water pipelines.
• indoor plumbing ruptures as water expands within them.
• Demand for electrical power and fuels rises dramatically during such times
• Some metals may become brittle at low temperatures.
• Motor vehicles may fail as antifreeze fails and motor oil gels, resulting even in the
failure of the transportation system.
• Fires become even more of a hazard during extreme cold. Water mains may break and
water supplies may become unreliable, making firefighting more difficult. The air
during a cold wave is typically denser and any cold air that a fire draws in is likely to
cause a more intense fire because the content of dissolved oxygen is more in the cold
water.

Cold Wave in India, 2007

In early 2007, cold wave killed two in Jaunpur in the north Indian state of Uttar
Pradesh. The cold wave continued throughout January. Cold waves in most part of north
India resulted in temperatures dropping to less than 3.5OC of the average temperature, which
claimed more than 90 people lives, especially in Uttar Pradesh. The cold wave also prevailed
in Jammu and Kashmir from 11 March to 14 March 2007. As per EMDAT data, sixty-six
people were killed from the extreme cold waves. Further, from second week of December
2007, north India was in the grip of a cold wave. Large areas over north India recorded
temperatures below normal. Forty-seven people were killed by the cold wave in Uttar
Pradesh, where cities recorded temperatures between 0 and 5OC in 2007.
In 2012 : Indian cold wave during the winter months of 2012 killed at least 92 people across
the northern and eastern India. Although not cold by the standards of Europe and North
America, the drop in temperature has had a devastating effect on the hundreds of thousands
of homeless people in India. Most of the dead were homeless and elderly people, living in the
state of Uttar Pradesh. Other northern and eastern states such as Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana,
New Delhi, Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Tripura
were also affected by this cold snap. New Delhi has also been gripped by cold weather, with
the temperature dipping to 7oC on the Christmas Day.

Climatic Change: Global warming, Sea Level rise, Ozone Depletion

Over the past 50 years, humans have changed natural ecosystems more rapidly and
extensively than in any comparable period in human history. This transformation of the
planet has contributed to substantial net gains in health, well-being and economic
development. But, not all regions and groups of people have benefited equally from this
process.
Approximately 60% of the benefits that the global ecosystem provides to support life
on Earth (such as fresh water, clean air and a relatively stable climate) are being degraded or
used unsustainably. In the report, scientists warn that harmful consequences of this
degradation to human health are already being felt and could grow significantly worse over
the next 50 years.
Impacts of Air pollution

The issues like global climate change and stratospheric ozone depletion and acid rain
are due to the effect of air pollution. Air is one of the five essentials (air, water, food, heat
and light) for the human beings. Man breaths nearly 22 thousand times in a day and inhales
approximately 15 kg of air per day. Generally human beings can live for 5 weeks without any
food, 5 days without any water but not even 5 minutes without air. This highlights how
atmospheric air quality is vital for our survival. The effect of air pollutants become dangerous
when the atmospheric conditions lead to Atmospheric Inversion (Temperature inversion)
wherein occurs temperature increase with increase in altitude unlike normal lapse rate in
temperature with altitude. Such conditions favour concentration of pollutants instead of
dilution.
Global Climate Change
Global Warming is caused by trapping of infrared radiation by green house gases
(GHG).Human induced global warming is real and increasing. Over 100 years, mean surface
temperature of earth has increased by 0.60C

Global ground surface temperature change between 1500-2000 years

Ice cores are an excellent source of information on past global climates and
atmospheric composition. Antarctic ice cores indicate low concentrations of CO2 and CH4
during glacial periods and high concentrations during inter-glacials. GHG have an important
role in changes in global temperature. Both ice cores and measured atmospheric data show a
30% increase in CO2 above pre industrial levels during the past two centuries (360 ppm by
volume) (Carbon dioxide Information Analysis Centre)
Sources of global Methane emissions
Natural sources - 23.5%
Fossil fuels - 20.4%
Ruminants - 17.3%
Rice - 12.2%
Biomass burning - 8.2%
Landfill - 8.2%
Other - 10.2%
> 75% of current global methane emissions come from anthropogenic sources
Data on CH4 concentrating in ice cores indicate a value of 750 ppbv during the pre
industrial period of the past 10,000 year. Highest value detected was 800 ppbv during the past
40,000 years. Concentrations have increased by 145% during the past two centuries (1800-
2000 ppbv) Stratospheric O3 depletion is believed to have caused a global cooling effect
since 1980. Over the past 40 years temperature increase is 0.2-0.30C. Warming in the 20th
century is greater than any time during the past 400-600 years. Seven of the 10 warmest years
in 20th century occurred in 1990's-1998 was highest.

Other evidences
• Mountain glaciers the world over are receding
• Arctic ice park has lost 40% of the thickness over the past 4 decades
• Global sea level rise
Projected climate change impact
• Populations of many species that are already threatened will be at great risk - stress
due to change of climate and land use change that fragment the habitats.
• Species composition and dominance will be altered - ecosystem change, critically
endangered species will become extinct without adaptation.
• Terrestrial ecosystems appear to be storing increasing quantities of carbon
productivity.
• Arid and semi-arid areas (dry forests, wood lands and rangelands)-the available soil
moisture and biomass productivity is expected to decrease.
• The global average surface temperature is projected to increase by 1.4-5.80C over to
period 1990-2100.
• Global average water vapour concentration and precipitation are projected to increase
during 21st century with greater variations year to year.
• Occurrence of extreme events such as hot days, intense precipitation, droughts,
cyclones, hurricane, storms etc., is projected to increase.
• 3rd Assessment Report (IPCC, 2001) provides finding on global climate change
projections,
• An increasing body of observations gives a collective picture of warming world and
other changes in climate system
• Global average surface temperature increased by about 0.60C
• Past 4 decades temperature have risen in the lowest 8 km of the atmosphere
• Snow cover and ice extent have decreased
• Global average sea level has risen and ocean heat content has increased (0.09-0.88
meters between 1990-2100)
• Concentration of GHG and radiative forcing have continue to increase as a result of
human activity
• Confidence in the ability of models to project future climate has increased.

Climate Change and World Agriculture

Increased CO2 concentration - Direct and indirect effects on photosynthesis

• A doubling of CO2 may increase the photosynthesis rate by 30-100% depending on

other environmental conditions - temperature and available moisture.
• In general CO2 enrichment will benefit temperature and humid tropical agriculture
more than that in semi-arid tropics
• Effects in C3 and C4 plant types in different regions (C3 plants - wheat, rice soyabean
etc.)
• C3 photosynthetic pathway - first product in their biochemical sequence of reaction
has three carbon atoms
• C3 species respond positively to increased CO2 because it tends to suppress rates and
photorespiration
• C4 plants - Maize, sorghum, sugarcane and millet etc., (those in which first product
has four carbon atoms)
• Although more efficient photosynthetically water current levels of CO2, these plants
are less responsive to increased CO2 levels than C3 plant
• C3 crops in temperate and subtropical regions could also benefit from decreased weed
infestation
• 14 of the world’s 17 most troublesome terrestrial weed species are C4 plants
• Different response of C3 and C4 crops may encourage change in area sown
 • Actual amount of increase in usable yield is important - controlled conditions optimal
temperature and moisture, the yield increase was substantial 36% for C3 plants
(wheat, rice, barley and sunflower) under a doubling of ambient CO2 concentration.
• Only limited studies are available verifying the temperature and rainfall
• Change in yield quality due to increase in CO2.
• N2 content may decrease, C may increase, reduces protein levels, and nutritional level
may decrease - chain reaction.

Effects on water use

• Increase in CO2 will affect the opening and closure of stomata through which CO2 is
absorbed and water vapour is released.
• Water requirement may decrease - transpiration may decrease - water use efficiency
may increase.
• Doubling of CO2 concentration causes 40% decrease in stomatal aperture in both C3
and C4 plants - 23-46% decrease on transpiration - uncertainty prevails because of the
greater leaf are produced due to increased CO2
• 10-50% increase in yield for C3 plants and 10% increase for C4 plants.

Effect of increased temperature

Growth rate - Increase in temperature above optimum generally lead to lower yields in
cereals and higher yield of root crops and rangeland/grass land
May increase higher rates of evaporation and decrease moisture availability
Growing seasons - May extend the growing season available for plants and decrease the
growing period required by crop for maturation. If the increases in temperature is limited to
2-3oC - extend growing season in mid and high latitude regions
Yield - Depends on determinate or indeterminate effect on crop. Cold regions may enhance
yield of cereals crops.
Live stock -Performance of farm animals could be detrimental to production
Available moisture - Mid latitudes evaporation increase by about 5% for each degree C -
substantial increased demand for irrigation. More studies are required on all aspects of
climate change and effect on soil moisture, soil fertility, pests diseases etc.,
Sea Level Rise -Soon after the ice age reached the maximum, glaciers started melting and
released vast quantities of water into the sea. Consequently sea level started rising, and has
risen about 130 m in the last 18,000 years. The rate of sea level rise in time, however, has not
been uniform; initially it was very fast, and then it slowed down. Most of the sea level rise,
therefore, took place between 18,000 and 6,000 years before present.
Since 3,000 years before present till the end of the 19th century (1900 AD), sea level
was practically constant, and did not raise much. The rate of sea level rise during this period
was a mere 0.1 to 0.2 mm per year. Since 1900 AD, however, sea level has been rising more
rapidly, at the rate of 1 to 2 mm per year. These numbers in millimetre do not appear large
and daunting, but when accumulated say over a period of a century they do assume a
menacing proportion. In the last 100 years since 1900 AD, sea level has risen by 20 cm,
which is not insignificant. Results of TOPEX/Poseidon satellite altimetry observations show
that since 1993, sea level is rising at the rate of 3.1 mm per year.
If the current rate of sea level rise, as ascertained from satellite altimetry, remains
constant at 3.1 mm per year then by 2100 AD the rise would be 310 mm or 31 cm. If this
current rate of sea level rise were to remain unchanged indefinitely, there is not really much
cause for concern for the near future. The current rate however, is extremely unlikely to
remain constant for the next one hundred years. The calculated projection of sea level rise by
31 cm by the year 2100 AD, therefore, is far too naïve. Moreover, we know that the
intensifying anthropogenic global warming would considerably accelerate the rise of sea
level through two main processes: increased pace of widespread melting of glacial ice, and
thermal expansion of sea water.
Everyone understands rise in sea level due to melting of glacial ice but the
phenomenon of sea level rise due to thermal expansion, although quite simple, may be
somewhat unknown. An explanation of thermal expansion, which is essentially a property of
any matter, solid or gas or liquid, to expand when heated. Sea water, which has a huge
capacity to absorb heat, is no different, and expands in volume upon heating, thus raising sea
level. If sea water temperature rises by say 1oC by 2100 AD, resultant rise in sea level could
reach 40 cm. A near complete melting of all the mountain glaciers of the world would make
sea level rise by about 35 cm, which could well happen by 2100 AD if global warming
continues unabated. So a combination of these two factors alone could raise sea level by 75
cm by 2100 AD.

Maximum possible rise of sea level

In order to determine the maximum height sea level could rise to, we need to discuss
the total volume of ice present on our planet earth, which could completely melt. The
Antarctic landmass of 13.6 million square km holds 30.1 million cubic km of ice, which
constitutes about 91.5 per cent of the total ice on earth. Greenland and the Arctic contain 2.6
million cubic km of ice, which constitutes 8 percent of the total. Himalayan, Alpine and other
ice caps, ice fields and valley glaciers combined, carry 0.2 million cubic km of ice, which
makes up the rest 0.55 percent. The total volume of glacial ice of the world is thus 32.9
million cubic km. If all these glacial ice melts the world oceans spread over a total area of
362 million square km will rise by a maximum of 80.4 m. i.e. for every 400 cubic km of
glacial ice melted, the sea level would rise by 1 mm.
The obvious question that arises now is how long sea level would take to rise to the
maximum possible limit of another 80 m. We are aware that after the last glacial maximum,
since 18,000 years before present, sea level rose by 80 m in about 8,000 years. The rise was
thus an even one meter in a hundred years, a rate of rise identical to our projection for the
twenty first century. Based on this rate we can as well say that another 8,000 years will elapse
before sea level rises to the maximum. This logic may not be correct though for the simple
reason that anthropogenic global warming has utterly disturbed the global climate, which in
turn has provided the momentum for an accelerated pace of melting of glacial ice. If the rate
of melting of glacial ice doubles, which is a real possibility, and then remains steady, which
is unlikely, 80 m rise could happen in the next 4,000 years. If the rate of melting of glacial ice
continues to increase after doubling, sea level may rise to its maximum potential even sooner,
but certainly not before a couple of millennia.

Sea level rise and coastal inundation

Sea level rise will devastate the low-lying coastal areas of the entire world. Mainland
India, endowed with a long coast line of 5,700 km will not escape the wrath of the seas. The
total length of the Indian coast line is actually much longer at 7,500 km when all the island
territories of Andaman and Nicobar, and Lakshadweep are taken into account. A 1 m rise in
sea level say by 2100 AD will practically submerge the entire Lakshadweep group of islands
and absolutely nothing can be done to save them. Let me therefore concentrate on the threats
to the mainland of India, where in the absence of any preventive measures, a 1 m rise in sea
level would inundate 5,763 square km of coastal land, and render 7 million people homeless.
The northern most part of the east coast of India, where the many distributaries of the
Ganges and the Brahmaputra have created the vast delta, in fact the largest delta of the world,
which unfortunately is barely above sea level, is the most vulnerable. Bulk of this Ganges-
Brahmaputra deltaic system is situated in Bangladesh, and the rest in the Indian state of West-
Bengal, which thus is the most vulnerable state in India. The riverine Orissa that lies
immediately to the south of West-Bengal is also very vulnerable, for the deltas it hosts,
created by the Subarnarekha, the Budhabalanga, the Baitarani, the Brahmani, the Mahanadi
and her distributaries, and the Rusikulya, in a traverse from the north to the south. Further
south along the east coast appear the huge deltas laid by the Godavari and Krishna river
systems, and the Penner in the state of Andhra Pradesh, followed by the Cauvery delta of the
southernmost state of Tamil Nadu. All these deltas being low-lying are vulnerable to
inundation when sea level rises. Although the west coast of India does not host large deltas, is
not immune from the threats of sea level rise. Kutch region of Gujarat, greater Bombay and
southern parts of Kerala will be utterly devastated by the rising seas.
A 1m rise of sea level will inundate 1,810 square km of land in Gujarat, 1,220 square
km in West-Bengal, 670 square km in Tamil Nadu, 550 square km in Andhra Pradesh, 480
square km in Orissa, 410 square km in Maharashtra, 290 square km in Karnataka, 160 square
km in Goa, and 120 square km in Kerala.
IPCC estimates around 18 cm rise - 2030 year
58 cm rise - 2090 year
The countries going to be affected due to rise in sea levels are Bangladesh, Egypt, Thailand,
China, Denmark, Louisiana, Indonesia etc. Overall the effects are going to be complex.

Stratospheric ozone depletion

Stratospheric ozone depletion is a concern because the ozone layer in the stratosphere
keeps 95-99% of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation from striking the earth. A number of
consequences can result from increased levels of UV (ultraviolet radiation) striking the earth,
including: genetic damage, eye damage and damage to marine life. Increased UV radiation in
the lower atmosphere, called the troposphere, can result in increased amounts of
photochemical smog. Photochemical smog is already a health hazard in many of the world's
largest cities.
The decrease of stratospheric ozone was first reported in 1974 and the decrease was
quickly linked to the increasing presence of a class of manmade compounds called CFC's or
Chlorofluorocarbons. Many countries of the world have moved to reduce the use of CFC's
but because of the slow rate of air mixing between the lower and upper atmosphere it is
theorized that stratospheric CFC's will stay at a significant level well into the next century.
Stratospheric ozone depletion has become very much a controversial political and
economic issue as well as a complex scientific issue. Major and minor sources of chlorine,
and factors which affect ozone levels are still being sorted out among a great deal of media-
generated excitement and misinformation; but the link between CFC's and Ozone depletion,
and the major factors creating the antarctic ozone hole, are considered by most researchers to
be well established facts. Scientific models of the atmosphere are being constructed in order
to assist scientists in looking for other factors in Ozone depletion, evaluate their importance
and predict what may happen to our atmosphere in the future.

The Ozone Layer: This profile (Figure given ) shows how the amount of ozone (O3)
varies with height in the atmosphere. Note that most of the ozone is in the lower stratosphere,
at an altitude of about 20-25 kilometers (12-15 miles) above sea level. This is the so-called
"ozone layer." It acts as a shield by absorbing biologically active ultraviolet light (called UV-
B) from the sun. If the ozone layer is depleted, more of this UV-B radiation reaches the
surface of the earth. Increased exposure to UV-B has harmful effects on plants and animals,
including humans. The chlorine and bromine in human-produced chemicals such as the ones
known as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons are depleting ozone in the stratosphere.
The figure shows a simplified cycle of reactions in which chlorine (Cl) destroys ozone (O3).

Sources of Ozone layer depleting Gases

In the stratosphere, the region of the atmosphere between about 10 and 50 kilometers
(6-30 miles) above the Earth's surface, ozone (O3) plays a vital role by absorbing harmful
ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Stratospheric ozone is threatened by some of the human-
made gases that have been released into the atmosphere, including those known as
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Each CFC can able to destroy one lakh molecules of Ozone.
Once widely used as propellants in spray cans, refrigerants, electronics cleaning
agents, and in foam and insulating products, the CFCs had been hailed as the "wonder
chemicals." But the very properties that make them useful - chemical inertness, non-toxicity,
insolubility in water - also make them resistant to removal in the lower atmosphere.
CFCs are mixed worldwide by the large-scale motions of the atmosphere and survive
until, after 1-2 years, they reach the stratosphere and are broken down by ultraviolet
radiation. The chlorine atoms within them are released and directly attack ozone. In the
process of destroying ozone, the chlorine atoms are regenerated and begin to attack other
ozone molecules... and so on, for thousands of cycles before the chlorine atoms are removed
from the stratosphere by other processes.
Arctic Ozone Layer Still Thinning
In March 1997, the ozone layer over the Arctic suffered its most severe depletions to
date. Despite actions to reduce the chemicals that are damaging the earth's ozone layer, ozone
loss in the Arctic continues, and is particularly severe in the late winter and early spring. Over
Southern Canada, the ozone layer appears to have stabilized, however, it remains below
normal, and there is no direct evidence of recovery. Environment Canada scientists have
observed significant ozone loss in the Arctic, up to 45% during the late 1990s. Industrial
chemicals in the atmosphere are the major cause of ozone thinning. However, these
chemicals account for only about half of the ozone loss in the Arctic. Scientists suspect that
other factors, such as climate change, may be altering the Arctic atmosphere, making it more
susceptible to ozone loss.
Increased ozone depletion could be damaging to sensitive Arctic life forms. Ozone
loss over the Arctic could also reduce ozone levels over southern Canada as ozone is
redistributed to lower latitudes during the spring. Unusual ozone losses have occurred over
the Arctic in six out of the last nine years with the most significant depletions occurring in the
late 1990s. In 1997, losses up to 45% were recorded during the early spring. This has been
significantly higher than depletions over the rest of Canada, where ozone values have
decreased by an average of about 6% since the late 1970s, with greater losses of about 8 to
10% in the springtime. Over southern Canada, ozone depletion appears to have stabilized at
these levels.
Scientists are concerned that over the next 10 to 20 years, Arctic ozone depletion
could become as frequent and possibly as severe as that over the Antarctic. The ozone hole in
the Antarctic has grown in extent every year since 1979 and has now reached record
proportions. In 2003, it covered nearly 28 million sq kms, with depletions of up to 70%. The
ozone hole now extends over populated areas at the tip of South America. In the Arctic,
however, weather conditions are more variable than those in the Antarctic, and the ozone
layer is not expected to develop a large stationery "hole" each spring.
How will Arctic ozone thinning affect us?
The sun's rays are naturally weaker in the Arctic, due to the high sun angles in the far
north, and levels of UV are normally very low. If considerable ozone loss occurs, UV could
rise to levels as high as those encountered in southern Canada, and Arctic residents would
have to take steps to protect them. UV reflecting off snow and ice could become a particular
concern.
Vegetation and wildlife in the Arctic have evolved under very low levels of UV, and
may have only limited natural protection against over exposure. They may prove to be
extremely sensitive to high UV levels. Large Arctic depletions could also have repercussions
for ozone levels elsewhere. In years when ozone loss over the Arctic is particularly severe,
there may also be some reduction of ozone levels over southern Canada as ozone is
redistributed by winds in the upper atmosphere. Indeed, the polar regions, with their unique
atmospheric processes, may hold the key to how much ozone depletion will eventually occur
globally.
Why is ozone depletion so severe at the pole?
The severe ozone loss in the Polar Regions is a result of the unusual weather
conditions that develop during the winter and early spring. With the arrival of winter, a
swirling vortex of winds forms around the polar region and isolates the polar air. The air
inside this vortex becomes very cold during the 24-hour winter darkness. If the temperatures
in the vortex drop to -80oC or below, some gases in the upper atmosphere freeze into an
unusual type of ice cloud, known as a polar stratospheric cloud. These clouds increase
ozone loss by speeding up the process of ozone destruction. Any additional cooling of the
upper atmosphere will increase the number of these ozone-destroying ice clouds.
In recent years, temperatures in the upper atmosphere have been falling, even as those
at the earth's surface are rising. Scientists are concerned that climate change may be the
cause. Greenhouse gases, such as CO2, cause warming at the earth's surface. However,
during the polar night, these gases cause a cooling of the upper atmosphere and lead to
increased ozone depletion.
Technologies, policies, and measures to mitigate the projected changes
• Long-lived chlorofluorocarbons are being replaced by shorter live halocarbons, which are
environmentally more being or by non-halogen-containing chemicals. The substitutes include
hydro chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons
(PFCs). However, even these shorter-lived chemicals are only transitional substitutes because
the HCFCs still lead to ozone destruction, and all of these contribute to global warming.
Lec. No: 22. Manmade Disaster: Nuclear disasters, chemical disasters, biological
disasters, Building fire, coal fire, oil fire, forest fire and deforestation

Manmade Disaster
Rise in population, rapid urbanization and industrialization, development within high-
risk zones, environmental degradation, and climate change aggravates the vulnerabilities to
various kinds of disasters. Due to inadequate disaster preparedness, communities, and
animals are at increased risk from many kinds of human-induced hazards arising from
accidents (industrial, road, air, rail, on river or sea, building collapse, fires, mine flooding, oil
spills, etc.). Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear (CBRN) hazards rank very high
in among the human-induced risks. Terrorist activities and secondary incidents add to these
risks and call for adequate preparedness and planning.

Fire Risk
Fires can start due to human activities or from natural causes. Forest fires can start
from either natural causes or human activity or from a combination of both. The most
common fires are the residential and non-residential structural fires caused usually by human
activities. Most industrial and chemical fires are triggered by human activity. They are
sometimes caused by human errors, faulty designs, or mechanical failures. Fire can also be
the secondary effect of a disaster like earthquake. Secondary fires after a disaster like
earthquakes constitute a substantial and heavy risk. Damage to natural gas systems during an
earthquake can lead to major fires and explosions. Damages to electrical systems during a
disaster can ignite major fires. The growth of fire-services in the country has been on an ad-
hoc basis and needs to be professionalized. Varying risk scenarios need different types of
equipment. The risk varies with geographical location such as hilly area, coastal-area, desert–
area, and with different types of residential (medium/ low-rise/ high-rise) buildings,
industrial, commercial area or a combination of these.

Building Fires
Buildings-fires are the most common among the fire disasters. Increasing population,
increased population in closely built small houses or in multi-storeyed buildings in cities,
increase the fire hazard. Unnecessary accumulation of combustible or inflammable articles or
hazardous material add to the danger. Lack of water or equipment for firefighting allows the
fires to burn fiercely. Hot and dry seasons add to the possibility of fires as also the careless
use of electrical equipment, naked wires and loose joints. An electric short-circuit or a spark
is often responsible for large-scale fire disasters are reported every summer from many cities.
A large number of building fires owe their origin to the residents smoking in bed and falling
asleep while smoking. Accidents in kitchens are also among the major causes of fire in
buildings.
In their start and further spread, the fires in buildings are as varied as the buildings
themselves. For example, buildings can house residential units or apartments, hotels, schools,
colleges, hospitals, hostels, laboratories, business houses, industrial establishments and
factories, stores and shops. Buildings may be closely situated in a colony or be independent
bunglows or farmhouses with considerable vacant area around. Buildings could also be multi-
storeyed. Heating systems and air-conditioning plants, especially in large and tall multi-
storeyed buildings add to the fire hazard. The air conditioning ducts offer easy path for
fumes, gases and smoke to be conveyed to other parts of the building quickly and false
ceilings of inflammable material add to the hazard. In fact, choking due, to smoke-or-soot is
the cause for the majority of deaths in a fire incident. As indicated above, the electric
installations and the wiring can cause fire in buildings when these get heated due to overload.
People often do not realize that putting extra electrical load above the permissible limit
causes overheating or break in the insulation in the electrical equipment which can either
result in a spark or explosion or burn due to overheating.

Coal Fires
Coal is a common and cheap source of energy and is utilized through the process of
burning. But this property of coal makes it a hazardous substance when large amounts of coal
burn accidentally and without much control on the resultant coal fire. Thus, coal fire can
occur either in large stocks of coal (coal pits or coal dumps) or in coal mines below the
ground surface. Therefore, the coal mining areas such as those in Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa
and Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh are prone to such disasters.
Coal fires generally get started through negligence or ignition of combustible gases.
Sometimes, soft coal (especially in deep mines or big dumps) gets so hot due to gases that it
may itself start a coal fire (without an external source of fire or ignition) particularly when the
atmosphere around is very hot and dry. Such occurrences are called "self- ignition".
In many areas of coal mines (e.g., Jharia in Bihar), there are underground fires
burning in coal mines for decades and travelling along the coal-bearing areas below the
ground. Such instances transmit considerable heat to the ground surface which often cracks
and emits gases and smoke which heat and pollute the area and make it unfit for living. Thus,
coal fires burning inside coal mines cause, double destruction - firstly by destroying the coal
inside the mine and secondly by making the area on the ground surface hot, polluted and unfit
for living.
Coal fires are a serious problem because hazards to health and safety and the
environment include toxic fumes, reigniting grass, brush, or forest fires, and subsidence of
surface infrastructure such as roads, pipelines, electric lines, bridge supports, buildings and
homes. Whether started by humans or by natural causes, coal seam fires continue to burn for
decades or even centuries until either the fuel source is exhausted; a permanent groundwater
table is encountered; the depth of the burn becomes greater than the ground’s capacity to
subside and vent; or humans intervene. Because they burn underground, coal seam fires are
extremely difficult and costly to extinguish, and are unlikely to be suppressed by rainfall.
There are strong similarities between coal fires and peat fires.
Coal seam fires can be divided into near-surface fires, in which seams extend to the
surface and the oxygen required for their ignition comes from the atmosphere, and fires in
deep underground mines, where the oxygen comes from the ventilation. Mine fires may begin
as a result of an industrial accident, generally involving a gas explosion. Historically, some
mine fires were started when bootleg mining was stopped by authorities, usually by blowing
the mine up. Many recent mine fires have started from people burning trash in a landfill that
was in proximity to abandoned coal mines, including the much publicized Centralia,
Pennsylvania fire, which has been burning since 1962. Of the hundreds of mine fires in the
United States burning today, most are found in the state of Pennsylvania.
Some fires along coal seams are natural occurrences. Some coals may self-ignite at
temperatures as low as 40 °C (104 °F) for brown coal in the right conditions of moisture and
grain size. The fire usually begins a few decimeters inside the coal at a depth in which the
permeability of the coal allows the inflow of air but in which the ventilation does not remove
the heat which is generated.

Oil Fires
Inflammable liquids such as kerosene oil, diesel, petrol, spirit, liquor, ghee, other oils,
paints, tar and certain chemicals are prone to fires which can be grouped together in the
category of "oil fires". Such liquids catch fire easily through naked flame or an electric spark.
Then they burn on the surface and spread out, thus spreading the flame's as well. If the oil is
in a container, there could be the vapours of the oil and these are also inflammable. This
could lead to an explosion in the container. In fact, many such inflammable liquids are also
prone to self-ignition because they undergo oxidation on coming in contact with the oxygen
in the air. This heats the liquid. If the temperature rises enough, the "flash point" is reached
when the liquid starts burning by itself. Therefore, such hazardous liquids of oils are stored
carefully away from residential areas or crowded places. Further, good air circulation,
cooling and ventilation is to be ensured to avoid the danger of oil fires. Petrol storage depots,
airports, and oil tankers are/particularly vulnerable sites.

Oil well fire

Oil well fires are oil wells, commonly oil gushers that have caught on fire, and burn
uncontrollably. Oil well fires can be the result of human actions, such as accidents or arson or
natural events, such as lightning. They can exist on a small scale, such as an oil field spill
catching fire, or on a huge scale, as in geyser-like jets of flames from ignited high pressure oil
wells.

An oil well on fire in Iraq

The Kuwaiti oil fires were a result of the scorched earth policy of Iraqi military
forces retreating from Kuwait in 1991 after conquering the country but being driven out by
Coalition military forces (Gulf War).The resulting fires burned out of control because of the
dangers of sending in firefighting crews. Land mines had been placed in areas around the oil
wells, and a military cleaning of the areas was necessary before the fires could be put out.
Somewhere around 6 million barrels (950,000 m3) of oil were lost each day. Eventually,
privately contracted crews extinguished the fires, at a total cost of US$1.5 billion to Kuwait.
By that time, however, the fires had burned for months, causing widespread pollution.
Surat, Jan 5, 2013
Surat, Jan 5 (DNN)- A major fire broke out at a petrol storage tank of state-owned
Indian Oil Corporation's (IOC) Hazira terminal in Gujarat. No casualty was reported
immediately. Local authorities and the company rushed fire tenders to douse the fire.
Officials said the fire was reported around afternoon at one of IOC's five petrol storage tanks
at the Hazira depot. The tank had almost 5,000 kilolitre of petrol, half of its capacity, when it
caught fire. This is the second major fire at IOC storage depots since 2009. On October 29,
2009, a fire broke out at its Jaipur terminal which was blamed on non-observance of normal
safety procedures. The Jaipur depot fire raged for 11 days, killed 11 people and resulted in
losses worth Rs. 280 crore.
Jaipur Oil Depot Fire, 2009
The Jaipur oil depot fire broke out on 29 October 2009 at 7:30 PM (IST) at the Indian Oil
Corporation (IOC) oil depot's giant tank holding 8,000 kilolitres (280,000 cu ft) of oil, in
Sitapura Industrial Area on the outskirts of Jaipur, Rajasthan, killing 12 people and injuring
over 200. The blaze continued to rage out of control for over a week after it started and
during the period half a million people were evacuated from the area. The oil depot is about
16 kilometres (9.9 mi) south of the city of Jaipur. The incident occurred when petrol was
being transferred from the Indian Oil Corporation's oil depot to a pipeline. There were at least
40 IOC employees at the terminal, situated close to the Jaipur International Airport) when it
caught fire with an explosion. The Met department recorded a tremor measuring 2.3 on the
Richter scale around the time the first explosion at 7:36 pm which resulted in shattering of
glass windows nearly 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) from the accident site. The fire still raged on 31
October 2009, in the Indian Oil Corporation Depot, at Jaipur, after a defective pipe line leak
that set fire to 50,000 kilolitres (1,800,000 cu ft) of diesel and petrol out of the storage tanks
at the IOC Depot. By then, the accident had already claimed 11 lives and seriously injured
more than 150.
Gas Fires
The increasing use of cooking gas in houses and hotels both in cylinders and through
pipes is indeed a fire hazard. This gas is also used in cars in some cases. Compressed Natural
Gas (CNG) is being introduced in a big way in public buses. These gases are mostly supplied
in compressed form and transported by trucks. Some industrial gases are also inflammable.
All these constitute a widespread fire hazard.
Forest Fires
Forest constitutes the largest, complex and most important natural resource, mostly
dominated by trees, the diversity and size of which vary in different parts of the world.
The most common hazard in forests is forests fire. Forests fires are as old as the
forests themselves. They pose a threat not only to the forest wealth but also to the entire
regime to fauna and flora seriously disturbing the bio-diversity and the ecology and
environment of a region. During summer, when there is no rain for months, the forests
become littered with dry senescent leaves and twinges, which could burst into flames ignited
by the slightest spark. The Himalayan forests, particularly, Garhwal Himalayas have been
burning regularly during the last few summers, with colossal loss of vegetation cover of that
region.

Causes of Forest Fire

Forest fires are caused by Natural causes as well as Manmade causes
Natural causes- Many forest fires start from natural causes such as lightning which
set trees on fire. However, rain extinguishes such fireswithout causing much damage. High
atmospheric temperatures and dryness (low humidity) offer favorable circumstance for a fire
to start.
Manmade causes- Fire is caused when a source of fire like naked flame, cigarette or
bidi, electric spark or any source of ignition comes into contact with inflammable material.
Classification of Forest Fire
Forest fire can broadly be classified into three categories;
• Natural or controlled forest fire.
• Forest fires caused by heat generated in the litter and other biomes in summer through
carelessness of people (human neglect) and
• Forest fires purposely caused by local inhabitants.
Types of Forest Fire
There are two types of forest fire i) Surface Fire and ii) Crown Fire
Surface Fire-A forest fire may burn primarily as a surface fire, spreading along the ground
as the surface litter (senescent leaves and twigs and dry grasses etc) on the forest floor and is
engulfed by the spreading flames.
Crown Fire- The other type of forest fire is a crown fire in which the crown of trees and
shrubs burn, often sustained by a surface fire. A crown fire is particularly very dangerous in
a coniferous forest because resinous material given off burning logs burn furiously. On hill
slopes, if the fire starts downhill, it spreads up fast as heated air adjacent to a slope tends to
flow up the slope spreading flames along with it. If the fire starts uphill, there is less
likelihood of it spreading downwards.
Vulnerability
The youngest mountain ranges of Himalayas are the most vulnerable stretches of the
world susceptible to forest fires. The forests of Western are more frequently vulnerable to
forest fires as compared to those in Eastern Himalayas. This is because forests of Eastern
Himalayas grow in high rain density. With large scale expansion of chirr (Pine) forests in
many areas of the Himalayas the frequency and intensity of forest fires has increased.
Preparedness and Mitigation Measures
Forest fires are usually seasonal. They usually start in the dry season and can be
prevented by adequate precautions. Successive Five Year Plans have provided funds for
forests fighting. During the British period, fire was prevented in the summer through
removal of forest litter all along the forest boundary. This was called "Forest Fire Line" This
line used to prevent fire breaking into the forest from one compartment to another. The
collected litter was burnt in isolation. Generally, the fire spreads only if there is continuous
supply of fuel (Dry vegetation) along its path. The best way to control a forest fire is
therefore, to prevent it from spreading, which can be done by creating firebreaks in the shape
of small clearings of ditches in the forests.
Precautions
The followings are the important precautions against fire:
1. To keep the source of fire or source of ignition separated from combustible and
inflammable material.
2. To keep the source of fire under watch and control.
3. Not allow combustible or inflammable material to pile up unnecessarily and to stock
the same as per procedure recommended for safe storage of such combustible or
inflammable material.
4. To adopt safe practices in areas near forests viz. factories, coalmines, oil stores,
chemical plants and even in household kitchens.
5. To incorporate fire reducing and firefighting techniques and equipment while
planning a building or coal mining operation.
6. In case of forest fires, the volunteer teams are essential not only for firefighting but
also to keep watch on the start of forest and sound an alert
7. To arrange firefighting drills frequently.
Impacts of Forest Fires on Biological Environment
Forest fires also pose serious health hazards by producing smoke and noxious gases,
as the events in Indonesia after the forest fires on the islands of Sumatra and Borneo in 1977
have shown. The burning of vegetation gives off not only carbon dioxide but also a host of
other, noxious gases (Green house gases) such as carbon monoxide, methane, hydrocarbons,
nitric oxide and nitrous oxide, that lead to global warming and ozone layer depletion.
Consequently, thousands of people suffered from serious respiratory problems due to these
toxic gases. Burning forests and grasslands also add to already serious threat of global
warming. Recent measurement suggest that biomass burning may be a significant global
source of methyl bromide, which is an ozone depleting chemical.
Deforestation
Deforestation is the permanent destruction of indigenous forests and woodlands. The
term does not include the removal of industrial forests such as plantations of gums or pines.
Deforestation has resulted in the reduction of indigenous forests to four-fifths of their pre-
agricultural area. Indigenous forests now cover 21% of the earth's land surface.
 The World Resources Institute regards deforestation as one of the world's most
pressing land-use problems. An area of forest equal to 20 football or rugby fields is lost every
minute. Currently, 12 million hectares of forests are cleared annually. Almost all of this
deforestation occurs in the moist forests and open woodlands of the tropics. At this rate all
moist tropical forest could be lost by the year 2050, except for isolated areas in Amazonia,
the Zaire basin, as well as a few protected areas within reserves and parks. Some countries
such as Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Costa Rica, and Sri Lanka are likely to lose all their tropical
forests in near future if no conservation steps are taken. South Africa's climate is such that
less than 0.5% of its surface area is covered with indigenous forest - great care should be
taken to conserve the little we have.

General causes of deforestation

Deforestation is brought about by the following:
• Conversion of forests and woodlands to agricultural land to feed growing numbers of
people;
• Development of cash crops and cattle ranching, both of which earn money for tropical
countries;
• Commercial logging (which supplies the world market with woods such as meranti,
teak, mahogany and ebony) destroys trees as well as opening up forests for
agriculture;
• Felling of trees for firewood and building material; the heavy lopping of foliage for
fodder; and heavy browsing of saplings by domestic animals like goats.
• To compound the problem, the poor soils of the humid tropics do not support
agriculture for long. Thus people are often forced to move on and clear more forests in
order to maintain production.

Logging and Deforestation

The small farmer plays a big role, but it is modern industry that too cuts down the
trees. The logging industry is fueled by the need for disposable products. 11 million acres a
year are cut for commercial and property industries. Peter Heller found that McDonald’ needs
800 square miles of trees to make the amount of paper they need for a year’ supply of
packaging, Entity Mission found that British Columbia manufactures 500,000 pairs of
chopsticks a day, and the demand for fuel wood is so high that predictions say that there will
be a shortage by the year 2000. Logging does too have its repercussions. The logging
industry not only tries to accomplish all this but it even indirectly helps the "shifted
cultivators" and others to do more damage. The roads that the loggers build to access the
forests and generate hydroelectric power create an easy way for many people to try to
manipulate the forest resources. The amount of damage that this adds to the forests can not be
measured nor can that of the illegal logging. Some importers may even be buying illegally
logged wood and not even have known it.

Cattle Grazing and Deforestation

Another of the more devastating forces behind deforestation is cattle grazing. With the
international growth of fast food chains this seems to be an evident factor in the clearing of
trees today. Large corporations looking to buy beef for hamburger and even pet food seek
cheap prices and are finding them with the growth of cattle grazing. As the burger giants of
industrialized society are making high demands for more beef, more forests are being torn
down. Statistics from less than a decade ago, 1989, indicate that 15,000 km squared of forests
are used expressly for the purpose of cattle grazing. Once the trees are gone and the land is
often overgrazed. In some places the government wants this to happen. Cattle grazing are big
profit that can’t be turned down.

Other Causes
Beyond the major causes of deforestation lie some supplementary ones that too stack
the odds against forests around the globe. Acid rain and the building of dams have their share
of harmful effects. The race to produce cash crops such as fruit, spices, sugar tobacco, soap,
rubber, paper, and cloth has given cause to many to try to farm them by using soil and other
products that can be retrieved by destroying the forests. Even those in industrialized countries
may participate in the destruction of forests in the 3rd world. The need for products in
industrialized countries drives production in other poorer, less developed countries. This
production is at the cost of the trees and the services that they provide.

Consequences of Deforestation
Deforestation presents multiple societal and environmental problems. The immediate
and long-term consequences of global deforestation are almost certain to jeopardize life on
Earth, as we know it. Some of these consequences include: loss of biodiversity; the
destruction of forest-based-societies; and climatic disruption.

Alteration of local and global climates through disruption of:

a) The carbon cycle. Forests act as a major carbon store because carbon dioxide (CO2) is
taken up from the atmosphere and used to produce the carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
that make up the tree/plants. When forests are cleared, and the trees are either burnt or rot,
this carbon is released as CO2. This leads to an increase in the atmospheric CO2
concentration. CO2 is the major contributor to the greenhouse effect. Because of this, forest is
referred as sink of CO2. It is estimated that deforestation contributes one-third of all CO2 releases
caused by people.
b) The water cycle. Trees draw ground water up through their roots and release it into the
atmosphere (transpiration). In Amazonia over half of all the water circulating through the
region's ecosystem remains within the plants. With removal of part of the forest, the region
cannot hold as much water. The effect of this could be a drier climate.
c) Soil erosion ;With the loss of a protective cover of vegetation more soil is lost.
d) Silting of water courses, lakes and dams: This occurs as a result of soil erosion.
e)Extinction of species which depend on the forest for survival. Forests contain more than
half of all species on our planet - as the habitat of these species is destroyed, so the number
of species declines.
f) Desertification: The causes of desertification are complex, but deforestation is one of the
contributing factors.

Erosion
The problem is that once forests have been cut down, essential nutrients are washed
out of the soil all-together. This leads to soil erosion. As of now, about 80% of the soils in the
humid tropics are acidic and infertile. When there are no trees to keep the soil in place, the
soil becomes ripe for erosion. It dries and cracks under the sun’s heat. Once the soil
temperature exceeds 25ºC degrees centigrade, volatile nutrient ingredients like nitrogen can
be lost, further reducing the fertility of the remaining soil. Furthermore, rainfall washes
remaining nutrients into rivers. This means that replanting trees will not necessarily help to
solve the problems of deforestation; by the time the trees have matured, the soil might be
completely stripped of essential nutrients. Eventually, cultivation in the forest regions will be
impossible, and the land will be useless. The soil erosion will lead to permanent
impoverishment of huge land areas.
The social impact of soil erosion can be quite severe. Those who settle into the forest
regions are forced to move every year or so due to soil erosion. They find areas where they
can cultivate. When those areas are no longer good for growing, they move to another region.

Flooding
Flooding is a quite serious consequence of deforestation. Clearing the forest
dramatically increases the surface run-off from rainfall, mainly because a greater proportion
of the rain reaches the ground due to a lack of vegetation which would suck up the excess
rainfall. "Tropical forests can receive as much rain in an hour as London would expect in a
wet month, and a single storm has been measured as removing 185 tonnes of topsoil per
hectare". In tropical regions where the forests are dense, flooding is not as serious a problem
because there is vegetation to absorb the rainfall. It is in areas where there is little vegetation
that there is a problem. Hence, to avoid the disastrous effects of flooding, tropical forests
need to remain dense and lush.

Climate Change
Although all consequences of deforestation are potentially serious, perhaps the most
serious consequence is that of climate change due to the loss of trees. Earth has an
atmosphere which contains a variety of gases, all in a delicate balance, to ensure life on
Earth. One of these gases in Earth’s atmosphere is carbon dioxide; a gas which helps
moderate heat loss to outer space. Insulating gases such as carbon dioxide are called
"greenhouse gasses because their function is much like that of the glass in a greenhouse: they
allow solar heat into the system, but discourage its escape". Other greenhouse gases include
methane, chlorofluorocarbons, nitrous oxide, and ozone. If there are additional greenhouse
gases, there will be a gradual increase in temperature on Earth’s surface. This could lead to
changes in weather patterns, sea levels, and other cycles in nature that directly affect life on
Earth.
The process of greenhouse gas increase is quite simple. Carbon dioxide levels increase
for a number of reasons; but one of the main factors contributing to the increase of carbon
levels is decay of woody material. The only way to help moderate the levels of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere is through plant life. Alive plants and trees absorb the carbon
dioxide from decaying plants and trees. With a decrease in trees and plant life (due to
deforestation) it is much harder to moderate these levels. Ultimately, the amount of carbon
will increase due to a lack of plant life present to keep the carbon dioxide levels in check.
This whole process leads to an "albedo effect which reflects more heat and light back into the
atmosphere than would be the case if the sun shone on green trees?". The bottom line is that
the increase in the carbon level and other greenhouse gas levels into the atmosphere leads to
an increase in temperature, and eventually a change in climate and weather.

Wild fire
A wildfire is any uncontrolled fire that occurs in the countryside or a wilderness area.
Other names such as brush fire, bushfire, forest fire, grass fire, hill fire, peat fire,
vegetation fire, and wildland fire may be used to describe the same phenomenon depending
on the type of vegetation being burned. A wildfire differs from other fires by its extensive
size, the speed at which it can spread out from its original source, and its ability to change
direction unexpectedly and to jump gaps, such as roads, rivers and fire breaks. Wildfires are
characterized in terms of the cause of ignition, their physical properties such as speed of
propagation, the combustible material present, and the effect of weather on the fire.
Wildfires occur on every continent except Antarctica. Fossil records and human
history contain accounts of wildfires, as wildfires can occur in periodic intervals. Wildfires
can cause extensive damage, both to property and human life, but they also have various
beneficial effects on wilderness areas. Some plant species depend on the effects of fire for
growth and reproduction, although large wildfires may also have negative ecological effects.
Strategies of wildfire prevention, detection, and suppression have varied over the years, and
international wildfire management experts encourage further development of technology and
research. One of the more controversial techniques is controlled burning: permitting or even
igniting smaller fires to minimize the amount of flammable material available for a potential
wildfire. While some wildfires burn in remote forested regions, they can cause extensive
destruction of homes and other property located in the wild land-urban interface: a zone of
transition between developed areas and undeveloped wilderness.

Types of Wild fires

• Ground fires are fed by subterranean roots, duff and other buried organic matter. This
fuel type is especially susceptible to ignition due to spotting. Ground fires typically
burn by smoldering, and can burn slowly for days to months, such as peat fires in
Kalimantan and Eastern Sumatra, Indonesia, which resulted from a rice land creation
project that unintentionally drained and dried the peat.
• Crawling or surface fires are fueled by low-lying vegetation such as leaf and timber
litter, debris, grass, and low-lying shrubbery.
• Ladder fires consume material between low-level vegetation and tree canopies,
such as small trees, downed logs, and vines. Kudzu, Old World climbing fern, and
other invasive plants that scale trees may also encourage ladder fires.
• Crown, canopy, or aerial fires burn suspended material at the canopy level, such
as tall trees, vines, and mosses. The ignition of a crown fire, termed crowning, is
dependent on the density of the suspended material, canopy height, canopy
continuity, and sufficient surface and ladder fires in order to reach the tree crowns.
For example, ground-clearing fires lit by humans can spread into the Amazon rain
forest, damaging ecosystems not particularly suited for heat or arid conditions.
 Lec. No: 23: Man Made Disasters : industrial waste water pollution
deforestation
Air pollution: It is defined as the excessive concentration of foreign material in the
atmosphere, which affects the health of individuals and also causes damage to the property.

Distinct categories of air pollution:

• Personal air pollution: exposure to dust, fumes and gases to which an individual
exposes himself when he indulges in smoking like cigarette, cigar. Looks pose little
problem, but potential hazard is serious. So give up smoking.

• Occupational air pollution: exposure to potentially harmful concentrations of

aerosols, vapours and gases in their working environment.

• Community air pollution: most complex of the three varieties since it involves a
varied assortment of pollution sources and contaminants, meteorological factors, also
social, economic and health effects. Affects total environment say plants, animals etc.

London Episodes, 1873-1963

The industrial revolution in the 19th century saw the set in of air pollution in Europe
on a large scale. The industries and the households relied heavily on coal for heating and
cooking. Due to burning of coal for heat during the winter months, emissions of smoke and
sulphur dioxide were much greater in winters than they were during the summer months.
Smoke particles trapped in the fog gave it a yellow/black colour and this smog often settled
over cities for many days.
The effects of smog on human health were evident, particularly when smog persisted for
several days. Many people suffered respiratory problems and increased deaths were recorded,
notably those relating to bronchial causes. The smog-related deaths were first recorded in
London in 1873, when it killed 500 people. In 1880, the toll was more than 1000. London had
one of its worst experiences of smog in December 1892. It lasted for three days and resulted
in about 1000 deaths. Despite gradual improvements in air quality during the 20th century,
eight air pollution episodes occurred in London between 1948 and 1962. The December 1952
episode is the major episode in the history of air pollution.

The “Killer Smog” began on Thursday, Dec. 4, 1952 as a high-pressure air mass created a
subsidence temperature inversion over southern England. With the particulate and SO2 levels
going up due to extensive use of coal as fuel for space heating and electric production, the fog
turned black. At the same time the high-pressure area stalled and became stationary. The
build up of pollutants combined with the fog resulted in essentially zero visibility. Within a
matter of three days, the pollutants were concentrated enough to cause deaths. The old and
respiratory affected died first, but younger people exposed to the outside atmosphere were
also affected. The maximum daily SO2 concentration recorded at that time was 1.34 ppm
(about 4000 µg/m3, standard SO2 conc. in clean dry atmosphere is 0.0002 ppm) and smoke
levels were 4.46 mg/m3. The Great London Smog lasted for five days and lifted on 9th Dec,
resulting in about 4000 deaths.

Bhopal Disaster, 1984

In the mid night of 2nd - 3rd December 1984, in a densely populated area of Bhopal,
Central India, a poisonous vapor burst from the tall stacks of the Union Carbide pesticide
plant. About forty tons of toxic gases had leaked from the Carbides Bhopal plant and spread
throughout the city. The cause was the contamination of Methyl Isocyanate (MIC) storage
tank with water carrying catalytic material. Residents of the city awoke to clouds of
suffocating gas, unaware of the magnitude of the devastation, which had engulfed them. The
city of Bhopal was immediately turned into a city of dead bodies, and the whole place
smelled of burning chilli peppers. Of the million people living in Bhopal at that time, more
than 2,000 died immediately (one fourth of actual figures) and as many as 300,000 were
injured. In addition, about 7,000 animals were affected, of which about 1000 were killed. The
precise number of deaths still remains a mystery till date. The degree of injury was so high
that about 30% of the injured were unable to return to their jobs. Among the survivors, most
of them still suffer agonizing pain from the disastrous effects of the massive poisoning while
there are still apprehensions of the future generations being affected. The Bhopal Disaster
was the worst episode in the history of industrial air pollution.

Donora Fog, 1948

Horror visited the US Steel company town of Donora on the Halloween night of 1948,
when a temperature inversion descended on the town. Fluoride emissions from the Donora
Zinc Works smelting operation and other sources containing sulphur, carbon monoxide and
heavy metal dusts were trapped by weather conditions, causing 20 deaths within 14 hours.

Cold ground and high-pressure conditions intensified the elevated inversion of the
anticyclone that arrived in the region. The situation was aggravated by local conditions of
meteorology, industrial pollutant emissions and peculiar terrain of the area. The
meteorological conditions and the geographical characteristics of the area produced a strong
temperature inversion with a temperature gradient as high as 33oC/km. The fog was held
close to the ground by the stability of the elevated inversion layer. During the third and fourth
days of the episode, as ambient levels of pollutants escalated, almost half of the population of
14,000 people became ill. Almost 43 % of the population in Donora and Webster, PA
experienced the effects of the smog. Most of the affected were above the age group of 60
years and above (29% of this group were seriously affected). The health effects were mainly
symptoms affecting the lung, and in particular, upper respiratory symptoms such as nasal
discharge, constriction of the throat, or sore throat were experienced.

Meuse Valley, 1930

An episode occurred in the first week of December 1930, when a thick mist lay over
large parts of Belgium. On December 3rd, 4th and 5th, several thousand cases of acute
pulmonary attacks occurred in the densely populated valley of the Meuse, east of Liege,
resulting in 60 deaths. Post episode investigations led to the conclusion that the cause was
poisonous products in the waste gas of the many factories in the valley, in conjunction with
unusual climatic conditions. During that time, the day temperature was a little above freezing
point while at night it measured up to 10oC below, while the wind speed was only 1-3km/hr.
It was impossible to indicate any definite substance or chemical compound as the cause, but
the investigators were of the opinion that the disaster in all probability had been brought
about by sulphur dioxide (SO2) or oxidation products of that compound, of which quantities
were found in the factory smoke. The investigation also looked into the question of fluorine
intoxication, however its role is doubtful. The cases of illness were reported after the mist had
lasted about 2 days. It was estimated that the total number of cases was several thousands. In
three days, there were 60 deaths, of which fifty-six were in the eastern half of the valley and
only four deaths were reported from the west of Engis. The area around Engis was the worst
affected.

Mexico, Poza Rica, 1950

 A catastrophic exposure episode involving the release of large quantities of hydrogen
sulfide occurred in Poza Rica, Mexico in November 1950. Poza Rica, a city of 22,000 people
located about 210 km northeast of Mexico City, was then the centre of Mexicos leading oil-
producing district and the site of several oil field installations, including a sulphur-recovery
plant. An early morning malfunction of the waste gas flare resulted in the release of large
quantities of unburned hydrogen sulfide into the atmosphere. The unburned gas, aided by a
low-level temperature inversion and light early morning breezes, was carried to the
residential area adjacent to the plant area. Residents of the area succumbed while attempting
to leave the area and assisting stricken neighbours. Within a matter of 3 hours, 320 persons
were hospitalised and 22 were killed.

Darkening effect of Taj Mahal

Taj Mahal is a white marble stone mausoleum. Recently it was observed that the
walls of Taj Mahal has become darkened and disfigured due to air pollution from nearby
Mathura Oil refinery. The acid rain reacts with marble stone (CaCO3) to produce calcium
sulphate, causing darkening and disfigurement.
In the Yucatan peninsula in Mexico, and in places in South America, ancient Mayan
Pyramids are being destroyed by the acid rain. Temples, murals, and ancient inscriptions
which had previously survived for centuries are now showing severe signs of corrosion. Even
books, manuscripts, paintings, and sculpture are being affected in museums and libraries,
where the ventilation system cannot eliminate the acid particles from the air which circulates
in the building. In some parts of Poland, trains are required to run slowly, as the tracks are
badly damaged due to corrosion caused by acid rainfall.

Water Pollution
Water is considered polluted when it is altered in composition or condition so that it
becomes less suitable for any or all of the functions and purposes for which it would be
suitable in its natural state. This definition includes changes in the physical, chemical and
biological properties of water, or such discharges of liquid, gaseous or solid substances into
water as will or are likely to create nuisances or render such water harmful to public health,
safety or welfare, or to domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural, fish or other aquatic
life. It also includes changes in temperatures, due to the discharge of hot water.

Industrial wastewater pollution

During the past few decades, Indian industries have registered a quantum jump, which
has contributed to high economic growth but simultaneously it has also given rise to severe
environmental pollution. A number of industries produce large volume of effluents requiring
proper disposal. Lack of suitable treatment technologies and disposal facilities is a major
hindrance to industrial expansion. The recycling options of industrial effluents includes land
application, use in irrigation, forestry, application to constructed wetlands or artificial
marshlands. Sometimes, industries produce highly toxic effluents, which can neither be
thrown into water bodies nor used for agricultural purpose as the toxic element may enter the
food chain through plants, animals and fish. However, effluents of some industries have
useful characteristics and have the potential to improve soil productivity. This effective
management of wastes brings economic benefits and protects fragile ecosystems from
degradation. Thus, the following are the objectives for utilization of industrial effluents for
agricultural purposes.

• Increasing demand of water for agricultural purposes

• Irrigation to crops in areas where water is scarce

 • Recycle it as irrigation water due to its possible nutrient value.

• Disposal problem of industrial effluents.

• Increasing pollution problem.

Classification of industries
To understand the severity of pollution from a particular industry, it is necessary to
categorize the industries/ projects in three broad categories viz. Red, Orange and Green in
decreasing order of severity of pollution.
• ‘Red’ represents highly polluting industries

• ‘Green’ represents marginally polluting units and

• ‘Orange’ categories are moderately polluting industries.

In our country, Paper and pulp mills, Sugar mills, distilleries, tanneries,
pharmaceutical industries, fertilizers industries etc are the highly polluting red category.
However, the effects of these industries on soil and water can be generalized as most of these
wastes are rich in inorganic compounds like Na, K, Ca, Mg, SO4, nutrients besides organic
impurities.

10 Worst Man Made Disasters of All Time

Mankind has frequently created catastrophes that devastate the environment and taken
lives. The 10 worst man-made disasters of all time are difficult to determine with so many
blunders. However, excluding the loss of life resulting from war, terrorism or transportation
disaster, this list includes the incidents that have had the most affect on people and the
environment.
1. London’s Killer Fog
2. The Al-Mishraq Fire: Another of the 10 worst man-made disasters of all time was the
Al-Mishraq fire on June 24, 2003. This fire at an Iraqi sulfur plant burned for about a
month releasing sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere. Sulfur dioxide can kill people by causing
respiratory problems and also creates acid rain which destroys crops.
3.The Nuclear Power Plant Explosion in Chernobyl, Russia:
On April 26th 1986, the Chernobyl Plant in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic had a
major meltdown which resulted in the atmospheric release of radioactive material four
hundred times more radioactive than Hiroshima. Since the accident there have been
countless children with birth defects, a sickening increase of cancer sufferers and many
other health issues as well. It is estimated that the disaster could result in nearly 100,000
fatal cancers, and the area won’t be safe for any activity, including farming for up to 200
years.
4. The Kuwait Oil Fires: The Gulf War oil spill is the largest oil spill in history making it
one of the 10 worst man-made disasters of all time. In 1991, following the invasion of
Kuwait, Hussein sent men in to blow up the Kuwait oil wells. They managed to set over
600 ablaze and these burned for over seven months. The oil spill that resulted from the
fires caused considerable environmental damage.
5. The Destruction of the Aral Sea: The Aral Sea was one of the four largest lakes at one
point in time. However, in the 1960’s, the Soviet Union diverted the waters from the rivers
that fed the lake to irrigation projects. The sea has now shrunk by 90 percent and the salt
and sandstorms that the devastation created kill plant life and have negative consequences
 for hundreds of miles around.
6. The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill: On March 24, 1989, the American oil tanker the Exxon
Valdez collided with the Bligh Reef. This created an oil spill with far reaching
consequences in the Prince William Sound in Alaska. Over 11 million gallons of oil
spilled over nearly 500 miles polluting the coastline. Over a quarter million birds were
killed and countless other wildlife. Over 11,000 people aided in the clean up process.
7. Dioxin Pollution: On July 10, 1976 in Meda, Italy, a reactor in the ICMESA chemical
company exploded. This led to a toxic cloud of dioxin being released into the atmosphere.
Dioxin is one of the most toxic chemicals known to man. While no one died as a direct
result of the accident, many children were affected by the serious skin disease chloracne
from the accident.
8. The Love Canal: In the 1940’s a strange smell enveloped the area around the Love
Canal near Niagara Falls. Residents also began to notice an odd seepage leaking into their
yards and people began to fall ill. In addition, many women began to have miscarriages
and give birth to babies with birth defects. Upon inspection, it was discovered that there
was over 21,000 tons of toxic industrial waste buried below the surface of the town by a
local company.
9. The Union Carbide Gas Leak: On the night of December 2, 1984, the Union Carbide
pesticide plant in Bhopal, India began to leak methyl isocyanate gas and other poisonous
toxins into the atmosphere. Over 500,000 were exposed and there were up to 15,000
deaths at that time. In addition, more than 20,000 people have died since the accident from
gas-related diseases.
10. The Three Mile Island Nuclear Explosion: In Harrisburg, PA on March 28, 1979, the
Three Mile Island nuclear reactor experienced a partial core meltdown. While little
radiation was released from the accident thanks to a working containment system, this
accident became the rallying call for fears about the nuclear power industry. Livestock
deaths, premature deaths and birth defects have been attributed to the nuclear melt-down.
Man can have a devastating effect on the environment and the 10 worst man-made
disasters of all time have had a negative effect on the environment for decades afterwards.
Frequently these disasters are related to poor industrial oversight within developing
countries. However, even with regulation a catastrophe can strike.
 Lec. No: 24. Road accidents, Rail accidents, Air accidents, Sea accidents
Accident:
An unfortunate incident that happens unexpectedly and unintentionally, typically
resulting in damage or injury.
Common Causes of all type of Accidents

1. Shortcuts
2. Overconfidence
3. Poor, or Lack Of Housekeeping
4. Starting a Task Before Getting All Necessary Information
5. Neglecting Safety Procedures
6. Mental Distractions
7. Lack of Preparation

Road accidents
India has overtaken China's killing fields. "Nearly 1.05 lakh people die in road
accidents in India. It is the highest in the world," Brahm Dutt, secretary of the department of
road transport and highways (India) said.

Most common causes of accident

Determining the causes of the accident is important for the victim, as it has a direct
bearing on whether he or she is eligible to receive compensation. Here are some of the most
common causes of accident for road crashes. Road accidents are common. While many of
them are minor fender-benders, others are major mishaps, often even leading to fatalities. The
most common cause of accident in road mishaps is human error.

Here are some of the most common causes of accident for road crashes:

Substance abuse: Substance abuse such as consumption of alcohol, recreational and

prescription drugs is a major offender when it comes to road accidents.

Speeding: Speeding accounts for nearly a quarter of all automobile accidents.

Road layout and conditions: The road itself could be one of the causes of accident. Many
roads have well-known 'blind spots', where drivers coming from one side cannot see vehicles
coming from the other direction until it are too late. Also, roads become slippery during rain,
snow, hail, etc. As they wear, they develop cracks and patholes.

Vehicle failure: Breakdown of the mechanical components in a vehicle is another reason

behind road accidents. The most common mechanical failures involve damage to the tyres
and their associated components. In addition, break, axle, and steering wheel failures are
associated with accidents.

Driver's fault: Some accidents are caused purely due to the driver's mistake. Distractions,
such as talking on the phone or to co-passengers, calming children or pets in the backseat, or
trying to retrieve fallen items are common causes of accident. Aggressive driving and
disregarding traffic rules also fall in this category. In a major roadside accident, involving a
passenger bus and an oil tanker, 32 people have been killed and several others injured, in
Sindh province (near Nooriabad town, about 80 km from Hyderabad city) on Sunday,
January 23, 2011.

Preventive measure for road accident:

1. Pull into traffic slowly. Stop, Look, Listen.
2.Watch for red light runners.
3.Keep at least one hand on the steering wheel.
4.Watch for kids.
5.Perform engine maintenance regularly.
6.Scan 12 seconds ahead.
7.Look backwards when backing out.
8.Do not tailgate.
Train/railroad accidents:
Trains offer one of the cheapest, safest and most convenient modes of transportation.
However, just like any other form of transportation, the trains are also prone to getting
accidents. These accidents are normally rare with most of them being very tragic. These
cause severe injuries and multiple deaths.

Common causes of train accidents:

Mechanical failure: Mechanical failures like broken lights and problems with the engine are
the major causes of the accidents that are caused by trains. To avoid this, the train should be
inspected thoroughly on a regular basis by professionals to ensure everything is in order.

Human error: This can either be from the driver of the train or miscommunication by the
person who handles the lines trains use. Other mistakes can include inappropriate cargo and
overloading of cargo.Trains usually travel on different time schedules and this can be
confused causing a greasily head on
collision. Improperly managed tracks etc. Trains running in excessive speeds and Improper
linking of train cars, Improper loading and storage of toxic and dangerous materials also
some of the human errors.

Weather conditions: Can also cause the accidents. For instance, if it is raining heavily, the
engineers and the operators can be derailed from performing their duties because they cannot
see the trains ahead.

Train Crashes: This could be single crashes where the train is removed from the tracks by
force; it could be a collision between two trains on the same track; or it could be a collision
with another vehicle like a car or with pedestrians.

The most common causes of Railroad crashes are:

➢ Poor design of railroad crossing leading to limited operator vision
➢ Failure to blow horns at required distances
➢ Trains running beyond speed limits
➢ Failure to trim plants and vegetations that obscure train paths
➢ Malfunctioning crossing arms, warning bells and warning lights
➢ Absence of crossing guards at dangerous intersections, especially at locations where
there is a history of previous crashes

Toxic Exposure: Collisions and crashes are not the only danger that people should look out
for in trains. Dangerous chemicals and other toxic materials could be transported through
trains and a crash could expose not only the passengers, but the nearby communities as well.
It could lead to different types of illnesses that could affect the lungs, skin, heart and other
internal organs. Most often, these diseases need lifetime treatment.

Preventive measure for train accident:

➢ Never walk on or along railroad tracks—trespassing is illegal!
➢ Always look out for warning signs and signals.
 ➢ Always assume there is a train coming, as trains can run on any track at any time.
➢ Be aware that trains cannot stop quickly. The average freight train traveling 55 miles
per hour takes a mile or more to stop.
➢ Only cross tracks at designated crossing areas, and always look both ways before
crossing.
➢ Never try to beat a train across the tracks. There is no reason to risk your life for a few
extra minutes.
➢ If you’re in a vehicle, don’t stop on the tracks. Before you cross, make sure there is
enough room for your vehicle on the other side. There should be at least 15 feet
between the end of your vehicle and the tracks.
➢ If your vehicle stalls on a crossing, get everyone out immediately. Stand far away
from the tracks, even if you don’t see a train. Then call the emergency notification
number posted on or near the crossing, or call local law enforcement.
➢ Be aware that some vehicles, like school buses, commercial buses and trucks carrying
hazardous materials, must always come to a full stop at railroad crossings. (State laws
vary.)
➢ It might look easy and fun in the movies, but it is extremely dangerous to attempt to
jump on board a moving train. A minor slip could lead to a lost limb or even death.
Air accidents
An aviation accident is the worst nightmare of every pilot or passenger that has ever
ridden in an aircraft. Although air travel is one of the safest forms of transportation, accidents
do happen with dramatic and terrifying results. The causes of these aviation accidents vary
greatly depending on specific circumstances and problems that may develop during the flight
process. The chances of an aircraft crashing due to mechanical problems is statistically very
low but given the wide publicity generated by the media, it appears that statistics can appear
to be quite misleading. In reality, human error is the primary contributor to more than 70
percent of all commercial airplane accidents. Pilot error is a far more likely cause of an
airplane crash than mechanical failure or bad weather conditions.

Descent and landing accidents

There are five stages of the descent and landing process. These include descent,
approach, landing, go-around or aborted landing, and taxi. When a problem occurs during
any of the five steps, an accident could result. Descent and landing accidents account for 36
percent of all general aviation mishaps and the most common type of accident. Takeoff
mishaps, mechanical failures, pilot errors, fuel mismanagement, and poor weather are only
some of the many plights that can lead to injuries or death in the sky. When flight crew and
pilots do their jobs correctly, aviation accidents are much less likely to occur. Although not
all accidents result in death, there is an increased likelihood of injury and fatalities may
occur.

Common causes for air accidents:

➢ Pilot Error
Half of all plane crashes are caused by pilot error.
➢ Mechanical Error
The second most common cause of plane crashes is mechanical error, which accounts
for about 22% of all aviation accidents.
➢ Weather
Around 12% of all plane crashes are caused by weather conditions.
 ➢ Sabotage
Plane crashes that are caused by sabotage draw the most media attention, but they
only account for about 9% of total plane crashes. Some sabotaged flights crash
because of hijackers, and of course the most notable examples are the three flights
that were hijacked on September 11th.
➢ Other Human Error
The bulk of the remaining plane crashes, about 7%, are caused by other kinds of
human errors. Some plane crashes are inadvertently caused by air traffic controllers.

Preventive measure for air accident:

➢ Proposed precautions against airliner sabotage
➢ Stress on airworthiness and plane maintenance
➢ Steps to curtail accidents due to bad weather
➢ Improvement of traffic control and landing aids
➢ Improving aviation safety systems and improving services
o New Air Navigation System
o Enhancing air traffic services
➢ Improving airspace
o Airspace on sea
o Airspace around airports
➢ Improving airports
o Improving major airports in large cities
o Improving airport safety technology

➢ Strengthening supervision system for air transport companies

➢ Improving the skills of aviation workers
➢ Improving guidance on accident prevention of small aircraft
Sea accident:

According to insurers’ statistics, 80% of oil tanker accidents which cause oil spills at
sea are a result of human errors: badly handled manoeuvres, neglected maintenance,
insufficient checking of systems, lack of communication between crew members, fatigue, or
an inadequate response to a minor incident causing it to escalate into a major accident. From
a more practical point of view, analysis of the circumstances surrounding accidents
demonstrates the high proportion of spills due to groundings and collisions.

Causes of sea accidents:

Collisions are generally due to manoeuvring errors, especially in poor visibility and/or busy
shipping traffic areas, often made worse by high winds, challenging currents and bad
weather.

Grounding : Equipment failure is a more common cause of groundings than of collisions.

Grounding of the Sea Empress at the entrance to Milford Haven port, Wales (Great Britain) is
one such example. The Sea Empress oil spill occurred on 15 February 1996. Over the course
of a week, 73,000 tons of crude oil spilled into the sea. The spill occurred within the
Pembrokeshire Coast National Park - one of Europe's most important and sensitive wildlife
and marine conservation areas.

Oil spills
Oil wastes that enter the ocean come from many sources, some being accidental spills
or leaks, and some being the results of chronic and careless habits in the use of oil and oil
products. Most waste oil in the ocean consists of oily storm water drainage from cities and
farms, untreated waste disposal from factories and industrial facilities, and unregulated
recreational boating.

It is estimated that approximately 706 million gallons of waste oil enter the ocean
every year, with over half coming from land drainage and waste disposal; for example, from
the improper disposal of used motor oil. Offshore drilling and production operations and
spills or leaks from ships or tankers typically contribute less than 8 percent of the total. The
remainder comes from routine maintenance of ships (nearly 20 percent), hydrocarbon
particles from onshore air pollution (about 13 percent), and natural seepage from the seafloor
(over 8 percent).

The reasons for oil spills are

➢ Ship groundings
➢ Improper Transporting
➢ Pipeline breaks
➢ Overfilling of gas tanks
➢ Leaking underground storage tanks
➢ Parking lots during rain storms
➢ Bilge pumping from ships
➢ People making mistakes or being careless.
➢ Equipment breaking down.
Examples of oil spills in India

o 1994, June14 - Indian authorities began siphoning off 700 tons of oil from the Sea
Transporter, a 6,000-ton Greek cargo ship which had been anchored off Aguada after it
ran aground following a cyclone on June 5.

2005,March 25 - Goa –110 tonnes oil spilled. By comparison, the wreck of number of
large spills (over 206,500 gallons) averaged 24.1 per year from 1970 to 1979, but
decreased to 6.9 per year from 1990 onwards.

Effect of oil spills

Effects of oil spills on habitats
One of the areas that is most obviously affected after an oil spill is the shoreline. The
oil washes up on the beaches coating the sand, rocks, and plants with oily residue. When the
sand is covered with oil it can't support the vegetation that normally would grow there.
Wildlife may eat the contaminated vegetation and become sick or die.

Economic effects
The local economy is affected by an oil spill. Recreational areas that are covered with
oil are not appealing to tourists and towns that depend on tourism can find themselves in a
difficult financial situation.
Effects of spills on wildlife
Probably one of the areas of greatest concern is the effect of the oil spill on wildlife.
From the smallest plankton to the largest whale, all marine life is impacted by an oil spill.
• Behavioral changes
• Blindness
• Damage to internal organs
• Spread to other habitats
• Sores
• Stress
Effects of oil on the ocean
Although the big oil spills from offshore drilling get a lot of attention, there are
millions of gallons of oil dumped into the world's oceans every year from other sources.
Coral reef impact
Oil may impact coral reefs in a negative way. These reefs are not only beautiful, they
provide a habitat for many sea creatures.
Preventive measure for sea accident:
➢ Working system and preparation
➢ Planning for cargo oil operations
➢ Pre-safety meeting
➢ Effective communication
➢ Promote techniques of hazard prediction training
➢ Preparation of Watch schedule & pic of oil transfer operations
➢ Have a complete meeting beforehand with terminal
➢ Cargo oil transfer check lists
➢ Ship / Shore safety checklist
➢ Pre arrival checks
➢ Transfer of duty in conscientious manner
➢ Check operational conditions and training of crew

Possible questions:

1. Define accident and list out the common causes of accident?

2. What you mean by blind spots?
3. Write the preventive measures of road and rail accidents?
4. Write short notes on Descent and landing accidents?
5. What is oil spills and write on the effect of oil spills on environment?
6. Grounding is one factor for cause road accident – Substantiate?
7. Explain about the current status of air and train accidents?
 Lec. No: 25 & 26. Disaster Management - Efforts to mitigate natural disasters at
National and Global levels; International strategy for Disaster reduction;
Concept of Disaster management; National disaster management framework and
financial arrangements

Disaster Management: Disaster impact assessment; Strategies for management planning; Approaches
and methods for disaster risk reduction; Efforts to mitigate natural disasters at
National and Global levels;

The National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) provides a framework and direction
to the government agencies for all phases of disaster management cycle. The NDMP is a
“dynamic document” in the sense that it will be periodically improved keeping up with the
global best practices and knowledge base in disaster management. It is in accordance with the
provisions of the Disaster Management Act 2005. Relevant agencies – central or state – will
carry out disaster management activities in different phases in the disaster-affected areas
depending on the type and scale of disaster.

Within each state, the state government is primarily responsible for disaster and the
State Government can seek assistance from the Central Government. The NDMP provides a
framework covering all aspects of the disaster management cycle. It covers disaster risk
reduction, mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery, and betterment reconstruction.

Disaster risk management is the systematic process of using administrative decisions,

organization, operational skills and capacities to implement policies, strategies and coping
capacities of the society and communities to lessen the impacts of natural hazards and related
environmental and technological disasters.
UNISDR proposed the following definition for the term Disaster Management
(2015b):

“The organization, planning and application of measures preparing for, responding to

and, initial recovery from disasters.”

Disaster Management (DM Act, 2005)

“A continuous and integrated process of planning, organising, coordinating and implementing

measures which are necessary or expedient" for the following: 1) Prevention of danger or
threat of any disaster, 2) Mitigation or reduction of risk of any disaster or its severity or
consequences, 3) Capacity-building, 4) Preparedness to deal with any disaster, 5) Prompt
response to any threatening disaster situation or disaster, 6) Assessing the severity or
magnitude of effects of any disaster 7) Evacuation, rescue and relief, and 8) Rehabilitation
and reconstruction.”

Levels of Disasters
The disaster management and its planning at various tiers must take into account the
vulnerability of disaster-affected area, and the capacity of the authorities to deal with the
situation.

Level-L1: The level of disaster that can be managed within the capabilities and resources at
the District level. However, the state authorities will remain in readiness to provide assistance
if needed.
Level-L2: This signifies the disaster situations that require assistance and active mobilization
of resources at the state level and deployment of state level agencies for disaster management.
The central agencies must remain vigilant for immediate deployment if required by the state.

Level-L3: This corresponds to a nearly catastrophic situation or a very large-scale disaster

that overwhelms the State and District authorities.

Efforts to mitigate natural disasters at national and global levels

National Levels
India has been traditionally vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its unique
geo-climatic conditions. Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes and landslides have been a
recurrent phenomena. About 60% of the landmass is prone to earthquakes of various
intensities; over 40 million hectares is prone to floods; about 8% of the total area is prone to
cyclones and 68% of the area is susceptible to drought. In the decade 1990-2000, an
average of about 4344 people lost their lives and about 30 million people were affected by
disasters every year. The loss in terms of private, community and public assets has been
astronomical.
At the global level, there has been considerable concern over natural disasters.
Even as substantial scientific and material progress is made, the loss of lives and property
due to disasters has not decreased. In fact, the human toll and economic losses have
mounted. It was in this background that the United Nations General Assembly, in 1989,
declared the decade 1990-2000 as the International Decade for Natural Disaster
Reduction with the objective to reduce loss of lives and property and restrict socio-
economic damage through concerted international action, especially in developing
countries.
At the national level, the Ministry of Home Affairs is the nodal Ministry for all
matters concerning disaster management. The Central Relief Commissioner (CRC) in the
Ministry of Home Affairs is the nodal officer to coordinate relief operations for natural
disasters. The CRC receives information relating to forecasting/warning of a natural
calamity from India Meteorological Department (IMD) or from Central Water Commission
of Ministry of Water Resources on a continuing basis. The
Ministries/Departments/Organizations concerned with the primary and secondary functions
relating to the management of disasters include:
✓ India Meteorological Department,
✓ Central Water Commission,
✓ Ministry of Home Affairs,
✓ Ministry of Defense,
✓ Ministry of Finance,
✓ Ministry of Rural Development,
✓ Ministry of Urban Development,
✓ Department of Communications,
✓ Ministry of Health,
✓ Ministry of Water Resources,
✓ Department of Agriculture & Cooperation.
✓ Ministry of Power, Department of Civil Supplies,
 ✓ Ministry of Railways,
✓ Ministry of Information and Broadcasting,
✓ Department of Surface Transport,
✓ Ministry of Social Justice,
✓ Department of Women and Child Development,
✓ Ministry of Environment and Forest, & Climate change

Each Ministry/Department/Organization nominate their nodal officer to the Crisis

Management Group chaired by Central Relief Commissioner. The nodal officer is
responsible for preparing sectoral Action Plan/Emergency Support Function Plan for
managing disasters.

National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC)

The NCMC gives direction to the Crisis Management Group as deemed necessary.
The Secretary, Ministry of Home Affairs is responsible for ensuring that all developments
are brought to the notice of the NCMC promptly. The NCMC can give directions to any
Ministry/Department/Organization for specific action needed for meeting the crisis
situation.

Crisis Management Group

The Central Relief Commissioner in the Ministry of Home Affairs is the
Chairman of the CMG, consisting of senior officers (called nodal officers) from various
concerned Ministries. The CMG’s functions are to review every year contingency plans
formulated by various Ministries/Departments/Organizations in their respective
sectors, measures required for dealing with a natural disasters, coordinate the activities of
the Central Ministries and the State Governments in relation to disaster preparedness
and relief and to obtain information from the nodal officers on measures relating to above.
The CMG, in the event of a natural disaster, meets frequently to review the relief
operations and extend all possible assistance required by the affected States to overcome
the situation effectively. The Resident Commissioner of the affected State is also associated
with such meetings.

Control Room (Emergency Operation Room)

An Emergency Operations Center (Control Room) exists in the nodal Ministry of
Home Affairs, which functions round the clock, to assist the Central Relief Commissioner
in the discharge of his duties. The activities of the Control Room include collection and
transmission of information concerning natural calamity and relief, keeping close contact
with governments of the affected States, interaction with other Central
Ministries/Departments/Organizations in connection with relief, maintaining records
containing all relevant information relating to action points and contact points in Central
Ministries etc., keeping up-to-date details of all concerned officers at the Central and
State levels.
GLOBAL LEVELS
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
The UNDP was established in 1965 during the UN Decade of Development to
conduct investigations into private investment in developing countries, to explore the natural
resources of those countries, and to train the local population in development activities such
as mining and manufacturing. Historically, the UNDP was not considered an agency on the
forefront of the crisis and disaster management scene because, while they worked on
development issues, they did not focus specifically on emergency response systems,
considered to be the focal point of crisis and disaster management for many years.
The UNDP feels that vulnerability to disasters is strongly linked to a lack of or weak
infrastructure, poor environmental policy, misuse of land, and rising populations in areas that
are prone to repeat disasters. In many cases, these disasters can literally set a country back
years, if not decades, in terms of development achievement. For instance, the president of
Honduras has declared that the country has gone back to early 1950’s levels of development
due to the devastating effects of Hurricane Mitch. UNDP currently dedicates over 40% of its
resources to emergency relief operations.
United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA)
The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) was
created under the UN Secretary-General’s Program for Reform in 1998, to accommodate the
needs of victims of disasters and emergencies. Their specific role in the broad range of
disaster management tasks is to coordinate assistance provided by the UN system in
emergencies that exceed the capacity and mandate of any individual agency. The OCHA
response to disasters can be categorized under three main groupings, including the
coordination of the international humanitarian response, the provision of support and policy
development to the humanitarian community, and the advocating of humanitarian issues to
ensure that that the overall direction of relief reflects the general needs of recovery and peace-
building.
The Disaster Response System, established by OCHA, monitors the onset of natural
and technological disasters on a constant basis. This system includes the training of the
assessment teams before disasters strike, as well as evaluations conducted post-disaster.
When a disaster is identified, the OCHA response is activated, and a situation report is
generated to provide the international response community with detailed disaster-specific
information (which includes damage caused, actions taken, needs assessed, and current
assistance being provided). OCHA may then, if deemed necessary, deploy a UN Disaster
Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) team to assist in the coordination of relief activities
and help assess damages and needs.
The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)
In the situations of disaster or armed conflict where this is the case, UNICEF is well
poised to serve an immediate role as aid-provider to its specific target groups. This rapid
response is important, because young mothers and children are often the most marginalized
groups in terms of aid received. UNICEF works on a regular basis to ensure that children
have access to education, healthcare, safety, and protected child rights. In the response and
recovery periods of humanitarian emergencies, it is these roles that are merely expanded to
suit the rapidly extended requirements of victims. In countries where UNICEF has not yet
established a permanent presence, the form of aid is virtually the same, however the timing
and delivery are affected and reconstruction is not nearly as comprehensive.
UNICEF maintains that humanitarian assistance should include programs aimed specifically
for child victims. Relief projects generally work to provide a rapidly needed response in the
form of immunizations, water and sanitation, nutrition, education and health. Women are
recipients of this aid as well, because UNICEF considers them to be vital in the care of
children. UNICEF also works through recovery and reconstruction projects, providing for
the basic rights of children. UNICEF is currently working in 161 countries.

The World Food Programme (WFP)

In rapid onset events such as natural disasters, WFP is activated, as a major player in
the response to the immediate nutritional needs of the victims. Food is transported to the
affected location and delivered to storage and distribution centers. The distribution is carried
out according to pre-established needs-assessments performed by OCHA and UNDP. WFP
distributes food through contracted NGOs who have vast experience and technical skills
required to plan and implement such projects of transportation, storage and distribution. The
principal partners in their planning and implementation are the host governments (who must
request the aid of WFP to begin with, unless the situation is a complex humanitarian
emergency where there is no established government, and the UN Secretary General makes
the request). WFP works closely with all responding UN agencies to coordinate an effective
and broad reaching response, as food requirements are so closely linked to every other vital
need of victims.

World Health Organization (WHO)

In the event of a disaster, WHO responds in several ways that address the health of
victims. Most importantly, it provides ongoing monitoring of diseases traditionally observed
within the unsanitary conditions of disaster aftermath. WHO also provides technical
assistance to the responding agencies and host governments who are establishing disaster
medical capabilities, and serves as constant source of expertise as needs arise.

NATIONAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY (NDMA)

The Government of India established the NDMA in 2005, headed by the Prime
Minister. Under the DM Act 2005, the NDMA, as the apex body for disaster management,
shall have the responsibility for laying down the policies, plans, and guidelines for disaster
management for ensuring timely and effective response to disaster. The guidelines of
NDMA will assist the Central Ministries, Departments, and States to formulate their
respective DM plans. It will approve the National Disaster Management Plans and DM
plans of the Central Ministries / Departments. It will take such other measures, as it may
consider necessary, for the prevention of disasters, or mitigation, or preparedness and
capacity building, for dealing with a threatening disaster situation or disaster. Central
Ministries / Departments and State Governments will extend necessary cooperation and
assistance to NDMA for carrying out its mandate. It will oversee the provision and
application of funds for mitigation and preparedness measures.
NDMA has the power to authorise the Departments or authorities concerned, to make
emergency procurement of provisions or materials for rescue and relief in a threatening
disaster situation or disaster. The general superintendence, direction, and control of the
National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) is vested in and will be exercised by the NDMA.
The National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM) works within the framework of
broad policies and guidelines laid down by the NDMA. The NDMA has the mandate to deal
with all types of disasters – natural or human-induced. However, other emergencies such
as terrorism (counter-insurgency), law and order situations, hijacking, air accidents,
CBRN weapon systems, which require the close involvement of the security forces and/or
intelligence agencies, and other incidents such as mine disasters, port and harbour
emergencies, forest fires, oilfield fires and oil spills will be handled by the National
Crisis Management Committee (NCMC). Nevertheless, NDMA may formulate guidelines
and facilitate training and preparedness activities in respect of CBRN emergencies.
Concepts of disaster management

Pre-Independence, droughts and famines were the biggest killers in India. The
situation has changed due to a combination of factors like irrigation development, food
security measures. Floods, cyclones, droughts, landslides, avalanches and earthquakes are
some of the major natural disasters that repeatedly and increasingly affect the country.
Disaster Management Cycle
Disaster Risk Management includes sum total of all activities, programmes and
measures which can be taken up before, during and after a disaster with the purpose to avoid
a disaster, reduce its impact or recover from its losses.
1. Before a disaster (pre-disaster)
Such risk reduction measures taken under this stage are termed as mitigation and
preparedness activities.
2. During a disaster (disaster occurrence)
Initiatives taken to ensure that the needs and provisions of victims are met and
suffering is minimized. Activities taken under this stage are called emergency response
activities.
3. After a disaster (post-disaster)
Initiatives taken in response to a disaster with a purpose to achieve early recovery and
rehabilitation of affected communities, immediately after a disaster strikes. These are called
as response and recovery activities.
In 1989, the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed the decade 1999-
2000 as the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR). At the World
Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction in the city of Yokohama, Japan in 1994, deep
concern was expressed at the continuing human suffering and disruption of development due
to natural disasters and a Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safe World was
developed. This was a definitive step in Disaster Mitigation and Preparedness Planning.
Basic concepts of Emergency Management - The basic concept suggests that the same
management strategies can be applied to all emergencies. Emergencies do not just appear one
day, rather they exist throughout time and have a life-cycle of occurrence, and hence the
management strategy should match the phases of an emergency in order to mitigate, prepare,
respond and recover from its effect. There are four phases in Emergency Management
• Mitigation,
• Preparedness,
• Response and
 • Recovery

The four phases are visualized as having a circular relationship to each other
(Emergency Management Cycle). The activities in one phase may overlap those in the
previous one. Comprehensive and integrated approach is in general adopted to the
development of disaster management arrangements. Disaster management arrangements are
developed in accordance with these concepts.
The four broad approaches are :
a) all hazards approach
b) comprehensive approach
c) all agencies approach and
d) a prepared community
The ‘all hazards approach’
The all hazards approach refers to the development of arrangements for managing the
large range of possible effects of risks and disasters. This concept is useful to the extent that a
large range of risks can cause similar consequences, and such measures as warning,
evacuation, medical services and community recovery will be required during and following
emergencies. Many risks will, however, require specific response and recovery measures, and
will almost certainly require specific prevention and mitigation measures.
The comprehensive approach
The comprehensive approach, which embraces synergies and efficiencies across
prevention, preparedness, response and recovery, provides an overarching framework for
disaster management in general and disaster response in particular. Whilst this plan focuses
exclusively on response, it is understood that response occurs within a continuum that
includes prevention and preparedness as well as recovery. This Annexure complements the
plan by defining the elements of a comprehensive approach.
The ‘all agencies approach’
The ‘all agencies approach’ recognises that no single agency can prepare for, and deal
with the disruption to community life and infrastructure that can result from a disaster event.
The ‘all agencies approach’ involves effectively coordinating the activities of the large
number of organizations and agencies that are required to contribute to the PPRR spectrum
within and across all levels of Government.
The ‘all agencies approach’ recognizes the need for coordination arrangements,
containing input of Australian government, State and Local governments, to be articulated
and set within a legislative and public policy framework. The arrangements must reflect the
disaster management responsibilities of all agencies within the context of community safety
and sustainability. All agencies need to have an understanding of the disaster management
policy frameworks and arrangements that apply in their areas of responsibility. Some
agencies will have a primary role in only one of the components of the PPRR spectrum, but
most can be expected to have a secondary or support role in others.

A prepared community
In a disaster situation, individual and community “self-help” can often provide the
most readily available and effective relief, as assistance from external sources may be limited
or delayed by other demands on resources. Local government and community organisations
provide the basis for organising effective and immediately available community resources.
Local volunteer organisations, when effectively integrated into local disaster
management arrangements, can be of vital assistance in giving access to community
resources and expertise, and also act as a link in the essential information chain between
Local government, disaster management agencies and the community.
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) was created in
December 1999. The successor to the secretariat of the International Decade for Natural
Disaster Reduction, it was established to ensure the implementation of the International
Strategy for Disaster Reduction (General Assembly (GA) resolution 54/219). UNISDR is led
by a United Nations Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Disaster Risk
Reduction (SRSG) and has over 100 staff located in its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland,
5 regional offices (Africa: Nairobi, the Americas: Panama City, Arab States: Cairo, Asia-
Pacific: Bangkok and Europe: Brussels) and other field presences in Addis Ababa, Almaty,
Bonn, Incheon, Kobe, New York-UN Headquarters, Rio de Janeiro and Suva. UNISDR is
part of the United Nations Secretariat and its functions span the social, economic,
environmental as well as humanitarian fields. UNISDR supports the implementation, follow-
up and review of the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction adopted by the Third
UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction on 18 March 2015 in Sendai, Japan.
UNISDR coordinates international efforts in Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) and guide,
monitor as well as report regularly on the progress of the implementation of the Sendai
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, following the Hyogo Framework for Action. It
convenes the biennial Global Platform on Disaster Risk Reduction with leaders and decision
makers to advance risk reduction policies and supports the establishment of regional, national
and thematic platforms.

Financial arrangements
The policy and the f u n d i n g m e c h a n i s m f o r provision of relief assistance to
those affected by natural calamities is clearly laid down. These are reviewed by the Finance
Commission appointed by the Government of India every five years. The Finance
Commission makes recommendation regarding the division of tax and non-tax revenues
between the Central and the State Governments and also regarding policy for provision
of relief assistance and their share of expenditure thereon. A Calamity Relief Fund (CRF)
has been set up in each State as per the recommendations of the Eleventh Finance
Commission. The size of the Calamity Relief Fund has been fixed by the finance
Commission after taking into account the expenditure on relief and rehabilitation over the
past 10 years. The Government of India contributes 75% of the corpus of the Calamity
Relief Fund in each State. 25% is contributed to by the State. Relief assistance to those
affected by natural calamities is granted from the CRF. Overall norms for relief assistance
are laid down by a national committee with representatives of States as members.
Different States can have State- specific norms to be recommended by State level committee
under the Chief Secretary. Where the calamity is of such proportion that the funds available
in the CRF will not be sufficient for provision of relief, the State seeks assistance from the
National Calamity Contingency Fund (NCCF) - a fund created at the Central Government
level. When such requests are received, the requirements are assessed by a team from the
Central Government and thereafter the assessed requirements are cleared by a High Level
Committee chaired by the Deputy Prime Minister. In brief, the institutional arrangements
for response and relief are well- established and have proved to be robust and effective.
At the State level, response, relief and rehabilitation are handled by Departments of
Relief & Rehabilitation. The State Crisis Management Committee set up under the
Chairmanship of Chief Secretary who is the highest executive functionary in the State. All
the concerned Departments and organizations of the State and Central Government
Departments located in the State are represented in this Committee. This Committee
reviews the action taken for response and relief and gives guidelines/directions as
necessary. A control room is established under the Relief Commissioner. The control room
is in constant touch with the climate monitoring/forecasting agencies and monitors the
action being taken by various age.
When a disaster strikes, the Authority will coordinate disaster management activities.
The Authority will be responsible for
i) Coordinating/mandating Government’s policies for disaster
reduction/mitigation.
ii) Ensuring adequate preparedness at all levels in order to meet disasters.
iii) Coordinating response to a disaster when it strikes.
iv) Coordination of post disaster relief and rehabilitation.
State Disaster Response Fund
The State Disaster Response Fund shall be used only for meeting the expenditure for
providing immediate relief to the victims of cyclone, drought, earthquake, fire, flood,
tsunami, hailstorm, landslide, avalanche, cloud burst, pest attack, frost and cold wave.
While the state can draw from State Disaster Response Fund for the emergency response
and relief, there are provisions to adjust a portion of the expense against funds released
from National Disaster Response Fund between the fiscal in which National Disaster
Response Fund is released and the expenses incurred by state in the previous fiscal under
State Disaster Response Fund. The state-specific disasters within the local context in the
State, which are not included in the notified list of disasters eligible for assistance from
State Disaster Response Fund and National Disaster Response Fund, can be met from State
Disaster Response Fund within the limit of 10 percent of the annual funds allocation of
the State Disaster Response Fund.
Lec. No: 27. Role of NGOs, community-based organizations, and media on
disaster Management, Central, State, District and local
Administration
NGOs are organizations that are nonprofit making, voluntary and independent of
government, engaged in activities concerning various societal and developmental issues. The
NGO sector has always been very vibrant in India, and is based on the concept of
volunteerism and care for the fellow citizens. NGOs play a significant role in slow onset
disasters such as droughts, through work that is developmental and at the same time reduces
risk as well as responding to the relief needs. Many organizations also undertake disaster
management (DM) activities, as a core area of ongoing work in the case of some agencies
while some others participate only in post disaster response when the communities they work
with face sudden emergencies. A very large number of NGOs, both international and
national, have significantly large field presence that often extend across a number of states.
They are well organized in terms of operations, administration and finances. Their work is
complemented by local and community based organizations, which are more spontaneous
and informal in nature, and work at the grass-root levels often from within communities.
The coordination of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) among themselves and
with government agencies has been improving over the years and NGOs have made
significant contributions in most of the recent disasters. The number of internationally
operating NGOs is estimated at 40,000. National numbers are even higher: Russia has
277,000 NGOs; India is estimated to have around 3.3 million NGOs in year 2009 that is one
NGO for less than 400 Indians, and many times the number of primary schools and primary
health centres in India. After the Indian Ocean Tsunami in December 2004, in Nagapattinam
in Tamil Nadu, more than 500 NGOs responding to the Tsunami came together as the NGO
Coordination and Resource Centre (NCRC) to collect, collate, and share information.

Role of NGOs in Disaster Preparedness General Action Points for NGOs

i. The potential of utilizing existing organizational networks like SHGs, youth groups,
farmers groups, village health committees, village education committees, etc for creating
greater public awareness on strengthening disaster preparedness at the local levels can be
explored by NGOs very effectively.

ii. The NGOs can contribute immensely as facilitators to introduce the thematic expertise and
good practices as well as results of action research, policy interventions and knowledge
management in the implementation of government programmes through large social
mobilization exercises.

Role of NGOs for Persons with Disabilities (PWDs)

i. When resource mapping is carried out, resources specific to PWDs should also be
identified. These may include accessible disabled-friendly drinking water and sanitation
sources, accessible disabled-friendly shelters, volunteers to provide physical and
psychological support, rehabilitation centres, emergency healthcare and hospital services for
injured persons, special schools or schools that include children with disabilities, etc. NGOs
must address the specific needs of PWDs during the preparedness phase. They should
prepare a resource inventory taking into consideration three areas of disability: physical,
sensory (hearing, speech, vision) and mental or intellectual.
ii. During Preparedness phase, NGOs should advocate for participatory processes to plan
for possible relief camp locations in the event of disaster. All locations including existing
social institutions such as schools, large halls, community multi-purpose centres or stadia that
may be used as shelter sites, should be made accessible to all community members using the
universal standard design of accessibility (such as building ramps, installing handrails,
modifying water and sanitation sources and making other necessary disabled friendly
modifications) to ensure that the sites will be accessible to all. PWDs should be included in
this participatory consultative process to ensure that their needs are adequately addressed.

NGOs at National, State and District level

NGOs will play following roles for disaster preparedness at national, state, district and
community level by
i. Facilitate formation of NGO taskforces and other task forces and participate in the same.
They will advocate for formal and institutionalized engagement and develop protocols for
consultative status with NDMA, Planning Commission, Finance Commission, National
Executive Committee, SDMA, State Planning Boards, State Executive Committees and
such other bodies.
ii. Assist in development, piloting, validation and updating of national level contingency and
preparedness plans.
iii. Facilitate and participate in training and mock drills of different stakeholders and facilitate
detailed assessment of current needs and capacities at state levels.
iv. Establish linkages with authorities for hazard monitoring and provide last mile
connectivity for early warning dissemination.
v. Facilitate & establish mechanisms for public information broadcasting before & during
disasters; collect, manage & process data during & after disaster; and research & promote
good practice development / adoption.

Community Based Organizations (CBO)

CBO is all such organization, institutions or congregation of people, which have local
area/village based presence, maturity and structural arrangements. These are owned and
managed by members. They are formal, legal entity or informal registered organizations
maintaining separate books of accounts, systems and ways of working. They have group
identity membership. They should not be affiliated to any religious, political or
parties/groups. Effective and successful disaster reduction initiatives are often attributed to
the spontaneous participation of the communities and involvement of the people. In most
cases, it is observed that the community initiatives produce results so long as there are
external supports from the government, nongovernment and/or international organizations.
The term “Community-Based Disaster Management” (CBDM) received attention in the
development field in the 1980s, although community-based disaster initiatives were already
on-going in different parts of the world in formal or informal ways. It was mainly the
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), which were conducting the CBDM projects at
different scales and with different stakeholders. In due course, selected donor agencies,
international NGOs, and regional/ international organizations initiated different CBDM
programmes, and thus the activities received national and international attention.
For decades, it was a common notion that grass-roots/community initiatives were the
responsibilities of the NGOs. Thus, there were very few attempts made to incorporate the
CBDM initiatives in national-level policy or international-level commitments.
Consequently, the major challenges of the CBDM were:
1) sustainability of the efforts at the community level, and
 2) in-corporation of CBDM issues at the policy level.
To be effective and to create a sustainable impact, the application of the CBDM must
go beyond the initiative of communities, NGOs and a handful of local governments. As part
of an advocacy for more responsive and effective governance, national and state level
governments should look at integrating CBDM in their policy and implementing procedures.
The United Nations Centre for Regional Development (UNCRD) Disaster
Management Planning Hyogo Office has incorporated CBDM as its main emphasis area of
operation under the overall organizational mandate of sustainable regional development and
human security. To study the sustainability issues of CBDM, the UNCRD Hyogo Office has
formulated a three-year project, with specific emphasis on the Asian region. This User’s
Guide is the first step in the process of institutionalization of CBDM.
The purpose of the Guide is to provide a simplified and general set of guidelines and
tools for different users: Policymakers, National Disaster Managers, Local Disaster
Managers, Trainers, and Community Workers. This User’s Guide is based on the selected
experiences from Asian countries, and attempts have been made to generalize it for wider
application. We understand very clearly that each country and community has its own local
characteristic with different social, economic, political, religious, and cultural context.
Therefore, the User’s Guide needs to be adopted to the local context.

Role of media in Disaster management

The media can educate and forewarn the people about the consequences of their
dangerous actions and operations. The impending occurrence of some natural disasters
whether induced by the Man’ actions or otherwise, can now be known sufficiently in
advance, thanks to the advances in science and technology. The media, by communicating
the information to the people and the concerned authorities sufficiently in advance, can
enable them to take the necessary steps to prevent and minimize the losses of lives and
property.
While the disaster is on, the media can also play the role of relaying the measures that
are being taken and monitoring them, cautioning the affected or to be affected people about
the Do’s and Don’t s, of scotching rumors and preventing panic and confusion, of
establishing contacts, of identifying the needy spots and focusing attention on them, and
generally by assisting the authorities, voluntary organizations and volunteers in reaching,
informing and assuring the affected ones of the assistance and the measures taken, for their
relief. During the onslaught of the disaster, what is of utmost importance is to keep the
morale of the people high, to create self-confidence in them, to prevent panic and to maintain
order by assuring and making available the necessary help readily and quickly. The media
can help, in many ways in ensuring these conditions.

What media do?

The media can educate the public’s about disaster prevention and preparedness. The
media can link scientists, disaster mitigation officials and the public. The media can provide
analytical materials for future prevention. The media can remove the myth that disaster is
caused by God’s wrath. The role of the media is to provide a vital link among the people and
the state. The media must help to co-ordinate government activities and operations so that
both the receivers and givers of information they publish are served adequately. There should
be no shortfalls or serious contradictions within the media. The media need to have proper
liaison and lack of it could lead to destruction, disaster, and duplication of efforts leading to
wastage of public funds. The media should provide the nation with useful important
information on the state of the country as well as the outside world.
Role of local media
Local media have not been exempted to lack of skills, structure and capacity to
adequately cover disaster news. What makes it even worse is the sour relationship that the
media has with law enforcement agents, and disaster management units. The two have never
enjoyed a good marriage. The media and disaster management agencies need each other to
perform their functions better. Information needs to be presented responsibly and timely.
The media should not just report on what has happened and what is being done. The media
should analyse what is not being done and prescribes what should be done.

Role of Central, State, District and local Administration on disasters Management

In general, the basis for disaster works implementation depends on two categories of disaster-
related data:
I. Pre-disaster baseline data about the country and risks; and
II. Post-disaster real-time data about the impact of a disaster and the resources
available to combat it.
• Components of a National Disaster Management Information System
Hazard Assessment Mapping
Vulnerability Assessment
Demographic Distribution
Infrastructure, Lifelines and Critical Facilities
Logistics and Transportation Routes
Human and Material Response Resources
Communication Facilities
The usage of Disaster Management Information Systems (DMIS) would be in 3 contexts
(1) Preparedness planning, (2) Mitigation and Response & (3) Recovery
As an example let us consider earthquake
Inventory of Activities for Earthquake
I. Planning and Preparation
1. Identification of Earthquake Prone Areas
2. Identification of Problems
3. Identification and Mobilization of Resources
4. Command and Control
5. Advance Preparatory Action

II. After an Earthquake

The primary relief functions of the Central Government would relate to:
1. Maintenance of uninterrupted communication;
2. Wide publicity for disaster preparedness and relief measures through TV, AIR and
Newspapers;
3. Transport with particular reference to evacuation and movement of essential
commodities and petroleum products;
4. Ensuring availability of essential commodities at reasonable prices particularly the
commodities through the Public Distribution System;
5. Ensuring availability of medicines, vaccine and drugs;
6. Preservation and restoration of physical communication links;
7. Investments in infrastructure such as building shelters, temporary latrines, road,
electricity etc.
8. Mobilisation of financial resources.
The secondary functions of the Central Government which supplement the States’ relief
efforts are:

1. Relief, rehabilitation and restoration through military aid to civil authorities;

2. Contingency plans for crops, cattle preservation nutrition and health measures;
3. Technical and technological inputs for provision of drinking water;
4. Technical assistance in the water budgeting and water management for various
uses; and
5. Coordination of the activities of the State agencies and voluntary agencies.
Disaster management system in India
In Government of India, the Ministry of Agriculture is the nodal ministry for disaster
management. There are many other ministries involved in the disaster response operations.
The following table shows the Nodal Ministries/ Departments of the Government of India.

Departments and Ministries of the Govt. of India responsible for Disaster Management
Disaster Nodal Ministries
The management mechanism of the country includes
✓ Integrated Administrative Machinery,
✓ National Contingency Action Plan - identify initiatives by various agencies,
Department of Agriculture & Cooperation - the Nodal Department,
✓ Central Relief Commissioner - Chief Nodal Officer at National level,
State/District Contingency Plans and
✓ Relief Manuals.
The main departments and the officiating heads include
✓ National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC) under Cabinet Secretary,
✓ Crisis Management Group (CMG) under Central Relief Commissioner, Group
of Ministers, Group of Secretaries and
✓ High Level Committees - Need base, Department of Agriculture &
Cooperation – the Nodal Department Coordinates National and International efforts,
Operation of Krishi Control Room.

National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC) Crisis Management Group

Control Room (Emergency Operation Room): An Emergency Operations Center (Control
Room) exists in the nodal Ministry of Home Affairs, which functions round the clock, to
assist the Central Relief Commissioner in the discharge of his duties. The activities of the
Control Room include collection and transmission of information concerning natural
calamity and relief, keeping close contact with governments of the affected States, interaction
with other Central Ministries/Departments/Organizations in connection with relief,
maintaining records containing all relevant information relating to action points and contact
points in Central Ministries etc., keeping up-to-date details of all concerned officers at the
Central and State levels.

Contingency Action Plan

State Relief Manuals: Each State Government has relief manuals/codes which identify that
role of each officer in the State for managing the natural disasters. These are reviewed and
updated periodically based on the experience of managing the disasters and the need of the
State.
Funding mechanisms
The efforts of the Government and non-governmental organizations for response and relief
are coordinated by the Collector/Dy. Commissioner. The District Magistrate/Collector and
Coordination Committee under him reviews preparedness measures prior to an impending
hazard and coordinate response when the hazard strikes. As all the Departments of the State
Government and district level report to the Collector, there is an effective coordination
mechanism ensuring holistic response.
Some major Institutes in India
✓ Disaster Management Institute, Bhopal, M.P.
✓ Disaster Mitigation Institute, Ahmedabad, Gujarat
✓ Environment Protection Training and Research Institute, Hyderabad
✓ Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority (GSDMA):
✓ Joint Assistance Centre, Gurgaon, Haryana
✓ Centre for Disaster Management (CDM), Pune, Maharastra
✓ Sikkim Manipal University of Health, Medical and Technological Sciences,
Tadong,Gangtok, Sikkim
✓ PRT Institute of Post Graduate Environmental Education & Research, New
Delhi
✓ Central Board of Secondary Education, New Delhi
✓ Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi

✓ National Civil Defence College, Nagpur, Maharastra

 Lec. No: 28 Role of Central, State, District and Local administration in disaster
management

The country has an integrated administrative machinery for management of disasters

at the National, State, District and Sub-District levels. The basic responsibility of undertaking
rescue, relief and rehabilitation measures in the event of natural disasters, as at present, is that
of the State Governments concerned. The Central Government supplements the efforts of the
States by providing financial and logistic support.
Central Level
The dimensions of response at the level of the Central Government are determined in
accordance with the existing policy of financing relief expenditure and keeping in view the
factors like:
(i) the gravity of a natural disaster;
(ii) the scale of the relief operation necessary; and
(iii) the requirements of Central assistance for augmenting financial resources and logistic
support at the disposal of the State Government.
The Contingency Action Plan (CAP) identifies initiatives required to be taken by
various Central Ministries and Public Departments in the wake of natural calamities. It sets
down the procedures and determines the focal points in the administrative machinery to
facilitate launching of relief and rescue operations without delay.
The Ministry of Home Affairs is the nodal Ministry for coordination of relief and
response and overall natural disaster management, and the Department of Agriculture &
Cooperation is the nodal Ministry for drought management. Other Ministries are assigned the
responsibility of providing emergency support in case of disasters that fall in their purview as
indicated in Table.

Nodal Ministry for Management / Mitigation of Different Disasters

The following decision-making and standing bodies are responsible for disaster management
at the Central level:
• Union Cabinet, headed by the Prime Minister.
• Empowered Group of Ministers, headed by the Deputy Prime Minister
• National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC), under the chairmanship of the
Cabinet Secretary.
• Crisis Management Group (CMG): under the chairmanship of the Central Relief
Commissioner comprising senior officers from the various Ministries and other concerned
Departments which reviews contingency plans, measures required for dealing with a natural
disaster, and co-ordinates the activities of the Central Ministries and the State Governments
in relation to disaster preparedness response and relief.
• Technical Organizations, such as the Indian Meteorological Department
(cyclone/earthquake), Central Water Commission (floods), Building and Material Promotion
Council (construction laws), Bureau of Indian Standards (norms), Defence Research &
Development Organization (nuclear/biological), Directorate General Civil Defence provide
specific technical support to coordination of disaster response and management functions.
• The setting up of a National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is being
contemplated by the Ministry of Home Affairs as the proposed apex structure within the
government for the purpose. Amongst other major organizational initiatives, it is proposed to:
(a) establish a specialised and earmarked response team for dealing with nuclear/
biological/chemical disasters;
(b) establish search and rescue teams in each State;
(c) strengthen communication systems in the North Eastern Region.
State Government
The responsibility to cope with natural disasters is essentially that of the State
Government. The role of the Central Government is supportive in terms of supplementation
of physical and financial resources. The Chief Secretary of the State heads a state level
committee which is in overall charge of the relief operations in the State and the Relief
Commissioners who are in charge of the relief and rehabilitation measures in the wake of
natural disasters in their States function under the overall direction and control of the state
level committee. In many states, Secretary, Department of Revenue, is also in-charge of
relief. State Governments usually have relief manuals and the districts have their contingency
plan that is updated from time to time.
Contingency Action Plan

State Relief Manuals: Each State Government has relief manuals/codes which identify that
role of each officer in the State for managing the natural disasters. These are reviewed and
updated periodically based on the experience of managing the disasters and the need of the
State.
State-level disaster management - basic institutional framework
District and Local Level
The district administration is the focal point for implementation of all governmental
plans and activities. The actual day-to-day function of administering relief is the
responsibility of the Collector/ District Magistrate/Deputy Commissioner who exercises
coordinating and supervising powers over all departments at the district level. Though it may
not be a common phenomenon, there exists by and large in districts also a district level relief
committee consisting of officials and non- officials.

The 73rd and 74th constitutional amendments recognise Panchayati Raj Institutions as
‘Institutions of self- government’. The amendment has also laid down necessary guidelines
for the structure of their composition, powers, functions, devolution of finances, regular
holding of elections and reservation of seats for weaker sections including women. These
local bodies can be effective instruments in tackling disasters through early warning system,
relief distribution, providing shelter to the victims, medical assistance etc.

Other than the national, state, district and local levels, there are various institutional
stakeholders who are involved in disaster management at various levels in the country. These
include the police and para-military forces, civil defence and home-guards, fire services, ex-
servicemen, nongovernment organisations (NGOs), public and private sector enterprises,
media and HAM operators, all of whom have important roles to play.
 Lec. No. 29. Armed forces, police and other organizations in Disaster
response: Policies for disaster Management
Armed Force and Police in Disaster Response
Police as first responder:
The onslaught of the unsparing Tsunami on December 26, 2004 was unprecedented
and unimaginable, catching us unawares in the Andaman & Nicobar Islands. This was a
classic case where the police personnel were themselves sufferers of the Tsunami yet had to
cast away tremors of the horrific spell from their minds and take over the role as first
responders to manage the Disaster. The experience has brought about a paradigm shift in the
role of Police, adding yet another important dimension of Disaster Management apart from
law and order maintenance and prevention and detection of crime. Police Wireless, the
solitary life-line to the Southern Group of Islands, suffered badly and communication links to
several Islands were snapped. The experience has brought about newer insights into the need
to upgrade our communication systems to overcome the geographical constraints in the form
of isolated and dispersed islands.
Maintaining basic resources at all locations with regular training and rehearsals to
carry out search & rescue operations to save the injured and to dispose of the dead bodies to
prevent spread of epidemics, mapping of vulnerable areas and escape routes, building
mechanisms of early warning, educating the public in safety measures, etc. are added
components to the Police functioning. The role of Police becomes very eminent as a law and
order interface vis-à-vis the social welfare assistance to the community with a human face.
The psyche of the members of the Police Force is to be fine-tuned to the needs during such
times. A strong police presence in both situations (natural and manmade) can help ease
victims' fears and help prevent others from taking advantage of the disaster situation. In the
following situations, their role is crucial as stated.
Crowd Control
Disaster situations draw in crowds. There will be some people hoping for a glimpse of
the unfolding drama. Family members and friends of the victims will be show up, hoping to
glean information about their loved ones. The people involved in the situation will also be
milling around, sometimes while injured or in shock. The police will cordon off areas and
work to keep crowds under control.
Public Safety
Officers might go from house to house searching for the injured or needy. They can
offer transportation, emergency medical care, and be a bridge between citizens and rescue
personnel. They can check the credentials to see if someone really needs to be in the area.
They can warn people when electric wires are on the ground, when dangerous pests are
lurking around or when unstable people are nearby.
Directing Traffic
Many disasters wipe out infrastructures such as electricity, making an unsafe situation
for both traffic and pedestrians. The police can close unsafe roads where downed wires, trees
or flood situations might make travel unsafe. They can direct citizens through non-working
traffic lights. They can re-route random traffic to safer roads and try to keep out all
unnecessary traffic away. They can put roadblocks in the areas where the crisis is still
underway.
Organizing Search Teams

Disaster situations often lead to family members being separated from each other.
Elderly and single people are at risk if they have no one to check on them. If these citizens
randomly wander around, chaos can result. The police can set up search teams and put
together systems where loved ones can check on each other. They can set up command
centers where the victims and family can be reunited. They can also work with emergency
personnel to list the various medical facilities used for treating sick or injured people.
Looters
Unfortunately, there are always those who will take advantage of a chaotic situation.
When people are evacuated from their homes or neighborhoods, houses are left unsupervised
and opportunities to commit crime can be rampant. Police presence can help to ensure that
looting doesn't happen. When looting does occur, the police will be ready to apprehend and
arrest the suspects.
Envisaged role of IAF in disaster management
From the underlying fact associated with each disaster, the role of armed forces can be
well understood. But for the intervention of Indian Air Force, the death toll in each disaster
would have been much higher. The role played by IAF during a spate of disasters affecting
the Northern States in particular and the country in general is commendable. The details of
airlift of essential life sustaining commodities, and evacuation of personnel & civilians
airlifted by Transport and Helicopter fleet of IAF during few of the disasters which struck the
country is enumerated below
Total
S.No Disaster Date/s Persons
1. J&K Snow Avalanche Jan To Mar 05 46904
2. Banihal Pass Feb 2005 41918
3. Flash Flood in Jammu/Udhampur 06 Jul 2005 164
1028
4. Floods in Himachal Pradesh Jun 05 Including
67 foreigners
Importance & Role of IAF in Disaster Management
The military resources of any country are probably those best organized and managed
to provide support to a full range of public services such as public works, communications,
transport, health and emergency medical services, rescue and support activities. They can
react quickly and respond rapidly in a fully self contained, self-sufficient and highly mobile
fashion. Defence personnel are well trained in the individual skills necessary to perform their
professional and functional activities and are practical in collaboration and coordinated action
under an integrated/flexible management system. Thus there is enormous potential inherent in
defence organizations to serve as an additional instrument for effective delivery of
emergencyassistance. The rehabilitation effort at Urusa village near Uri which was done
exclusively by IAF is an apt example of co-ordinated operation launched for rescue and
rehabilitation of the earthquake victims.
Analysis and Capacity Building in IAF
Consequent to the enactment of the Disaster Management Act 2005, by the
Parliament. The existing system of disaster management in the country is in the process of
undergoing a transformation from a relief-oriented approach to a more comprehensive
emphasis on disaster management. There has been a gradual process of evolution and growth
and a determined effort to overcome the perceived weaknesses in the system. This has also
been strengthened by the widespread concern at the devastation caused by disasters in recent
years and the resolve to prevent it future.
(a) Constitutional and Legal Framework
(b) Organizational Structures/Institutional Mechanisms
(c) Funding and Infrastructure Support
(d) Preparedness Measure

Disaster Response And Role Of The Armed Forces

In disaster situations, relief, rescue and response operations have to be undertaken
immediately and in the most appropriate manner. The development oriented civil
administration is presently not well equipped for undertake large scale disaster response
activities in the event of major and wide spread disasters. The Indian Armed Forces are one
of the most dedicated, professional and modernized armed forces in the world. They have
made rapid strides in technology development and are adequately equipped with the
necessary technical competence, man power and material resources to undertake any major
disaster rescue and response operations. The Armed Forces are always in a state of
operational readiness to move quickly to any disaster affected area and their ability to work
under adverse ground & climatic conditions is of immense help to any civil authority during
disaster situations. So far in India, the role' played by the Armed Forces & other specialized
forces during disaster rescue and response operations has been exemplary. In view of
increased frequency of disasters, the Armed Forces will continue to play a major role in
providing rescue and response operations in the disaster situations in the years to come. Since
the Government of India has decided to implement the Incident Command System (ICS) with
in the Indian system of disaster management, there is a greater need for institutionalizing the
Incident Command systems and strengthening professional approach towards disaster
response activities in addition to emerging coordination and cooperation between various
agencies and organizations. The Armed Forces and other specialized forces have to be
mandated to play an important role in disaster rescue and response operations. The Armed
Forces & other Para-military forces during disaster response operations in which their
services can be better utilized. It also indicates the necessary guidelines to the civil authorities
while utilizing the services of the Armed Forces persolll1el and various measures to ensure
greater co-ordination and enhance efficiency during disaster response operations.
International Humanitarian Assistance by the Military
The year 2005 saw a considerable increase in the involvement by the military in
international relief assistance in natural disasters, in particular in the Indian Ocean
Earthquake and Tsunami as well as the South Asia Earthquake. These two major disasters
tested not only the international coordination system, but also the cooperation among nations
in the region. It is therefore necessary to achieve a clear understanding of key issues relevant
to military assistance in support of humanitarian emergency operations and evolve plans and
arrangements in support of the effort. For this it is necessary to identify the key issues
affecting military assistance in support of humanitarian emergency operations.
• Methodology for nations to assist in emergencies.
• The nature of emergencies.
• Issues of coordination in extending assistance for emergencies.
• Suggestions to improve emergency response
Disaster Response and Role of Armed Forces, Para-Military and Other Specialized
Forces
Disaster Response Management is a Multi-Agency function coordinated at a nodal
point for effective delivery of relief to the victims of a disaster. The community is always the
first responder to a disaster situation being proximate to disaster sites. However, devastations
caused by disasters resulting in disruption of essential infrastructure and services limit the
coping capacity of the community to the situation. The capability of an affected community is
required to be reinforced by the Civil Administration who look for a cadre of specialists,
trained, disciplined and dedicated personnel who can render relief and response services in
best of the manner in worst of the situations. The armed forces and central paramilitary forces
are found to be the most suited for such situations.
The devastating natural calamities cause situations of chaos and require adept
handling by the response agencies. The demanding tasks have to be performed in most
difficult situations and therefore the need for assistance of armed and para military forces
arise. The Armed Forces/Central Para Military Forces have traditionally been always
responding to the need to render yeomen service to the affected. In a country with enormous
dimensions and a geographical variety like India, emergency/disaster situations and natural
calamites calls for the Armed Forces/Central Para Military Forces involved in rescue and
relief work as these are spread all across the country and equipped with all wherewithals to
meet the requirement. The effectiveness of disaster response largely depends on the swift
alacrity to which the response and relief measures are mounted. A trigger mechanism for
response, which demands alertness and being active all times are considered to be the
essential elements. Armed Forces and Central Para Military Forces who meet these
requirements are called upon to assist the civil administration in evacuation and shifting of
people to the safer places, rescue of stranded people, setting up of relief camps, distribution
of essential commodities and providing other logistical support such as restoration of
communication, road and bridges among other things.
The Central Government has invariably deployed the Air Force helicopter/Army
boats, Army columns, Central Para Military Forces and Medical Teams from the Armed
Forces to assist the affected States in rescue and relief operations. Military aircrafts have
always been used in transportation of essential commodities from far of places in short span
of time. The Government of India has also deployed naval ships, military aircrafts, mobile
hospitals etc. to render assistance to the neighboring countries hit by natural calamities.
Prompt mobilization of essential commodities and other resources for disaster response has
been forte of Armed Forces/Central Para Military Forces.
For the reasons stated above, whether it was devastating Bhuj earthquake of 26th
January 2001 or Tsunami of December 26th, 2004, the Armed Forces/Central Para Military
Forces were the first one to respond to the situations and assist the civil administration in
providing succor to the affected people.
Realizing the importance of service rendered by the Armed Forces/Central Para
Military Forces, the Government of India has decided to set up National Disaster Response
Force (NDRF) consisting of 8 battalions of Central Police Forces. There will be a total of 144
specialist response teams consisting of 45 personnel each. 72 of these 144 specialist response
teams will also be trained and equipped for responding to nuclear, biological and chemical
related emergencies. One team in each battalion will also be trained in deep sea diving for the
purpose of search and rescue during floods and cyclones. The process for training and
equipping of NDRF is already under progress.
Organizations in Disaster Response
When contributing to relief efforts through financial gifts or by donating relief
supplies, it's important that you do your own careful research first, and give to reputable,
well-established relief organization. This will ensure that your gift makes the best possible
impact toward relief. Here are a few trustworthy organizations to consider. Small Grants
Programme (SGP), funded by the United Nation Development Program (UNDP), Global
Environment Facility (GEF), seeks to support initiatives, which demonstrate community-
based innovative, gender sensitive, participatory approaches and lessons learned from other
development projects that lead to reduce threats to the local and global environment.
The GEF SGP was launched in 1991 by United Nations Development Program
(UNDP) to assist developing countries in fulfilling their commitment towards the protection
of the global environment. The Programme is sourced with a belief that global environmental
problems can only be addressed adequately if local people are involved in planning, decision
making and sharing roles and responsibilities at all levels. Even with small amounts of
funding communities can undertake activities, which will make "Significant Difference" in
their Livelihoods and environment. GEF UNDP SGP is currently working in 114 countries
worldwide. The program started in India from the year 1996-1997.
The UNDP and Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), Government of India
(GOI) administers Small Grants Programme (SGP). It is being implemented by Centre for
Environment Education (CEE) as the National Host Institution (NHI) since September 2000.
CEE is a national level institution supported by Ministry of Environment and Forest,
Government of India as a centre of excellence, and affiliated to the Nehru Foundation for
Development, Ahmedabad. CEE has its presence felt in all the states and Union Territories of
India through a local network of 7 regional offices and 23 field offices across the country. So
far SGP has supported 303 projects across various geographical locations across the country
and in five thematic areas including Climate Change and biodiversity. The emphasis is more
on establishing low cost, low external input and easy to manage technologies and social
mechanisms.
American Red Cross
The American Red Cross is a humanitarian organization led by volunteers, providing
relief to victims of disasters. The American Red Cross also helps to prevent, prepare for, and
respond to emergencies. Clara Barton founded the Red Cross in 1881.
Episcopal Relief and Development
Episcopal Relief and Development provides ongoing emergency relief and assistance
after disasters, rebuilds communities, and helps children and families overcome poverty. The
organization was established in 1940 by the Episcopal Church in the United States.
Salvation Army
The Salvation Army assists Americans seeking the basic necessities of life–food,
shelter, and warmth. They also have disaster response teams "on call" to serve at all disasters
and civil disorders which place a community or its populace at risk. William Booth originally
established the The Christian Mission, which became The Salvation Army in 1878.
World Vision
World Vision is a Christian relief and development organization dedicated to helping
children and their communities worldwide reach their full potential by tackling the causes of
poverty. World Vision was founded by Bob Pierce in 1950 to provide long-term care for
children in crisis and developed its first child sponsorship program in Korea in 1953.
The International Relief Friendship Foundation (IRFF) has the fundamental goal of
assisting agencies involved in responding to the needs of a community after disaster strikes.
When a disaster hits, IRFF mobilizes a volunteer group from universities, businesses, youth
groups, women’s organizations, and religious groups. IRFF also provides direct support and
emergency services immediately following a disaster such as blankets, food, clothing, and
relief kits.
The Lutheran Disaster Response (LDR) provides for immediate disaster response, in both
natural and technological disasters, long-term rebuilding efforts, and support for preparedness
planning through synods, districts, and social ministry organizations. The disasters to which
LDR responds are those in which needs outstrip available local resources. LDR provides for
the coordination of 6,000 volunteers annually. In addition, LDR provides crisis counseling,
support groups, mental health assistance, and pastoral care through its accredited social
service agencies.
Mennonite Disaster Services assists disaster victims by providing volunteer personnel to
clean up and remove debris from damaged and destroyed homes and personal property and to
repair or rebuild homes. Special emphasis is placed on assisting those less able to help
themselves, such as the elderly and handicapped.
The National Emergency Response Team (NERT) meets the basic human needs of shelter,
food, and clothing during times of crisis and disaster. NERT provides Emergency Mobile
Trailer units (EMTUs), which are self-contained, modest living units for up to 8-10 people, to
places where disaster occurs. When EMTUs are not in use, they serve as mobile teaching
units used in Emergency Preparedness programs in communities.
The National Organization for Victim Assistance provides social and mental health
services for individuals and families who experience major trauma after disaster, including
critical incident debriefings.

The Nazarene Disaster Response provides clean-up and rebuilding assistance, especially to
the elderly, disabled, widowed, and those least able to help themselves. In addition, a
National Crisis Counseling Coordinator works into the recovery phase by assisting with the
emotional needs of disaster victims.
The REACT International provides emergency communication facilities for other agencies
through its national network of Citizens Band radio operators and volunteer teams. REACT
teams are encouraged to become part of their local disaster preparedness plan. Furthermore,
they are encouraged to take first aid training and to become proficient in communications in
time of disaster.
The Salvation Army provides emergency assistance including mass and mobile feeding,
temporary shelter, counseling, missing person services, medical assistance, and distribution
of donated goods including food, clothing, and household items. It also provides referrals to
government and private agencies for special services.

International Conventions (hard law) on Disaster management Miscellaneous

conventions/ agreements
1. Tampere Convention on the Provision of Telecommunication Resources for Disaster
Mitigation and Relief Operations, 1999
The Tampere Convention is a treaty aimed at facilitating the use of
telecommunication resources and assistance for disaster mitigation and relief. It establishes
an international framework for states to cooperate among themselves and with non-state
entities and intergovernmental organizations. It is binding on the States who have signed or
acceded and ratified to it. So far (September 2007), only 37 States have ratified the Tampere
Convention. Among other things, the convention seeks to simplify and strengthen the
procedures by which international disaster responders may bring telecommunications
equipment across borders during and after an emergency and use them in their operations. It
requires state parties to reduce or remove regulatory barriers and to confer the necessary
privileges, immunities, and facilities for international relief providers. However, the
convention also recognizes the sovereign interests of state parties, providing substantial
flexibility as to how to carry out their obligations and ensuring that they maintain primary
authority in relief coordination in their own borders.

UN Specific Conventions
1. UN Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations, 1946
The UN Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations was
adopted by the GA in 1946 and entered into force the same year. It currently has 153 States
party to it (September 2007). The Convention elaborates further on articles 104 and 105 of
the Charter of the United Nations in view of determining and clarifying the legal status,
rights, privileges and immunities of the United Nations and its personnel as are necessary for
the fulfillment of their function. The Convention determines I) the jurisdictional personality
of the organisation (legal personality), II) the status of property, funds and assets of the UN,
III) the facilities in respect of communications (conditions for the use of official
communications, use of codes, etc.), IV) the status of the representatives of Member States
(while exercising functions in relation to the organisation); V) the status of officials of the
organisation; VI) the status of experts on mission for the UN, VII) the rules applying to the
UN Laissez-Passer (LP); and VIII) the specific rules regarding the settlement of disputes
"arising out of contracts or other disputes of a private law character to which the UN is a
party; and disputes involving any official of the UN who by reason of his official position
enjoys immunity, if immunity has not been waived by the Secretary-General".
2. EUR-OPA Major Hazards Agreement (Partial Agreement on the Prevention of,
Protection Against, and Organization of Relief in Major Natural and Technological
Disasters), 1987

The "EUR-OPA Major Hazards Agreement" is an intergovernmental platform for

cooperation - part of the Council of Europe - in the field of major natural and technological
disasters between Eastern Europe, the South of the Mediterranean and Western Europe. Its
field of competence covers the major natural and technological disasters knowledge,
prevention, risk management, post-crisis analysis and rehabilitation. It was set up by the
Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe in 1987 (see attached Resolution (87)2) and
has to date 25 Member States. The main objectives of the "EUROPA Major Hazards
Agreement" are to reinforce and promote co-operation between Member States in a multi-
disciplinary context to ensure better prevention, protection and organization of relief in the
event of major natural or technological disasters by calling upon present day resources and
knowledge to ensure an efficient and interdependent management of major disasters. It is
worth mentioning that the "EUR-OPA Major Hazards Agreement" is a so-called "partial
agreement", which is a terminology used within the Council of Europe to distinguish them
from "conventions" and "agreements" which are formal international treaties. "Partial
agreements" are merely a particular form of cooperation within the Organization, not an
international treaty. They allow member States of the Council of Europe to abstain from
participating in a certain activity advocated by other member States. From a statutory point of
view, a partial agreement remains an activity of the Organization in the same way as other
programme activities, except that a partial agreement has its own budget and working
methods, which are determined solely by the members of the partial agreement.

3. ASEAN Agreement on Disaster Management and Emergency Assistance, 2005

All ten ASEAN Member Countries signed the Agreement on 26 July 2005 in
Vientiane, Lao PDR. However, the Agreement will only enter into force after all of the ten
countries ratify it. So far (September 2007) four countries, namely Malaysia, Lao PDR,
Myanmar and Thailand have ratified the Agreement. Once entered into force, the Agreement
will to provide a framework for the development of operational procedures to respond
collectively and expeditiously to disasters. The Agreement includes general provisions on
disaster risk identification, assessment and monitoring, on disaster prevention and mitigation,
on preparedness, emergency response and rehabilitation as well as specific provisions for the
movement of relief assistance, expedited customs and immigration clearance, etc. The
Agreement also provides for the establishment of an ASEAN Coordination Centre for
Humanitarian Assistance (AHA-Centre) for the purpose of facilitating cooperation and
coordination among the parties and with relevant UN and international organizations. It also
includes provisions for setting up an ASEAN Disaster Management and Emergency Relief
Fund, administered by the ASEAN Secretariat.

4. Inter-American Convention to Facilitate Disaster Assistance, 1991

The Inter-American Convention to Facilitate Disaster Assistance provides rules for
situations in which countries request, receive, offer, or provide aid related to a natural or
man-made disaster. Only a three of the OAS countries (Panama, Peru, and Uruguay) have
become parties to this treaty so far (September 2007). The Convention was adopted in 1991
and entered into force in 1996 for the states, which ratified it.