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DISASTER MANAGEMENT
(Open Elective - I)

B.Tech. III Year I Sem. L T PC

Course Code: CE511OE 3 0 0 3

UNIT - I
Understanding Disaster: Concept of Disaster - Different approaches- Concept of Risk - Levels of
Disasters - Disaster Phenomena and Events (Global, national and regional) Hazards and
Vulnerabilities: Natural and man-made hazards; response time, frequency and forewarning levels
of different hazards - Characteristics and damage potential or natural hazards; hazard assessment -
Dimensions of vulnerability factors; vulnerability assessment - Vulnerability and disaster risk -
Vulnerabilities to flood and earthquake hazards

UNIT - II
Disaster Management Mechanism: Concepts of risk management and crisis managements -
Disaster Management Cycle - Response and Recovery - Development, Prevention, Mitigation and
Preparedness - Planning for Relief
UNIT - III
Capacity Building: Capacity Building: Concept - Structural and Nonstructural Measures Capacity
Assessment; Strengthening Capacity for Reducing Risk - Counter-Disaster Resources and their
utility in Disaster Management - Legislative Support at the state and national levels
UNIT - IV
Coping with Disaster: Coping Strategies; alternative adjustment processes - Changing Concepts of
disaster management - Industrial Safety Plan; Safety norms and survival kits - Mass media and
disaster management
UNIT - V
Planning for disaster management: Strategies for disaster management planning - Steps for
formulating a disaster risk reduction plan - Disaster management Act and Policy in India -

Organizational structure for disaster management in India - Preparation of state and district disaster
management plans

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Manual on Disaster Management, National Disaster Management, Agency Govt of India.
2. Disaster Management by Mrinalini Pandey Wiley 2014.
3. Disaster Science and Management by T. Bhattacharya, McGraw Hill Education (India) Pvt Ltd
Wiley 2015

REFERENCES:
1. Earth and Atmospheric Disasters Management, N. Pandharinath, CK Rajan, BS Publications 2009.
2. National Disaster Management Plan, Ministry of Home affairs, Government of India
(http://www.ndma.gov.in/images/policyplan/dmplan/draftndmp.pdf)

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 DISASTER MANAGEMENT
UNIT-1
Understanding disaster 1
Introduction 1
Objectives 1
Concept of Disaster 2
What is Disaster? 2
Different approaches 2
Concept of Hazard, Vulnerability and Capacity 4
Hazard 4
Vulnerability 5
Capacity 6
Concept of Risk 6
Parameters of risk 6
Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) 8
Selective models 10
Approaches to study of natural hazards 14
Levels of disaster 15
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) 15
What we learnt from this unit? 16

Hazards 19
Introduction 19
Objectives 19
About Hazard 20
Classification of Hazards 20
Industrial Hazards 23
UN Hazard codes 23
Chemical disaster 24
Characteristics and Problem areas of Natural Hazards 24
Earthquake 25
Flood 29
Landslide 32
Lightning 35
Tropical Cyclone 36
Drought 37
Damage characteristics of few Natural Hazards 38
Hazard assessment process 39
What we learnt from this unit? 40

Vulnerability 42
Introduction 42
Objectives 43
Dimension of Vulnerability Factors 43
Vulnerability Assessment 44
Steps for vulnerability analysis 44
Examples of vulnerability assessment 44
Practical example of vulnerability assessment 47
Participatory Vulnerability Analysis (PVA) 49
Vulnerability and Disaster Risk 51

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Vulnerabilities of Flood and Earthquake Risk 53
Flood 53
Earthquake 55
Socio Economic Vulnerability and Disasters 56
Impact on society 56
Community functions and disasters 57
Community conflict and disasters 57
Panic 57
What we learnt from this unit? 58

Overview of disaster phenomena 60

Introduction 60
Objectives 61
Disaster Phenomena and Events (Global and Regional) 61
Global scenario 61
Indian subcontinent 64
The flood scenario in India 66
Worst disaster events (global and regional) 67
Important disasters in India based on loss of life and affected population 72
Major earthquakes in India (1618 – 2001) 73
Few recent earthquakes in North-Eastern region of India 74
Hazard Specific Disaster Risk and Impact of Hazards 74
Flood 74
Earthquake 76
Drought 78
Cyclone 79
Community Profile and their exposure to Hazards in India 79
Hill Community 79
Communities of plain areas 81
Coastal Communities 81
Urban communities 81
Disaster Trends and Problem Areas 82
What we learnt from this unit? 84
UNIT-2

Disaster management Mechanism 86

Introduction 86
Objectives 87
Concept of Risk and Crisis Management 87
Concept of risk 87
Concept of disaster management 87
Process of risk assessment 89
Disaster Management Cycle 89
Disaster management process 89
Pre disaster risk management 91
Disaster phase 92
Crisis management 92
Prevention, Mitigation and Preparedness 92
Prevention 93
Mitigation 95
Preparedness 97
Response and Recovery 98
Relief Mechanism and Problem of Relief 99
Organizational and Financial Arrangements for Disaster Management in India 101
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What we learnt from this unit? 101

UNIT-3

Capacity building 104

Introduction 104
Objectives 104
Concept of capacity building 105
What is capacity? 105
Major aspects of capacity building 105
Why we need capacity building? 106
Structural and nonstructural measures 106
Structural measures 107
Non-structural measures 107
Disaster and development 111
Probable options of disaster risk mitigation 111
Possible impacts of disasters on national economy and development 112
Capacity assessment 112
Strengthening capacity for reducing risk 115
What we learnt from this unit? 117
UNIT-4

Coping with disaster 119

Introduction 119
Objectives 119
Coping strategies 120
Basic concept 120
Measures to improve capacity and preparedness level 120
Philosophy and fundamental factors for coping with disasters 122
Alternative adjustment processes 123
Changing concept 127
Safety tools/kits 132
Industrial safety norms 132
Other general safety norms 133
Survival kits 134
What we learnt from this unit? 136

UNIT-5
Disaster management Act and policy in India
Organization structure for disaster management in India
Strategies for disaster management planning
Steps for formulation a disaster reduction plan
Preparation of state and district disaster management plans

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 DISASTER MANAGEMENT

UNIT-1: UNDERSTANDING DISASTER

INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES
CONCEPT OF DISASTER
WHAT IS DISASTER?
DIFFERENT APPROACHES
CONCEPT OF HAZARD, VULNERABILITY AND CAPACITY
HAZARD
VULNERABILITY
CAPACITY
CONCEPT OF RISK
PARAMETERS OF RISK
DISASTER RISK REDUCTION (DRR)
SELECTIVE MODELS
APPROACHES TO STUDY OF NATURAL HAZARDS
LEVELS OF DISASTER
INTERNATIONAL DECADE FOR NATURAL DISASTER REDUCTION (IDNDR)
WHAT WE LEARNT FROM THIS UNIT?
PROBABLE QUESTIONS
SUGGESTED READINGS

INTRODUCTION
There is no precise definition of DISASTER, addressing entire process of disaster
phenomenon. Different groups of workers defined disaster in different ways.

In fact, disaster is the outcome of a complex process. Hence, managing a disaster is a difficult
task. It is essential to understand the mechanism and parameters involved in the process of
occurrence of disaster prior to formulation of Disaster Management plans.

In this chapter, we shall discuss about different approaches of understanding the concept of
disaster and parameters involved in the process of occurrence of a disaster. This chapter will
focus on the importance of Disaster Risk Assessment and Disaster Risk Reduction to
mitigate loss and damage. The issues related to IDNDR programme and different aspects of
disaster management will also be highlighted in this chapter.

OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this unit is to outline
 Different concepts of disaster.
 Parameters involved in the process of occurrence of disaster.
 Probable causes of occurrence of a disaster and their remedies.
 Concept of risk and importance of risk analysis in disaster management planning.
 Other issues related to disaster phenomena.
 Details about IDNDR programme

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CONCEPT OF DISASTER
WHAT IS DISASTER?
People from different disciplines have been trying to define Disaster in different ways. Most
of the definitions of Disaster addressed the issues related to damaging events, loss and
damage to life and property, affects on social system, and community needs.

Flood hazard of Assam

Photo: Centre for disaster Management, Tezpur University

Few common definitions of disaster are presented below

 The Oxford Dictionary defined disaster as “Sudden or great misfortune, calamity”

 The Webster’s Dictionary defined disaster as “A sudden calamitous event producing

great material damage, loss and distress”

 ADB handbook on disaster management defined disaster as “An event, natural or

man-made, sudden or progressive, which impacts with such severity that the affected
community has to respond by taking exceptional measures”

[Source: Handbook on Disaster Management, ADB Publication]

DIFFERENT APPROACHES

The conventional and dominant approaches to describe disaster phenomena are

 Natural Science Approach
 Applied Science Approach

The Natural Science Approach equates disasters with devastating natural phenomena and
describes disaster as a misfortune or Act of God. According to this approach, disaster is an
accident, unforeseen consequence of unpredictable and uncertain natural force, inevitable
occurrence – over which we have no control.

In this approach, there is no scope for damage mitigation planning.

On the other hand, the Applied Science Approach focuses on determination of magnitude of
disaster based on magnitude of loss and damage, associated with devastating phenomena.

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While the first approach considers the triggering forces i.e., natural phenomena like
earthquake, cyclone etc. as disasters; the second approach deals with outcome of the disaster
phenomena. Both the approaches have certain limitations in describing the complete process
of disaster and its management.

The applied science approach recommends short time emergency actions like, response and
recovery to deal with crisis situations and has very little scope for risk management based on
rectification of the causes of disasters. This approach gives stress on enhancing resistance of
the exposures and physical structures for minimizing loss and damage.

Since 1960’s, social scientists, anthropologists and development workers started thinking for
an alternative Progressive Approach to describe disaster phenomena more precisely,
considering the reasons behind damage and disruptions under the influence of natural forces.
Going one-step ahead of dominant approaches, progressive approach tried to correlate the
occurrence of disaster with some unresolved problems of development in our systems. The
outcome of research works carried out by different groups since 1970’s depicts a strong
correlation between unsustainable development and occurrence of disasters.

The Holistic Approach considers both the external triggering force (natural or man-made) and
internal negative factors of our systems responsible for occurrence of disasters.

Let us see some practical examples to understand the concept of holistic approach.

Any natural phenomenon can lead a good, bad or worst situation. Natural phenomena are not
always responsible for occurrence of disasters.

A Natural Phenomenon A Situation

Good Bad Worst

Rain is a natural phenomenon. Rain can lead to flood damage or good harvest depending on
some prevailing conditions/factors of our system.

Case 1

Rain + Fertile Land + Skilled Manpower Good Yield

Case 2

Rain + Some Internal Negative Factors Flood

Similarly, a moderate earthquake may or may not cause structural damage to a building. It
depends on, how this building is constructed. A building may collapse under the impact of an
earthquake on two conditions

 The magnitude of earthquake is extremely high or

 The building is constructed violating the IS codes for Earthquake Resistant Building.

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Here, the second condition plays vital role in damage mitigation planning as the first one is
beyond our control.

From the above examples, it is now clear that a natural phenomenon combined with some
internal negative factors of a system cause damage and disruption to the system. The
prevailing negative factors within our system play the role of catalyst between external
triggering force and disaster.

CONCEPT OF HAZARD, VULNERABILITY AND CAPACITY

HAZARD

Hazard can be defined as “A phenomenon or an event or an object, which has potential to

cause damage and disruption to our life, property and environment”.
Or
“Anything which is harmful for our system or has the potential to cause damage and
disruption to our normal pattern of life”.

For example,

Excess rainfall may lead to flood hazard. Here rain is the main force of flood hazard. In
absence of rain, there is no possibility of flood. Rainfall is a natural phenomenon.

Release of energy due to rupture in earth’s crust may cause earthquake and subsequently
damage to our structure. Here, released energy is the force of Earthquake Hazard. Earthquake
is a natural phenomenon.

A bomb blast may cause severe damage to life and property depending on other local factors.

Here, bomb is an object and its blast is an event.

Leakage of poisonous gas can cause damage to our lives. Poisonous gas is harmful object and
its leakage is harmful event.

Therefore, the primary component of disaster is the hazard, which may be a devastating
natural phenomenon or harmful event or harmful object.

Sometime harmful exposures may play the role of hazards. For example, a weak and old
building may collapse even in absence of any external triggering force like earthquake,
resulting loss and damage to life and property. In this case, the building itself is a hazard.

Many people defined natural hazards in different ways. Few common definitions of natural
hazards are [Source: Natural Disasters by David Alexander]

 “A naturally occurring or man-made geologic condition or phenomenon that presents a

rise or is a potential danger to life or property” (American Geological Institute 1984).

 “An interaction of people and nature governed by the co-existent state of adjustment
of the human use system and the state of nature in the natural events system” (White
1973).

 “Those elements in the physical environment [which are] harmful to man and caused
by forces extraneous to him” (Burton and Kates 1964).

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  “The probability of occurrence within a specified period of time and within a given
area of a potentially damaging phenomenon” (UNDRO 1982).
Detail about assessment of natural hazards will be discussed in the subsequent chapters.
VULNERABILITY

If we repeat the examples of hazards, we shall able to understand that only hazards are not
responsible for damage and disruption. Other factors are also involved in this process.

In absence of rain, there is no possibility of flood. There may not be heavy flood or flood
damage in the event of heavy rain. For heavy flood or flood damage, there should be some
unsafe conditions within our system, like poor carrying capacity of river, weak embankment,
settlement in low-lying areas etc.

Similarly, an earthquake may not be the sole reason for damage of buildings and engineering
structures. There should be some other reasons, which make the structures susceptible to
earthquake hazard. The reasons may be related to violation of Indian Standard Codes for
earthquake resistant structures like, testing of soil quality, proper earthquake resistant design,
quality construction material, proper safety norms etc.

A bomb blast in open space without any exposures may not cause damage to life and
property. There may be significant damage if it is a crowded place; if there is no monitoring
system in place; if people are not alert etc.

The reasons behind possible disaster due to leakage of poisonous gas may be; violation of
safety norms by the plant, plant is located in thickly populated area, people are not aware
about safety norms, lack of awareness about precautionary measures etc.

Such unsafe conditions of our systems, which enhance the probability of loss and damage, are
called Vulnerability.

Vulnerability may be defined as a set of prevailing or consequential unsafe conditions or

negative factors, which reduces our ability to resist external hazards to minimize damage and
disruption of the system or to cope with disaster situation.

Proper assessment of vulnerability is essential to assess the risk and formulation of risk
reduction plans of a system. In most of the times, we can not prevent natural hazards to avoid
disasters. But, we can minimize the magnitude of loss and damage by either eliminating or
reducing unsafe conditions of our systems.

Vulnerability assessment is a complex process. This is because one visible unsafe condition of
our system may be the outcome of some hidden dynamic pressures. The unsafe conditions of
a system may have some remote root causes.

To remove a single unsafe condition of our system, it is essential to find out the root causes of
unsafe conditions and eliminate them by taking appropriate measures.

The detail about dimension and assessment of vulnerability factors will be discussed in
subsequent chapters.
CAPACITY
Capacity means resources, means and strength required to improve our capability to reduce
the risk of our system or cope with disaster situation.

Capacity building mechanism primarily involves reduction of vulnerability factors by

developing adequate resources in terms of physical, material and living resources; inventing
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suitable technology and methodology to deal with the problem areas; and enhancing the
strength in terms of financial and other matters.
CONCEPT OF RISK
The word RISK implies the probability of damage, loss and other negative consequences in a
system under the influence of a triggering force.

When a system is at high risk, we can expect maximum damage and disruption in the system
if a hazard strikes the system.

PARAMETERS OF RISK The

first parameter is hazard

When a system is exposed to a specific hazard like flood or earthquake, it induces some sort
of risk. If the system is prone to more hazards and magnitudes of hazards are high, the risk of
the system goes higher.

Therefore, the Risk of a system is directly proportional to frequency and magnitude and other
characteristics of the hazards, to which the system is exposed.

If there is no possible hazard or threat to a system, the risk of the system will certainly be
zero. In practice, it is not possible make the risk of a system zero by eliminating its threats or
hazards completely.
The second parameter is vulnerability of the system

More unsafe conditions of a system result more damage and disruption to the system under
the influence of hazards. So, the risk of a system is also directly proportional to numbers of
unsafe conditions or vulnerability factors of the system.

The combined impact of Hazard and Vulnerability to a system is called Specific Risk. Both
the parameters are primarily responsible for enhancing the disaster risk of our systems. In
absence of one parameter i.e., “Hazard or Vulnerability”, the Disaster Risk of a system
becomes zero. In reality, it is not possible.

Third parameter

Third parameter of the Risk is the elements at risk.

If there is no resource or element in a system, there is no possibility of loss and damage, even
in presence of external hazards.

If a system has valuable physical and living elements but these are less susceptible to hazards;
then also the risk of the system will be in lower side. In that case, probability of loss and
damage to the system under the influence of external hazards will be low.

When the physical and living elements of a system are at high risk of damage under the
impact of hazards, then disaster risk of the system will be very high.

Therefore, the disaster risk of any system depends on probable hazards to which the system is
exposed; vulnerability of the system, and elements in the system which are at risk.

Elements at Risk  Hazard  Vulnerability

DISASTER RISK =
Capacity
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The diagrammatic representation of disaster risk of a system is presented below.

VULNERABLE DISASTER
HAZARD ENVIRONMENT

LESS DISTURBED D
HAZARD VULNERABLE I
S
R
CAPACITY STABLE U
HAZARD HIGH P
SYSTEM
T
I
SECONDARY STABLE O
DISTURBED
AFFECT SYSTEM N

LIFE ECONOMY INFRASTRUCTURE COMMUNICATION

HEALTH EDUCATION LIVELIHOOD PRODUCTION EXCHANGE

DISASTER RISK REDUCTION (DRR)

Disaster Risk Reduction is the first option of Disaster Management. Disaster Risk Reduction
of a system means minimize the risk of the system either by preventing hazards or by
reducing vulnerability factors.

Let us explain the disaster risk reduction (DRR) mechanism by considering above flow
diagram

Suppose a place, like the state Assam, is located in high seismic zone. That means there is
every possibility of occurrence of high magnitude earthquake in this locality at any time.
Hence, one component of disaster risk for this place is Earthquake Hazard.

The loss and damage pattern in this region due to earthquake will depend on magnitude,
epicenter (The location vertically above the focus of the earthquake) and depth of
Earthquake. Determination of these factors in advance is not possible for earthquake hazard.

Hence, prevention of earthquake or early warning for occurrence of earthquake is also not
possible. In this case, the DRR planning has nothing to do with occurrence of hazard. Only
thing we should remember that, the entire area is exposed to earthquake hazard and planning
for DRR should be made considering codes and norms for earthquake damage mitigation.

Now, let us consider three different locations of this region to determine risk factors of these
locations.
Location 1: An Urban Area (Like Guwahati)
Location 2: One Semi Urban Area (Small town)
Location 3: One Village

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For all these locations, common hazard is Earthquake.
For location 1, probable vulnerability/unsafe factors may be unplanned and haphazard
developmental activities in the area, over population, overcrowded high-rise building, most
buildings are not earthquake resistant, no fire safety provisions in the buildings, narrow roads,
weak counter disaster resources (medical, fire service etc) …………

For location 2, vulnerability/unsafe factors, may be lack of proper planning, market area is
overcrowded with population and unsustainable buildings, few private hospitals are not safe,
market area is exposed to fire hazard but not equipped with fire safety machinery, in some
specific areas of the town roads are narrow including market places, weak counter disaster
resources etc.

For location 3, vulnerability/unsafe factors, may be few buildings are not safe, weak counter
disaster resources etc.

Now we can assume that, the vulnerability factors of location 1 are much higher than other
two locations. Location 2 has medium range of unsafe conditions and location 3 has
minimum unsafe conditions.

Therefore, disaster risk of location 1 for earthquake hazard is very high. Risk of location 2
and 3 for earthquake hazard are medium and low respectively.

In location 1, there will be instant severe loss and damage of life, household assets,
infrastructure, communication facilities, health care facilities etc. in case of a high magnitude
earthquake. There may be secondary affects on physical and mental health, economy,
livelihood, production, etc.

Compare to location 1, instant loss and damage in location 2 will be lower and negligible in
location 3.

Now, we know the disaster risk factors of all three locations.

Location 1 needs a major action plan for its Disaster Risk Reduction.

Since, earthquake hazard is not predictable or preventable, only option to reduce disaster risk
in this region is reduction of vulnerability/unsafe conditions by taking appropriate steps. The
probable steps may be eviction and resettlement of unauthorized residents, demolition of
weak and unauthorized buildings and infrastructure, retrofitting of weak buildings, widening
of roads and lanes, improvement of counter disaster resources, imposition of suitable codes
and norms etc.

We can take three types of actions for Disaster Risk Management (DRM) to mitigate loss
and damage in our system.

Prospective DRM, by making all the elements of our system hazard proof. May be, all the
buildings and infrastructure are earthquake hazard resistant.

Corrective DRM, by reducing unsafe conditions of the system like retrofitting of weak
buildings (taking additional measures to strengthen the weak structures).

Compensatory DRM, by providing incentives and other supports to weak families to take
appropriate measures for DRR.

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SELECTIVE MODELS

A number of models have been developed by different groups of workers to understand the
complete process of disaster and its management. The popular models are
Contract-Expand Model : describes process of disaster phenomena
Disaster Crunch Model : focuses on causes of disasters
Disaster Release Model : focuses on remedial measures for mitigating disaster loss
Let us discuss the principles of these models briefly.

Contract-Expand Model (Kotze & Holloway, 1996)

This model is relevant to the progressive approach of disaster management and relates
disasters with differential vulnerabilities of our systems. The model was used by the
communities of South Africa to assess disaster risk, reduce disaster loss, and prepare them to
cope with disasters. The basic principle of this model is based on the assumptions,

Assumption 1

“Disasters occur when a hazard exceeds a community’s capacity to manage It”. That
means, when magnitude of hazard and vulnerability of the system go beyond the community’s
capacity to handle these. This assumption describes clearly the role of three components
involved in the process of disaster and its management i.e., hazard, vulnerability and capacity.

Assumption 2

“All components of disaster risk reduction can be carried out concurrently, but with
relative emphases”. This assumption suggests, the risk reduction mechanism for any system
has a number of components or steps, like assessment of parameters involved in the process
of disaster, damage mitigation strategies etc. We can carry out all these activities
simultaneously. But, these should be done systematically based on priority. For this, we must
have knowledge on role of different parameters and their relationships.

Assumption 3

“Relative weighting of the activities depends on relationship between the Hazard and
vulnerability of the community at risk and technical or operational mandate of the
organizations involved”. This assumption describes, the nature and weightage of different
activities for disaster risk reduction depends on

 nature of external hazards and unsafe conditions of the vulnerable community.

 how the internal negative factors of the locality or community and external hazards are
helping each other to cause maximum loss and damage to the system.

 nature of technical and organizational supports required for disaster risk reduction of
the system.

Though this assumption is mainly based on social science approach, but it addresses all three
stages of disaster management; pre, during and after a disaster.

Disaster Crunch Model (Blaikie et al. 1994)

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This model deals with the causes of disasters, based on the study of hazards and unsafe
conditions, which make the communities vulnerable to hazards.
This model considers the differential vulnerability of our systems as the main reasons of
disasters. These are rooted in our socio-political and socio-economic processes. According to
the model, disaster may occur only when a hazard strikes a vulnerable community having
many unsafe conditions. That means, the unsafe conditions or vulnerability of our own system
dominate over external hazards in the process of disaster.

The model suggests in-depth analysis of differential vulnerability of a system for proper risk
assessment and risk reduction planning. But, genuine vulnerability assessment is a complex
process, as it is difficult to study the dynamic pressures and root causes of a single unsafe
condition.

There are some visible or hidden root causes, which generate pressures on our system and
subsequently create a local unsafe condition. Therefore, an unsafe condition of our system
may not be solely responsible for occurrence of a disaster.

If we remove one local vulnerability factor of our system without removing its root causes,
the pressure will remain same to the community and within short time the system will regain
its original risk. In this case, temporarily we can get relief, but next time we may face more
severe problems.

Let us see an example of this model to understand the causes of flood induced disaster.

DISASTER One unsafe One or more One or more

HAZARD
condition pressures root causes

Extreme Severe Low carrying Heavy sediment Deforestation in

rainfall Flood capacity of river influx to river catchment area

Flow diagram of the progression of flood disaster

Using Disaster Crunch model, we can study the complete process of flood disaster
systematically involving hazard, vulnerability, dynamic pressure and root causes of
vulnerability. The prime conditions for river flood are

 The area is low-lying.

 There should be a river close to the area.

The hazard is certainly either continuous heavy rainfall or high intensity sudden rainfall in the
area or in the catchment area of the river.

One possible unsafe condition for flood may be low carrying capacity of the river. The river
may not have sufficient capacity to carry the runoff water in peak season. As a result, water
migrates in the surrounding low-lying areas.

It is not possible to solve the problem of flood by considering this local vulnerability factor
only. To find out a permanent solution, we need to address the reasons of decreasing trend of
carrying capacity of the river.

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There may be few reasons or dynamic pressures for this particular vulnerability factor like
soil erosion in the catchment area, heavy sediment influx to the riverbed, poor economy etc.
We cannot simply eliminate these pressures or unsafe condition without addressing their root
causes.
What may be the root causes of soil erosion and sediment transport?

The possible root causes for soil erosion and sediment influx are deforestation in the upper
catchment area, shifting cultivation in hill areas, other human activities in the carchment area,
artificial landslide in the catchment area etc.

Like this, we can study the nature of hazard and progression of vulnerability factors by
identifying local unsafe conditions, dynamic pressures and root causes of the unsafe
conditions to understand the causes of disasters.

How we can minimize disaster risk of a system?

Disaster Release Model is useful to understand the principle of disaster risk mitigation.

Let us consider the same example, considered in the case of Disaster Crunch Model. We have
already described the process if identifying the hazard characteristics, unsafe condition,
dynamic pressure and root causes of flood disaster.

Reduce flood Reduce Reduce Address

HAZARD Risk vulnerability pressures root causes

Control To mitigate Improve carrying Reduce sediment Reforestation in

runoff flood damage capacity of river influx to river catchment area

To reduce flood risk, we can either minimize probability of occurrence of hazard or reduce
unsafe conditions by addressing root causes of the problems.

We cannot control rainfall. Therefore, we should try to reduce surface runoff of rainwater in
upper catchment area to minimize the intensity of hazard and thereby reduction of flood risk
in the lower catchment areas.

We can also minimize flood risk by reducing the vulnerability factors. Here, one specified
vulnerability factor is low carrying capacity of river. We can remove this unsafe condition in
two ways,

 We can improve the carrying capacity of river by dredging riverbed locally. This is
a very short time measure and expensive also.

 We can reduce pressures like soil erosion and sediment transport by taking some
corrective measures like, aforestation/reforestation in catchment areas, alternative
agriculture policy to stop shifting cultivation, enforcement of land use regulation
to stop unsustainable and harmful developmental activities in the upper catchment
areas etc.

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Like this, we can make hazard and location specific risk assessment and risk reduction plan
by addressing probable threats, unsafe conditions, dynamic pressures and root causes of the
problems.

The changing concepts of understanding disaster risk and risk reduction encouraging people
to conduct in-depth research for new methodologies and techniques suitable for disaster risk
mitigation.

APPROACHES TO STUDY THE NATURAL HAZARDS AND

DISASTERS

So far, we have discussed in detail about different parameters of disaster risk and principles of
risk reduction.

Now, the natural hazard induced disasters are no longer considered as natural disasters.
Studies on Human-Environmental and Human-Ecological interferences are getting
importance in disaster risk assessment and risk reduction planning.

Human interference to our natural environment is mainly responsible for increasing disaster
risk of our platforms (Milete, 1980). According to Hewitt (1983), vulnerability is the critical
determinant factor of risk and impact of natural hazard.

Most of the researchers are on the view that, disasters caused by natural hazards are social
problem. The nature of disasters depends on geographical location and action of communities.

Now, study of natural hazards and disasters has become more complex and multidisciplinary.
People from different disciplines are involved in this field of study. They have different views
and approaches but a common agenda to find out genuine methodology for disaster Risk
Reduction.

Let us see few common approaches of study of natural hazards and disasters. (Source:
Natural Disaster by David Alexander)

Geographical approach (after Harland Barrows 1923; Gilbert F. White, 1945)

This approach of study specifically based on spatio-temporal distribution of hazards,

vulnerability and impact of hazard, and adjustment processes to natural hazards.

Anthropological approach (Torry 1979)

This approach is focused on the study of finding out the role of disasters to socio-economic
evolution of populations and destruction of civilizations. According to this approach, there is
some limitation in the magnitude of disaster, beyond which the affected communities cannot
manage or provide the victims the basic requirement for survival.

Sociological approach (Russel R. Dynes, 1970; Enrico, L. Quarantelli, 1978)

In this approach, the human attitude towards nature, socio-economic condition of the
community, and affects of disasters to community and organizations are considered as
determinants to study the vulnerability factors of the community and probability of damage
and disruption to a system. This approach also considered the psychological affects of
disasters, like, stress and trauma.

Development studies approach (Chen et al. 1980; Davis 1978; Knott 1987)
17
This approach deals with the post disaster problems relevant to relief and aid; relief camp
management, refugee management; health care; food etc. This also shows the correlation
between poverty and human vulnerability to natural hazards.

Disaster medicine and epidemiology (Bolt et al. 1977; Beinin 1985; El-Sabh 1988)

It is comparatively a new field of study to address the post disaster medical problems like,
management of mass casualties, dealing with epidemic and communicable diseases, treatment
of trauma patients etc.

Technical approach (Bolt et al. 1977; El-Sabh & Murty 1988)

This approach is focused on management of disasters from technical and engineering points
of view, covering the geophysical and geomorphological aspects of hazards and disasters.

LEVELS OF DISASTER

The national guideline has categorized the level of disasters as Lo, L1, L2 and L3 and role and
responsibility of different line departments to tackle disasters.

Level (0): It denotes the pre disaster period to be utilized for monitoring, documentation,
prevention, mitigation and preparedness related activities. During this period, community to
state level disaster management plans to be prepared. Training on different aspects of disaster
management to be carried out during this period.

Level (1): It is the level of magnitude of the disasters that could be managed at the district
level with the support and assistance from state and central government, as and when
necessary.

Level (2): In this level, the district level agencies may not be able to manage the situation. It
may require direct assistance and support from state level disaster management agencies,
including mobilization of state counter disaster resources.

Level (3): It is the level of disasters, which is not manageable by district and state level
disaster management agencies. In this case, direct assistance from the centre in terms
manpower, equipment and fund will be required to control the situation.

INTERNATIONAL DECADE FOR NATURAL DISASTER

REDUCTION (IDNDR)

In view of the increasing trend of loss and damage to life and property due to disasters,
particularly in the developing countries, the General Assembly of the United Nations
designated the decade of 1090’s (1990-1999) as the International Decade for Natural
Disaster Reduction (IDNDR), at its 42nd Session on 11th December, 1987. The Secretariat of
IDNDR was established at Geneva.

The US Academy of Sciences took initiative for this international programme in 1984.

The objective and goals of this programme are

 To develop concentrated international strategy and coordination to reduce loss and

damage caused by the natural hazards, especially in developing countries.

18
  Enhancement of capacity of the developing countries for mitigation of disaster risk
effectively and expeditiously. This includes assessment, prediction, prevention,
mitigation of natural disasters; disaster resistant structure, early warning system etc.

 To formulate guidelines and strategies for proper application of existing scientific and
technical knowledge in disaster management.

 Technology transfer and technical assistance; training and education; project

demonstration etc.

In May 1994, the UN World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction was held in
Yokohama (Japan), to review the activities under this programme.

The INNDR Secretariat has also established close link with Fire Ecology Research Group and
the Global Fire Monitoring Center in 1997, to improve effectiveness of early warning
systems.

With the end of the IDNDR programme in 1999, the United Nations started another
programme “International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR)” to carry out the
activities on disaster management.

Though the outcome of IDNDR programme was not that much satisfactory, but it could be
possible to establish vital link among political, scientific and technological communities for
future programmes.

WHAT WE LEARNT FROM THIS UNIT?

There are many conventional approaches to describe the disaster phenomenon. The dominant
approaches are the natural science approach and applied science approach. While natural
science equates disaster with the natural phenomena, the applied science considers impact of
hazards as disaster.

The holistic approach considers disaster as the outcome of combined affects of hazard (natural
phenomenon) and vulnerability (unsafe conditions). This is the most useful approach for
understanding the disaster risk of any system and risk mitigation planning.

The Disaster Crunch and Release Models are the useful tools for understanding the causes of
disaster and process of disaster risk mitigation. To mitigate disaster risk of our systems, we
have to either prevent the external hazards from striking our systems or reduce unsafe
conditions of our systems. For this hazard assessment and identification of root causes of
vulnerability factors are essential. There are three ways of disaster risk mitigation,
prospective, corrective and compensatory.

The role and responsibilities of district, state and national levels disaster management
agencies depend on level of disasters. In India, role of these agencies are categorized into four
levels; Lo, L1, L2 and L3 depending on magnitude of disasters and capacity of these agencies
to deal with disasters.

The United Nation’s General Assembly designated the decade of 1990’s as International
Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) to develop international strategies and
cooperation for disaster risk mitigation and improving the capacities of different nations to
deal with disasters.

19
PROBABLE QUESTIONS

1. What do you mean by Disaster?

2. Which model addresses the causes of disasters?
3. What are the parameters associated with Risk?
4. What do you mean by Vulnerability?
5. What is Level (3) of disaster?
6. What is ISDR?
7. Explain about disaster risk assessment and risk reduction planning.
SUGGESETED READINGS

1. Carter, W. N., Disaster Management: A Disaster Management Handbook, Published

by Asian Development Bank, 1991.
2. Study material: Fourth International Course on CBDM, ADPC, 2000 (Module-2, pp 4,
5, 6, 7, 37, 41)
3. Understanding Disasters, Internship Series, Vol. III, CEE, 2007
4. Alexander, D., Globalization of Disaster, Journal of International Affairs, 2006, Vol.
59, No. 2.
5. Alexander, D., Natural Disasters, Published by ULC press Ltd, London, 1993 (PP 4,
13, 16)
6. Chakrabarty, U. K., Industrial Disaster Management and Emergency Response,
Published by Asian Books Pvt. Ltd., 2007 (pp 20)
7. Reading Material: Training Programme on Environment and Disaster Management,
NIDM, 2010
8. National Disaster Management Guideline, Preparation of SDMA, NDMA, 2007, pp 14
9. Blaikie, P., Cannon, T., Davis, I. and Wisner, B. (1994) At Risk: Natural Hazards,
People’s Vulnerability and Disasters, Routledge, London, pp 21-29
10. Mileti, D. S., Human adjustment to the risk of environmental extremes, Sociology and
Social Research, 1980, Vol. 54, 327-47.
11. Hewitt, K., The Idea of Calamity in a Technocratic Age, In Interpretations of
Calamity, Allens and Unwin, London. 1983.
12. Barrows, H. H., Geography as human ecology, Annals of the Association of American
Geographers, 1923, 13, 1-14
13. White, G. F., Human Adjustment to floods: a geographical approach to the flood
problems in United States, Chicago: Department of Geography, University of
Chicago, 1945.
14. Torry, W. I., Antrophological studies in hazardous environments: past trends and new
horizons, Current Anthropology, 1979, 20, 517-40.
15. Dynes, R. R., Organised behaviour in disaster, Lexington, Mass: D. C. Heath
(Lexington Books) 1970.
16. Quarantelli, E. L., Disasters: theory and research, Beverly Hills: Sage. 1978.
17. Chen, L. C., A. K. M. Chowdhury, S. L. Hoffman, Anthropometric assessment of
energy-protein malnutrition and subsequent risk of mortality among pre school age
children, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 1980, 33, 1836-45.
18. Devis, I., Shelter after disaster, Headington, Oxford: Oxford Polytechnic Press, 1978.
19. Knott, R., The logistics of bulk relief supplies, Disasters, 1987, 11, 113-6
20. Bolt, B. A., Horn, W. L., MacDonald, G. A., Scott R. F., Geological Hazards:
earthquake, tsunami, volcanoes, avalanches, landslide, floods, 2nd Edition, New York:
Springer, 1977.
21. Beinin, L, Medical consequences of natural disasters, New York: Springer, 1985.
22. El-Sabh, M. I. & Murty, T. S., Natural and man-made hazards, Dordrecht: Kluwer.

20
 HAZARDS
UNIT STRUCTURE
INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES
ABOUT HAZARD
CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDS
INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS
UN HAZARD CODES
CHEMICAL DISASTER
CHARACTERISTICS AND PROBLEM AREAS OF NATURAL HAZARDS
EARTHQUAKE
FLOOD
LANDSLIDE
LIGHTNING
TROPICAL CYCLONE
DROUGHT
DAMAGE CHARACTERISTICS OF FEW NATURAL HAZARDS
HAZARD ASSESSMENT PROCESS
WHAT WE LEARNT FROM THIS UNIT?
PROBABLE QUESTIONS
SUGGESTED READINGS

INTRODUCTION

Hazard is the primary and essential component of Disaster. A triggering force is required to
cause damage and disruption to a system. Natural and Man-made hazards play the role of
triggering force in case of a disaster.

Moreover, Disaster Risk Analysis is largely hazard and location specific. The nature of loss
and damage also depends on nature of hazard. So, genuine hazard assessment is mandatory
for Disaster Risk Reduction Planning.

In the previous unit, we have discussed briefly about definition and characteristics of hazard.
The issues related to disaster risk and different approaches to study the natural hazards are
also highlighted in the previous unit.

In this unit, we shall discuss in detail about different types of natural and man-made hazards,
their characteristics, problem areas, assessment procedure etc.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this unit are

 To discuss about different types of hazards based on their origin, response time,
duration, warning sign etc.
 To highlight the characteristics and problem areas of different hazards.
 To describe damage characteristics of few natural hazards.
 To highlight the assessment procedure of natural hazards.
23
ABOUT HAZARD

As discussed in unit 01, hazards are the harmful natural or man-made phenomena or events or
objects that have the potential to cause damage and disruption to our systems.

Disaster risk of a system is directly proportional to frequency, magnitude and exposure time
of the hazards, to which the system is exposed. Therefore, magnitude of loss and damage to
our life and property depends on magnitude and exposure time of the hazards.

One aspect of disaster risk reduction is prevention of hazard from striking our system or
reduction of exposure time of the hazards. It is not possible to prevent most of the natural
hazards. But, prevention is possible in case of some man-made hazards.

Let us discuss about different kinds of natural and man-made hazards, which often cause loss
and damage to our systems. Primarily there are two types of hazards.

Natural Hazard: These are guided by natural forces, like, atmospheric pressure and
temperature; extreme rain; strain accumulation and release of energy in the earth’s crust etc.

Man-made Hazards: These are linked to harmful human activities against natural laws and
unsustainable development.

CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDS

Based on origin and nature of forces, we can divide natural and man-made hazards into
number of groups.

Geophysical
 Earthquake
 Tsunami
 Volcanic Eruption

Atmospheric and Hydrological

 Flood
 Drought
 Hurricane
 Lightning
 Hailstorm
 Avalanches

Land surface related

 Soil Erosion
 Desertification
 Landslide
 Subsidence
 Forest and range fires

24
Human interference

 Structural Damage
 Environmental hazards
 Civil unrest

Accident related hazards

Biological hazards
The impact of hazards to the exposures depends on their response time, length of forewarning,
frequency and time of exposure. Let us divide the hazards according to these parameters.
RESPONSE , FREQUENCY AND FORWARNING
Length of Time of
Type of hazard Response time Frequency
forewarning exposure
Geophysical
Seconds –
Earthquake Not predictable Random Long time
minute
Short time but
Tsunamis Hours Hours Random
highly intensive
Volcanic
Minute – days Minutes - weeks Random Long time
Eruption
Atmospheric and Hydrological
Flood Hours – days Hours – days Seasonal Hours - weeks
Drought weeks – months Months Seasonal Long time
Short time but
Hurricane minutes – hours Hours Seasonal
highly intensive
Hours and
Lightning seconds – hours Seconds – hours Seasonal
intensive
Hours and
Hailstorm Minutes – hours Minutes – hours Seasonal
intensive
Avalanches Minutes – days Minutes – days - Long time
Land Surface
Continuous
Soil Erosion Hours – days Hours – days Long time
process
Continuous
Desertification Years Years Long time
process
Landslide Minutes – days Minutes – days Random Short / long time
Short time but
Subsidence Minutes – days - Random
permanent
Forest and range
Hours – days - Random Long time
fires
Human Impact
Engineering
Minutes - hours Long time Random Long time
faults
Environmental
Long time Long time Continuous Long time
problems
Civil unrest Minutes - days Long time Continuous Long time
Accident
related Seconds - Random Hours – days
Hazards
Biological
Minutes - days - Random Minutes - weeks
Hazards
25
Why the hazard assessment based on above-mentioned parameters is important for Risk
Assessment?

In fact, these parameters are the determinant factors of magnitude of probable loss and
damage to a system under the impact of a particular hazard. Let us discuss the role of these
parameters one by one.

Response time: Response time is the period, within which the vulnerable community has to
respond to a hazard to save their life and property.

People can not decide or take action for saving their life and property within short response
time. If the hazard is unpredictable and response time is very short, people gets absolutely no
time to save their life and property. In this case, amount of loss and damage depends on
magnitude of hazard. The best example is earthquake.

But, if the hazard is predictable and the response time is short, people can take advance
measure to avoid loss and damage to their life and property. Best example is lightning.

Length of forewarning: The time scale for forecasting a hazard before it strikes a system.

For some natural hazards, we get considerably long time for their forecasting. In this case,
magnitude of loss and damage could be minimized by taking immediate action, before the
occurrence of disaster. Example is seasonal flood.

For some hazards, forewarning time is either very short or zero. In this case, probability of
loss and damage is very high. We need long term plans for sustainable development to
minimize loss and damage. Example is earthquake.

Frequency: The number of times a particular hazard strikes a particular place within a
specific period of time.

The nature and frequency of hazards should be well defined in a hazard and location specify
disaster risk reduction plan.

Time of Exposure: The period for which the affected community remains exposed to the
impact of a specific hazard.

The magnitude of loss and disruption may be very high, if a system remains exposed under
the impact of a specific hazard for long time. Example is drought.

Even a short exposure time can lead significant damage and disruption, if the magnitude of
hazard is very high. Example is flash flood.

INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS
We need industries for production of our day-to-day required items. Industries play vital role
in national development and employment generation. But, unsafe industries may become
hazards and cause large scale loss and damage to life and environment. Generally, industrial
disasters have long-standing affects to our society.

Best example is the Bhopal gas tragedy. The worst industrial catastrophe occurred in India on
the night of December 2-3, 1984 in the Union Carbide India Limited pesticide plant at
Bhopal. More than 3500 people died within a week due to leakage of poisonous Methyl
Isocyanate (MIC) gas from the plant. So far, over 8000 people died due to secondary affects
26
of this disaster. More than 3900 people are struggling with their life for serious injuries and
another 38400 people are partially affected.

Study shows, this disaster occurred due to

 Use of MIC instead of other less dangerous gas.

 Lack of proper safety measures in storing the poisonous chemicals.
 Lack of proper maintenance of the plant.
 Ineffective safety systems and their failure at the time of disaster.
 Some important safety systems, like refrigeration system of MIC tank, were switched
off at the time of tragedy, for cost benefit.
 Location of the plat was in densely populated area.

UN HAZARD CODES

The common industrial hazardous substances as per UN hazard code are listed below
(Source: Industrial Disaster Management and Emergency Response (2007) by U. K.
Chakrabarty)

Class 1 : Explosive
Class 2 : Gases
Class 3.1 : Flammable liquids, flash point below – 180 C
Class 3.2 : Flammable liquids, flash point between – 180 C and 230 C
Class 3.3 : Flammable liquids, flash point between – 230 C and 610 C
Class 4.1 : Flammable solids
Class 5.1 : Oxidizing agents
Class 5.2 : Organic peroxides
Class 6.1 : Poisonous substances
Class 7 : Radioactive substances
Class 8 : Corrosive substances
Class 9 : Miscellaneous dangerous substances

CHEMICAL DISASTER

Plants in which dangerous chemicals are used may need special attention for safe running of
the processing units. The chemical hazards are mainly associated with process and bulk
storage system. The chances of accidents are linked with

 General process like absorption and filtration etc.

 Special process like acid pickling, spray painting, surface preparation with toxic
solvents etc.
 Type of chemical used in terms of toxicity, flammability, reactivity etc.
 Storage process of chemicals.
 Protection measures to different process units and storage.
 Safety status of storage tank and pipelines.

27
  Status of isolation system.
 Status of fire fighting system.
 Protective measures with sophisticated process controls, like, emergency shut down.
system, alarm system, emergency illumination and communication system
 Safety Integrity Level of important instruments.
 Location of the plant.
CHARACTERISTICS AND PROBLEM AREAS OF FEW NATURAL
HAZARDS
Earlier we have discussed about different types of natural and man-made hazards based on
their origin and nature.

The characteristics and problem areas of different hazards are not same. Naturally, impacts of
different hazards on their exposures are also different. For any risk reduction plan, it is
necessary to understand the characteristics of hazards, to which the system is exposed. The
loss and damage patterns are highly dependent on nature of hazards.

Let us see the cases of few natural hazards

EARTHQUAKE

Fig.: Structural damage of Bhuj Earthquake, Gujrat - 2001.

Photo source : undp.org.in/photogallery

General characteristic of the earthquake

 Earthquake is the manifestation of a geophysical phenomenon, hence purely a natural
event.
 The earthquake hazard is not predictable and hence it does not have any warning sign.
 Earthquake occurs suddenly, at any place of seismically sensitive zones.
 The frequency of earthquake is random, the occurrence of earthquakes in a particular
location and within a specific time frame can not be ascertained in advance.
 Earthquake occurs only in certain locations of the glove.

28
  Earthquake creates permanent fault lines in the crust.
 Fault lines are also responsible for earthquake.
Now, to justify these characteristics let us explain the reasons.

To do so, first we need to understand the causes of earthquake.

If we consider the structure of Earth, the Earth’s crust is divided in to number of plates. These
plates are not static and moving horizontally with certain velocity, relative to each other. The
internal heat flow or convection current is mainly responsible for movements of these plates.

Energy has been constantly accumulating in the plates (rock system) due to subduction
process and relative motions of the plates. When the accumulated energy in a certain plate
(rock system) goes beyond the threshold limit, the rock system releases excess energy by
means of rupture in the plate. The energy released in this process travels in different
directions in the form of wave and cause ground vibration, which we call Earthquake.

That’s why, Earthquake is a Geophysical Phenomenon.

Why prediction of an Earthquake is not possible?

Because, we do not have much information about

 Geological characteristics of the rock system (plates), in which strain is accumulating.

 Elastic limit of the rock to bear the stress or threshold limit of strain.
 Total energy accumulated in different rocks (plates) so far.
 In which plates, accumulated energy already reached to its threshold value.
 Whether the process of energy release in the rock system already stared with small
earthquakes and by creating small ruptures / cracks.
 How much energy already released by the process.
 Whether remaining energy is sufficient for major shock (big earthquake) etc.

For these reasons, we can not predict occurrence of earthquake in terms of time, magnitude
and location. It strikes our system suddenly and stays for very small time, without leaving
space for saving our life and property. These reasons are also applicable for the question, why
the frequency of earthquakes in a specific location is random.

Why earthquake occurs only in certain regions of the world?

We have seen, earthquake occurs by the process of energy accumulation and release of energy
in the rock system of earth’s crust. Energy accumulated in the plates due to relative
movements of the plates and their subduction process. So, there are maximum chances of
ruptures in the locations close to plate boundaries, due to the process of energy release. Real
data of earthquakes also confirmed the fact that, most of the earthquakes occur in the certain
belts, close to plate boundaries.
Some well-known earthquake belts are
 Circum-Pacific belt.
 Alpine-Himalayan belt.
 Pamir-Baikal zone.
 Atlantic-Artic belt.

29
  Belt of Central Indian Ocean.
 Rift Zones.
 Wide-Triangular active area.

Fig.: Active belts of earthquake

Source: National Geophysical Research Institute, Tezpur branch

Fig.: Seismic zoning of India

Source: Vulnerability Atlas of India

Why earthquake creates fault lines and fault lines cause earthquake?

Fault line implies cracks or fracture in a particular rock mass in the earth’s crust. Since
earthquake energy releases by creating rupture in rock system of earth’s crust, thus each
earthquake creates a permanent fault line.

Faults are the weakest zones of the rock system. So, generally the earthquake energy releases
along the fault lines. Active faults are the sources of earthquakes, in which two sides of the
fracture move with respect to each other.

Problem areas of earthquake

30
A high magnitude earthquake may create several kinds of problems for the vulnerable
communities, response forces, and other agencies. Some problems are instantaneous and some
are related to secondary affects of earthquake-induced disaster.

Direct affects
 Large scale of destruction of buildings and infrastructures.
 Destruction of lifelines and essential services.
 Destruction of soil and landslide.
 Widespread fire in residential buildings and other establishments.
 Disturbance of man’s mind.
For these problems, we need urgent counter measures, specially search, rescue and medical
assistance.
Secondary affects

 Disturbance in public functions.

 Inundation due to earthquake induced flood.
 Leakage of poisonous gas.
 Panic.
 Problems in management of relief camps.
 Problems in handling large number of injured people.
 Lack of life goods.
 Social unrest.
 Restoration of public functioning and rebuilding.
Contingency planning for earthquake damage mitigation
 Identification of earthquake prone areas.
 Identification of problems.
 Identification and mobilization of resources.
 Command and control.
 Advance preparatory action.
FLOOD

31
 Fig.: Flood disaster in Sonitpur District, Assam
Photo: Centre for Disaster Management, Tezpur University
General characteristic of flood hazard
 Flood is the product of atmospheric and hydrological phenomena.
 The forewarning time may be long, short or zero depending on types of flood.
 Speed of onset for normal flood is long / gradual.
 Speed of onset for flash flood is sudden.
 Most floods are seasonal, but frequency may be more than one.
 All locations in the glove are not vulnerable to flood.
Causes of flood

Let us discuss the issues related to causes of flood to justify the above mentioned
characteristics of flood.

A flood is the condition of partial or complete inundation in an area, which otherwise remains
dry. The common reasons of flood are

 High runoff of surface water from high land to low-lying areas.

 Overflow of river or tidal water.

Floods can be divided into following types, based on the source and reasons for flood.

 River flood
 Ocean flood
 Manmade flood
 Engineering flood
 Flood due to earth’s movement

In any case, the main force behind a flood is “RAIN”. Many atmospheric conditions; like
temperature, evaporation of seawater, transpiration, precipitation etc.; are involved in the
process of Rain.

32
Second important condition for flood is flow pattern of water. We need a drainage/river
network to complete the water cycle, i.e., flow of water from watershed to ocean.

Here again two conditions applied for flood

 Rapid accumulation of local surface rain water in low lying areas due to blockade in
drainage network or absence of adequate drainage system.

 The carrying capacity of drainage network itself is not sufficient to carry the
catchment runoff, resulting overflow in low-lying areas.

All other conditions for flood are also related to runoff and flow pattern of water. If it is an
oceanic flood, water flows against the gravity under the impact of some other natural forces.
If it is an earthquake-induced flood, artificial landslide or a dam break may result high
discharge of storage water to drainage network, followed by overflow of water to low lying
areas.
So, both atmospheric and hydrological factors are involved in the process of flood hazard

Rain is a seasonal phenomenon. During monsoon period, we can expect flood.

So, most floods are seasonal.

Except the conditions applied for a flash flood, i.e., very high intensity rainfall within short
duration, generally floods occur in gradual manner. Because, water takes time to reach the
downstream from watershed, depending on runoff and distance.

So, except flash flood, forewarning for most of the common floods is possible and that too
well before the flood strikes our system.

Only on certain conditions, like high tide, tsunami etc., water may flow against the gravity
and inundate high lands mainly in costal areas. Other common reasons for flood have close
relation with many geographical and climatic conditions.

So, floods are location specific and only certain parts of the globe are flood prone.

Fig.: Flood Zoning Map of India. Source : Vulnerability Atlas of India

Problem areas of flood

33
Flood is seasonal, gradual and normal process for most of the well-identified flood prone
areas. Even than, every year flood causes enormous loss and damage to life and property in
these areas, probably due to lack of proper planning and preparedness. The major problems
arise due to inundation, which may disrupt the normal pattern of life for a reasonable period.
Some problems, which may arise due to inundation, are

 Isolation of affected community from rest of the country may result scarcity of
essential items for their survival.

 Communication disruption and difficulties of access and movement.

 Situation may not permit government and non-government response forces to go

for immediate rescue of flood victims and their safe shelter. In that case, affected
community may face serious problems, if they are not prepared.
 Even if the affected community gets timely support from outside agencies in their
rescue and safe shelter, security problem may arise for their unattended assets.

 Another major problem is proper management of evacuation/relief centres.

Generally, flood victims are allowed to take shelter in nearby schools and colleges.
But, these do not have minimum basic facilities, like sanitation, drinking water,
lighting, sufficient space and ventilation, proper security (mainly for women), etc.
to accommodate large number of people. As a result, many secondary health and
social problems may arise. In view of these reaosns, concerned organizations may
face problems in

 Distributing relief items like, food, water, cloth etc.

 Arranging adequate sanitation facilities for all.
 Handling an epidemic like situation and extending medical care to all.
 Preventing social chaos and misdeeds.

 Damage of crop and food storage, in this case large scale relief may be required
until next crop harvest.

 Administrative and financial problems for reconstruction and rehabilitation may

lead longstanding sufferings of the flood victims.

Contingency planning for flood damage mitigation

The planning for flood damage mitigation needs,

 Zoning of flood prone areas based on historical, primary and secondary data.

 Implementation of Land Use Regulations in flood prone areas.

 Identification of problem areas and needs of the vulnerable communities, in advance.

 Advance arrangement of essential materials in the flood prone areas, based on

assessment of problems and needs of the vulnerable communities. Basic facilities to be
installed in safe locations and these should be accessible to affected communities
during flood.

 Strong and efficient organizational network involving government line departments,

non-government organizations working in the field of disaster management, trained
34
 volunteers from vulnerable communities, and other concerned agencies from corporate
and financial sectors.

 Training for different organizations and individuals, involved in the process of

planning and execution of plans.

 Capacity building in terms of skilled manpower, equipments and tools, finance etc.

LANDSLIDE
General characteristic of landslide

 It is a land surface related phenomenon, but depends largely on geomprphological,

geological, ecological, tectonic and climatic conditions of the localities.

 It occurs mainly in hilly terrains.

 In general, landslide prone areas are well defined and many visible warning signs help
to give forewarning for this event. In rare cases it occurs without any warning.

 Once the process start, it occurs very fast without leaving time to save life and
property.
 In most of the cases, landslide causes blockade to other physical elements and
secondary disruptions.

 Landslide combines with heavy rain generally lead to flood hazard.

Fig.: Landslide in a hill nearby Guwahati city

Photo courtesy: telegraphindia.com

Causes of landslide

Landslide is the sudden failure of a slope due to slumping, falling or sliding of landmass.

The pre condition for a landslide is slope and the triggering forces for a landslide may be

35
  Precipitation and tectonic activities like earthquake.
 Change in vegetation cover around the slope.
 Construction activities like road, buildings etc. on sloping ground.
 Liquid disposal by means of sanitary and sewers.
 Excavation and mining.

These above mentioned conditions may lead a landslide in the form of

 Freefalling, bounding, or rolling of a big landmass detached from a steep slope.

 Rotation and toppling of a unit landmass or rock system over a slope.

 Sliding of a landmass in the slope.

 Mudflow

The probable factors involved in the process of landslide justify the above mentioned
characteristics of landslide.
Warning signs for a landslide

Few visible signs in and around the slope may be appeared before a landslide in the
surrounding areas. These are
 Appearance of new water spring or saturated ground near the slope.
 Appearance of cracks or bulges in the ground, street pavements or sidewalks.
 Disturbance in foundations, tilting of ancillary structure from main house; crack in the
floors; broken water lines and other underground utilities.
 Tilting of retaining wall, poles or trees slowly but continuously.
 Sudden decrease of water level in the streams inspite of regular rainfall.
 Visible disorder in door and window frames.

Problem areas of landslide

A sizable landslide in a locality may create severe damage and disruption locally or in distant
areas. A landslide may cause following problems

 Damage to buildings and other infrastructures, in and around the slope, resulting large-
scale loss and damage to life and property of the locality. Communication disruption
and other adverse conditions of the locality may create difficulties in rescue operation.

 There is every possibility of road blockade. This may lead communication disruption,
isolation of different places and communities from rest of the country, scarcity of
essential items etc.

 A heavy mudflow from hilly area during monsoon season may cause disruption in the
foothill regions.

 A landslide may also block a river or stream resulting artificial lake. This may enhance
the risk of flash flood in the downstream areas.

Contingency planning for damage mitigation

36
The planning for landslide damage mitigation must include

 Proper zoning of landslide prone areas.

 Imposition strict regulations to stop avoidable and unauthorized developmental
activities in landslide prone hilly slopes.
 Awareness of people about the risk of landslide and its impact.
 Imposition of penalty and exclusion from government support, for unauthorized
dwellers in landslide prone hilly areas.
 Relocation plan for the communities staying in the hilly landslide prone areas from
generations.
 Discouraging people from destruction of forest and vegetation in hilly areas.
 Insurance for unavoidable infrastructures at landslide risk.
 Proper structural protection measures (mainly stabilization of slope) for unavoidable
important infrastructures in hilly landslide prone areas, like roads, bridges, electricity
and telecommunication facilities, etc.
 Capacity building of the concerned organizations for speedy recovery of the normal
situation in case of communication disruption.

LIGHTNING

Lightning is the flow of electrical current between earth and storm clouds in the atmosphere.
This happens due to polarity of positive and negative charges build up in the atmosphere
during a storm.

The basic characteristics of lightning are

 It generates 35,000 to 40,000 amperes current in the atmosphere and travels towards
earth. The lightning induced current can travel as far as 40 miles.
 Lightning can generate enormous amount of heat, as high as 50,000 degrees Celsius.
 It falls somewhere on the earth in every second.
 It can strike more than once in the same area.

The lightning can create following problems

 The lightning has the potential to damage all kinds of electrical and electronics
installations within a fraction of second.
 It may cause damage to all living elements.
 Lightning may trigger fire and lead total property loss.

37
Planning for damage mitigation

 Installation of lightning protection systems in all building should be made mandatory.

This will certainly mitigate the magnitude of damage of property under the impact of
lightning every year.

 Education and awareness of people about other indoor and outdoor safety measures
for lightning.

TROPICAL CYCLONE

Generally, warm tropical moisture bearing clouds developed in open ocean or sea causes
cyclone. This allows the atmosphere to develop low-pressure zone and violent thunder storms.

The general characteristics of tropical cyclone are

 It is an atmospheric and climatic phenomenon. By observing meteorological data, it is

possible to forecast the occurrence of cyclone in a particular location well ahead of
time.
 The process of cyclone in an area develops gradually and does not strike a system
suddenly.
 The destructive wind force and violent thunder storm result wide spread destruction
and flooding in coastal areas.

Fig.: Orissa cyclone damage in the year 1999

Photo source : members.tripod.com

The major problem areas for cyclone are

 Difficulties in rescue operation during cyclone due to high wind and storm.
 Everything in the surface of the earth, physical or living elements, may be damaged
under the impact of strong cyclone.
 Large-scale debris may cause difficulties for post cyclone rescue and recovery
operations.
 All structures and establishments may collapse in case of a cyclone. Therefore,
problems may arise in rescue and safe shelter of the victims. The response forces may
also face problems in distributing relief material and extending medical support to the
victims timely.
 Wide spread destruction of trees and crops may lead long standing secondary
problems.

38
Contingency plan for damage mitigation should include

 Development of effective warning mechanism in all cyclone prone areas.

 Construction of high wind resistant structures in cyclone prone areas.
 Development of cyclone barriers.
 Proper rescue, relief and rehabilitation plans.
 Preparedness, public education and awareness for damage mitigation etc.

Like this, we can study the characteristics and problem areas of different hazards. It is
essential to understand the nature and problem areas of the hazard, to which a particular
location is exposed, prior to formulation of damage mitigation plan for this area.

DROUGHT

Drought is an important and dominant natural hazard that causes enormous disruption to life
support systems and heavy economic loss. Drought affects largest population in Asia.

Drought is basically a condition of abnormal dry weather, which results serious hydrological
imbalance and has negative consequences on different factors.

The general characteristics of drought are

 It is a hydro-meteorological hazard.
 Exposure time of drought is very long.
 Speed of onset is long or may stand for whole year depending on the pattern of
rainfall.
 Forewarning is long.
 All locations on the globe are not drought prone.

Causes of drought

 Absence of rainfall for long period of time

 Changes in timing, frequency and intensity of rainfall.
 Environmental degradation.
 Wrong land use practice, settlement pattern, and farm management.
 Poor water management and water wastage.
 Water diversion by inter-basin transfer.
 Big dams in upper catchment area.
 Poor water storage facilities.
 Poor recharge of aquifers and overexploitation of ground water.
 Pollution.
 Siltation in water reservoirs.
 Human activities like deforestation, environmental modification, misuse of wetland
etc.

Problem areas

 Shortage of surface and ground water.

 Enormous negative impact on agricultural production and damage to standing crops.
 Scarcity of food, that may cause malnutrition and famine like situation.
 Migration of population.
 National economic loss.
 Social chaos and civil unrest.
39
  Epidemic.
 Administrative problems in providing relief for long time.
 Rehabilitation.

Drought management

 Close monitoring on changing rainfall pattern and emerging threat of drought for
early warning and preparedness.
 Planning for relocation of effected population or providing long time relief.
 Planning for alternative agriculture.
 Proper land use planning and farm management.
 Proper policy for water management and distribution.
 Improvement of water and crop storage facilities.
 Aforestation and wet land management etc.

DAMAGE CHARACTERSTICS OF DIFFERENT NATURAL HAZARDS

In advance, we can assess the probability, nature and magnitude of damage to a system under
the influence of a specific hazard, by studying past hazard specific damage characteristics. `

Most of the natural hazards cause

 Damage to physical and living elements on the surface of the earth.

 Injury to people, epidemic, other medical problems.
 Damage to crop, forest etc.
 Disruption in normal pattern of life and essential services.
 Social and psychological problems; stress; trauma etc.
 Economic problems.
 Disruption in government functioning.
 Many secondary affects in the fields of medical, financial, social, administrative,
infrastructure etc.

Question is that, whether this much information is sufficient for damage mitigation
planning?

In fact, nature and magnitude of damage in an area primarily depend on hazards

characteristics as well as nature of their exposures i.e., local environment of the system/area.
Hence, we need to have hazard specific damage assessment for damage mitigation planning.

For example,

For an earthquake, ground vibration is mainly responsible for sudden damage to buildings and
infrastructures, which may lead a series of secondary problems. The damage and disruption
may spread over wide area, depending on magnitude of earthquake. The nature of damage is
also related to developmental pattern of the locality.

In this case, the design parameters based on earthquake resistant building codes play vital
role in damage mitigation planning.

For flood, inundation is the major factor to cause damage to crops, household assets, roads,
bridges etc. It can lead a series of secondary problems like, epidemic, food scarcity, social and

40
financial problems etc. Generally, flood damage remains confined to certain parts of a
locality.

So, flood zoning, land use regulation, flood preparedness, alternative adjustment process etc.
may be the major components of flood damage mitigation planning.

Like these, a cyclone may cause wide spread damage and disruption to all physical and living
elements of an area under the influence of high wind and storm. It may lead floods in low
lying areas also.

A fire may destroy its physical exposures completely. But, it may not spread over wide area.
The damage mitigation planning for fire largely depends on nature of exposures.

Moreover, one natural hazard may create another hazard and subsequently a series of
secondary loss and damages to a system.

For example,

An earthquake may lead landslide, fire and flood hazards.

A flood may lead bank line erosion.
Landslide may cause flashflood and mudflow.
Cyclone may result flood.

HAZARD ASSESSMENT

We have already discussed in detail about different types of hazards and their characteristics.

Now it is clear that, hazard is the first parameter of risk of a system. For proper risk
assessment and risk reduction planning, we need genuine hazard assessment.

The hazard assessment is essential to understand

 The types of hazards, to which an area is exposed.

 Nature and behaviour of hazards.
 Area likely to be affected by the hazard.
 Its impact on the system including damage pattern and magnitude of damage.
 Time of occurrence and duration etc.

The hazard assessment process involves

 Hazard mapping to determine hazard prone areas and types of hazards.

 Historical profile to understand hazard specific damage characteristics.
 Seasonal calendar to understand time of occurance of hazards, their impact on
community and needs of the community.

To do so, we need to

 Collect primary and secondary data.

 Analyze the data to understand nature and impact of hazards.

The sophisticated tools available for hazard assessment

 Arial photograph and satellite imagery to get information about landscape.

41
  GIS and remote sensing based analysis to store and present spatial data and
information in digital format.

WHAT WE LEARNT FROM THIS UNIT?

Hazard or threat is the triggering force of a disaster. In absence of a hazard or threat, there is
no possibility of disaster in a system. Hazards are devastating natural phenomena or harmful
events and objectives, which have the potentials to cause damage and disruption in our
systems. Basically two types of hazards are there, natural and man-made. These hazards can
be divided into number of groups based on their origin.

The damage characteristics of a hazard depend on its origin, force, response time, frequency,
magnitude, warning sign and exposure time. Therefore, the problem areas of different hazards
are not same. For damage mitigation planning, hazard assessment is essential to identify the
areas prone to hazards, nature of hazards and probability of damage and disruption due to
these hazards.

PROBABLE QUESTIONS

1. Define hazard.
2. Whether disaster risk has any relation with hazards?
3. Explain different kinds of hazards based on their origin and response time.
4. What factors may cause landslide hazard?
5. Give an account of few general characteristics of flood and earthquake hazards.
6. Why prediction of earthquake is not possible?
7. What may be the causes of landslide?
8. Describe briefly the general damage characteristics of hazards.
9. Why we need hazard assessment for risk reduction planning?

SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Alexander, D., Natural Disasters, Published by ULC press Ltd, London, 1993 (PP 10,
42, 316, 525)
2. Carter, W. N., Disaster Management: A Disaster Management Handbook, Published
by Asian Development Bank, 1991
3. Chakrabarty, U. K., Industrial Disaster Management and Emergency Response,
Published by Asian Books Pvt. Ltd., 2007 (pp 11, 12)
4. Reading Material: Training Programme on Environment and Disaster Management,
NIDM, 2010
5. Gupta, K. M., M. Deshmukh and I. V. Suresh, Environmental Risk Assessment and
Mitigation Analysis: policy Approach to Natural Disaster Reduction, Published by
NDM Cell, Visva Bharati, Santiniketan, 1999 (pp 153)
6. Study material: Fourth International Course on CBDM, ADPC, 2000 (Module-3, pp
47,49)
7. Sriramachari, S., The Bhopal Gas Tragedy: An Environmental Disaster, Current
Sciecce, 2004, Vol. 86, No. 2

42
 VULNERABILITY

UNIT STRUCTURE

INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES
DIMENSION OF VULNERABILITY FACTORS
VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT
STEPS FOR VULNERABILITY ANALYSIS
EXAMPLES OF VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT
PRACTICAL EXAMPLE OF VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT
PARTICIPATORY VULNERABILITY ANALYSIS (PVA)
VULNERABILITY AND DISASTER RISK
VULNERABILITIES OF FLOOD AND EARTHQUAKE RISK
FLOOD
EARTHQUAKE
SOCIO ECONOMIC VULNERABILITY AND DISASTERS
IMPACT ON SOCIETY
COMMUNITY FUNCTIONS AND DISASTERS
COMMUNITY CONFLICT AND DISASTERS
PANIC
WHAT WE LEARNT FROM THIS UNIT?
PROBABLE QUESTIONS
SUGGESTED READINGS

INTRODUCTION
Vulnerability is the most important but complex parameter of disaster risk. In unit 01, we
have discussed about disaster risk. Disaster risk assessment gives us idea about probability of
occurrence of disaster in an area and expected loss and damage. Unit 02 describes the role of
hazards in disaster risk and damage characteristics of different hazards.

Only a hazard cannot trigger a disaster like situation in an area. External hazards may cause
damage and disruption in our systems, only when some elements in our system are at risk and
susceptible to the hazards.

We have also discussed about specific risk of a system, which is the combined affect of
hazard and vulnerability. Most of the times, we cannot prevent natural hazards to reduce the
disaster risk. But, we can mitigate magnitude of loss and damage by minimizing vulnerability
factors of the system.

Hence, vulnerability assessment is essential for disaster risk reduction planning. Vulnerability
assessment facilitates us to identify unsafe conditions of our systems and analyze the
progression of vulnerability factors.

This unit is specifically designed to cover different aspects of vulnerability including its
dimension, assessment, relationship with risk and damage etc.
OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this unit is to highlight the issues relevant to

43
  Dimensions and progression of vulnerability of a system to understand the
dynamic pressures and root causes of unsafe conditions of the system.
 Correlation between vulnerability and disaster risk of a system.
 Principle of vulnerability assessment
 Other aspects of vulnerability and disasters.

DIMENSION OF VULNERABILITY
As discussed earlier, vulnerability of a system implies unsafe conditions or elements at risk of
the system, which are susceptible to one or more hazards. These factors generally reduce the
ability of the community to resist the hazard, cope with disaster and recover from the impact
of hazard.

Therefore, vulnerability has multidimensional aspects and it is little difficult to assess

vulnerability of a system addressing all dimensions.

Let us discuss the issues relevant to dimensions of vulnerability factors in detail.

Physical vulnerability: Physical vulnerability of a system determines the physical elements

that are at risk and exposed to different hazards. Physical elements of a system may be
buildings, infrastructures, facilities, agriculture based industries, forest, river network, hazard
protection mechanism etc. Weak physical elements are responsible for creating unsafe
conditions and enhance the disaster risk in a system. This also increases the probability of
damage and disruption in the system.

Social vulnerability: It indicates the weak social conditions of the community, which gives
extra pressures to a system and enhance its disaster risk. The social vulnerability may be week
community, poverty, weak leadership etc.

Economic vulnerability: Poor economic conditions of the people, community or

organizations, which play negative role in the capacity building process of a community.
Otherwise, severe loss and damage of physical components under the impact of natural and
man-made hazards may enhance economic burden of a nation. In any case, economic
vulnerability of a nation creates hindrance in effective management of disaster. Therefore, the
physical vulnerability factors have significant role on enhancing economic vulnerability of a
system.

Motivational vulnerability: It indicates lack of motivation of the people or community to do

good work. Motivational vulnerability is mainly responsible for unsustainable development.

Similarly, there may be Technical, Environmental, Political, Cultural, Educational, and

Institutional vulnerability factors in a system, which have the potential to enhance disaster
risk of the system.

All these vulnerability factors or unsafe conditions arise in our system due to some hidden
dynamic pressures. The dynamic pressures have some root causes and we cannot simply
remove these pressures without addressing their root causes. The dynamic pressures of a
community or system are variable with root causes.

Another feature of vulnerability factors is that, they respond differently with different hazards.
The disaster risk of a system for same set of vulnerable conditions may be different for
different hazards.

44
Therefore, study on progression of vulnerability factors and impact of probable hazards on
unsafe conditions of a system is mandatory for proper risk assessment.
VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT
Vulnerability assessment is the process, which facilitates us in identifying the unsafe
conditions or elements at risk in a system, pressures and root causes of these unsafe
conditions, and their susceptibility to different hazards. Vulnerability assessment is essential
to estimate the level of risk of the system for different hazards.

It also gives us scope to analyze the progression of vulnerability i.e., correlation amongst
unsafe conditions, dynamic pressures and root causes. Disaster Crunch Model is useful to
understand the method of studying the progression of vulnerability in a system.

STEPS FOR VULNERABILITY ANALYSIS

 Identification of elements at risk and unsafe conditions of a system, which is prone to

one or more hazards.
 Study on progression of vulnerability to find out the pressures and root causes of
unsafe conditions.
 Response of prevailing vulnerability factors to different hazards to understand the
damage characteristic.
 Estimation of hazard specific disaster risk (high, medium, low etc.) of the system.

EXAMPLES OF VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT

The first step of vulnerability assessment is identification of the unsafe conditions or elements
at risk of the system.

Physical vulnerability: Community, building, infrastructures, critical facilities etc. may be at

risk or not functioning well due to different reasons. For example,

 A large number of community people living in hazards prone areas without protection
and preparedness.
 A number of residential buildings are in hazard prone locations, like flood prone areas
or on high seismic zone.
 Most of the buildings are weak due to violation of hazard resistant building codes in
terms of location, soil quality, design perspective, construction material, shape, size,
safety norms, interior design etc.
 Infrastructures like road, bridges, airport, railways, etc. are not safe.
 Utilities like water supply, electricity, telecommunication, sewerage etc. are at risk or
not functioning.
 The hazard resistant measures like embankment, dykes, deflector, small dams, safety
equipments, fire service equipments, guard wall etc. are at risk or not in working
condition.
 Condition of critical facilities like, hospitals, emergency services like ambulance and
fire services, transport and communication services, power plants, etc. are at risk
 Community people are exposed to risky sources of livelihood and production like
nuclear plant, cement factory, etc.
 Scarcity of food and other basic requirements for survival. 
 Lack of basic services like, education, health, safe drinking water, shelter, sanitation,
roads, electricity, communication etc.
 Lack of skilled manpower and facilities for post disaster response.
 Overexploitation of natural resources.

45
  Population explosion and unsustainable development.

Social vulnerability: Different social factors, which are not favourable for sustainable
development and disaster risk reduction of vulnerable community. For examples,

 Insecure livelihood options of majority population may lead economic, social, law &
order problems.
 People exposed to different hazards are poor.
 Most families are socially, politically and economically weak.
 Conflict, division, rumors among community people.
 Lack of active participation in community affairs.
 Undue political interference, injustice to community.
 Gap between community and government organizations.
 Communities are confined to certain locality and do not have access to outside world.
 Socio-cultural degradation.
 Lack of work culture.
 Migration of population from rural to urban areas due to lack of communication and
other basic facilities.

Economical vulnerability: As discussed earlier, poor economic conditions of the community

and organizations may enhance disaster risk of a system or a disaster may cause severe
economic loss resulting poor economic conditions of the community and organizations of the
system. Poverty and disaster have strong correlation. For example,
 Poverty may compel people to live in hazard prone areas without preparedness.
 Poor countries may not able to implement disaster risk reduction plan.
 Poor organizations may not be well equipped to handle a disaster like situation.
 A disaster may be the cause for national economic recession due to
 Severe damage to physical infrastructure and facilities.
 Loss of employment, production, vital services, livelihood options.
 Inflation and price rise of the essential commodities and services.

Motivational vulnerability: This is related with negative attitude of the community members
and lack of motivation. For examples,

 Lack of initiative and negative attitude towards sustainable development.

 Lack of motivation and sincerity to do good work for the society and nation.
 Lack of fighting spirit.
 Helplessness and dependency on external support.
 Lack of efforts to understand and solve own problems.
 Corruption

Technical vulnerability: Weak and faulty engineering devices, unstable hazard resistant
mechanism, violation of codes and norms during construction etc. may also enhance the risk
of a system

Environmental vulnerability: Damage to our biodiversity and unstable ecosystem are the
major reasons for environmental stress and natural hazards.

Political vulnerability: Lack of political initiatives to formulate policies for solving the
national problems, inefficient leadership, ineffective decision making, political corruption and
violence etc. are mainly responsible for unsustainable development and disaster risk.

46
Cultural vulnerability: Socio-cultural degradation, disrespect to traditional practices etc. are
also contributing to disaster risk.

Educational vulnerability: Lack of proper education, training, research technology

development, and technology transfer etc.

Institutional vulnerability: Lack of planning, public services, emergency response,

preparedness etc. to mitigate disaster risk.

Let us see few examples of dynamic pressures, which may generate many unsafe
conditions in our systems.

Low per capita income, unstable livelihood, lack of proper relocation plans for vulnerable
communities, national economic recession, poor job opportunities, corruption, lack of health
care mechanism and schemes, lack of forest conservation, population explosion, poor political
representation from vulnerable communities etc.

Such dynamic pressures are mainly responsible for creation of many unsafe conditions in our
systems.

Few examples of root causes of unsafe conditions of our systems

 Poor watersheds management.

 Lack of policies for water resource conservation.
 Deforestation and other human activities in the upper catchment areas.
 Population explosion and migration of population in urban areas.
 Poor implementation of land use regulations and town planning.
 Lack of policies for equal distribution of services and resources.
 Unsustainable development.
 Unequal political and social representations from vulnerable communities.
 Lack of job opportunity.

Vulnerability analysis for a hazard prone area needs continuous observation on pre to
post disaster conditions of the area; collection of primary and secondary data
including remote sensing based satellite imageries; and analysis of data in the
laboratory.

PRACTICAL EXAMPLE OF VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT

The above picture represents a flood disaster situation

47
What vulnerability factors may be responsible for this kind of situation?

We can assume,
 The area is low lying and flood hazard prone.
 People constructed their houses in low-lying areas.
 People are residing in these houses.
 Housing pattern is not suitable for flood prone area.
 People are either not aware about their risk or not prepared to cope with the situation.
 Affected people are dependant on outside agencies for rescue and shelter.

What may be the reasons for such a situation?

River close to the locality

We can assume,
 There is a river very close to the area.
 Carrying capacity of the river is not sufficient to carry the runoff water. As a result,
water migrates to the low-lying areas during peak season.
 To protect this area from flood, one embankment is constructed. But, it is constructed
by pure sand and violating other safety norms.
 There is possibility of breaching of embankment during monsoon, i.e., the
embankment itself is at risk.
 The river is shifting laterally due to bank line erosion. The river bank already touched
the embankment.
 No preventive measure is visible to stop riverbank erosion and protect the
embankment form breaching.
 People of this area were also reluctant to monitor the condition of embankment and
take temporary protection measures.
 People felt secure due to this embankment and did not prepare themselves for a
disaster situation.
As a result, the embankment may breach at a particular location closed to the area during
monsoon season resulting such a disastrous situation for the localities.

What are the active dynamic pressures acting behind these unsafe conditions?

48
 The river close to the area

Huge sediment influx

to the riverbed

The dynamic pressures responsible for these unsafe conditions of the community may be

 Huge soil erosion in the upper catchment area and heavy sediment influx in the
riverbed may be the reason for decrease in carrying capacity of the river.
 Poor economic condition of the affected community may compel people to live in
flood hazard prone areas.
 Affected community is not aware about alternative adjustment processes.
 Absence of risk reduction plan or misappropriation of government money in risk
reduction activities.
What are the root causes of all these problems?

The root causes of the unsafe conditions and dynamic pressures may be assumes as,
 Large scale deforestation in the upper catchment area.
 Human activities like, shifting cultivation, developmental activities etc. in the upper
catchment area.
 Non implementation of forest and land use regulations in the upper catchment and
flood prone areas.
 Lack of hazard specific risk assessment and risk reduction planning.
 Lack of initiative in monitoring vulnerable conditions and timely remedial actions.
 Government does not have any relocation plan for the vulnerable communities.
 Government does not have strong policy to stop misappropriation of fund, meant for
hazard resistant measures.
 Concerned government and non-governmental organizations are not sincerely working
in educating the vulnerable communities about their risk and damage mitigation
measures.

Deforestation in watersheds increasing soil erosion and sediment influx

49
Like this, we can assess hazard specific vulnerability of an area. We can also determine
hazard specific disaster risk of the area by assuming probability of loss and damage due to the
prevailing unsafe conditions in the area.

PARTICIPATORY VULNERABILITY ANALYSIS (PVA)

It is a community-based approach to study the problem areas, reasons of problems and

solution of problems of vulnerable communities involving the community members and other
stakeholders. The main aim of this kind of analysis is to aware vulnerable communities about
their own problems and motivate them to participate in the process of disaster risk reduction.

Different aspects of PVA

 Direct involvement of vulnerable communities in finding out the vulnerability factors
of their own systems and solutions of the problems.
 Proper and timely action on PVA for mitigation of disaster risk of vulnerable areas.
 A multilevel analysis of data involving district, state and national level organizations
to study the sources of the local problems.

Basic approaches of PVA to understand the causes of vulnerability

 Identification of probable hazards and their exposures.

 Determination of the levels of susceptibility of the exposures to the probable hazards.
 Identification of unsafe conditions of the vulnerable areas, which are making
community people susceptible to disaster risk.
 Determination of other factors, which are responsible for creation of these local unsafe
conditions.
 Assessment of the existing capacity of vulnerable community to prevent hazard,
mitigate damage and cope with disaster.

Importance of PVA

 This enables the local communities to contribute in the process of data collection,
analysis of data, planning and execution of plan.
 This process helps the district level organizations to make hazard specific micro level
risk assessment and risk reduction planning for the district.
 This also helps in formulating national policies addressing the problems of vulnerable
communities.

Phases of PVA

a) Preparation for PVA

 Educate the vulnerable communities about disaster risk and importance of PVA in risk
reduction planning.
 Identify the target and purpose of this analysis.
 Identify the stakeholders, who can contribute in this process.
 Constitute a team for PVA, involving all stakeholders.

b) Framework for analysis

 Study on problem areas and local unsafe conditions responsible for these problems.
 Study on the progression of vulnerability to address the causes of local vulnerability
factors.

50
  Study on the capacity and role of the vulnerable communities in vulnerability
reduction process.
 Analysis of data and preparation of action plan.

c) Analysis at multi-level (community to national level)

 Micro-level participatory vulnerability assessment for some selected vulnerable areas.
 District level vulnerability analysis using information of micro level PVA.
 State level vulnerability analysis based on vulnerability analysis of all districts.
 National level vulnerability analysis using the vulnerability analysis of all states.
 Preparation of national action plan considering feedbacks of different countries on
vulnerability reduction mechanism.

VULNERABILITY AND DISASTER RISK

So far, we have discussed in detail about dimensions and assessment procedure of
vulnerability. In units (01) and (02), we have discussed about disaster risk and its relationship
with hazard and other parameters like vulnerability.

Generally, risk assessment determines the probability of disaster or damage and disruption in
an area under the impact of external hazards. As already discussed, the risk of a system
depends on both external hazards and internal vulnerability factors of the system.

But, question is that, why vulnerability plays dominant role in determining disaster risk of a
system?

The hazards act just like a triggering force for initiating the disaster process. But, vulnerability
plays the role of catalyst to complete the process and cause damage and disruption in the
system. The unsafe conditions or elements at risk in the system are the media of loss and
damage.

Secondly, we can simply study the nature of hazards and their possible impact to the
exposures to determine the level of disaster. We have our own limitation to resist the natural
hazards prior to their occurrence.

Therefore, disaster risk reduction planning for a system needs genuine assessment of
vulnerability and strategy for vulnerability reduction.

A disaster can cause enormous damage and loss to physical environment and national
economy. This may also halt the entire process of national development. So, a disaster risk
reduction plan based on genuine vulnerability analysis is essential for sustainable
development and overall progress of nation.

Understanding the relationship between vulnerability and disaster risk is not that much
simple. In general, the disaster risk of a system depends on

 Unsafe conditions or elements at risk of the system, which may be physical, social,
ecological and economical.
 Susceptibility of these elements to different hazards. Same unsafe condition may
behave differently for different hazards.
 Behaviour and attitude of human beings towards environment and nature. Most of the
visible unsafe conditions are the byproduct of human-environmental conflict or
unsustainable developmental activities.

51
Moreover, we cannot reduce disaster risk of our systems simply by taking some remedial
measures to remove or reduce the local unsafe conditions. These conditions are regulated by
some other pressures and root causes. If we remove these unsafe conditions without
addressing their root causes, these will repeat further with time.

Let us consider a place, which is prone to Earthquake and Flood Hazards.

There may be a set of unsafe conditions in this place. We may assume few major vulnerability
factors to study the risk factors of the system for Earthquake and Flood hazards.
 The area is low-lying alluvial plain and soil quality is sandy.
 Large numbers of multistoried buildings are constructed in the area violating
earthquake resistant building codes.
 To protect this area from flood, one embankment is constructed. But, the condition of
the embankment is not good and there is possibility of breaching.
 The area is located close to down stream of a river. One big dam is constructed in the
upstream of the river.
 The approach road, connecting the area with other places, is also vulnerable to flood.
 Condition of the bridges on the road is miserable.
 No flood warning system is in place for the area.

Now, let us see the possible impacts of earthquake and flood hazards separately.
In case of a big earthquake in this area, there may be

 Chances of liquefaction in the soil.

 Damage to majority of buildings resulting large-scale loss and damage to life and
property. A large section of population may be seriously injured.
 Bridges on the approach road may be collapsed resulting serious problems in rescue,
relief, emergency medical care etc.
 If there is any damage to dam on the river or blockade of river by landslide, this area
may face flash flood. This may result another series of problems relevant to flood
hazard, including crop damage, shortage of drinking water etc..
 Many other secondary problems relevant to health care, communication, essential
items for survival etc may arise.

Therefore, the risk of this area for earthquake hazard is very high.

In case of heavy rainfall in the catchment area, there may be heavy discharge in the river.

Since, there is no mechanism for forewarning, people will not get information about the latest
situation. In this case, people may not take shelter in safe locations.

Here again, two conditions are applicable

a) If there is no breaching of embankment, there will be no flood.
b) If there is a breach in the embankment close to the area, major problems may arise due
to
 Inundation in the entire area within short time.
 Damage to the road and bridges.
 Damage of life, household assets and, crop, food storage.
 Disruption in rescue, relief, distribution of essential items, etc.

In case of flood hazard, magnitude of damage and disruption in the area may be lower to that
of Earthquake. The magnitude of damage will depend on the preparedness level of the local

52
community. Naturally, risk factor of the area for Flood Hazard could be estimated as high or
medium.
Strengthening the embankment and taking some preventive measures locally addressing the
local unsafe conditions, we can reduce the flood risk of the area temporarily. Long-term
planning for disaster risk reduction in the area will need watershed management and proper
implementation of land use regulations.

As the developmental pattern in the area is favourable for earthquake damage, planning for
earthquake risk reduction may be difficult, time consuming and expensive.

VULNERABILITY OF FLOOD AND EARTHQUAKE

So far, we have discussed about different aspects of vulnerability analysis and its relation with
disaster risk. Now, let us discuss specific issues of vulnerability for selected natural hazards
like, flood and earthquake.

Flood and earthquake are most common natural hazards in different parts of the globe.

The causes of flood and its problem areas are briefly discussed in unit 02. Environmental
degradation and more specifically ecologically destructive practices by human beings have
been enhancing the magnitude of flood hazard and its impact on our systems day by day.

More or less 80% of worldwide natural hazard induced disasters occur in Asia and
approximately 80% of these disasters are related to hydro-meteorological and climatic
hazards. These disasters have close relationship with environmental degradation.

There is no direct affect of environmental degradation to earthquake hazard, since it is a

geophysical event. But, magnitude of loss and damage due to earthquake is largely dependent
on developmental patterns in the earthquake sensitive zones.

Anyhow, human actions towards environmental degradation and unsustainable development

are mainly responsible for increasing trends of damage and disruption in our systems due to
natural hazards like flood and earthquake.

Without addressing the reasons for environmental degradation and unsustainable

development, it is not possible to mitigate disaster risk of natural hazards.

In this section, we shall try to find out the possible vulnerability factors, which are enhancing
the risk of flood and earthquake hazards.

FLOOD

As discussed earlier in unit 01, the magnitude of flood hazard is directly related to rainfall
pattern. Rainfall is dependent on some climatic conditions. Any change in climatic conditions
of a region may change the rainfall pattern of this region, resulting a change in flooding
pattern. The global and regional climate change due to different environmental factors may
also change the timing and trajectory of monsoon and thereby changing the timing of floods
in different regions. Similarly, a short time heavy rainfall may cause flash flood due to sudden
increase in surface runoff of rainwater.

So, changing pattern of rainfall due to environmental degradation and change in climatic
conditions has direct affect on timing and magnitude of flood hazards.

53
Interestingly, over the years the yearly average rainfall remained normal in most of the
regions. So, many people have disagreement over the role of deforestation in rainfall and
flood. According to them, geomorphic character of the rivers and human actions to contain
rivers are the major reasons for sediment influx and floods (Yin and Li, 2001; Carson, 1985;
Rodgers, 1989)

The second reason of flood is the discharge of river system. The discharge of the river system
depends on surface runoff and gradient of the river system. High river discharge results rise in
water level of the rivers. The water level of the rivers together with other local factors like
embankment breaching, overflow of water etc. may lead a flood situation in the adjacent low-
lying area. To some extent, surface runoff and discharge of rivers are dependent on vegetation
pattern and soil characteristic of the catchment area.

Another important factor is carrying capacity of the river. Poor carrying capacity of the rivers
may cause flood in the adjacent areas or lateral expansion of the river. The characteristics of
catchment areas as well as slope, shape and density of river network have direct influence on
carrying capacity of the rivers. The main reason for decrease in carrying capacity of a river is
huge sediment influx to riverbed. Reasons for sediment deposition in the riverbed may be

 Large-scale soil erosion in the catchment areas.

 Decrease in flow current due to decrease in gradient of the river.

Failure or wrong design of flood protection measures may be another reason of flood
damage. Most of the engineering flood protection measures are designed either to divert the
river flow or to block overflow of the river water. While diversion of flow pattern may lead
other problems like erosion in the other side of the riverbank, a breach in the embankment
may cause flash flood and sand deposition in the adjacent low-lying areas. Sand deposition in
fertile agricultural land may have reverse affect on production for long period.

Violation of land use regulations is another major reason for flood damage. Permanent
settlement and developmental activities in low-lying flood prone areas may enhance the
magnitude of flood damage and reduce crop production.

Though, there are disagreements about affects of deforestation on rainfall and flood, but in
principle deforestation has direct impact on climate change, rainfall pattern, soil erosion,
sediment influx etc. Hence, it is one of the major factors for flood hazard and flood damage.

Other reasons of flood damage are related to socio-economic condition and preparedness level
of the vulnerable community. Some communities are living on flood prone areas for
generations. Their preparedness level in terms of housing pattern, alternative agriculture, safe
food storage, flood friendly communication facility, etc. made them less susceptible to flood
hazard. Sometime, poor economic condition compels people to live in flood prone areas. In
developing countries, poor economy is the main hindrance of disaster risk reduction process.

EARTHQUAKE
Earthquake is a geophysical phenomenon. The occurrence of an earthquake has nothing to do
with human activities on the surface of the earth. But, all developmental activities on the
earth’s surface have direct impact on damage characteristics of earthquake. Hence,
vulnerability analysis for earthquake hazard is relevant to human actions towards
unsustainable development in the earthquake sensitive zones.

Earthquake risk assessment addresses the following issues

 Seismic zoning.

54
  Unsafe conditions in the earthquake prone areas.
 Capacity and preparedness level of the vulnerable communities and line departments.
Earthquake zoning

It is the process of identifying the seismically active zones both at macro and micro levels.
Geologists and seismologists are working together to find out the vulnerable locations in
terms of frequency, magnitude and intensity of earthquake. Geologists prepared geological
maps defining the plate boundaries as most sensitive zones for earthquakes. Seismologists
have been trying to verify the fact by plotting earthquake epicentral data over geological
maps. The epicentral map of earthquake also shows that, the areas close to plate boundaries
are most active zones for occurrence of earthquake. Detail about earthquake active belts is
discussed in unit 01.

The Bureau of Indian Standard in its latest seismic zoning map shows, more than 65% of
Indian territory is vulnerable to earthquake, where the intensity of earthquake may be more
than VII in Modified Mercali Intensity Scale. This map divided India into four zones (zone II
to V), abolishing the concept of zone I. Entire Himalayan region is considered to be highly
sensitive zone with probability of occurrence of earthquake of magnitude greater than 8.0 in
Richter scale.

To understand the process of zoning we must have clear idea about Magnitude and Intensity
of earthquake.

Magnitude defines the size of an earthquake or total amount of energy released during an
earthquake. It is measured in the unit of Richter scale, a scale developed by Charles. E.
Richter in 1935.

Intensity indicates ground motion or the extent of damage at a particular place due to an
earthquake. Intensity of an earthquake is measured by Modified Mercalli Intensity scale
(MMI), developed by an Italian seismologist, Mercalli in 1902 and modified by Wood and
Neuman in 1931.

An earthquake has a single magnitude, but the intensity of an earthquake varies with
magnitude of earthquake, distance of epicenter, depth of focus, soil condition and
developmental pattern of the localities. The scale of intensity ranges between I to XII, based
on amount of ground shaking and magnitude of damage.

Vulnerability assessment for earthquake hazard

The unsafe conditions of an area for earthquake damage could be identified by considering
damage characteristics of earthquake. These are mainly related to

 Soil condition of the area, which determines the possibility of liquefaction during
earthquake. Risk of liquefaction is more in sandy or lose soil, as earthquake wave
amplifies in lose soil.
 Design perspectives of buildings and infrastructures. Earthquake resistant building
codes defined the conditions for earthquake resistant structures. These include
 The aspects of earthquake hazards be considered at the time of design of
buildings and infrastructure.
 Design of structure should be simple, uniform and symmetric.
 Structures should be suitable for direct transmission of seismic force to the
ground.
 Shape and design of the structure should be appropriate to ensure bi-directional
resistance and stiffness of the structure.
55
  Quality of construction materials. The sustainability of buildings depends on design as
well as quality of materials used during construction.
 Safety status of non-structural elements of the buildings. Generally the non structural
elements of buildings cause maximum damage during earthquake.
 Safety criteria, specifically for fire.
 Status of risk of the public utilities like, water supply, electricity, communication
system etc.
 Haphazard town planning in terms of density of buildings, free space, road networks,
etc.

The magnitude of damage and disruption is also dependent on capacity and preparedness
levels. To estimate earthquake risk of a particular location we must consider

 The status and efficiency of organizational structure for risk reduction in that locality.
 Strength of individual agencies engaged in the process of earthquake disaster risk
reduction, in terms of skilled manpower and equipments.
 Awareness and capacity level of vulnerable community of this locality.

A genuine risk assessment may be the guideline for practical risk reduction planning.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC VULNERABILITY AND DISASTERS

Let us discuss very briefly about the relationship between our socio-economic systems and
disasters.

IMPACT ON SOCIETY

In fact, the nature and magnitude of disasters depends on both physical exposures to hazards
and human vulnerability. It has two dimensions, poor socio-economic conditions of
vulnerable community may enhance magnitude of disasters or a disaster may have negative
affect on our socio-economic status.

Every disaster, small or big, has a negative impact on our society or community or individual.
Depending on nature and dimension of the disasters, the affected community suffers
economically, socially and psychologically. These conditions may encourage the hazards to
cause another series of disasters.

COMMUNITY FUNCTIONS AND DISASTERS

We consider ‘disaster’ as a humanitarian crisis. Whatever may be the cause of disaster,

unless it affects us, we do not think about its consequences. Naturally, all disasters have close
link with the elements of community functioning, like codes and norms for social control;
community participation or socialization; production; distribution and consumption.

Individually, we cannot make our platform safe and sustainable. It needs coordination and
active participation of community members in assessing risk and risk reduction planning.
Every community has a set of codes, norms and traditions based on community’s problems
and needs for smooth functioning of community without facing disasters. A parallel shift
from these codes, norms and tradition, may cause disastrous situation for the community.

56
Similarly, we have some basic requirements for our security and survival. If we do not have
proper mechanism to manage these requirements in terms of production, distribution and
consumption, our community may face a disaster like situation. On the other hand, if we
allow a disaster to strike our platform, this will certainly alter the process of production,
distribution and consumption.

COMMUNITY CONFLICT AND DISASTERS

It is very interesting to see that, while community conflicts may lead civil unrest, the level of
community conflicts reduces significantly just after disaster. Unless a disaster strikes our
platform, we do not consider ourselves as a member of vulnerable community. In practice, a
disaster affects every one of a community irrespective of rich, poor, and other social status.
Affected community members mostly depend on outside support. The outside agencies see
community’s interest first rather than person concerned.

Moreover, to tackle the problems of disaster, community people stay away from personal
conflicts during disaster period. The community conflict may start again during the process of
recovery and reconstruction due to political discrimination, unequal distribution of
compensations etc.
PANIC

Most of the times, the affected community suffers from panic both sociologically and
psychologically. Panic of facing disaster in near future may lead trauma. Loss of family
members and damage to property may lead social and economical insecurity. Affected
population starts thinking about future potential threats of their life.

WHAT WE LEARNT FROM THIS UNIT?

Vulnerability of a system is a set of unsafe conditions or elements at risk, which reduces the
ability of the community to mitigate their disaster risk by preventing hazards or mitigating
loss and damage or preparing them for coping with disasters.

There may be many hidden dynamic pressures on the community to generate such unsafe
conditions. Every unsafe condition has some root causes. Without eliminating the root causes,
we cannot remove unsafe conditions of our system permanently.

Vulnerability has multidimensional aspects like, physical, social, economical, motivational,

organizational, technical, environmental, political, cultural, educational, and institutional. For
practical risk reduction planning, we must take care of all these aspects of vulnerability.

Vulnerability is the main parameter of disaster risk. To mitigate disaster risk of a system,
genuine vulnerability assessment and proper measures for vulnerability reduction are
necessary. Because, prevention of hazards is not possible all the time.

Vulnerability assessment involves; identification of unsafe conditions and elements at risk,

determination of dynamic pressures and root causes of the unsafe conditions, probable impact
of hazards on the elements at risk, status of counter disaster resources to mitigate unsafe
conditions and damage, vulnerability analysis to assess the level of risk and probability of loss
and damage.

Participatory Risk Analysis (PVA) is the useful tool to study the problem areas and
vulnerability of an area by involving the local people in assessment and planning process
directly.

57
Vulnerability has direct link with unsustainable development and hence disaster risk. The
same set of vulnerability may respond differently for different hazards. Hence, determination
of susceptibility of the unsafe conditions to different hazards should be done for proper risk
assessment.

PROBABLE QUESTIONS
1. What do you mean by vulnerability?
2. Discuss different aspects of vulnerability.
3. What is vulnerability assessment?
4. Define the steps of vulnerability assessment.
5. What do you mean by progression of vulnerability?
6. Which unsafe conditions may enhance flood risk and what may be the root causes of
these unsafe conditions?
7. What do you mean by PVA?
8. What are the different aspects of PVA?
9. How vulnerability is related with disaster risk and unsustainable development?

SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Participatory Vulnerability Analysis: A Step-to-Step Guide for Field Staff, Actionaid
International, 2005.
2. Study material: Fourth International Course on CBDM, ADPC, 2000 (Module-3, pp
53)
3. Reading Material: Training Programme on Environment and Disaster Management,
NIDM, 2010 (pp 6)
4. Alexander, D., Natural Disasters, Published by ULC Press Ltd, London, 1993 (PP 554,
555, 557,559)

58
 OVER VIEW OF DISASTER PHENOMENA

UNIT STRUCTURE
INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES
DISASTER PHENOMENA AND EVENTS (GLOBAL AND REGIONAL)
GLOBAL SCENARIO
INDIAN SUBCONTINENT
THE FLOOD SCENARIO IN INDIA
WORST DISASTER EVENTS (GLOBAL AND REGIONAL)
IMPORTANT DISASTERS IN INDIA BASED ON LOSS OF LIFE AND
AFFECTED POPULATION
MAJOR EARTHQUAKES IN INDIA (1618 – 2001)
FEW RECENT EARTHQUAKES IN NORTH-EASTERN REGION OF INDIA

HAZARD SPECIFIC DISASTER RISK AND IMPACT OF HAZARDS

FLOOD
EARTHQUAKE
DROUGHT
CYCLONE
COMMUNITY PROFILE AND THEIR EXPOSURE TO HAZARDS IN INDIA
HILL COMMUNITY
COMMUNITIES OF PLAIN AREAS
COASTAL COMMUNITIES
URBAN COMMUNITIES
DISASTER TRENDS AND PROBLEM AREAS
WHAT WE LEARNT FROM THIS UNIT ?
PROBABLE QUESTIONS
SUGGESTED READINGS

4.1 INTRODUCTION
During last few decades, many international and national agencies have undertaken a series of
programmes on disaster management. Many countries have already formulated disaster
management policies. Different academic institutions have been conducting academic and
research programmes on disaster management. The basic objective of all these programmes is
to find out the way for mitigation of disaster risk at national and regional levels.

To formulate future strategies for disaster risk reduction at global and national level, it is
essential to review the outcomes of our past activities. This can be done by studying the trends
of disaster phenomena worldwide. The major constraint for this kind of study is the lack of
genuine database. There is variation in data and information collected by different
organizations time to time, which makes it difficult to judge the authenticity of a particular set
of data.

In units 01, 02 & 03, we have seen major paradigm shift in the approaches and methodologies
of studying disaster risk and its mitigation mechanism. This unit is designed to study the
global, national and regional disaster scenario and its trends. The risk of different natural
hazards in Indian subcontinent and their impacts will be highlighted in this unit. We shall also
discuss about the disaster risk factors of different communities in India for different natural
hazards.

59
OBJECTIVES
The main objectives of this unit are

 To study the global trend of disaster phenomena, based on available data and
information.
 To review the status of damage and disruption due to natural hazards in India and
world.
 To discuss the nature of threats to different communities in India.

DISASTER PHENOMENA AND EVENTS (GLOBAL AND REGIONAL)

GLOBAL SCENARIO

More or less all parts of our globe are prone to one or more types of natural hazards. The
impact of natural hazards, in terms of loss and damage to life and property, is very high in the
developing and third world countries in comparison to developed countries due to many social
and economical factors. Different organizations like EM-DAT; Centre for Research on
Epidemiology of Disaster (CRED); Natcat and Sigms; Munich Reinsurance Company etc. are
collecting data and information relevant to occurrence of disasters worldwide to study their
nature, types, trends, damage pattern etc.

Though, it is difficult to determine accurately the percentage of global or regional land area
vulnerable to a specific natural hazard but, works are going on for preparation of global and
regional zoning maps for different natural hazards. Zoning maps for most of the natural
hazards are available with different organizations, subject to updatation with recent data.

The map below represents global seismic hazard map, produced by Global Seismic
Assessment Programme (DSHAP) under a project of IDNDR. This work conducted by
International Lithosphere Programme and Assembled by: D. Giardini; G. GrYnthal; K.
Shedlock and P. Zhang.

The Global Seismic Hazard Map,

Source: geology.about.com/library/bl/maps/n_map_GSHAP1500.htm

Amongst the continents; the Asia comprising of South Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia,
Southwest Asia and Central Asia; is the most natural hazard prone region of the world. This
region covers about 30% of global land area and more or lass 60% of total world’s population.
According to the world Disaster Report, 1997, IFRCRCS, around 46% of the world’s
60
disasters occurred in Asia and Oceania during 1971-1995. During this period, around 88% of
world’s total affected population due to natural hazards was from Asia and Oceania. The
criteria for considering a disaster event are death of 10 people or 100 people affected or
there is appeal for external support. (Source: ADPC study material, Fourth International
Course on CBDM, 2000).

Global distribution of disaster events

Europe, 17%
Asia , 40%

America, 23%

Africa, 14% Oceania, 6%

Data source: Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre, Bangkok

(Study material of fourth International Course on CBDM, 2000)

As per data, 23% of world’s total disasters occurred in America during 1971-1995, but the
population affected was only 3% of total affected population of the world.

Distribution of disasters worldwide (1991-2005)

High wind storm 25%

Drought 6.00%
Disaster type

Volcano 2.00%

landslide 5.00%

Flood 32.00%

Earthquake 8.00%

0.00% 5.00% 10.00% 15.00% 20.00% 25.00% 30.00% 35.00%

Percentage of disasters occured

[Data source: EM-DAT: Centre for Research on Epidemiology of Disaster / Disaster

Management in India, 2011, Published by, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India]

The data of Centre for Research on Epidemiology of Disaster shows, about 32% of total
world’s disasters during 1991-2005 were originated due to flood hazard followed by high
windstorm 25%, earthquake 8%, drought 6%, landslide 5% and volcano 2%. It indicates, yet
flood hazard is the major source of disasters all over the world.

The same source of data shows that, the origin of 76% of total world’s disasters during 1991-
2005 was hydro-meteorological.

61
 Worldwide distribution of disasters (1991-2005)

Geological, 10%
Biological, 14%

Hydrometeorological,
76%

The geological hazards caused 10% of total disasters, while 14% of disasters were due to
biological hazards.

To see the trends of worldwide occurrence of disasters caused by Hydro-meteorological,

Geological and Biological hazards, let us analyze the data of Centre for Research on
Epidemiology of Disaster for the period 1900 – 2009.

Distribution of disaster events (1900-2009)

4500
4000
3500
No. of events

Biological
3000
2500 Geological
2000 Hydro-meteorological
1500
1000
500
0
1900- 1920- 1940- 1960- 1980- 2000-
1909 1929 1949 1969 1989 2009
Period

Fig.: Distribution of disaster events during 1900-2009 (Data source: Disaster Management in
India, 2011, Published by, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India)

It is evident from the above figure that, numbers of disasters caused by different hazards are
increasing sharply and disproportionately. Out of which, the increase of disaster events due to
Hydro-meteorological hazards is noticeable. This clearly indicates that, over exploitation of
natural resources, violation of land use regulations, environmental degradation, and climate
change due to human interference to nature, are mainly responsible for sharp increase of
hydro-meteorological hazards.
INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

The Indian subcontinent is exposed to most of the natural hazards like flood, earthquake,
cyclone, landslide, hailstorm, drought etc.

62
 Natural hazard prone area in India

80%

% of landmass exposed to
68%
70% 60%
60%
50%

hazard
40%
30%
20% 12% 15%
8%
10%
0%
Earthquake Cyclone Drought Flood Landslide
Type of hazard

Fig.: Landmass of India exposed to different natural hazards

Data source: Sharda, Y. R., Landslide Studies in India, Glimpses of Geoscience Research in
India, The Indian Report to IUGS 2004–2008, New Delhi, The Indian National Science
Academy (INSA).

Above figure shows that, maximum landmass of India is prone to drought. The loss and
damage is not visible in the case of drought, as it does not kill people or damage structures
directly. But, if we see the statistics, maximum number of people in India are vulnerable to
drought and it has significant negative impact on our national economy.

Though, only 12% of Indian landmass is prone to flood, but it causes significant loss and
damage to life, property and economy. Fortunately, the frequency of most dreaded hazard like
earthquake is comparatively far below than other natural hazards. Even then, it caused
maximum loss, damage and disruption at different times. Landslide hazard is also not a
dominant factor in India for direct loss and damage but, it causes enormous secondary
disturbances every year, specifically in hilly regions. The hilly ranges of India, highly prone
to landslides are
Himalayas Very high
North-Eastern Hill Ranges High
Western Ghats and Nilgiris High to Moderate
Eastern Ghats Low
Vindhyas Low

People affected by disasters (1980-2010)

3000
2500
Number of people

2000
(in Lakh)

1500
Flood
1000
Drought
500
0
1980 1982 1987 1993 1995 2000 2002 2004
Year

63
 Fig: Number of people affected by natural hazards in India during 1980-2010
Data source: EM-DAT: CRED / Disaster Management in India, 2011, Published by,
Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India

As mentioned earlier, the figure above also shows that, the number of people in India
vulnerable to drought is much higher than any other natural hazards. Every year, the flood
hazard also affects a sizable number of populations in India.

Let us see the pattern of loss of life in India due to different natural hazards induced disasters
during the period 1980-2010.

Loss of life due to disasters (1980-2010)

25000
Nos. of people killed

20000

15000 Flood

Epidemic
10000
Earthquake
5000
Storm
0
1984 1988 1993 1994 1998 1999 2001 2004
Year

Fig: Number of people killed by natural hazards in India during 1980-2010

Data source: EM-DAT: CRED / Disaster Management in India, 2011, Published by,
Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India

Though, the frequency of earthquake is quite low, but it kills maximum number of people in
India followed by storm. This is due to haphazard urbanization and unsustainable
development in most parts of India. Most people are either not aware about their disaster risk
or not in a position to follow the codes and norms for sustainable development due to their
poor economic condition.

The alarming rate of the crop damage due to flood, drought, storm etc. is the major concern
for India. Figure below shows the nature of loss and damage due to various natural hazards
except earthquake for last ten years.

64
 Loss and damage by natural hazards
Human live lost
9000
8000
7000
No. / Area 6000 Cattle lost (in
5000 hundred)
4000
3000 Houses
2000 damaged (in
1000 thousand)
0
crop area
2001- 2002- 2003- 2004- 2005- 2006- 2007- 2008- 2009- 2010- affected (in
02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 thousand Ha)
Period

Fig: Yearly loss and damage due to natural hazards like, flood, cyclone, storm, landslide etc.
(2001-2010)
Data source: Disaster Management in India, 2011, Published by, Ministry of Home Affairs,
Government of India

THE FLOOD SCENARIO IN INDIA

Flood is one of the most disastrous annual events in India, which causes enormous damage
and disruption to life, property and economy every year. The nation has to bear the economic
burden of loss and damage, but yet there is no foolproof mechanism available for practical
flood risk mitigation.

The major flood prone zones in India are

 Brahmaputra and Barak Basins comprising mainly the flood prone areas of Assam and
West Bengal. This basin covers other North-Eastern States also.

 Ganga Basin covers large areas of West Bengal, Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.

 Central India and Deccan Rivers Basin spread over Orissa, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh
and Tamil Nadu.

Flood prone area of different states in India

8
Area in million Ha.

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

States

Fig.: Flood prone area of different states

Data source: mapsofindia.com/top-ten/geography/india-flood.html
65
The state Uttar Pradesh has maximum flood prone area followed by Bihar, Panjab, Rajastan,
Assam, West Bengal etc. But, the severity of flood in terms of loss and damage depends on
geo-climatic and other vulnerable conditions of the states. This loss and damage may not be
proportional to total flood prone area of the state.

WORST DISASTER EVENTS (GLOBAL AND REGIONAL)

Ten worst disasters all over the world during the period 1900-2011 due to Earthquake, flood
and cyclone based on people killed, people affected and national economic loss are
mentioned here.

Ten worst earthquake disasters during 1900-2011

(based on no. of people killed)

300000
250000
200000
150000
100000
50000
0

1/9/1923
27/07/1976

12/1/2010

22/05/1927

16/12/1920

26/12/2004

5/10/1948

12/5/2008

28/12/1908

8/10/2005
China Haiti China China Indon- Japan Soviet China Italy Pakistan
esia Union

Fig.: Worst earthquake disasters all over the world during 199-2011 based on number of
people killed
Data source: (EM-DAT) - OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database
www.emdat.be - Université catholique de Louvain - Brussels - Belgium

Worst earthquake disasters during 1900-2011 based on no. of

people affected

50000000
45000000
40000000
35000000
30000000
25000000
20000000
15000000
10000000
5000000
0
3/2/1996

4/2/1976
12/5/2008

8/10/2005

12/1/2010

1/11/1999
21/08/1988

26/01/2001

31/05/1970

27/05/2006

China India India Pakistan China Guate Haiti Peru Indon China
mala esia

Fig.: Worst earthquake disasters all over the world during 199-2011 based on no. of people
affected
Data source: (EM-DAT) - OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database
www.emdat.be - Université catholique de Louvain - Brussels - Belgium

66
 Worst earthquake disasters during 1900-2011 based on
econimic loss (thousand US$)

250000000
200000000

150000000
100000000

50000000
0
17/01/1995

17/01/1994

27/02/2010

23/10/2004

23/11/1980

17/08/1999

22/02/2011

21/09/1999
11/3/2011

12/5/2008
Japan Japan China United Chile Japan Italy Turkey New Taiw an
States Zealand (China)

Fig.: Worst earthquake disasters all over the world during 199-2011 based on economic loss
(thousand US$)
Data source: (EM-DAT) - OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database
www.emdat.be - Université catholique de Louvain - Brussels - Belgium

In terms of loss of life and population affected by the earthquake hazard during last century,
China and India are much ahead of other countries like, Japan, Indonesia etc. But, disasters
due to earthquake hazard caused maximum economic loss in Japan during last hundred years.

It clearly depicts that, population density and unsustainable development are mainly
responsible for high magnitude loss and damage to life and property in case of earthquake
induced disasters.

The country like Japan is highly prepared to mitigate loss and damage due to earthquake
disaster. But, in March, 2011 Japan had to face greatest ever disaster in terms of national
economic loss. Such high magnitude economic loss was not due to the impact of earthquake
alone. The tsunami caused maximum damage and disruption. May be the country was not
prepared to face such high magnitude tsunami or spatial vulnerability factors dominated over
preparedness level of the country. So planning for disaster risk mitigation for earthquake
hazard is a complex mechanism.

67
 Worst flood disasters during 1900-2011 in terms of
no. of people killed (in thousand)
4000

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
July, 1931

Jujy, 1959

July, 1939

July, 1949

Jul-74
October,
1935

1911

December,
August, 1954
1949

1999
China China China China China China Guate China Vene Bangla
mala zuela desh

Fig.: Worst flood disasters all over the world during 199-2011 based on no. of people killed
Data source: (EM-DAT) - OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database
www.emdat.be - Université catholique de Louvain - Brussels - Belgium

Worst flood disasters during 1900-2011 in terms of no. of peolple

affected (in Lakh)

3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
30/06/1996

23/06/2003

29/05/2010

15/05/1995

15/06/2007

23/06/1999

14/07/1989
1/7/1998

1/6/1991

8/7/1993

China China China China China India China China China China

Fig.: Worst flood disasters all over the world during 199-2011 based on no. of people
affected in lakh
Data source: (EM-DAT) - OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database
www.emdat.be - Université catholique de Louvain - Brussels - Belgium

68
 Worst flood disasters during 1900-2011 in terms of economic
loss (thousand US$)
35000000
30000000
25000000
20000000
15000000
10000000
5000000
0

29/05/2010

30/06/1996

24/06/1993

11/8/2002

28/07/2010

1/11/1994

23/06/1999
1/7/1998

1/8/1995

9/6/2008
China China Korea China United Germany United Pakistan Italy China
States States

Fig.: Worst flood disasters all over the world during 199-2011 based on economic loss
(thousand US$)
Data source: (EM-DAT) - OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database
www.emdat.be - Université catholique de Louvain - Brussels - Belgium

During last century, China suffered most due to flood hazards in terms of loss of life, people
affected and national economic loss. For flood induced disaster loss and damage; the spatial
factors along with population density, land use and developmental pattern dominate over
other factors.

Worst cyclone disasters during 1900-2011 based

on no. of people killed

350000
300000
250000
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
12/11/1970

29/04/1991

27/07/1922

1935

14/10/1942

28/05/1963
October,
2/5/2008

11/5/1965
August,
1912
1942

Bangla Bangla Myanmar, China P Bangla India, China P India, Bangla Bangla
desh, desh, Tropical Rep, desh, Tropical Rep, Tropical desh, desh,
Tropical Tropical cyclone Tropical Tropical cyclone Tropical cyclone Tropical Tropical

Fig.: Worst cyclone disasters all over the world during 199-2011 based on no. of people
killed
Data source: (EM-DAT) - OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database
www.emdat.be - Université catholique de Louvain - Brussels - Belgium

69
 Worst cyclone disasters during 1900-2011 based on no. of people
affected

120000000
100000000
80000000
60000000
40000000
20000000
0 14/03/2002

20/04/1989

16/07/2006

17/04/2011

29/04/1991

12/11/1977
1/9/2005

11/5/1965

8/9/1996

1/7/2001
China China China China China Bangla Bangla China China India
desh desh

Fig.: Worst cyclone disasters all over the world during 199-2011 based on no. of people
affected
Data source: (EM-DAT) - OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database
www.emdat.be - Université catholique de Louvain - Brussels - Belgium

The above figures depict, tropical cyclone kills more people in Bangladesh than any other
country. Highest numbers of people in china suffered from cyclone. This indicates, spatial
factors as well as preparedness level of the community determine the risk of cyclone damage.

IMPORTANT DISASTERS IN INDIA BASED ON LOSS OF LIFE AND

AFFECTED POPULATION
Important disasters in India in termes of loss of
life

Epidemic

Epidemic, Drought
Storm, 1942 Drought
1920
Storm, 1935 Drought, 1942 Epidemic
Epidemic, Drought
Drought, 1965
1924 Epidemic
Epidemic, Epidemic
Epidemic,
1907
1926 Epidemic
Drought, 1900 Storm
Epidemic,
1920 Storm

Data source: (EM-DAT) - OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database

www.emdat.be - Université catholique de Louvain - Brussels – Belgium

70
 Population affected in India due to natural hazards during 1900-2011

300000000

250000000

200000000

150000000

100000000

50000000

0
May, July, 1972 July, 1965 June, April, June, July, August,
1987 2002 1993 1982 2000 2002 1975 1982

Drought Drought Drought Flood Drought Drought Drought Flood Flood Flood

Data source: (EM-DAT) - OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database

www.emdat.be - Université catholique de Louvain - Brussels – Belgium

In India, epidemic and cyclone kill more people than other natural hazards, while major
population in India suffers from drought and flood hazards. The epidemic is the secondary
hazard of many primary natural hazards. Naturally, this depicts our poor awareness and
preparedness levels to cope with such disasters.

MAJOR EARTHQUAKES IN INDIA (1618 – 2001)

Magnitude Intensity
Year Place in Richter (MMI Features
Scale Scale)
1618 Bombay - - 2000 lives lost
1720 Delhi 6.5 - Some lives lost
1737 Bengal - - 300,000 lives lost
1803 Mathura 6.5 - The shock felt up to Calcutta.
1803 Kumaon 6.5 - Killed 200-300 people.
Chief towns of Tera, Kathara
1819 Kutchch 8.0 XI and Mothala razed to the
ground.
1828 Srinagar 6.0 - 1000 people killed.
1833 Bihar 7.7 X Hundreds of people killed
Mt.Abu,
1848 6.0 - Few people killed
Rajasthan
Affected an area of 2,50,000
1869 Assam 7.5 -
Sq. miles.
1885 Srinagar 7.0 - Kamiarary area destroyed.
Wide spread destruction in
1897 Shillong 8.7 XII
Shillong.
Himachal
1905 8.0 XI Thousands of people killed.
Pradesh
Himachal
1906 7.0 - Heavy damage.
Pradesh
All houses collapsed at
1916 Nepal 7.5 -
Dharchulla.
1918 Assam 7.6 - Heavy damage.
71
 Dhubri,
1930 7.1 IX Heavy damage in Dhubri.
Meghalaya
Large number of border area
1934 Bihar, Nepal 8.3 XI
people killed.
Quetta (in
1935 7.5 IX 25,000 people killed
Pakistan)
1941 Andaman 8.1 X Very heavy damage.
1947 Dibrugarh 7.8 - Heavy damage.
Heavy damage to life and
1950 Assam 8.6 XII
property.
1952 NE India 7.5 - Heavy damage.
Bulandshahar,
1956 6.7 VIII Many people killed
U.P.
1956 Anjar, Gujarat 7.0 VIII Hundreds of people killed
1958 Kapkote, U.P. 6.3 VIII Many people killed
1967 Koyna, 6.1 VIII Koyna Nagar razed.
1969 Bhadrachalam 6.5 1 Heavy damage.
Dharamshala
1986 5.7 VIII Lots of damage.
(H.P)
1988 Assam 7.2 IX Few people killed
Large number of people
1988 Bihar- Nepal 6.5 VIII
killed.
Lots of damage to life and
1991 Uttarkashi 6.6 VIII
property.
Heavy damage to life and
1993 Latur 6.4 VIII property about, 000 people
killed.
Lots of damage to property,
1997 Jabalpur 6.0 VIII
about 39 lives lost.
Lots of damage to property
1999 Chamoli 6.8 VIII
about 100 people lost lives.
Huge devastation, about ~
2001 Bhuj 6.9 X
14000 people lost lives
Data source: National Geophysical Research Institute, India (Tezpur Centre)

4.3.7 FEW RECENT EARTHQUAKES IN NORTH-EASTERN REGION OF

INDIA

Date Magnitude Epicenter

(Richter Scale)

August 12, 2009 5.6 Myanmar border

August 19, 2009 4.9 Sonitpur, Assam
August 31, 2009 5.3 Myanmar border
September 04, 2009 5.9 Myanmar border
September 21, 2009 6.2 Bhutan
September 22, 2009 5.7 NE Region
February 04, 2011 6.4 Myanmar Border
September 18, 2011 6.9 Sikkim - Nepal Border
72
November 21, 2011 5.9 Myanmar border

INDIA – HAZARD SPECIFIC DISASTER RISK AND IMPACT OF HAZARDS

As discussed earlier in this unit, almost all the states of India are multi-hazard prone. The
vulnerability of all the states for a specific hazard is not same. The disaster risk factors of
different states for different natural hazards are dependent on geo-climatic conditions and
other vulnerability factors of the states. The disaster risk of India for some common natural
hazards is outlined below
FLOOD

As discussed earlier, almost 12% of Indian landmass is prone to flood. Most of these areas are
vulnerable to seasonal flood due to heavy or moderate rainfall over short monsoon seasons,
June - September. The rainfall data recorded by meteorological sub-stations spread over the
country showed a variation of rainfall in the country from highest 10000 mm in Cherrapunji
to lowest 200-300 mm in Jaisalmer. The Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna river basin covers
almost 60% of the river flow in India. Floods are common and frequent in this basin area.

Assam is suffering from serious flood and erosion problems. Inundation in low-lying areas,
close to Brahmaputra and Barak rivers and their tributaries, is a common annual phenomenon
due to spilling of river water, drainage congestion, decrease in carrying capacity of rivers by
heavy sediment influx, change in river courses etc.

The rivers Tista, Torsa, Jaldhaka, Mahananda are causing threats of flood damage in West
Bengal. The areas adjacent to northern bank of Ganga river are vulnerable to flood. Rivers
like Gandak, Sharada, Rapti, Ghaghra are causing floods in eastern districts of Uttar Pradesh.

The Mahananda, Kosi, Burhi Gandak, Kamla, Bagmoti etc. are creating flood havoc in Bihar.
Some parts of Haryana along the bank line of Yamuna river are experiencing moderate flood
problems. Yamuna river also creates flood problem in some parts of Delhi.

Godavari, Krishna and other small rivers are liable to cause floods in Andhra Pradesh and
Kerala. While rivers like Tapti, Narmada are responsible for flooding in part of Gujrat.
Mahanadi, Brahmani, Baitarni rivers cause flood havoc in Orissa.

Nepal is also contributing inflow in the northern rivers along with rainfall in Indian territory.
This makes some parts of northern India vulnerable to flood. West Bengal, Orissa, Assam,
Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujrat, Uttarpradesh, Haryana and Panjab are the most flood
prone states in India.

About 40 million hectares of land in India is prone to flood hazard, which causes an average
annual loss not less than 950 Crore.

Few examples are given here to describe the flood prone areas in India and impact of
floods in these areas.
Source: Nandy Supriyo, Floods in India – Disaster and Management
(www.internationalfloodnetwork.org/AR2006/AR08Nandy.pdf)

In 1993, Panjab, Haryana, Rajastan, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi, Gujrat, North-Eastern States
suffered heavy loss and damage of life and property due to floods.

73
In 1994, more than 150 people died in Kerala due to flood. Over 10000 people affected in
Madhya Pradesh. 50 people died in Himachal Pradesh due to cloud burst. Karnataka also
experienced worst flood.

In 1995, flash floods claimed more than 215 lives in Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Arunachal
Pradesh. West Bengal and Sikkim also faced severe floods.

In 1996, 150 villages were affected by flood in Rajastan claiming 58 lives. 137 people died in
Andhra Pradesh and massive crop damage reported from the state due to severe flood. Cloud
burst in Chirgaon of Himachal Pradesh claimed 150 lives in the year 1997.

The Kaziranga National Park in Assam had seen worst ever flood in 1998. 95% of the park
remained inundated for long period due to three phases of floods. As a result, a large number
of wild animals including one-horn rhinos died or disappeared.

In 2000, more than 130 people died in Himachal Pradesh due to flash flood. Over 60000
population of Tripura suffered from severe floods in 2001.

The flash flood of Mumbai in September, 2005 may be considered as one of the greatest
floods in India. The city experienced 37 inches of rainfall within 24 hours. 25 million people
affected due to flood in Maharashtra. 1200 people died in the state due to floods. Water born
diseases claimed 150 lives. 20000 Hectares farmland destroyed. 550000 Hectares crop area
damaged. 26000 Cattles died. 14000 homes destroyed completely and another 350000 houses
destroyed partially. Communication facilities disrupted heavily due to damage to roads and
bridges.

Let us see few examples of floods in Assam, which is one of the most flood prone states in
India.

In 1973, floods in Assam claimed live of 19 people and 3159 cattle. 22 lakh people were
affected by flood. 10 lakh Ha. of crop areas destroyed and 29596 houses collapsed due to
flood. The state witnessed more or less similar situation in 1974, 1984, 1986 and 1987.

In 1988, more than 232 people died due to severe floods in different parts of the state. 618272
houses destroyed and 45210 cattles died. 1.13 lakh Ha. of crop area damaged due to
inundation or sand deposition. The state had to bear the cost of wide range loss and damage
due to severe floods and erosion in the consecutive years 1991, 1992, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997,
1998 and 1999. In the recent years also, the magnitude of loss and damage due to flood and
erosion remained unchanged.

Observations: Breaching of the embankments caused most of the floods in Assam. The
main reason of perennial flood and severe bank-line erosion in the state lies with continual
decrease of carrying capacity of the rivers due to excess sediment transport from upper
catchment areas. The failure of flood and erosion protection mechanisms is another reason for
severe loss and damage of life and property in the state.

EARTHQUAKE

The Alpine – Himalayan belt, separating the Indian and Eurasian plates, is one of the most
earthquake sensitive belts. This often results high or medium range earthquakes in the areas
close to this belt. Most earthquakes of varying intensity all over the India are the result of
fault lines in Himalayan region, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. More than 60% of landmass
of India is vulnerable to earthquake damage of expected intensity ranging from XI to VI.

74
  Entire North-Eastern region, Parts of Kashmir, Panjab, Delhi, Gujrat; Western and
Central Himalayas fall in zone V. These areas are considered to be highest damage
zone of earthquake.

 Indo-Gangetic basin, parts of Delhi, Kashmir fall in zone IV and considered to be high
damage zone for earthquake hazard.

 Andaman and Nicobar Islands, parts of Kashmir, Western Himalayas fall in zone III
and liable for moderate damage to earthquake hazard.

 Rest of the country falls in zone II of low damage zone of earthquake hazard.

India has witnessed a number of devastating earthquakes during last hundred year.

 In 1905, over 20000 people died due to an earthquake of magnitude 8.0 in Richter
Scale in Kangra of Hilachal Pradesh.

 In 2001, an earthquake of magnitude 6.9 in Richter scale struck Bhuj area of Gujrat.
This earthquake caused enormous loss and damage to life and property of Gujrat state.
More than 20000 people died due to this earthquake. The property of an estimated cost
of Rs. 21000 Crore had been damaged.

 Some earthquakes of magnitudes ranging from 6.4 to 6.8 also caused heavy loss and
damage in Chamoli (1999); Latur (993); Uttarkashi (1991); Jabbalpur (1997).

Few significant earthquakes in North-East regions of India, which caused significant loss and
damage to life and property

 Earthquake of magnitude 7.5 struck Cachar region of Assam on 10th January, 1869
and caused heavy damage in Silchar, Shillong, Cherrapungi and even in Sylhet. The
affected area was 250000 Sq. miles.

 One of the most destructive earthquake of magnitude 8.7 caused heavy damage to life
and property in the North Eastern Region on 12th June, 1897. The epicenter was in the
North Western part of the Shillong plateau. More than 1500 people died and most of
the buildings and structures of this region damaged under the impact of this
earthquake.

 On 9th September, 1923 Assam and its adjoining states witnessed another major
earthquake of magnitude 7.1, that caused significant damage and disruption in this
region.

 An earthquake of magnitude 7.1 struck Dhubri region of Assam on 2nd July, 1930
resulting heavy structural damage.

 On 23rd October, 1943 an earthquake of magnitude 7.2 shattered Assam and its
neighboring areas. The epicenter was near Hojai of Assam.

 The state Assam experienced heavy structural damage under the impact of another
major earthquake of magnitude 7.7 on 29th July, 1947 with its epicenter near
Dibrugarh Town.

75
  One of the greatest earthquake of the 20th Century, known as great Assam Earthquake,
of magnitude 8.7 struck Indo- China Region on 15th August, 1950. This region
experienced hundreds of big aftershocks. More than 1500 people died followed by
huge structural damage and major floods in Assam due to liquefaction, change of
major river courses, earthquake induced landslides and artificial dams in upper
catchment areas. The entire Sub-continent felt the affect of this earthquake.

 The Assam witnessed heavy structural damage due to an earthquake of magnitude 7.7,
which struck Manipur-Burma region on 21st March, 1954.

 Another earthquake of magnitude 7.0 struck Indo-Burma border area on 1st July, 1957.
The impact was felt all over the North Eastern region.

 20 people were killed in Assam by an earthquake of magnitude 6.0 with its epicenter
in Cachar District of Assam on 31st December, 1984.

 There was significant damage in the state due to an earthquake of magnitude 6.6 with
its epicenter Indo-Myanmar region on 6th August, 1988.

 The earthquake of magnitude 6.9 in Richter scale occurred in Sikkim-Nepal Border on

18th September, 2011 resulting heavy loss and damage to life and property in Sikkim
and its adjoining states. Heavy landslides also reported in many places of Sikkim.

 During 12th August, 2009 – 4th February, 2011 Assam and its neighbouring states
witnessed 7 medium ranged earthquakes of magnitude ranging from 4.9 – 6.4.

Observations: Past two great earthquakes in 1897 and 1950 caused significant structural
damages in major cities like Shillong and Guwahati. But, many Assam type buildings of
wooden framework remained intact under the impact of such high magnitude earthquake.
Huge landslides across the foot hills of Himalaya and Garo Hills resulted artificial dams
across the tributaries of Brahmaputra and floods in the lower catchment areas due to sudden
washing away of artificial dams. Vast area of land either elevated or subsided altering the
drainage network of this region. Worst liquefaction damages were reported from alluvial
plains.

DROUGHT

As we have discussed in this unit, drought is the major hazard in India. More than 16% of
landmass in India is severely prone to drought due to very low or absence of rainfall for long
period of time. Almost 68% of total landmass of India is susceptible to drought like situation
due to absence of rainfall for considerable period of time in a year. As a result, major section
of population in India is directly or indirectly vulnerable to drought. During 1999-2000,
almost eleven states in India suffered heavily due to drought like situation.

The states Rajastan, Gujrat, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh have maximum arid and semi-
arid zones. Almost 74 districts of 13 states are identified as drought prone districts covering
an area about 51.1 million ha.

Some most drought prone areas in India are Kalahandi region in Orissa; Purulia district in
West Bengal; Mirzapur and Palamu regions of Uttar Pradesh; Saurashtra and Kutch region of
Gujrat; Coimbatore in Kerala; Tirunelveli district of Tamilnadu.

76
CYCLONE

The areas having almost 8050 km. long coastline are most vulnerable to cyclone hazard. The
East Coast comprises the states of West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
While the states Kerala, Karnataka and Gujrat are part of West Coast.

The districts 24 Parganas and Midnapure of West Bengal are prone to cyclonic storm. The
districts, which are exposed to cyclone hazard in Orrissa, are Balasore, Puri, Ganjam and
Cuttack. Srikakulam, Vizag, Krishna, East Godavari, Nellore, Guntur are the districts in
Andhra Pradesh highly prone to cyclone. In Tamil Nadu; Tirunelveli, Chingleput, Tanjore,
Ramnathpuram etc. are highly vulnerable districts of cyclone.

The districts Calicut, Trivandrum, Malapuram, Ernakulam in Kerala are vulnerable to severe
cyclonic storms. Cannanore and South Kanara in Karnataka are highly prone to cyclone.
Gujrat has many districts like Bhavnagar, Kutch, Jamnagar, Junagad, Baroach etc., which are
highly vulnerable to cyclone.

Impact of cyclonic storms in India

The state West Bengal suffered heavy loss and damage due to severe cyclones in 1847, 1874,
1976, 1993 and 1994. Thousands of people died in these cyclones and there were also huge
damage to properties, crop and vegetation.

There were severe loss and damage in Andhra Pradesh due to cyclones in 1946, 1977, 1987,
1990 and 1996. Tamil Nadu also experienced similar situations due to cyclonic storms in
1972, 1979 and 1991.

The super cyclone of Orissa in 1999 claimed 10086 lives. More than 200000 houses damaged
under the impact of cyclone. The magnitude of loss and damage was uncountable. The state
also faced severe cyclones in 1985 and 1989. These are the few examples.

COMMUNITY PROFILE AND THEIR EXPOSURE TO NATURAL HAZARDS IN INDIA

It is clear from our earlier discussions that, disaster risk is highly location and hazard specific.
Moreover, physical and social vulnerability factors also play dominant role in enhancing
disaster risk. The disaster risk of a community is largely dependent on geographical set-up of
the area, in which the community is living. A group of researchers headed by Dr. V. K.
Sharma, the then Professor and Head, National Centre for Disaster Management, New Delhi
carried out a case study on disaster risk of the communities living in Hill areas; Plain areas;
Coastal areas and Urban areas.

HILL COMMUNITY

People living in hilly regions of India are vulnerable to most of the natural hazards due to
wide variation in topography, ecosystem, climatic conditions, geological features, socio-
cultural and socio-economic conditions. Seasonal flood, flash flood, earthquake and landslide
are some of the natural hazards dominant in hilly regions.

77
 Map source: www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:India_Geographic_Map.jpg

The major hilly ranges in India are

 North East Hill ranges comprising all Northeastern states of India and touches
Himalayas in eastern side. The Himalayas covers entire northern side of India, starting
from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh.

 Western Ghats and Nilgiris cover the states of Gujrat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil
Nadu, and Kerala.

 Eastern Ghats comprises West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and
Karnataka.

 Vindhyas Range touches the states Gujrat, Rajastan, and Madhya Pradesh.

Landslide is common phenomenon for hilly areas. The risk of landslide is high for the regions
having fragile landform, high slopes and high rainfall. To some extent, all the hill
communities are vulnerable to landside. Landslide affects directly, who are living in unstable
hill slopes. Other suffers mainly due to communication disruptions. The landslide risk in
North Eastern Hill ranges is extremely high followed by moderate risk to the communities of
Western Ghats. Eastern Ghats and Vindhyas are comparatively stable against landslides.

The Himalayas are extremely sensitive to earthquakes due to tectonic reason. So the
communities living in the areas close to Himalayas are highly vulnerable to high magnitude
earthquake. Many high magnitude earthquakes struck this hilly range at different times
causing enormous damage and disruption to normal pattern of life.

The hill communities are living in both upper and lower catchment areas of river system.
Human activities in the watersheds of hilly rivers; like shifting cultivation, deforestation, and
other development activities; are enhancing soil erosion in the watersheds, sediment influx to
78
the riverbeds, surface runoff of rain water, discharge of the river system etc. As a result, the
characteristics of river system, including carrying capacity and flow pattern are changing
rapidly. Some rivers of hilly belts are unstable and changing their courses on regular basis. In
addition, some regions have very high annual rainfall and some places have sudden high
intensity rainfall or cloud burst. For all these reasons, the hill communities are more or less
vulnerable to seasonal and flash floods.

COMMUNITIES OF PLAIN AREAS

A large section of population of India is living in plain areas of Northern, Western and Central
parts, including alluvial plains and coastal areas. These communities are exposed mainly to
Flood, Cyclone and Earthquake hazards.

The major contribution of loss and damage comes from river flood and bank line erosion. The
flood risk of the communities living in plain areas is linked to land use pattern and flood
resistance mechanisms in the plain areas. The flood risk of plain people is also associated
with the activities of the hill communities, as most of the hill communities are living in the
watersheds of river system. Moreover, most flood prone areas are protected by embankments.
But, poor degree of protection and maintenance of embankments is another reason of severe
floods in plain areas.

Major flood prone areas of India falls in Ganga-Brahmaputra_Meghna Basin, covering 15

states. About 47% population of India live in this basin and bear the brunt of flood hazard
every year.

COASTAL COMMUNITIES

As mentioned earlier, India has long cost line of 8041 Km. covering the states West Bengal,
Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka and Gujrat. A sizable population of
India is residing in the coastal areas. The coastal communities have great risk of tropical
cyclone due to geo-climatic condition of the coastal areas, which is favourable for high winds
and storms. The Orissa super cyclone on 29th October, 1999 or cyclone at Gujrat on 9th June,
1998 are the examples, which caused enormous damage and disruption to normal pattern of
life of the coastal communities.

Moreover, these communities are exposed to flash floods due to storm surges and Tsunami.
Interestingly, the coastal communities are also suffering form drought.

The Tsunami originated at Indian Ocean on 26th December, 2004 affected twelve countries
and killed more than 200000 people. This particular Tsunami affected a large number of
coastal communities in India also.

URBAN COMMUNITIES

The assessment of disaster risk of urban communities in India is little difficult because of their
heterogeneous characters. Moreover, the urban areas are not confined to a particular region.
Communities of hill, plain and coastal areas are also part of the urban communities. As a
result, based on geographical locations the urban communities are vulnerable to all the natural
hazards.

The urban communities in India bear multidimensional disaster risks out of natural, man
made and environmental hazards. One can see, the most haphazard urbanization process in
India violating land use and building regulations. High rate of population influx to urban areas
for livelihood opportunity and other socio-economic factors is the main reason of physical and
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social vulnerability of urban communities. These factors are also responsible for
unsustainable developments in urban areas. In the cities like Delhi and Kolkata, population
density is more than 150000 per sq. km. Moreover, the urban population is not homogenous
in terms of social and economic status. We can see a big economic polarization among urban
communities. Both poor and rich communities are equally contributing to disaster risk.

Most urban communities in India have the risk of flash flood, earthquake damage, scarcity
of fresh and pure water, communicable diseases and epidemic; accident and fire related
events etc. Shrinking of open space and overcrowded vertical developments are the main
reasons behind depletion of ground water level, drainage congestion, increase in volume of
foul and waste water, unsafe physical structures etc., which are enhancing the risk of above
mentioned hazards.

Moreover, the secondary health hazards in urban areas are related to poor sanitation, solid
waste disposal, contaminated drinking water, vehicular pollution etc. The communities of
small and big cities in India are also largely prone to industrial hazards due to presence of
unsafe and risky industries in thickly populated areas.

DISASTER TRENDS AND PROBLEM AREAS

So far, in this unit, we have highlighted the issues relevant to global and regional disaster
phenomena, hazard specific disaster risk of different regions, location and hazard specific
disaster loss and damage pattern etc.

Every nation has its own plan and policy for mitigation of disaster risk and deal with disaster
situations. To review the plans and policies for disaster risk mitigation at global and national
level, it is essential to understand the status and trend of natural hazard induced disasters.
Equally, it is essential to understand the problem areas and reasons behind such problems.

Let us first see the global trend of disasters caused by different natural hazards, as per EM-
DAT: OFDA/CRED international disaster database, for the period (1900-2008).

 Continent wise disaster loss and damage data shows

 Flood, earthquake and cyclone were responsible for maximum damage and
loss in Asia.
 Cyclonic storm was the major natural hazard, which caused maximum damage
and economic loss in America.
 In Africa, earthquake and flood caused maximum damage and loss.
 Flood and cyclonic storm caused maximum damage and loss in Europe.
 In Oceania, Cyclonic storm, flood and drought were the major hazards, which
caused maximum damage and loss.

 During this period, disaster events for all natural hazards increased sharply. In 1900,
there were less than 50 disastrous events. The number of such events were more than
550 in 2008.
 There was increasing trend in number of people killed by different kinds of disasters
during 1900-1930 and then decreased continuously until 2008.
 Number of people affected by all kinds of disasters increased sharply during 1900-
2000. The number was quite negligible in 1900; but by 2000, the figure crossed
60,00,00,000 marks.
 There is sharp increasing trend in economic loss by the disasters. In 1900, the
economic loss due to disasters was very much negligible, but by 2007, the total
economic loss due to disasters reached to ~ 210 Billion USD.
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  Maximum number of disasters occurred in Asia during 1900-2008 in comparison to
other regions, and the number of disaster events are increasing year by year.
 Disasters killed maximum number of people in Asia during 1900-2008. But, the
number is decreasing with time.
 During this period, Flood and Cyclonic Storm dominated over other natural hazards to
cause disasters. The number of disasters due to these two natural hazards is increasing
sharply with time.
 Among Asian countries, maximum number of people affected and killed by disasters
in China followed by India. Japan incurred maximum economic loss due to disasters.

In Indian subcontinent,

 There has been an increasing trend in the number of people killed by earthquakes
during 1980-2010. But, for other natural hazards, the number is declining slowly.
 The number of people affected by floods hazards increased sharply during 1980-
1993.
 The maximum numbers of people in India are vulnerable to drought in comparison to
other natural hazards.

It is clear from the above discussion, the number of disaster events are increasing day by day.
Among the disaster events, hydro-meteorological disasters dominated over other disasters.
Though, there is slight decreasing trend in number of people killed by different kinds of
disasters, but natural hazards affected large numbers of people. Most of the disasters occurred
in Asia. Highest number of people affected and killed by disasters in China. The damage and
economic loss due to disasters are increasing all over the world.

There is increasing trends in numbers of people killed by earthquakes and numbers of people
affected by flood in India. Most people in India are vulnerable to drought.

The probable reasons of these problems may be

 Environmental stress and change in climatic condition in different parts of the world.
 Rapid population growth and harmful human activities for our ecosystem.
 Large-scale encroachment in watersheds and naturally hazard prone areas.
 Haphazard urbanization and unsustainable development, violating land use regulations
and hazard resistant structural codes.
 Relief centric disaster management mechanism, avoiding practical risk reduction
planning based on hazard and location specific risk assessment.
 Lack of coordination and exchange of data and information among national and
international agencies, which are involved in planning for disaster risk reduction.
 Lack of proper and appropriate application of scientific and technical know-how in
disaster risk reduction process.

WHAT WE LEARNT FROM THIS UNIT?

More or less all parts of our globe are prone to natural hazards. But, amongst the continents,
Asia is highly prone to natural hazards. This region covers 30% of global land area and shares
60% of world’s total population.

Global data shows, more than 75% of world’s disasters are originated by hydro-
meteorological hazards. Out of which, flood hazard has been dominating over other natural
hazards.

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Data for the period 1900-2009 shows that, disaster events due to natural hazards have been
increasing sharply and the rate of increase of hydro-meteorological hazards is noticeable. This
clearly depicts the role of environmental degradation in increasing trend of disaster events.

In India, almost 68% of total land area is drought prone. More or less 60% area is earthquake
prone and flood shares 12% of the total land area. But, flood causes enormous loss and
damage every year. Though, there is no significant direct loss and damage to life and property
due to drought, but majority people are affected by drought. Though, the frequency of
earthquake is less than other natural hazards, but most people killed by earthquake. This is
probably due to haphazard urbanization and unsustainable development violating land use
regulations and building codes.

Countries like China, India and Bangladesh suffered most by the disasters originated from
natural hazards in terms of population affected and magnitude of loss and damage. Data
shows, America shares significant percentage of world’s disaster events, but the loss and
damage is comparatively negligible to that of Asian Countries.

Overall trend of disaster events shows sharp increase in the rate of disaster events originated
by natural hazards. More and more people are coming under the impact of such disasters year
after year. But, fortunately the rate of death of people by the disasters is not significant.

PROBABLE QUESTIONS

1. Why we need to study the nature and trend of global disasters?

2. What types of natural disasters are dominating all over the globe?
3. Which continent suffers most due to natural hazards?
4. What was the trend of disaster events during 1900 -2009?
5. What was the status of hydro-meteorological hazards during 1900-2009?
6. In India, which natural hazards are dominating in terms of total land area?
7. In India, which natural hazards cause maximum loss and damage?
8. Describe the flood scenario in India.
9. Discuss about few significant disasters in India?
10. From your observations, write down the reasons behind increasing trend of disaster
events?

SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Manual on Natural Disaster Management in India, NCDM Publication, 2001, pp 1, 4,

5, 21
2. Study material: Fourth International Course on CBDM, ADPC, 2000 (Module-1, pp 4,
14, 19
3. Reducing Disaster Risk: A Challenge for Development, Global Report, UNDP, 2004,
(pp 2, 11, 13, 17, 34)
4. Vulnerability Atlas of India
5. Global Disaster Outlook: A Conservation Perspective, WWF, 2006 (pp 6)
6. Alexander, D., Natural Disasters, Published by ULC press Ltd, London, 1993 ( pp 1)
7. National Disaster Management Guideline, Published by MHA, GoI (pp 27)

82
8. Reading Material: Training Programme on Environment and Disaster Management,
NIDM, New Delhi, 2010 (pp 1, 6)
9. Hazard, Disaster and Your Community, Version 10, Published by MHA, GoI.
10. India: IDNDR & Beyond, NCDM Publication, New Delhi, 2000 (pp, 10, 27, 51, 69)
11. Sharda, Y. R., Landslide Studies in India, Glimpses of Geoscience Research in India,
The Indian Report to IUGS 2004–2008, New Delhi, The Indian National Science
Academy (INSA).
12. Documentation on Past Disasters, their Impact, Measures taken, Vulnerable areas in
Assam; Published by Centre for Natural Disaster Management, Assam Administrative
Staff College, Assam, 2005.

83
 UNIT-II DISASTER MANAGEMENT MECHANISAM

UNIT STRUCTURE
INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES
CONCEPT OF RISK AND CRISIS MANAGEMENT
CONCEPT OF RISK
CONCEPT OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT
PROCESS OF RISK ASSESSMENT
DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE
DISASTER MANAGEMENT PROCESS
PRE DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT
DISASTER PHASE
CRISIS MANAGEMENT
PREVENTION, MITIGATION AND PREPAREDNESS
PREVENTION
MITIGATION
PREPAREDNESS
RESPONSE AND RECOVERY
RELIEF MECHANISM AND PROBLEM OF RELIEF
ORGANIZATIONAL AND FINANCIAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR DISASTER
MANAGEMENT IN INDIA
WHAT WE LEARNT FROM THIS UNIT?
PROBABLE QUESTIONS
SUGGESTED READINGS

INTRODUCTION
Disaster management is a multidisciplinary concept. Generally, we consider disaster as
humanitarian crisis and try to manage it according to our requirements for survival. Until a
natural hazard affects us, we do not take care of it. Now, slowly our attention is diverting to
protection of environment, sustainable development, safety and security of our systems.
Because, these are linked to our survival options and the root causes for damage and
disruption to our normal pattern of life.

Disaster is part of our life, but its management is a difficult task. Because, hundreds of issues;
comprising physical, material, social, organizational, motivational, financial and legal factors;
are involved in the process of disaster management. Moreover, it needs academic,
administrative, engineering, financial and legal supports.

In the previous units, we have discussed in detail about paradigm shift in concepts of disaster
management; different parameters involved in disaster risk; characteristics of natural hazards;
dimension and aspects of vulnerability analysis; damage characteristics of natural hazards;
trends of disasters etc.
This unit is designed mainly to discuss about disaster management principles, and different
aspects of risk and crisis management.

OBJECTIVES
The major objectives of this unit are

 To discuss about concept of disaster management.

84
  To highlight the different aspects of disaster management.
 To describe different steps of disaster management.
 To review the status of organizational and financial arrangements for disaster
management in India.

CONCEPT OF RISK AND CRISIS MANAGEMENT

CONCEPT OF RISK

Risk implies the probability of disaster or expected loss and damage under the impact of any
external force. Sometime we say, I am at risk or my family is at risk or my area is at risk and
so on. It means, we have some visible or hidden threats, which may harm our life and
property. If there is significant loss and damage to our life and property, we call it a disaster.
If our risk is more, probability of loss and damage is also more. That means, if risk is high,
expected magnitude of disaster is also high. Therefore, there is a strong bonding between risk
and probability of disaster in a system.

If we minimize our risk by taking appropriate measures, magnitude of loss and damage to our
life and property will be reduced accordingly. In other word, the probability of disaster will
also be reduced proportionately. If we can make our risk zero, we will never face a disaster.
But, in practice it is not possible. Every system or individual has some sorts of risk i.e., no
system or individual is free from external threats absolutely.

Risk management is the primary and important step of disaster management. If we cannot
contain our risk up-to a certain limit, we will certainly face a disaster. A disaster always leads
to a crisis situation, in which either we will die or we will not be able to manage basic
requirements for our survival. In a crisis situation, the affected population depends largely on
outside agencies to meet their basic requirements for survival. The outside agencies try to
manage the crisis based on their own capacity.

CONCEPT OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT

There are two distinct parts in disaster management.

One is Risk Management, in which we try to do something for mitigation of our risk i.e.
reduction of loss and damage, just to avoid a disaster like situation.

Other one is Crisis Management, in which we try to survive by fighting with disaster and take
measures for recovery of the normal condition.

Everyone from government departments, non-government organizations and vulnerable

communities can take part and contribute our knowledge and resources in the process of risk
assessment and risk reduction planning. But crisis management needs trained and skilled
manpower, tools and equipments, effective organizational structure, logistics, financial and
material supports etc.

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 DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Assessment Action
Planning Assessment
Action Planning

RISK CRISIS
DISASTER
MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT

Mitigate Probability
Fight with Disaster
of Damage and
Like Situation
Disruption
Trained, skilled, well equipped/organised
Everyone can take part agencies can play the role. Affected
community depends on others.

For risk management, we get enough time to assess our disaster risk first. Based on risk
assessment, we can make our plan for risk reduction and take action according to the plan.
But in crisis management, first, we try to make the situation normal by taking appropriate
actions i.e. rescue and relief. Then we assess the loss and damage to make plan for recovery
and reconstruction. Moreover, action plan for crisis management is done based on risk
assessment of a system. Therefore, without risk assessment, we cannot make effective crisis
management plan for emergency response and recovery.

For all these reasons, disaster management is a complex and multidisciplinary process having
multidimensional management aspects. In reality, the groups of agencies involved in risk and
crisis managements are highly polarized. In most of the countries, these agencies are trying to
manage disasters on their own formula without proper coordination and exchange of data,
information, and technological know-how.

Why we need close coordination between risk management and crisis management groups?

As mentioned earlier, crisis management starts with immediate action. In this process, we do
not get much time to assess the situation and plan accordingly to start action. For crisis
management, there should be a comprehensive action plan prior to a crisis situation.

For example, flood and earthquake hazards may lead to different types of disasters. Their
damage characteristics and problem areas are also different. Therefore, a specific plan with
particular set of manpower, equipment and tools may not be suitable for both the disasters.
Crisis management planning for a particular area or system needs information about nature of
triggering force, probable impact of hazard, nature of damage, and local vulnerable
conditions. Risk assessment process generally addresses these issues.

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So the basis of the crisis management plan is risk assessment. Without close coordination
amongst the organizations involved in the process of risk and crisis management, it is not
possible to prepare effective disaster management plan for a system.

PROCESS OF RISK ASSESSMENT

As we have already discussed in previous units, the disaster risk of a system depends on
magnitude of triggering force (hazards); internal unsafe conditions of the system
(vulnerability); impact of hazards (nature of loss and damage) etc. Risk assessment for a
particular area or system needs

 Hazard assessment to identify the types of natural hazards to which the area is
exposed.

 Vulnerability assessment to identify the unsafe conditions of the system and their
susceptibility to different hazards.

 Resource assessment for identification of the resources at risk and counter disaster
resources in the system.

 Determination of the probable impact of different hazards on the system i.e., expected
loss and damage for different hazards.

To make a risk reduction plan, it is essential to find out probable threats/hazards; vulnerability
and their root causes; impact of hazards to our system. If we can make proper assessment of
all these parameters, it would be possible for us to make preparedness plan for coping with
disasters. Details about this will be discussed in disaster management cycle.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT CYCLE

DISASTER MANAGEMENT PROCESS

We have seen that, a practical disaster management plan has two parts, risk management and
crisis management. Now let us discuss in detail about different steps of risk and crisis
managements.

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 DEVELOPMENT

DISASTER MANAGEMENT PLAN

PREVENTION

MITIGATION

PREPAREDNESS

FAILURE

DISASTER

RESPONSE / RESCUE

RELIEF AND REHABILITATION

RECOVERY

Fig.: Schematic diagram of Disaster Management Cycle

As mentioned earlier, disaster management plans are required to tackle humanitarian crisis.
Environmental degradation involving disturbances in our biodiversity and ecosystem may
cause many natural hazards, which in turn may lead to humanitarian crisis in the form of
disaster.

On the other hand, developmental activities violating the laws of nature may be the source of
environmental degradation. Again, unsustainable developmental activities may lead to unsafe
conditions within our system. So there is close relationship between unsustainable
development and disaster risk.

Suppose an area is exposed to many natural hazards like flood, earthquake etc., but there is no
living and physical elements in that area. In this case, even in presence of natural hazards,
there is very less possibility of occurrence of a disaster like situation.

Again, if an area is not prone to natural hazards, there is less possibility of occurrence of
disasters.

Considering all these, we can say, disaster management plans are required for the
areas/systems,

 Which are prone to natural or man-made hazards.

 Which are the habitats of human and other living elements.

88
  Where some kinds of developmental activities are going on.
 Which have direct link with livelihood opportunities and production.
 Which have cultural and religious importance.
 Which may create secondary disturbances for the people of other regions.

PRE DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT

For disaster risk mitigation, we can adopt some practices either to prevent a disaster or to
mitigate the magnitude of loss and damage. If we do not have strategy for prevention of
disaster or mitigation of loss and damage, then we must have a preparedness plan to cope with
a disaster like situation.

Therefore, pre disaster risk mitigation planning comprises three basic steps
 Prevention
 Mitigation
 Preparedness

For example,

Prevention

Suppose an area is flood prone, we can prevent flood in this area by resisting overflow of
river water. This can be done by constructing an embankment. In this process, we are not
allowing the hazard to strike our system and cause disaster. This is one example of
prevention. Like this, we can take suitable structural and non-structural measures for
prevention of disasters.

Mitigation

All the time it is not possible to prevent natural hazards from striking our systems. For
example, we do not have any mechanism to predict or prevent earthquake hazard. In that case,
we can mitigate the loss and damage by minimizing unsafe conditions of our system. The
strategies for damage mitigation plan may include; land use regulation, micro-zonation,
earthquake resistant building codes, safety norms etc.

Sometime the hazard protection devices may fail to prevent hazards. Foe example, a breach in
the embankment may cause inundation to large area. Therefore, damage mitigation strategies
should be integral part of our risk reduction plan.

Preparedness

If we do not have strategies for prevention of disaster or mitigation of loss and damage, then
we must have a preparedness plan to cope with the situation. The preparedness plan must
include alternative adjustment processes, survival kits, communication facilities etc.
Education and awareness of vulnerable communities about warning signs of natural hazards
and their damage characteristics, damage mitigation strategies etc. are also integral parts of
the preparedness plan.

DISASTER PHASE

Failing to adopt a suitable pre disaster risk reduction plan, we may face a crisis, involving
large-scale damage and disruption to our life, property, environment, health, livelihood,
production, communication etc. The affected community becomes helpless and depends on
89
outside agencies for their rescue, safe shelter, relief, and rehabilitation. Here, the role of Crisis
Management group is important.

CRISIS MANAGEMENT

As discussed earlier, for effective crisis management there should be a comprehensive action
plan based on risk assessment of vulnerable communities for immediate response to a disaster
situation. This includes rescue and safe shelter of affected population. Trained and equipped
persons from outside agencies generally get involved in this process.

In practice, the government response forces take considerable time to start rescue operation in
disaster-affected areas due to some administrative formalities. Non-government organizations
also have their own limitations to participate actively in rescue operation. Sometime
communication disruption and other local factors also make barriers in rescue operation.
Therefore, the role of vulnerable community is equally important in this phase of disaster
management.

If a vulnerable community has proper preparedness plan for quick response to a disaster
situation; in terms of trained and skilled volunteers, equipments and tools, evacuation
centre, emergency kits, essential items etc.; then they will be able to mange the crisis
situation more efficiently. If the vulnerable community can manage the situation temporarily,
subsequently the government support systems will take up the action automatically.

The most important step for post disaster crisis management planning is relief. The affected
population needs basic supports for their survival. The relief operation is a complex
mechanism. Detail about relief will be discussed in the following sections.

Once the situation becomes normal, the affected population may need government support for
their rehabilitation and recovery. This phase is very troublesome for the affected population.
The affected population may face many problems to manage their basic requirements for
survival. They realize the impact of disaster and meaning of loss. In this phase, the affected
people need physical, material, financial, medical, and psychological supports from outside
agencies to get back to their original status.

Sometime disaster helps the vulnerable communities to learn lesson from their practical
experiences and respond appropriately for sustainable developments.

PREVENTION, MITIGATION AND PREPAREDNESS

We have seen in our previous discussion, the complete disaster management cycle has two
distinct parts, Risk Management and Crisis Management. Proper risk assessment is
necessary to formulate action plan for crisis management. Risk management for a system or
area includes three important steps; Prevention, Mitigation and Preparedness. Crisis
Management includes Rescue, Relief, Rehabilitation and Recovery phases.

In previous section, we have discussed briefly about different phases of disaster management.
Now we will discuss in detail about the principles and mechanisms of these management
phases.

PREVENTION

Prevention of disaster means, not allowing a disaster to occur in a system. In other words,
prevention of disaster in a system means complete elimination of disaster risk of the system.
How can we prevent disaster in an area, if this area is prone to natural or man-made hazards?
90
There are three ways,

 Resisting the hazard itself from striking the area by means of suitable hazards
protection devices.
 Reducing the unsafe conditions or vulnerability of the area to zero
 Staying away from settlement or any developmental activities in hazard prone areas.

In practice, it is very difficult to adopt above-mentioned practices for prevention of disasters.

Even than it should be our effort to find out the ways for prevention of disasters. We must be
careful, from the very beginning of our development process, to make all the elements of our
system hazard resistant.

Some of the important aspects for prevention of disasters are

 Identification of hazard prone locations in an area.

 Planning for sustainable development in hazard prone areas, considering the types and
damage characteristics of hazards.
 Engineering structural protection measures synchronized with suitable nonstructural
measures for prevention of hazards.
 Protection of the habitats of hazard prone areas from natural hazards.
 Protection of crop area and agricultural land.
 Retrofitting or demolition of the unsafe structures in hazard prone areas.
 Formulation of proper policies for prevention of disasters in hazard prone areas.
 Implementation of land use regulations and urban planning.
 Proper legislation for implementation of the disaster management policies.
 Planning for counter-disaster mechanism.
 Separate budgetary provisions in the national plan budget for disaster risk reduction
programmes.
 International and corporate financial support for disaster prevention schemes/devices
with the conditions of maintaining safety standard.
 Staying away from the activities, which may create suitable environment for disasters.

Constraints of disaster prevention

The above-mentioned aspects of disaster prevention are achievable. At the same time, many
constraints are there for genuine implementation of these issues. Let us discuss few of our
constraints, which are creating hindrance in disaster prevention mechanism.

 The most important factor is uncontrolled population growth, especially in developing

and third world countries. People are bound to live in hazard prone areas despite
knowing the disaster risk. National governments and political parties are also reluctant
to introduce policies for proper implementation of land use regulations in hazard prone
areas due to the facts that,
 Such policies may upset the interest of vulnerable communities and thereby the
interest of political parties too.
 Such policies may need relocation plans for vulnerable communities, for which
the national or regional governments are not capable.

 Most countries have relief centric disaster management plans, considering the natural
hazard induced disasters as routine phenomena.
 The natural hazard protection devices/mechanisms are highly expensive. The national
governments of developing and third world countries can not afford such highly
expensive hazard protection devices.
 Some national developmental projects may increase the disaster risk of certain areas.
91
  The production based industries of developing and third world countries do not take
appropriate protection measures due to cost-benefit reasons. Extra expenditure for
protection measures always increases the cost of production, which may not be
affordable for common people. Such uncontrolled production industries are also
enhancing disaster risk.
 Lack of awareness among vulnerable communities about disaster risk or the
vulnerable communities have no role in counter-measures for disaster prevention.

Whatsoever be the case, disasters always cause great loss to national economy and affected
population become burden of the nation. Therefore, despite all these constraints, the national
governments of most of the nations are now giving due emphasis on formulation of proper
plans and policies for reasonable prevention of natural hazard induced disasters, as part of
their disaster risk reduction (DRR) programmes. The countries like India have undertaken
many important steps to reduce disaster risk at national levels involving prevention of
disasters. Some of these steps are

 Adopted of National Disaster Management Act.

 Formulated disaster management policies and legislations for proper implementation
of disaster management policies at all levels in the country.
 Disaster Management Institutes and Centres are established for conducting academic
and research activities, involving risk assessment and risk reduction planning at micro
and macro levels.
 Separate disaster management divisions are established under different ministries for
assessment, planning and monitoring of the progress.
 It is now mandatory for State Governments to formulate disaster management plans at
state and district levels, elaborating hazard and location specific risk factors and
measures to be taken for prevention of disasters.
 Created separate budgetary provisions for implementation of hazard protection
measures on priority basis.
 Separate disaster management wings are established at districts levels for conducting
training, awareness and skill development programmes.
 Priorities are given for impact assessment of national developmental projects and
environmental safeguard. Pollution control and safety norms have also been adhered
for production industries located in populated areas.
 Different advisory boards and expert committees are constituted; comprising
bureaucrats, technocrats, scientists, and administrators; for risk assessment and risk
reduction mechanisms.
 Capacity building programmes for planning authorities, government line departments,
disaster management institutes and authorities, non-government agencies, and other
counter disaster agencies of the country.

MITIGATION

In most of the cases, complete prevention of disaster is not possible. In these cases, we can
take appropriate measures in advance to reduce the effects of disasters, i.e., reduce the
magnitude of damage and disruptions.

Damage mitigation strategies are required mainly for reducing the unsafe conditions of the
hazard prone areas addressing the root causes of these unsafe conditions. The process for
recognition of the root causes of vulnerability factors is discussed in unit 01, under
progression of vulnerability.

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The dimensions of vulnerability factors and their assessment principles are discussed in unit
03. The relationship between vulnerability and disasters, vulnerabilities of different hazards
etc. are also discussed in unit 03.

From our previous discussions, it is clear that, vulnerability plays major role in damage and
disruption. If we can reduce vulnerability factors of hazard prone areas, the magnitude of
damage and disruption will be minimized automatically.

The different aspects of disaster prevention mechanism are also integral parts of damage
mitigation planning. The approaches for overall damage mitigation process are complex and
multidisciplinary, which involve,

 Multi-hazard zoning of hazard prone areas: For example, a state is prone to flood,
earthquake, cyclone, landslide etc. For damage mitigation planning of the state, it is
essential to identify the specific areas, which are prone to one or more hazards. The
hazard zoning of the state can be done based on the level of disaster risk of different
areas for different hazards.

 Damage characteristics of different natural hazards: From past records of disasters

in a particular area, it is possible to understand the of damage characteristics of
different hazards. The nature of damage varies with type of hazard and developmental
pattern in the hazard prone areas. Without knowing hazard specific damage
characteristics, it is not possible to plan for damage mitigation.

 Planning for sustainable development: The lesson learnt from past disasters helps the
planners to make suitable plans for sustainable development in hazard prone areas.
Such plan includes land use regulations, design and safety norms, and other damage
mitigation mechanisms. Such a plan for sustainable development is necessary for
reconstruction in disaster affected areas or new developmental activities in natural
hazard prone areas. For example, after Gujarat earthquake in 2001, the government of
Gujarat had adopted certain policies and norms for sustainable developments in
earthquake affected areas. The vulnerable communities living in the flood prone areas
of Assam have their own traditional methods and techniques, including flood resistant
housing and food storage, for flood damage mitigation.

 Coordination among disaster management agencies and vulnerable communities:

Active participation of government line departments, academic institutions, and
vulnerable communities is required for damage mitigation planning. The government
agencies and academic institutions, involved in disaster management, try to assess the
disaster risks of different hazard prone areas and make disaster risk reduction plans
accordingly. The vulnerable communities are responsible for proper implementation
of the disaster risk reduction plans. Moreover, for proper risk assessment, the disaster
management agencies need huge data and information of the hazard prone areas. The
vulnerable communities are the genuine source of all these data and information.
Therefore, strong coordination amongst disaster management agencies and vulnerable
communities is required for damage mitigation in hazard prone areas.

 Relocation plans and incentives for vulnerable communities: In most of the cases,
the vulnerable communities live in the hazard prone areas under compulsion mainly
due to their financial constraints. In addition, they may not have the capacity to follow
the codes and norms for sustainable development. So, the most effective method for
disaster risk mitigation is relocation of vulnerable communities from hazard prone
areas to safe locations or extending some financial support from government for
sustainable development.

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  Preparedness and capacity building: If a vulnerable community is not prepared to
face a disaster, then the disaster may cause maximum damage and disruption for that
community. Therefore, preparedness with adequate capacity, to deal with disaster like
situations, in terms of resources, means and strength is the most effective method for
disaster risk mitigation. In the next section, we will discuss in detail about
preparedness mechanism.

 Monitoring and early warning: Disaster risk of a particular hazard prone area may be
associated with several remote factors. For example, the root causes of flood disaster
in a particular area may be related to mismanagement of catchment areas. The source
of tsunami in coastal areas is the earthquake in ocean. So, for damage mitigation
planning, we need careful observations on changing pressures and root causes of
different hazards. Development of early warning mechanism for natural hazards is
another effective tool for damage mitigation. An early warning for tsunami can save
thousands of lives. Early warning for flood may reduce the loss and damage of life and
property significantly.

 Structural and non-structural measures: Planning for sustainable development to

mitigate disaster risk of the vulnerable areas includes both structural and non-
structural measures. Detail about structural and non structural measures will be
discussed in the next unit.

In developing and third world countries, over population and poverty are the main reasons
behind violation of land use and building regulations; unplanned and unsustainable
development; haphazard urbanization etc. It is also difficult for the governments of these
countries to enforce the codes and norms for risk mitigation all over the country due to
financial and political reasons.

PREPAREDNESS

Preparedness is one of the most important aspects of risk management. Preparedness enables
the disaster management agencies as well as vulnerable communities to respond quickly and
effectively to a disaster situation. Preparedness is a set of measures that makes vulnerable
communities resilient to hazards and capable to cope with disasters.

The mitigation measures can minimize the magnitude of loss and damage, but cannot
eliminate the disaster risk completely in a hazard prone area. Moreover, there is no foolproof
protection mechanism, which can prevent disasters caused by natural hazards. Therefore, we
should always be ready to face a disaster like situation, if we are living in hazard prone areas.

Though, preparedness is a part of risk management, but it has great role in the process of
response and recovery. In fact, the different aspects of preparedness cover the whole disaster
management process. Preparedness should be hazard and location specific. One specific set of
measures may not be suitable for different hazard prone areas. For example, preparedness
plans for hilly earthquake prone areas and low-lying flood plains are different in nature.
Planning for preparedness for a particular hazard prone area involves

 Location specification by defining geo-climatic and geological conditions of the area.

It needs in-depth analysis on geological set-up, topography, climatic condition, river
network etc. This is the primary step to identify the natural threats and vulnerability
factors of the area.

 Hazard specification by defining the external threats or hazards to which the area is
exposed. An area may be prone to one or more hazards. If an area is multi-hazard
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 prone, the preparedness plans should be different for each hazard. Because, the
damage characteristics of different natural hazards are not same. Hazard resistance
devices are also part of preparedness process.

 Vulnerability analysis to identify the set of unsafe conditions of the hazard prone
location, which are related to physical structures, socio-economic condition of
vulnerable community, hazard protection devices etc. The status of susceptibility of
elements at risk in the area to different natural hazards gives us guideline for
preparedness measures. Without vulnerability analysis, it is not possible to make a
genuine preparedness plan for a vulnerable community. For example, the communities
living in flood plains are better prepared to cope with flood or respond to flood
disaster efficiently. Because, they understand their disaster risk and take proper
measures on right time.

 Resource management involves identification of the counter disaster resources which

may be useful for response and recovery; allocation of role and responsibilities of the
counter disaster resources; and mobilization of these resources at proper time and
place. To control a fire disaster, we need the service of fire brigade. Fire brigade is one
of the counter disaster resources. But, in most of the cases we find, either there is no
fire service station in fire hazard prone area or fire brigade lacks skilled manpower and
required equipment. Also in many cases, the fire service department does not respond
on time. Therefore, resource management is also an important part of preparedness.

 Command, control and coordination. We need a systematic and effective

organizational structure involving all government line departments, non-governmental
organizations working in the field of response and relief, and volunteer groups from
vulnerable communities to conduct disaster management related activities smoothly
and efficiently. To utilize the resources, means and strength of individual
organizations meaningfully in the field of disaster management, there should be proper
coordination among all the organizations. Moreover, proper command and control
over all the organizations are also necessary for effective outcome.

 Readiness and supportive resources. There should be enough numbers of disaster

management sections and centres through out the nation to assess the needs of the
vulnerable communities and monitor the status of their preparedness. Recruitment of
skilled and trained manpower, procurement of tools and equipments for emergency
response and their proper maintenance, development of required facilities and logistics
etc. are also integral parts of preparedness process. Maintenance of preparedness level
all the time, even in absence of disasters for long time, is the most tedious job. Special
emphasis should be given in maintenance of preparedness levels for long time.

 National policy and legislation. National policy and legislations are required for
formulation and genuine implementation of preparedness plans at national and state
levels.

 Education and awareness. Education and awareness of vulnerable communities about

disaster risk and risk mitigation measures are also essential for preparedness of the
vulnerable communities.

RESPONSE AND RECOVERY

Planning for response and recovery during and after disasters is required for
 Timely rescue of the affected population and their safe shelter.
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  Maintenance of evacuation centers.
 Conducting relief operation smoothly.
 Timely supply of essential items like food, dirking water, cloth, medicine etc. to
affected population.
 Appropriate medical care to injured persons.
 Providing health care and sanitation facilities.
 Disposal of dead bodies and removal of debris.
 Control over communicable diseases.
 Maintenance of law and order situation.
 Mobilization of resources.
 Restoration of communication systems.
 Proper coordination among response forces.
 Rehabilitation of the affected population.
 Damage assessment.
 Subsequent recovery of the normal situation.
 International support for response and recovery.

The requirement of organizational supports; manpower; equipment and tools; facilities and
logistics etc. for response and recovery depends on nature of disaster i.e., characteristics of
damage and disruptions. Therefore, genuine risk assessment is essential for response and
recovery planning.

RELIEF MECHANISM AND PROBLEM AREAS OF RELIEF

In general, Relief means the measures to meet the immediate requirements of victims of a
disaster. But, with the changing concept of disaster management, the jurisdiction of disaster
relief widened over entire process of disaster management.

The process of disaster relief has many dimensions. Some of the important aspects of disaster
relief are mentioned below.

 Needs analysis: Needs of a vulnerable community in disaster situation could be

assessed well before the occurrence of disaster by analyzing the community’s risk,
capacity and preparedness levels. For this, census data is required to have an idea
about population pattern and gender ratio. Analysis of needs of the vulnerable
communities is essential to respond appropriately in relief operation during a disaster.

 Arrangements for relief operation: Based on needs analysis, advance measures could
be taken for arrangement of essential items and facilities. The process may involve
management of evacuation centres; provision of drinking water and sanitation
facilities in evacuation centres; arrangement of food, cloth, medicine and other
essential items for distributional arrangement of logistics for relief operational
arrangement of other relevant facilities for relief operation etc.

 Storage and transportation: Safe storage and proper distribution of essential relief
items are challenging tasks for disaster management agencies. Provisions should be
made for storage of relief items at safe locations. In most of the cases, communication
disruption creates major problem in distribution of relief materials to marooned
people. During flood, disruption of road communication is a common phenomenon.
Arrangement of alternative means of transportation is essential for conducting relief
operation smoothly.

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  Relief network: There should be an effective relief network comprising government
line departments, non-government agencies, corporate and financial organizations,
volunteer groups and community based organizations for management of logistics,
facilities and essential items required for relief operation during disasters. Proper
training and coordination among these organizations are also essential for smooth
conduct of relief operation.

 Control room: The district administration should establish a control room during
warning phase of disaster to deal with disaster situation.

 Administration of relief: This process involves management of requisite resources for

distribution of relief materials to affected people, assessment of loss and damage,
appropriate measures for rehabilitation and recovery.

 Military assistance: If the magnitude of disaster is high and beyond the control of
district administration, the services of military response force could be utilized.

 Health and medical care: During disaster, the affected population generally needs
special and emergency medical care. Provision should be there to extend appropriate
medical support to affected communities and prevent outbreak of epidemic.

 Disposal of corpse: Disposal of dead bodies from disaster affected areas should be the
top priority to control nuisance and epidemic.

 Salvage operation: Early recovery of essential services and repairing of damaged

structures are essential for restoration of normal situation.

 Outside and special relief: In special cases, the district disaster management authority
may seek national support to handle a disaster situation. If the magnitude of disaster is
too high, the national government may look for international helps. In that case, there
may be huge flow of relief materials in disaster affected areas. Genuine strategy and
coordination are required for proper management and distribution of relief materials.

 Monitoring: Constant monitoring is required to review the disaster situation and

damage characteristics. This is essential to formulate strategies for further relief to the
affected communities. A particular affected community may need long time outside
support and compensation for recovery. The local authority may need special financial
support from national government for reconstruction and rehabilitation of affected
population. That is why, review of information is mandatory in relief exercise.

ORGANIZATIONAL AND FINANCIAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA.

This section is prepared based on latest report published by Ministry of Home Affairs,
Government of India in 2011 on Disaster Management in India.

There has been a complete paradigm shift in the approaches of Disaster Management in India
during last century. The British administration established relief department in India to deal
with emergencies. In the post independent period, each states of India had Relief
Commissioners to deal with relief operation during disaster situation.

In 1990, the Government of India set-up a separate Natural Disaster Management Division
under Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation to look after the activities related to disaster
management. After Bhuj earthquake in 2001, the Government of India constituted a High

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Power Committee under the Chairmanship of Sri J. C. Pant to draw the guidelines for holistic
disaster management in India. In 2002, the Disaster Management Division came under the
Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India.

One Joint Secretary of Ministry of Home Affairs was nominated as Head of the disaster
management division. There were also few Directors, Under Secretaries, Section Officers,
Technical Officers, Senior Economic Investigator, Consultants and supporting Staff in the
division. The Home Minister, Home Secretary, Secretary (Boarder Management) were the
hierarchies of the organizational structures. Some Ministries were designated as nodal
authorities for specific disasters. High power group was constituted with the representatives
from different ministries.

In continuation with earlier structure, National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has
been established in the centre followed by State Disaster Management Authorities in the
States. Subsequently District Disaster Management Authorities are established in all the
districts to look after the disaster management related activities.

The National Crisis Management Committee is also part of disaster management structure in
India. The National Centre for Disaster Management established in 1995 was converted into
National Institute of Disaster Management in 2003 mainly to carry out training, research, case
studies, documentation etc. Under National Centre for Disaster Management, many state level
Centres and Administrative Training Institutes are working.

The Ministry of Finance, Government of India deals with the budgetary provision of relief
fund as per recommendations of Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. Based on
recommendation of 13th Finance Commission, National Disaster Response (NDRF) Fund and
State Disaster Response Fund (SDRF) are created for the period 2010 – 2015. There are also
provisions for Calamity Relief Fund (CRF) and National Calamity Contingency Fund (NCCF)
for assistance to state governments.

WHAT WE LEARNT FROM THIS UNIT?

Disaster management means, mitigation of disaster risk of a system by preventing external

hazards or reducing internal unsafe conditions or preparing vulnerable communities for living
with disasters.

The complete disaster management process comprises two distinct parts. Risk Management
and Crisis Management. Risk management is the most important aspect of disaster
management. If we cannot manage the risk of our system up-to a certain limit, the system is
bound to face a disaster. A disaster always leads a crisis situation. In crisis situation, the
affected people depend on external supports to manage their basic requirements for survival.

Everyone can take part in the process of risk assessment and risk management based on their
levels of knowledge, expertise and resources. But, for crisis management, we need trained and
skilled manpower, equipment, organizational structure, logistics, material and financial
supports etc.

In risk management, we get time for assessment of our risk and plan accordingly for disaster
risk reduction. But, crisis management starts with action i.e., rescue and relief operations. For
crisis management also, we need specific action plan. The preparation of action plan for crisis
management is done based on risk assessment of the system. Therefore, without genuine risk
assessment, we cannot make crisis management plan for effective management of crisis
situation.

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Both the risk and crisis management plans are hazard and location specific. Therefore, the
disaster management plans are also hazard and location specific. One particular disaster
management plan may not be suitable for different hazard prone areas. Even a single disaster
management plan for a particular location may not be effective for different hazards.

Risk management includes Prevention, Mitigation and Preparedness. Crisis management

comprises Rescue, Relief, Rehabilitation and Recovery. We can also adopt prospective,
corrective, or compensatory risk management measures for mitigation of our disaster risk.

Now many countries including India have adopted Disaster Management Act and Policies for
formation of strong organizational structures and effective management of disasters at
different levels.

PROBABLE QUESTIONS
1. What do you mean by Disaster Management?
2. What is risk management?
3. What is crisis management?
4. Describe the complete process of Disaster Management.
5. Describe prevention, mitigation and preparedness mechanisms.
6. Describe the response and recovery mechanisms.
7. What are the steps of relief mechanism?
8. Write down about organizational structure for disaster management in India.
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Good Practices in CBDRM, GoI-UNDP DRM Programme Report, 2009, pp 2.
2. Alexander, D., An Integrated Approach to Disaster Management Natural Disasters,
Published by ULC press Ltd, London, 1993, PP 15.
3. Manual on Natural Disaster Management in India, NCDM Publication, 2001, pp 81.
4. Disaster Management in India, Published by Ministry of Home Affairs, Government
of India, 2011.
5. Sutton, J., and Tierney K., Disaster Preparedness: Concepts, Guidance, and Research,
Report prepared for the Fritz Institute Assessing Disaster Preparedness Conference,
Sebastopol, California, November 3 and 4, 2006 (www.colorado.edu/hazards)

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 UNIT-3: CAPACITY BUILDING

UNIT STRUCTURE
INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES
CONCEPT OF CAPACITY BUILDING
WHAT IS CAPACITY?
MAJOR ASPECTS OF CAPACITY BUILDING
WHY WE NEED CAPACITY BUILDING?
STRUCTURAL AND NONSTRUCTURAL MEASURES
STRUCTURAL MEASURES
NON-STRUCTURAL MEASURES
DISASTER AND DEVELOPMENT
PROBABLE OPTIONS OF DISASTER RISK MITIGATION
POSSIBLE IMPACTS OF DISASTERS ON NATIONAL ECONOMY AND
DEVELOPMENT
CAPACITY ASSESSMENT
STRENGTHENING CAPACITY FOR REDUCING RISK
WHAT WE LEARNT FROM THIS UNIT?
PROBABLE QUESTIONS
SUGGESTED READINGS

INTRODUCTION
Capacity building is the most important process of disaster risk reduction. So far, in our
previous discussions, we have described different aspects of disaster risk. Now the concept of
Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) mechanism is getting importance in the disaster management
process.

We have seen that disaster risk of a system depends primarily on hazards to which the system
is exposed and vulnerability factors of the system. Both the hazards and vulnerability have
many dimensions. So the analysis of risk is also complex. But some methods are there to
estimate disaster risk based on hazard and vulnerability analysis. Capacity building process
for disaster risk reduction has also multidimensional aspects, as the process is linked to
prevention of hazards and mitigation of vulnerability factors.

In this unit the issues relevant to capacity building will be highlighted.

OBJECTIVES
This objective of this unit is to outline
 Concept and methodology of capacity building.
 Different aspects of capacity building process.
 Principles of capacity assessment.
 Correlation between development and disaster.
 Capacity building for risk reduction.

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CONCEPT OF CAPACITY BUILDING
WHAT IS CAPACITY?

First, let us define capacity to understand the capacity building process. Capacity is the
resources, means or strength, which enhances our ability to prevent disaster or mitigate loss
and damage, or withstand with disastrous situation.

Resources are the sources from which we get benefits. Resources may be physical resource,
natural resource, and human resource that are linked to conservation and sustainability.

Here means implies the ways, methods, techniques, methodologies and technologies that are
useful to evolve the mechanisms for sustainable development.

Strength may be defined as ability to do something in terms of physical (skilled manpower,

trained volunteer, equipments, tools etc.); economical; organizational or moral strengths.

The major goal of capacity building is to develop suitable means and strength to generate
resources for sustainable development. It is the process, which minimizes the risk of
vulnerable communities by reducing unsafe conditions of the system or resisting external
threats to the system.

MAJOR ASPECTS OF CAPACITY BUILDING

Development of human resources: This is required to improve the status of knowledge and
skill of the people to enable them to work effectively for capacity building of the system.
Genuine human resource having proper knowledge, skill and access to up-to-date information
is the pillar of capacity building process. Without this it is not possible to develop suitable
methods, techniques, strengths and resources for sustainable development.

Institutional/organizational capacity building: This process involves enhancement of

capacity of the institutions or organizations for developing useful methods, techniques, plans,
policies and legislations; building strong and efficient organizational structures; producing
skilled and trained manpower etc. Good institutions are also required to generate valued
human resources. Genuine human resources are also strength of good institutions.

Development of infrastructure, facilities and resources: Strong physical resources, well-

equipped infrastructures and useful facilities are the basic components of sustainable
development. Without these, it is not possible to reduce risk of our systems.

Detail about structural and non-structural measures for capacity building is discussed in the
following sections.

Example of capacity building,

An embankment is useful for minimizing flood risk of an area. Thus, the embankment is one
of the physical resources, which can resist flood hazard from striking the area.

Again, for construction of an embankment, we need

 Proper design based on data, information and technological know-how.

 Necessary fund, quality construction material and skilled manpower.

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So, the process of capacity building has multidimensional aspects associated with physical,
material, ecological, social, organizational, economical, motivational, and technological
factors.

WHY WE NEED CAPACITY BUILDING?

Capacity building process is the most important step of disaster management, because

 It reduces disaster risk by resisting hazards.

 It minimizes disaster risk by reducing vulnerability of the systems.
 It enhances the ability of the vulnerable communities to cope with disaster.
 It addresses the needs of vulnerable communities.
 It helps to generate suitable methodologies and technologies for sustainable
development.
 It addresses the economics for sustainable development.
 It helps to educate and aware vulnerable communities about disaster risk and risk
reduction measures.
 It helps to build strong organizational structure to deal with disaster events.
 It enhances the personal capacity like leadership and management skills.
 It provides the scopes of good practices for damage mitigation like early warning,
preparedness measures, and trainings for construction workers and volunteers etc.

STRUCTURAL AND NONSTRUCTURAL MEASURES

The capacity building process to mitigate disaster risk of a system has two distinct parts.

 Structural measures.
 Non-structural measures.

Structural measures involve physical constructions comprising engineering and non-

engineering structures which are useful to reduce risk or avoid possible impacts of hazards.
There may be application of engineering techniques to develop hazard-resistance devices or
structures resilient to natural hazards. Some common structural measures for disaster risk
reduction are dams, flood levies, Embankments, ocean wave barriers, earthquake-resistant
construction, evacuation centres etc.

Non-structural measures do not involve any physical construction. Non-structural measures

are the codes, norms, policies, legislations, knowledge, practice and agreement relevant to
sustainable development and mitigation of disaster risks. Public awareness, training and
education are also parts of non-structural measures. Examples of non-structural measures are
proper application of earthquake resistant building codes, land use regulation, forest laws etc.;
Hazard-Vulnerability-Capacity (HVC) analysis; risk reduction planning and its
implementation, public awareness and training programmes etc.

Non-structural measures are also considered as part of structural measures. For example, to
construct a hazard resistant structure, we need to follow the building codes and land use
regulations.

STRUCTURAL MEASURES

Structural measures include both engineering and non-engineering structures for damage
mitigation.

Engineering structures
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The structures, which are constructed based on engineering planning, architecture and design
following relevant codes and safety norms for hazard specific disaster risk reduction.
Engineering structures may be small houses, high-rise buildings, small or big dams, bridges,
embankments, roads, railways, airport, other infrastructures and facilities.

For planning and design of hazard resistant or resilient engineering structures, inputs from
trained and experienced engineers and professionals are required. Hazard proof or hazard
resistant structural development involves

 Zoning maps to understand the nature and magnitude of external forces that may cause
damaging affect to the structure.
 Planning and design of the structure considering geographical and geological set-up of
the location, soil characteristic, probable impact of hazards to the structure, safety
measures and impact of the structure to other elements and conditions of the area.
 Construction phase involving trained and skilled workers, quality construction
material and proper supervision by experienced engineers.
 Maintenance of the structure based on regular monitoring of the condition of the
structure.

Non-engineering structures

The structures, which are not constructed based on engineering planning and design. The
following factors should be considered during construction of non-engineering structures.

 The construction site is not in a hazard prone area like floodplains, hill slope,
earthquake prone area etc.
 The structures are comparatively small and less important.
 Skilled and trained workers are involved in construction of the structures.
 Traditional knowledge and experience are used in design and construction. The
structures are suitable for local geo-climatic condition.
 The local risk factors are considered during construction of the structures.

Otherwise, these structures may enhance the disaster risk of the system.

NON-STRUCTURAL MEASURES

Non-structural measures generally improve our knowledge and skill to deal with disasters.
These are also the foundations of structural measures for sustainable development. Some of
the important non-structural measures, useful for disaster risk mitigation, are mentioned
below.

Building codes

Most of the countries have their own hazard specific building codes for sustainable
development. In India, Bureau of Indian Standard formulates the Indian Standard Codes on
different subjects of engineering. The Civil Engineering Division Council of the Bureau
formulates the hazard specific codes and standards for construction of structures involving
planning, design, construction and maintenance, building material and components,
construction practices, safety norms etc. Indian Standard Codes are formulated considering
the factors like forces of natural hazards, climatic and soil conditions, and other adverse
conditions of nature, for mitigation of damage and disruptions under the impact of natural
hazards.

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Some of the Indian Standard Codes, useful for construction of structures in hazard prone areas
are

IS 1893:1984, defined the criteria for earthquake resistant design of structures.

IS 1893 (Part 1):2002, described the criteria for earthquake resistant design of structures
(General provisions of buildings)
IS 1893 (Part 4):2005, explained the criteria for earthquake resistant design of structures
(Industrial structures including stack like structures)
IS 4326:1993, defined the codes and practice for earthquake resistant design and construction
of building.
IS 13827:1993, defined the guidelines for improving earthquake resistance of earthen
buildings.
IS 13828:1993, defined the guidelines for improving earthquake resistance of low strength
masonry buildings.
IS 13920:1993, defined the codes and practice of ductile detailing of reinforced concrete
structures subjected to seismic forces.
IS 13935:1993, defined the guidelines for repair and seismic strengthening of buildings.
IS 6922:1973, defined the criteria for safety and design of structures subject to underground
blasts.
IS 4967:1968, recommendations for seismic instrumentation for river valley projects.

Land use regulations

Land use regulations are a set of guidelines that regulates or defines the types of activities to
be carried out in different locations of a particular area, based on hazard zoning and contour
map of the area.

Hazard map of an area identifies the locations prone to different hazards. The contour map of
an area gives idea about topography or shape of surface of the area, showing high land, low-
lying area, depression etc.

A suitable land use planning is required for sustainable development and disaster risk
mitigation. The land use plans generally identify the locations suitable for different kinds of
activities, like important buildings and infrastructures, water bodies, wet land, cultivation,
drainage network etc.

Legal framework

To achieve the sustainable development for disaster risk mitigation, we need to follow some
codes, norms and legislations. Land use regulations and building codes are integral parts of
the legal framework for risk mitigation. Worldwide the disaster risk is increasing
significantly mainly due to violation of land use regulations, building codes and other laws of
nature. So, legal framework is required to define codes and norms for sustainable
development and proper legislations for genuine implementation of these codes and norms.
Such legal framework should have the provisions for eviction and relocation of vulnerable

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communities living in the hazard prone areas; punitive measures in violation of codes and
norms; etc.

Compensation and incentives

As stated earlier, most of the population in developing and third world countries do not have
ability to follow the codes and norms for disaster risk mitigation. People live in hazard prone
areas without any safety measures and preparedness under compulsion. It is better to provide
financial support to this section of people as one time incentive for taking proper measures for
disaster risk mitigation, rather imposing strict codes and norms for sustainable development.
In this case, it is important to impose certain norms for proper utilization of fund allocated for
risk mitigation measures. Government can provide loan and insurance on subsidized interest
rate and low premium to vulnerable communities.

National governments of different countries including India have separate funds in their plan
budgets to provide compensation to the victims of disasters for recovery and reconstruction.
Proper utilization of such funds based on genuine damage assessment is a difficult task. Strict
legislations are required to stop misappropriation and biased distribution of such fund.

Training and awareness

Planners, executives and members of vulnerable communities need to understand the concept
of disaster risk and damage mitigation approaches for preparation of practical disaster
management plans. Without having in-depth knowledge and practical experience, it is not
possible to contribute much in the field of disaster management.

Moreover, developmental activities avoiding disaster risk always increase the probability of
damage and disruption. To mitigate damage and disruption, the vulnerable communities must
be aware about their own risk and risk reduction mechanism.

To educate and train up the members of line departments and vulnerable communities, the
Disaster Management Agencies and Institutes should develop suitable training modules. The
training modules for different target groups like, government officials, engineers, executives,
managers, construction workers, technical students, NGOs and CBOs should be different and
appropriately balanced. In India; National Institute of Disaster Management, state level
Administrative Training Institutes and Disaster Management Centres are organizing training
programmes for different target groups on different aspects of Disaster Management.

Awareness programmes in the form of lectures, demonstration, street drama, puppet show etc.
are also equally important to educate common people about disaster risk and measures for
disaster risk mitigation. Such programmes are also helpful to aware people about do’s and
don’ts for different disaster situations.

Organizational structure

In most of the countries, the government line departments are playing vital role in planning
and execution of Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) programmes. The success or failure of these
programmes depends largely on capacity and efficiency of individual organizations and their
coordination with each other. We need a strong organizational structure for proper command,
control and coordination. Recently, many countries, including India, have adopted separate
Acts and Policies for disaster management with the provisions of independent organizational
structures to deal with disasters.

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There should be genuine efforts to enhance the strength of the organizations involved in
disaster management, in terms of practical knowledge, skill, equipment, tools and other
facilities. Exchange of data and information among different organizations are also equally
important for practical disaster management planning.

Early warning system

To mitigate damage and disruption due to natural hazards, we must have some sort of early
warning mechanisms to alert people well before the occurrence of a disaster. Different natural
hazards have different warning signs. The most critical part of the early warning process is
proper analysis of the warning signs of a particular natural hazard. As for example, there is no
specific warning sign for short time prediction of an earthquake. But, long time prediction on
probability of occurrence of earthquakes in an area is possible by analyzing geological and
seismological data. Similarly by analyzing meteorological and hydrological data early
warning for cyclone and flood can be given. Therefore, only the experts of relevant subjects
can issue a warning for probable natural hazard.

The second complex part of early warning mechanism is mode of transmission of warning to
common people. Nowadays, the electronic communication systems are playing vital role in
communicating warnings for occurrence of natural hazard induced disasters. Many vulnerable
communities have their own traditional methods for transmission of warning for probable
disaster by studying warning signs of a particular hazard.

The most important issues of warning mechanisms are reliability and authenticity of the early
warning process. Wrong prediction of a disaster may have adverse affect on the vulnerable
community.

Adjustment processes

Most of the time, it is not possible to resist natural hazards for prevention of disasters. The
vulnerable communities also may not have capacity to mitigate their disaster risk by reducing
vulnerability factors of their systems. In this case, the vulnerable communities may adopt
some adjustment processes like hazard friendly housing pattern, alternative agriculture,
alternative means of livelihood and production, safe storage of food and essential items etc. to
cope with disaster situation. Details about alternative adjustment processes will be discussed
in the next unit.

DISASTER AND DEVELOPMENT

There is an interesting relation between development and disaster. A disaster may have many
negative effects on our developmental process due to large-scale damage and disruption. On
the other hand, unsustainable and haphazard developmental activities may lead to a disaster
like situation under the impact of a natural hazard. In any case, a disaster has great negative
impact on our national economy. So finding out the ways to mitigate disaster risk should be
the top priority of national governments.

PROBABLE OPTIONS OF DISASTER RISK MITIGATION.

 The first option for damage mitigation may be prevention of hazards or mitigation of
impact hazards by protecting our environment, conserving natural resources, and
improving the capacities of counter disaster resources.

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  The second option may be hazard friendly sustainable development obliging land use
regulations, building codes and other natural laws.

To achieve these, we need very strong national policy for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR).
The basic problem of the poor countries is their inability to implement the national policy for
risk reduction. Generally, the poor countries do not have enough strength to respond
appropriately for disaster risk mitigation. These countries are largely dependent on
international agencies for financial and other basic supports. Of course, many international
donors are now extending financial support to developing countries for training and research
to enhance knowledge and skill, planning for disaster risk mitigation, strengthening of counter
disaster resources, improvement of infrastructure and facilities for response and recovery,
technology development, technology transfer etc. The GoI–UNDP-DRR (Government of
India - United Nations Development Programme - Disaster Risk Reduction) programme is the
perfect example of such international cooperation.

For such international cooperation, provision should be there in national policy to develop
link for coordination with international agencies. International agencies generally extend their
supports to disaster-affected countries for relief, rehabilitation and recovery based on the
affected country’s international policy to accept such external support. For example, country
like China is least interested to take international support during disaster situations. On the
other hand, the country like Afghanistan is very much dependent on America and few other
nations to tackle disasters due to natural and man-made hazards.

After all, it is the responsibility of a national government to adopt a strong national policy for
Disaster Risk Reduction. Otherwise, a disaster may cause adverse affect on national economy
and development.

POSSIBLE IMPACTS OF DISASTERS ON NATIONAL ECONOMY AND

DEVELOPMENT

 Heavy economic loss may have negative impact on infrastructure development.

 Wide range of damage to crop may lead to food scarcity.
 Siltation on fertile agricultural land may have long time negative impact on cultivation
and hence food production.
 Large-scale physical damage and disruption to infrastructures and facilities like road,
bridge, airport, railways, public and government buildings, communication network
etc. may lead to national crisis.
 In case of a big disaster, a country may need to divert its major budget, allocated for
other developmental works, to recover vital resources. Under this situation, a country
may face serious problems in completion of its major developmental projects.
 As the recovery process is complex, time consuming and costly affair; the national
government may face problem to manage the situation with its own available
resources or convince the international donors to continue financial and other supports
for long time.
 A big disaster may have long standing affects on production based industries, socio-
economic condition of affected communities, livelihood opportunities, health and
medical care, agro based industries, human psychology, research and development etc.

Thus, the national development plan of a country should address the issues related to disaster
risk mitigation to make the existing infrastructure and facilities resilient to natural hazards.
Stress should be given to make the counter disaster resources capable to prevent disasters or
minimize the magnitude of loss and damage. In general, the national planning departments do
not give due weightage to disaster risk assessment based on possible impact of natural
hazards, needs of vulnerable communities, strength of counter disaster resources, status of
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organizational structure, legal and financial framework etc. So, involvement of subject experts
in the planning process is necessary.

Considering the long-standing affects of disaster on national economy and development,

many countries including India have changed their policies for disaster management. The
Government of India has enacted Disaster Management Act in 2005 followed by National
Disaster Management Policy in 2009 for effective management of disasters and disaster risk
mitigation.

CAPACITY ASSESSMENT
As discussed earlier in this unit, capacity-building process involves enhancement of resources,
means and strength to prevent disasters or mitigate loss and damage due to disasters. Nations
having poor capacity to deal with disasters suffer maximum loss and depend more on
international support for response and recovery.

Capacity assessment is necessary to find out the gap between disaster risk and capacity
building process of a nation. Disaster risk of a system is directly related to hazards to which
the system is exposed and vulnerability factors of the system. Therefore, capacity-building
process is also hazard and location specific. For genuine capacity assessment, in-depth
analysis of hazards and vulnerability is also necessary.

Basis of capacity assessment

Capacity assessment of the vulnerable community and organizations involved in disaster

management should be done based on

 Nature, magnitude, frequency and damage characteristics of the probable hazards of

the area.
 Vulnerability factors of the area, i.e., existing unsafe conditions, which are enhancing
the probability of loss and damage.
 Available resources, devices or mechanisms useful to prevent probable hazards of the
area.
 Existing counter disaster resources to reduce loss and damage in the area.
 Status of physical, organizational and financial capacities of different organizations,
government departments and vulnerable community to deal with probable disasters in
the area.
 Strategies and adjustment methods adopted by the vulnerable community to cope with
the probable disasters.
 Preparedness level of the vulnerable community to mitigate disaster loss and damage.
 Status of organizational structure to deal with probable disasters in the area.
 Assessment of needs for capacity building of the community.

For example, capacity-building processes to deal with disasters due to flood and drought
hazards are completely different. Capacities required for reducing loss and damage in flood
and drought prone areas are also different.

Here, only few examples are given. We can make a complete list following above mentioned
principle.

For first case

Hazard type: Flood

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Magnitude of hazard: Depends on rainfall
Frequency of hazard: May be seasonal or sudden
Damage characteristics of flood: Depending on local environment, damage may be to
houses, infrastructure, crop, life, communication system etc.

Vulnerability: Houses constructed in low-lying area, crops in flood prone area etc.

Status of hazard resistance resources: Embankment is there to protect the area from flood,
but not maintained properly. So, there is possibility of breaching.

Counter disaster resources: Water Resources Department, Civil Defense department,

Medical centre, etc.

Other physical, organizational and financial capacities: Boats, evacuation centre, life
saving equipment and tools, emergency survival materials, trained volunteers, non-
governmental organizations (NGOs), Community based organizations (CBOs), disaster
response fund, calamity response fund etc.

Adjustment methods: Flood friendly housing pattern, alternative agriculture, safe storage of
food, indigenous communication modes etc.

Preparedness: Storage of food, water and other essential items; water purifier; survival kits
for flood; training for flood rescue etc

Organizational structure: District disaster management committee comprising members of

line departments, NGOs, CBOs is there to deal with disaster situation. But most line
departments are lacking trained manpower, equipment, tools, funds etc.

Need assessment for capacity building: Based on these data we can identify the resources,
means and strength required for proper capacity building of the community and management
agencies to mitigate flood risk and damage in the area.

For second case

Hazard type: Drought
Magnitude of hazard: High due to lack of rainfall for long time and extreme dry weather.
Frequency of hazard: Continuous for long time.
Damage characteristics of drought: Damage to crop, negative affect on production, health
hazard, malnutrition etc.

Vulnerability: Poor irrigation facility, poor medical care etc.

Hazard resistance resource: No mechanism exists.

Counter disaster resources: Irrigation department, FCI, Medical Centre etc.

Status of other physical, organizational and financial capacities: Reservoirs have limited
capacity to store water for few days; supply of food, drinking water and other essential items
not adequate for affected community; medical facilities are not up to the mark; government
incentive and compensation are limited for selected section of affected population etc.

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Adjustment methods: People used to survive with limited food, water and other essential
items; during peak drought season people migrate to other places for livelihood etc.

Preparedness: Preparedness level is not up-to-the mark in terms of food storage, alternative
agriculture, use of drought resistant crop varieties etc.

Organizational structure: District disaster management committee comprising members of

line departments, NGOs, CBOs is there to deal with disaster situation. But, most line
departments are lacking trained manpower, equipment, tools, fund etc.

Needs assessment: Similar to earlier case, we can identify the resources, means and strength
required for proper capacity building of the vulnerable community and organizations to
manage drought disaster in the area.

STRENGTHENING CAPACITY FOR RISK REDUCTION

The basic aim of capacity building is to enhance the ability of vulnerable communities for
mitigation of loss and damage to their life and property.

As described in the previous topics, to strengthen the capacity of communities, organizations

or the system as a whole for risk reduction; we need to improve the status of our resources,
means and strength at the level, adequate for prevention of external hazards and mitigation of
vulnerable conditions. Capacity assessment gives us guidelines and information about
appropriate resources, means and strength required for disaster risk mitigation of a particular
vulnerable system. Capacity building process involves both structural and non-structural
measures addressing physical, material, social, organizational, legal and financial issues.

We have already discussed about capacity assessment process for two natural hazards “flood
and drought”. So, let us see the example of capacity building process for flood risk mitigation.

Using the concept of Disaster Crunch Model, we can find out the possible reasons and root
causes of flood damage in a flood prone area. Disaster Release Model gives us idea about the
method of mitigation of disaster risk. Applying the idea of Disaster Release Model, we can
identify the appropriate method of flood risk mitigation. The concepts of Disaster Crunch and
Release Models are discussed in unit 01.

Capacity building process for flood risk mitigation mainly covers two broad areas

 Resistance to the forces of flood hazards.

 Reduction of unsafe conditions, responsible for flood and flood damage, by addressing
the root causes of these unsafe conditions.

The basic forces of flood hazard are high surface runoff and heavy river discharge resulting
from high rainfall.

The most possible reason for flood in a floodplain is inundation due to rapid accumulation of
runoff water or overflow of river water.

The possible reasons for overflow and water accumulation may be drainage congestion and
poor carrying capacity of river network.

The root causes of these reasons may be related to high soil erosion and heavy sediment
influx to drainage and river network due to mismanagement of catchment areas. The possible
reasons of damage and disruption in flood prone areas are linked to different physical, social,

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organizational and financial factors, which are location and community specific. Examples of
such factors are discussed earlier.

We can adopt many structural and non-structural measures either to resist forces of flood
hazard or to mitigate vulnerability factors responsible for damage and disruption.

Some common structural measures for flood risk mitigation are

 Storage reservoir to get control over river flow. This can be done by constructing
dams across rivers, to store excess water during monsoon period and release water as
per requirements. This kind of structural measure has many positive and negative
impacts. Along with flood control, dams can be used for irrigation, water supply,
hydropower generation etc. But big dams are not beyond the controversy of causing
damage to our ecosystem and bio-diversity. Sometimes dams may be the reason for
flash flood, if these are not designed and managed properly.

 Embankment for resistance of overflow of river water. This is a short time approach
to reduce flood damage in a particular flood prone area. The concept of earthen
embankment to control floods was implemented in India after 1954. Now it has
become the most common practice for controlling flood and mitigating flood damage
because of easy means of construction norms, easy access of construction material,
cost benefit factors, easy maintenance and enhancement of carrying capacity of river.
But such structural approach for flood risk mitigation has many negative impacts.
Most of the floods in Assam occur due to breaching of embankments. If the
embankment is not constructed and maintained properly, it enhances the risk of flash
flood rather than flood control. Embankment also helps to increase the rate of
sediment deposition in the riverbed by reducing the velocity of river flow. Sudden
breaching of an embankment may lead huge sand deposition in fertile agricultural
lands, resulting long time negative affect on crop production.

 Many other structural measures are there to improve carrying capacities of the rivers,
divert river course to protect important areas, divert river flow to check bank line
erosion and damage to embankment, regulate river flow, reduce surface runoff, check
sediment influx to riverbed, built flood resistant houses and evacuation centres etc.
These are mainly sluice gates, deflectors, spurs, revetment of slopes, check dams,
retaining walls, etc.

Many non-structural measures are also equally important for reducing risk of flood
damage

 Flood zoning and land use regulations are most important parts of flood risk
mitigation. Flood zoning helps us to identify the flood prone areas according to
frequency and magnitude of floods. Based on flood zoning, planners make land use
planning for the floodplains to regulate the activities responsible for enhancing flood
risk.

 Early warning mechanism allows us to get information in advance about probability of

occurrence of flood in a particular area and respond appropriately for damage
mitigation. On getting warning, vulnerable people can move to safer locations along
with their belongings.

 Catchment area management, mainly to reduce soil erosion and surface runoff, is one
of the important measures for long time flood risk mitigation.

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  Public awareness and advocacy are also important tools for educating
people about flood damage mitigation approaches, formulating policies
favourable for vulnerable communities, gathering public opinion,
mobilizing people and organizations etc.

 Alternative livelihood opportunity for vulnerable communities is

another useful aspect of flood risk mitigation.

 Training and drill to improve preparedness level, skill and ability of

vulnerable community to mitigate flood damage or cope with flood
disaster are also essential.

 Flood insurance, compensation for flood damage, incentive for damage

mitigation measures, alternative cultivation etc. are some other non-
structural approaches useful for flood risk mitigation.

Like this, we can take appropriate structural and non-structural measures to

improve our capacity for reducing disaster risk, based on genuine capacity
assessment.

WHAT WE LEARNT FROM THIS UNIT?

Capacity building is the most important step of disaster management which
helps to resist external threats from causing disaster in a system or mitigate the
magnitude of loss and damage to a system due to the hazards by reducing
internal vulnerability of the system or enhance the preparedness levels of the
community to cope with disasters.

Capacity may be resources, means or strength, which enhances the ability of

the communities to deal with disasters.

(i) Resources may be physical, natural or human resource from which we get benefits.
(ii) Means implies the ways, methods and technological know-how
required to develop sustainable physical resources.
(iii) Strength means the ability to take actions. Strength may be physical,
economical, organizational or moral strength, which help to implement
the DRR plans.

Capacity building process may involve both structural and non-structural

measures. Here, structural measure means sustainable physical constructions
comprising both engineering and non-engineering structures. Non-structural
measures are the codes, norms, regulations, legislations or processes, which
are required for sustainable development and risk mitigation.

Unsustainable development is the main reason for vulnerability of a system

and hence disaster risk. So, there is a close relation between developmental
process and disaster risk. We need strong policy and action plan for DRR to
achieve sustainable development and damage mitigation mechanisms.

Any disaster has significant negative impact on national economy. A big

disaster may even disrupt the developmental process of a nation. So, risk
assessment and risk reduction plans should be the integral parts of all national
developmental projects and programmes.

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 Capacity assessment is necessary for capacity building planning, which
identifies the existing capacity of the system and determines the gap and
further needs for genuine capacity building of the community, organizations
or system to manage disasters.

COUNTER DISASTER RESOURCES AND THEIR ROLES

UNIT STRUCTURE
INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES
COUNTER DISASTER RESOURCES
INTERNATIONAL RESOURCES
NATIONAL COUNTER DISASTER RESOURCES
GOVERNMENT COUNTER-DISASTER RESOURCES
NON-GOVERNMENTAL RESOURCE ORGANIZATIONS
ACADEMIC AND RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS
CORPORATE AND FINANCIAL SECTORS
WHAT WE LEARNT FROM THIS UNIT?
PROBABLE QUESTIONS
SUGGESTED READINGS

INTRODUCTION
The counter disaster resources are the resources, which are useful and essential for
effective management of disasters. As we know, the complete process of disaster
management involves risk management and crisis management. For which, we need to
analyze the risk factors of the systems, and formulate and execute the plans for
prevention of hazards, damage mitigation, preparedness to cope with disasters,
emergency response and recovery.
Again, we need skilled and efficient manpower having expertise in the relevant fields of
disaster management, equipments, tools, facilities, fund etc. for genuine assessment,
planning and execution of the disaster management plans. Naturally, only skilled
manpower without having required infrastructure, facilities and fund can not contribute
significant in the process of disaster management. Hence, the organizations, which are
responsible for assessment, planning and execution of the disaster management plans, are
treated as counter disaster resources. These organizations may be controlled by national
and state governments; international and national non-governmental agencies;
autonomous academic and research institutions; corporate bodies; financial organizations
etc.
So long, in different chapters under “Fundamentals of Disaster Management” and
“Planning for Risk and Crisis Management”; we have discussed in detail about the
concept of disaster risk and its assessment processes; parameters involved in risk
assessment process; planning methodology including prevention, mitigation,
preparedness, emergency response and recovery; planning needs; coping mechanism;
CBDM practices; preparation of SDMA and DDMA etc.
Here, in this chapter we shall discuss about the important counter disaster resources or the

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 concerned agencies/organizations responsible and capable to contribute in the process of
disaster management and also their roles and responsibilities.
OBJECTIVES
These major objectives of this chapter are
 Identification of international and national agencies/bodies engaged in disaster
management related activities.
 Status and capacities of these agencies/bodies in handling disaster management related
activities.
 Roles and responsibilities of different organizations in the process of disaster
management at various levels.
COUNTER DISASTER RESOURCES
Counter disaster resources are the organizations (national or international) having
capacity to assess the disaster risk; prepare plan for disaster management; take
appropriate and timely measures for prevention of disaster, damage mitigation,
preparedness, emergency response and recovery of the situation.
The evaluation of national and international resources can be made based on
 The ability of the organizations to carry out disaster management related activities
smoothly and efficiently. The capability of an organization depends on the nature of
duties and responsibilities; quality of manpower; availability of required equipments,
tools and facilities; financial status etc.
 Response time or availability of the resource organizations in the disaster affected
area. Some organizations have the responsibility to respond immediately after disaster
to carry out rescue and relief operations. At the same time, some organizations may
take sometime to respond to a disaster situation. Depending on the role and
responsibility of the organizations; we can identify, locate and mobilize the resource
organizations.
 Durability of the resource organizations. Some organizations have the ability to
carryout their designated task for long time, while some organizations may not be able
to continue operations for longer period. The durability of the organizations depends
on nature of duties, local environment and damage characteristics in the disaster
affected area, quality of manpower, equipments, tools, facilities etc.

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 Operational integrity means whether the resource organization has the ability to
complete its task timely, efficiently, smoothly and without supervision form the
coordinating authority.

International
Agencies

National Government NGOs & CBOs

Corporate &
Financial
Sectors

Government
Departments & Academic
Organizations Institutions

Vulnerable Community
Fig.: Coordination mechanism among different resource organizations

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 INTERNATIONAL RESOURCES
There are many organizations, which are directly involved in international cooperation for
disaster risk mitigation and effective response. These organizations are working as support
systems of different national governments. The major roles and responsibilities of these
international resources or organizations are
 To provide expertise and required facilities, including equipments and tools, to
different countries for developing plans for disaster management and implementation
of the plans in terms of prevention of hazards, damage mitigation and preparedness.
 To monitor the warning signs of potential hazards and issue the warnings for probable
disasters. For example, study of warning signs of tsunami and issue the warning for
possible tsunami in a region covering one or more countries, needs support from such
international agencies.
 To provide physical and material supports for rescue and relief operations in the
disaster affected country, on request of the national government. This may include,
skilled manpower, equipment and tools for rescue of the victims; material like tents
for emergency shelter; foods, medicines etc.
 To assist the national government in post disaster damage assessment, including aerial
survey.
 To provide material and financial supports to national agencies for recovery of the
emergency facilities; rehabilitation of the affected population; reconstruction of the
houses, important buildings, infrastructures etc.; sustainable agricultural programmes
etc.
The jurisdiction of international support in a country depends on the national policy for
international cooperation of the country. The national government generally considers its own
capacity to deal with disasters; political implications of accepting supports from certain
international agencies; needs and suitability of international resources dealing with a particular
disaster; bilateral or multilateral agreement with the donor agencies etc. in accepting supports
form international agencies.
Let us discuss about the role of few important international agencies in the field of global
disaster management activities.

United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): One of the important goals of UNDP is
to provide assistance to the disaster-prone nations in contingency planning for disaster risk
mitigation with special emphasis on the measures relevant to damage mitigation, prevention
and preparedness.

International Organisation for Migration (IOM): Established in 1951, this agency has
been dealing with the issues and concerns of refugees and internally displaced persons.

Food and Agriculture Organisation of the UN (FAO): This organisation is responsible for
assessing the global food supply problems and providing early warning of future food crises.

United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF): This agency works for the issues
relevant to survival, development and protection in terms of health, education, water,
sanitation, hygiene and protection.

World Food Programme (WFP): This is the principle supplier of relief aid mainly food to
the disaster affected nations.

World Health Organization (WHO): The responsibility of WHO is to take effective

measures for reducung the burden of desease and disability all over the world. It is also
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responsible for monitoring health related problems and setting standards for health related
issues.

International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies: It is the world’s largest
humanitarian organization working for improvement of the status of lives of vulnerable people.
It provides assistance to the disaster affected nations for health emergencies, relief activities,
strengthening the capacities of national agencies to carry out disaster management related
activities.

International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC): It is the member of the International
Red Cross and Red Crescent Society. It provides physical rehabilitation and upgrades
professionalism in humanitarian assistance programmes.

Other leading international organisations, which are acively associated with the global disaster
management programmes,

 Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)

 Office of United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR)
 United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR)
 CARE International
 Handicap International
 Health Volunteers Overseas (HVO)
 IMA World Health
 International Rescue Committee (IRC)
 Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF)
 Oxfam
 Rehabilitation International (RI)

NATIONAL COUNTER DISASTER RESOURCES

The national counter disaster resources include central and state government ministries dealing
with disaster management related activities; disaster management authorities; concerned line
departments, sections and organizations under central and state governments; corporate sector;
financial sector; academic institutions etc.
The major responsibilities of different national counter disaster resources are
 To formulate legislation and guidelines for effective management of disasters within
the country.
 Preparation of disaster management plans at various levels, national to community
levels.
 Hazard and location specific disaster risk assessment of the country through Hazard-
Vulnerability-Capacity analysis of different hazard prone areas.
 To take appropriate measures, including capacity building of the DM agencies and
vulnerable communities, for prevention of hazards, mitigation of impact of the hazards
by reducing vulnerability factors of the hazard prone areas, preparedness to mitigate
damage and cope with disasters, emergency response including rescue and relief
operations etc.
 To prepare and implement rehabilitation and recovery plans based on damage and
needs assessments.
 To provide material and financial supports/compensation to the vulnerable/affected
communities for adopting risk mitigation measures and sustainable development.

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  To carry out research work and case studies for development of suitable technology
and technology transfer relevant to damage mitigation and emergency response.
 To educate and aware vulnerable communities about disaster risk and risk mitigation
measures.
 To deal with the health related problems including water and sanitation.
 To develop and adopt early warning mechanisms for different natural hazards for
mitigating disaster loss.
 Documentations of the disaster events to analyze the effectiveness of the existing DM
plans and hazard resistance devices. This is essential for reviewing the disaster
management plans based on ground reality.
 To maintain coordination and cooperation amongst different national and international
counter disaster agencies.
 To deal with all other issues relevant to different aspects of disaster management of
the country.
GOVERNMENT COUNTER-DISASTER RESOURCES
In India, the Disaster Management Act 2005 has defined the legal-organizational framework to
carry out disaster management related activities at various levels. The roles and responsibilities
of different agencies are also briefly defined in this Act. At the same time, the National Policy
for Disaster Management covers the operational guidelines for national resource organizations.
In chapter 01 under Planning for Risk and Crisis Management, we have discussed in detail
about the roles and responsibilities of Nodal Ministries, Disaster Management Authorities,
Advisory Committees, Executive Committees, National Disaster Response Force, NIDM etc.
Let us discuss the roles and responsibilities of some other important government
organizations/departments.
Police: The state police departments have great role in preventing offences, providing security
to affected population and maintaining law and order in the disaster affected areas. The state
police departments have many advantages in helping the disaster-affected communities on first
call. State police departments have wide network, connecting most of the villages. The
departments are well equipped with reliable communication systems and other facilities. Police
personnel are generally trained to face the tough situations and familiar with geographical
conditions of the localities. Most importantly, they are familiar with the socio- cultural, socio-
political and socio-economic conditions of the vulnerable communities. The state government
may constitute State Disaster Response Force (SDRF) with trained and skilled police personnel
for emergency response operations during disasters. One of the important mandates of NDMA
is to enhance the training facilities of SDRF to upgrade the skill and know-how of the
personnel for rapid search and rescue operation, medical first response etc.
Army and paramilitary forces: The armed forces play important role in disaster management,
especially during and after disaster. Armed forces area well equipped with trained and skilled
manpower, specialized equipment and tools, modern communication and transport facilities
etc. Generally the armed forces take part in evacuation, rescue, arrangement of essential
services, distribution of relief materials and other essential supplies to disaster affected areas,
quick recovery of essential facilities including communication facility, management of relief
camps, medical aid etc.
The paramilitary forces (BSF, CRPF, CISF, ITBP, RPF, NSG, RAF, Territorial Army, Assam
Rifles, Coast Guard etc.) are directly under the control of Government of India. The state
governments need to have clearance form concerned ministry of central government to utilize
the services of army and paramilitary forces in a crisis or emergency situation, if the situation is
beyond control of state disaster resources. More importantly, in extreme emergency, only

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the District Collector / Commissioners have the authority to requisition the support of army
and paramilitary forces on a written request.
Similarly, the Air Force has a great role in resource mobilization including transportation of
response forces; aerial survey of damage and disruption in disaster affected areas; rescue of
marooned people, air dropping of relief materials etc.
Civil Defence: Most of the States and Union Territories in India have Civil Defence services.
Civil Defence activities are primarily based on voluntary services by trained volunteers. The
volunteers are trained by Deputy Controllers, Medical Offices and Civil Defence Instructors.
The district administration generally takes the help of Civil Defence volunteers in rescue and
relief operations during emergency period.
The jurisdiction of Civil Defence spread over Headquarter Service, Warden Service,
Communication Service, Casualty Service, Fire Fighting Service, Rescue Service, Welfare
Service, Salvage Service, Corpse Disposal Service, Depot & Transport Service, Training
Service, Supply Service. The Civil Defence is well equipped with reliable telecommunication
facilities, VHS sets, HF Radio, electronic solid state APP Equipment (EARP), Wireless
Controlled ARP (W-ARP), Centres Control of Sirens (CCS) etc.
Fire services: The fire services, presently known as Fire and Emergency Services in India,
are directly involved in pre disaster risk mitigation and emergency response activities
especially rescue operation. The Disaster Management Act 2005 designated the Department
of Fire Services as one of the most important counter disaster resources to deal with the issues
relevant to natural and man-made disasters. The fire services are responsible to assist the
planners to plan for fire prevention in the buildings and infrastructure, in terms of location,
approach road, surrounding activities, storage of hazardous material and other fire safety
measures, and also monitor the implementation of the plan. Another responsibility of Fire
Services is Fire Protection, by means of alerting the occupants of the buildings about existing
threats of fire and educating them about emergency fire fighting measures like smoke
detection and fire alarm systems, fire extinguisher, water storage tanks with pumping
arrangements etc. The personnel of fire services are also involved in conducting mock
drills. For all these activities, it is extremely important to enhance the capacity of the fire
services in terms of skilled manpower, equipment, tools, transport and other required
facilities.
Department of Agriculture: Food is the most essential item for our survival. Natural
disasters like flood, drought, cyclone etc. cause maximum damage to existing crop and
crop production resulting in scarcity of food. So, department of agriculture has important
role to play for undertaking survey for risk assessment of crop damage and adopting
sustainable agricultural programmes at vulnerable areas. The department is responsible to
issue early warning for food shortage/crop damage and educate vulnerable communities
about hazard resistant crop varieties; alternative agricultural opportunities; process of
safeguarding the crops, livestock and agricultural equipments from disasters etc. The
department is also responsible to support the affected communities in terms of restoration
of agriculture; providing seeds, livestock and equipment; monitoring future threats etc.
For sustainable agricultural programmes, coordination and cooperation among the
departments of agriculture, water resources/flood control and irrigation are extremely
important.
Medical and health services: Health risk assessment of the vulnerable communities
based on ground survey and measures for health risk reduction are the prime
responsibilities of these services. The medical and health services are also responsible to
take initiative for providing ambulance facility; emergency medical care of affected
population; providing medicines and medical supplies in disaster prone areas; controlling
epidemic/spread of diseases; maintaining the standards of sanitation facilities; checking
the quality of drinking water; assisting the government in procuring emergency medicine
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and medical supplies; providing death certificates to relatives of the victims; maintaining
coordination with other agencies engaged in emergency response etc.
Public Works Department (PWD): This department is primarily responsible to develop
and implement technical standards for hazard resistant sustainable structural development
based on hazard zoning. All disasters cause more or less damage to our buildings,
infrastructures and facilities. The PWD is supposed to assist the designers to design the
structures as per hazard resistant standard codes and monitor the construction activities.
The PWD may directly be engaged in construction of government buildings, roads,
bridges etc. In post disaster situation, the PWD takes part in damage assessment,
restoration of road communication and other essential facilities, repairing of damaged
buildings and infrastructures, removal of debris etc.
Public Health Engineering (PHE): The prime responsibilities of the PHE are needs
assessment for drinking water and sanitation facilities and installation of these facilities as
per the needs of the vulnerable communities. It is the duty of PHE to provide safe
drinking water and sanitation facilities to vulnerable areas before disaster and monitor the
operational standards of these facilities. In post disaster situation, the PHE may be
engaged in providing water purifiers to the affected communities and restoring the water
and sanitation facilities.
Electricity department: Faults with electric power line and sub-stations, electrical short
circuit, operational faults of electrical equipments etc. often cause fire hazard and large-
scale damage and disruption. Electrical safety is one of the major aspects of disaster
management. At the same time, disaster may cause significant damage to power
generation and communication systems, disrupting the power supply for long time. It is
the duty of electricity department to ensure electrical safety at all levels and undisrupted
power supply during emergency period. This department is also responsible to monitor the
public safety measures at domestic level and assess the risk factors. The top priority of the
department during an emergency should be restoration of the power supply by repairing
the damaged components of electrical networking system. For example, the Power Grid
Corporation of India has mobile towers for temporary restoration of power supply in the
event of damage to high-tension power line.
Meteorological department: This department plays important role in studying weather
related information and issuing early warning for climatic and hydrological hazards. The
department has their own state-of-the-art facilities for monitoring and analyzing the
meteorological data. The department has tie-up with broadcasting services to broadcast
the warning and other weather related information.
Land and survey/revenue: Land use planning is one of the most important aspects of
disaster risk reduction. This department generally keeps records of land and land use
related matters, including maps and other spatial information of different localities. Based
on ground survey, this department demarcates the areas suitable for human settlement,
cultivation and other developmental activities.
Forest department: Forest is one of the important components of our ecosystem and it
has great importance in maintaining balance of our ecosystem as well as controlling the
climatic conditions, rainfall pattern, surface runoff, soil erosion, sediment influx etc. The
department of forest is responsible to make survey of forest covers, monitor the changing
pattern of forest covers, take necessary steps to protect forest covers, take measures for
reforestation in degraded forest lands, formulate plans and guidelines for forest
conservation, render advice and assistance to common people for proper use and
reproduction of forest resources etc.

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Social welfare department: This department keeps records of socio-economic and socio-
cultural conditions of the vulnerable communities and takes measures for overall capacity
building of the communities. This department also takes part in relief operation especially
providing food, cloth and household supplies; management of evacuation centres,
providing assistance for temporary shelters of the disaster victims etc.
Transport department: During a crisis, the district administration may need large
numbers of vehicles for mobilization of response forces and transportation of emergency
materials. The district administration generally does not have transport facilities to meet
such huge demand. This transport department maintains the record of different types of
vehicles and transportation facilities in a particular district and assists the district
administration in requisition of vehicles for emergency use during disaster.
Planning and finance departments: Haphazard and unsustainable developmental
activities lead to unsafe conditions and enhance the disaster risk. Planning for
developmental projects like town, cities, industries, power projects etc. needs to address
the principles of disaster management for reducing probability of damage and national
economic loss. At the early stage of planning, it is essential to assess the risk and impact
factors associated with the developmental projects; identify possible measures to be taken
and determine the criteria for damage mitigation. The national and state planning
commissions/bodies may play lead role in this matter. The planning bodies may go for
cost benefit analysis of the developmental projects to convince the finance department for
approval and release of fund.
The responsibility of the finance department is timely release of funds for proper
implementation of the projects related to damage mitigation, capacity building, emergency
responses, compensation, reconstruction, rehabilitation etc. This department is also
responsible to crosscheck the utilization of funds based on audit reports and review the
process of funding accordingly.
The other government departments/organizations, which may contribute to their
resources, means and strength for disaster management are Department of Foreign
Affairs, Civil Aviation, Attorney General, Custom and Excise, Department of fisheries,
Posts and Telecommunications, Department of Statistics, Geological Survey of India,
Central Water Commission, Food Corporation of India, Department of Public Relation
etc.
NON-GOVERNMENTAL RESOURCE ORGANIZATIONS
The government resource organizations need assistance of non-governmental resources in
all phases of disaster management process. The non-governmental organizations may also
directly take part in the process of disaster management, particularly in capacity building
and emergency response, following certain guidelines of the national government. Non-
governmental organizations may also be the constituents of the organizational structure of
national disaster management system, depending on their field of works, capacities,
contributions and achievements in the field of national or regional disaster management
etc. Though, the role of non-governmental organizations can not be specifically defined,
but, in general these organizations may contribute in the following fields.
 Assisting the government resources in ground survey and collecting data and
information for hazard-vulnerability-capacity assessment.
 Preparation of hazard and resource maps.
 Keeping records of community’s own resources like boat, vehicle, volunteers,
survival kits, equipments, tools etc.

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  Needs assessment of the vulnerable communities for capacity building and
preparedness for coping with disasters.
 Assisting the government resources in the process of capacity building of the
vulnerable communities.
 Documentation of disaster scenario and monitoring of the changing pattern of
vulnerability and disaster risk of different hazard prone areas.
 Conduct case study on indigenous alternative damage mitigation and adjustment
processes of different communities.
 Educate vulnerable communities about other scientific approaches of damage
mitigation and adjustment processes.
 Supporting the government organizations in rescue and relief operations.
 Assisting the government resources in post disaster damage assessment.
 Providing relief materials and medical supports to the affected communities.
 First-aid training for vulnerable communities.
 Management of relief camps, including discipline, smooth distribution of food and
other essential items etc.
 Extending supports for safe drinking water and sanitation facilities.
 Assisting government resources in transportation of relief material in the marooned
areas.
 Educating and supporting the affected communities for alternative livelihood
opportunities.
 Supporting the government resources in conservation and management of natural
resources.
 Donation of blood for critically injured persons.
 Development low cost technology for hazard resistant and damage mitigation
devices.
 Identification of dead bodies, carcass disposal, debris removal, tracing of missing
persons etc.
A case study
Mr. Aurobindo Behera, Managing Director, Orissa State Disaster Management Authority had
done a case study on NGOs response in 1999 Orissa Super Cyclone, which killed thousands of
people and lakhs of livestock, destroyed huge numbers of buildings, infrastructures and
facilities. (Source: Behera, A. Government - NGO Collaboration for Disaster Reduction and
Response: The India (Orissa) Experience, Regional Workshop on Networking and
Collaboration among NGOs of Asian Countries in Disaster Reduction and Response, 20-22
February, 2002).
In this cyclone the NGOs contributed their resources in three phases.

Immediately after cyclone, about 40 national and international NGOs formed an emergency
response network viz., “Orissa Disaster Mitigation Mission” for coordinating with government
resources and conducting relief and restoration works. They provided valuable information to
the government institutions about the problems faced by the affected communities. Many
NGOs established community kitchens and provided foods to lakhs of affected population.
NGOs also took part in clearing the debris from the roads, cleaning the water sources, carcass
disposal. Many NGOs were involved in providing temporary shelter
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 material, running mobile health camps, providing medical aid to the affected
communities, establishing trauma care and legal aid centres.

Some international and national NGOs participated in the short-term rehabilitation

programmes. They started food for work programmes to support the disaster-affected
people for their survival. They also participated in restoration of damaged properties and
basic facilities; damage and needs assessment; agricultural rehabilitation; rehabilitation of
orphan children; running temporary schools for displaced children and providing text
books; trauma care; conducting workshop for all the stakeholders including the affected
people to identify the problem areas and future plan; formation of village development
committees etc.

As a part of their long-term rehabilitation activities, NGOs active in Orissa tried to

restore or generate the olivewood opportunities for the cyclone-affected communities;
provide material support for recovery of production and other income generating
mechanism; promote micro credit especially to women; provide dwelling units to poor
families; construct schools and cyclone shelters etc. Many NGOs took part in massive
plantation programme in the worst cyclone hit areas.
ACADEMIC AND RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS

Academic and research institutions play great role in generating human resources, technology
development and technology transfer, conducting training and awareness programmes;
supporting disaster management agencies in planning for risk mitigation etc. In India, the
Disaster Management Act 2005 provided the scope of establishing National Institute of
Disaster Management as a nodal academic institution of the country, supported by the state
Disaster Management Institutes and Administrative Training Institutes. The major role of
academic and research institutions associates with the pre disaster risk management activities.
In post disaster scenario, these institutions can play the supportive role of government and
non-governmental disaster management agencies. Let us highlight few common
responsibilities of academic institutions.
 Academic and research institutions can directly take part in the process of risk
assessment of the vulnerable areas including hazard mapping, micro zonation etc. For
risk assessment, we need to analyze data and informations related to location specific
geographical, geological and climatic factors; hazard characteristics and their possible
impact on exposures; local vulnerability factors; resources at risk; land use pattern;
existing hazard resistant mechanisms; community’s capacity to mitigate damage and
disruption; unsustainable resources and livelihood opportunities; alternative adjustment
mechanisms adopted by the vulnerable communities etc. Now, many higher learning
institutions including IITs are working on risk assessment, hazard zoning, risk modeling
etc. These institutions are getting supports form the central and state governments and
their organizations. For example, the National Remote Sensing Centre, a constituent of
Indian Space Research Organisation, has been providing remote sensing based earth
observation data including satellite imageries to support the research programmes on
risk assessment. IMD and CWC are providing meteorological and hydrological data.
Other government organizations involved in survey and resource inventory are also
providing necessary data and information.
 Suggest suitable and cost-effective measures for risk mitigation. In this regard, the
institutions may try to develop cost-effective technology and devices for reducing the
impacts of probable hazards.
 Conduct regular courses on disaster management to generate required manpower for
disaster management agencies.
 Conduct case studies and documentations on disaster scenario of different hazard prone
areas.
 Conduct training for trainers; seminars, workshop, awareness programmes etc.

123
  Support the government organizations in planning for disaster management.

 Participate in emergency response and relief operations.
 Conduct damage and needs assessments and support the government agencies in
preparing the recovery plans.
CORPORATE AND FINANCIAL SECTORS
The constituents of different corporate and financial sectors are now very much involved in
supporting the government and non-governmental organizations working in the field of
disaster management. Let us discuss important roles of corporate and financial sectors in
disaster management.
 As part of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), many companies are now
contributing for capacity building and economic development of the vulnerable
communities; creating healthy and safe working conditions; minimizing disaster risk
by reducing the negative impacts of their activities on environment; supporting
disaster management agencies in disaster risk mitigation etc.
 The corporate sectors are involved in post-disaster relief, rehabilitation and recovery
activities. For example, after 1999 orissa cyclone and 2001 Bhuj earthquake, the
Confederation of Indian Industries (CII), Federation of Indian Chambers of
Commerce and Industry (FICCI), PHD (progress, harmony and development)
Chambers of Commerce and Industry and other industries came out with different
programmes to help the affected population as well as the government DM agencies.
In 2001, the CII, with its direct and indirect members (industrial and corporate
houses), constituted the Disaster Management Committee to advice and assist its
member industries for taking appropriate measures to reduce the technological and
industrial disasters. After 2004 great tsunami, the CII has set up Tsunami Relief Fund
and deputed volunteers to manage distribution of relief materials.
 Public-Private Partnership (PPP) provides the scope for joint venture of
government and private sector industries to contribute in the field of disaster
management and support its associated programmes.
 Banking sector can play important role by providing long-term loans to vulnerable
communities at low interest rate for risk mitigation measures, alternative livelihood
opportunities, rehabilitation and reconstruction.
 The Insurance companies may provide opportunities to the vulnerable communities
to have the facilities of property insurance, health insurance, crop insurance etc. on
low premium rates.
 Financial organizations may support the Self-Help-Groups (SHGs) to deal with the
low cost financial services related to livelihood and financial empowerment of the
vulnerable communities.
 Financial organizations can support the poor vulnerable communities, to improve
their living standard, through micro credit facility.
WHAT WE LEARNT FROM THIS UNIT?
The counter disaster resources are the organizations, departments, authorities, institutions
etc. having capability to contribute in the field of disaster management based on their field
of expertise and nature of works. These resources may be government controlled, non-
governmental and community based organizations, academic and research organizations,
corporate and financial sectors.
The evaluation of national and international resources can be made based on their ability to
do work in the field of disaster management, availability in the disaster prone area,

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durability and operational integrity.

International resources are directly involved in international cooperation for disaster risk
mitigation and effective response. These organizations work as support systems of different
national governments. The jurisdiction of international support in a country depends on the
national policy for international cooperation of the country.
The national counter disaster resources include central and state government ministries
dealing with disaster management related activities; disaster management authorities;
concerned departments, sections and organizations under central and state governments;
corporate sector; financial sector; academic institutions etc.
The government resource organizations may be Police, Army and Paramilitary forces, Civil
Defence, Fire services, Department of Agriculture, Medical and Health services, Public
Works Department (PWD), Public Health Engineering (PHE), Electricity department,
Meteorological department, Land and survey/revenue, Forest department, Social welfare
department, Transport department, Planning and finance departments etc.
The government resource organizations need assistance of non-governmental
resources in all phases of disaster management process. The non-governmental
organizations may also directly take part in the process of disaster management,
particularly in capacity building and emergency response, following certain
guidelines of the national government.
Academic and research institutions play great role in generating human resources,
technology development and technology transfer, conducting training and awareness
programmes; supporting disaster management agencies in planning for risk mitigation etc.
The corporate and financial agencies have also great role to play in the field of disaster
management as part of their Corporate Social Responsibility and Public-Private Partnership
programmes.
PROBABLE QUESTIONS
1. What do you mean by Counter disaster resources?
2. Discuss the methods for evaluation of counter disaster resources.
3. Discuss important roles of international resource organizations.
4. Mention few names of international resource organizations.
5. Discuss major responsibilities of national counter disaster resources.
6. Discuss the roles of three important government resource organizations.
7. How NGOs can contribute in the field of disaster management?
8. What are the major responsibilities of academic and research organizations?
9. Discuss the role of CII in disaster management.
10. What do you mean by Corporate Social Responsibility?
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Kumar, S. Role of NGOs in Disaster Management, Disaster Risk and Vulnerability
Conference, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, 2011.
2. National Disaster Management Guideline: Role of NGOs in Disaster Management,
National Disaster Management Authority, 2010.
3. Carter, W. N. Disaster Management: A Disaster Management Handbook, Asian
Development Bank, Bangkok, 1991.
4. Disaster risk management and the role of corporate sector – the Indian perspective,
125
PROBABLE QUESTIONS
1. Define capacity?
2. What do you mean by capacity building?
3. Define resource, means and strength.
4. What is capacity assessment?
5. Why we need capacity assessment?
6. Define different aspects of capacity building mechanism.
7. What do you mean by structural and non-structural measures?
8. Mention few Indian Standard Codes for earthquake resistant structures.
9. What is land use regulation?
10. Give one example of capacity building process relevant to a particular natural hazard.

SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Carter, W. N., Disaster Management: A Disaster Management Handbook, Published
by Asian Development Bank, 1991.
2. GEO Capacity Building Strategy, Document 13, GEO III, 2006
3. Alexander, D., Natural Disasters, Published by ULC Press Ltd, London, 1993
4. National Disaster Management Guideline, MHA, GoI, pp 12
5. Good Practices in CBDRM, GoI-UNDP DRM Programme Report, 2009, pp 13
6. Study material: Fourth International Course on CBDM, ADPC, 2000
7. Das, M. M., Flood Disaster Mitigation Measures with reference to North Eastern
Region, Study material for training programme, Centre for Disaster Management,
Tezpur University, 2009.

126
 UNIT-4: COPING WITH DISASTER

UNIT STRUCTURE

INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES
COPING STRATEGIES
BASIC CONCEPT
MEASURES TO IMPROVE CAPACITY AND PREPAREDNESS LEVEL
PHILOSOPHY AND FUNDAMENTAL FACTORS FOR COPING WITH
DISASTERS
ALTERNATIVE ADJUSTMENT PROCESSES
CHANGING CONCEPT
SAFETY TOOLS/KITS
INDUSTRIAL SAFETY NORMS
OTHER GENERAL SAFETY NORMS
SURVIVAL KITS
WHAT WE LEARNT FROM THIS UNIT?
PROBABLE QUESTIONS
SUGGESTED READINGS

INTRODUCTION
Coping with disasters means preparedness to live with disaster. Disaster is part of our life and
we cannot avoid disasters totally. But, we can take appropriate measures for damage
mitigation and survival in disaster situations. To do this, we must have practical preparedness
plan to cope with disasters, considering the nature of our disaster risk. Preparedness planning
is hazard and location specific, because the damage characteristics of different hazards are not
same and damage pattern is dependent on local vulnerable conditions. So, to develop
strategies for living with disasters, risk and need assessments are necessary. Capacity building
process is also a part of coping mechanism.

In the previous units, we have elaborately discussed about disaster risk and its assessment
methods, capacity assessment and capacity building process, management principles for
disaster risk mitigation etc. The chapter on overview of disaster scenario clearly shows an
increasing trend of disaster events and economic loss worldwide. This again justifies the
relevance of coping mechanism in present time.

In this unit, we shall try to give a flavour on scopes and strategies of coping mechanism
relevant to different natural hazards. Stress will be given to cover physical, social,
organizational and psychological aspects of coping mechanism.

OBJECTIVES
This objective of this unit is to outline
 The requirements for coping mechanism to allow people to live with disasters.
 The adjustment processes useful for damage mitigation and survival options.
 The changing concepts of disaster management.
 The useful safety norms, tools and kits required for damage mitigation.
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 COPING STRATEGIES

BASIC CONCEPT

Coping strategies give us guidelines for preparedness to live with disasters. To develop
strategies of coping mechanisms relevant for different natural hazards; we must understand
the nature and characteristics of the risk parameters of our areas, scope of actions for risk
mitigation, requirements to develop coping mechanisms, philosophy and fundamental factors
relevant to planning for coping with disasters etc.

The basic parameters of specific risk of our systems are hazard and vulnerability. We have
already discussed in the previous units that, the nature and magnitude of damage and loss
depend on type of natural hazard as well as internal negative factors of our systems. Naturally,
the needs for our preparedness to cope with disaster situation vary with damage
characteristics of the hazards. The damage pattern in a particular hazard prone area again
depends on physical developmental pattern in the area, resources at risk and susceptible to the
hazard, Socio-economic conditions of vulnerable community of the area, status of the
organizational structure and capacities of individual organizations to deal with disaster etc.
So, the primary requirements for planning for preparedness to cope with disasters are

 Hazard assessment, to identify the probable natural hazards to which an area is

exposed.
 Estimation of the impact of possible natural hazards to the exposures, mainly to
physical and living elements of the area.
 Identification of physical and living elements, which are at risk. i.e., the people,
buildings, infrastructures, and essential facilities in the area, which are susceptible to
probable natural threats.
 Capacity assessment to find out further needs to prepare us for living with disasters.

So, the process for developing coping strategies involves entire process of risk assessment and
risk management. The detail about the above mentioned steps are discussed elaborately in the
previous units. On getting above mentioned information, we shall be familiar with

 Our threats, i.e., the types of natural hazards, that may strike our area, and their
frequency, timing, duration, impact factors etc.
 Expected loss and damage to our life and property, in case a hazard strikes our area.
 Resources, which are not safe and need special care.
 Our existing capacity and further needs for preparedness to cope with disaster.

MEASURES TO IMPROVE CAPACITY AND PREPAREDNESS LEVEL FOR

COPING WITH DISASTERS.

 If the frequency of probable hazard is random and does not have any warning sign for
its forecasting in advance; then long term preparedness plan based on land use
regulations, hazard resistant building codes and safety norms is necessary to cope with
disaster. In this case, we may not get enough time for evacuation before the
occurrence of disaster. As for example, DRR planning for earthquake needs seismic
zoning and implementation of earthquake resistant building codes.

 If the frequency and warning signs of expected hazards are known; then we should try
to develop suitable mechanism for forecasting warning of the event to vulnerable
communities in advance. As for example, Meteorological Department generally
records different climate and weather related parameters to study and forecast the

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 occurrence of probable atmospheric, climatic and hydrological hazards like flood,
cyclone etc.

 For the vulnerable communities living in hazard prone areas; there should be a proper
evacuation plan to shift vulnerable people and their valuable assets to safe location
well before the occurrence of disaster. In this case, we shall need adequate numbers of
well-equipped (having minimum basic facilities like drinking water, sanitation, power
supply etc.) and properly maintained evacuation centres at safe locations to
accommodate vulnerable people, in view of a probable disaster.

 In case, a large section of population is living in hazard prone areas and there is no
relocation plan; efforts should be made to encourage the vulnerable people to go for
hazard proof housing. Provisions should be there for alternative mode of
communication to shift the affected population to evacuation centres during a disaster.
The rescue agencies must equip with skilled manpower and equipment to conduct
search and rescue operation during disasters. Let us see the status of response forces in
India.

In India, the concept of Civil Defence was originated during World War II and
subsequently it got proper weightage in 1962 with the appointment of a Directorate
General of Civil Defence. The Civil Defence is mainly responsible for saving life and
minimizing damage to property. Since 1962, the Civil Defence has been operating
under Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India and now it is attached to
Disaster Management Division of the same Ministry. The Government of India had
adopted Civil Defence Act in 1968.

Civil Defence is mainly a volunteer based organization and Civil Defence Corps has
Headquarter Service, Warden Service, Communication Service, Casualty Service, Fire
Fighting Service, Rescue Service, Welfare Service, Salvage Service, Corpse Disposal
Service, Depot & Transport Service, Training Service, and Supply Service.

Recently under section 45 of the Disaster Management Act 2005, National Disaster
Response Force (NDRF) was constituted for specialized response in natural and
manmade disasters. Moreover, many national and international agencies are also
actively involved in developing alternative methods and skills of community members
for proper search and rescue.

 Proper emphasis should be given for management of emergency food and water
supplies; medical and sanitation facilities; and other minimum basic requirements for
survival of affected communities. Though, the Government line departments are
responsible for arrangement of these items and facilities, but the vulnerable
communities must try to arrange these on their own to save their life during disaster.
 Another major task is advance preparation for restoration of essential services like
communication facilities, water and power supplies etc. as early as possible during a
disaster. In this case, the role of concerned government agencies is vital, because the
affected communities cannot contribute much and depend largely on outside agencies.
For example, in view of collapse of an important bridge, the concerned military wing
may take part in restoring road communication by constructing temporary Bailey
bridge. The Power Grid Corporation in India has mobile towers for restoration of
emergency power supply. The public health engineering department is responsible for
management drinking water.

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 The Indian Army restored road communication by constructing a Bailey Bridge in NH 31 near
Nalbari of Assam. The concrete bridge was damaged due to flood in 2004.

 During disaster, the affected communities may lose their livelihood opportunities and
means of production. Government schemes and financial assistance are required to
rehabilitate production and livelihood opportunities. Public awareness is also equally
important for alternative means of production and livelihood. In this case, the relevant
departments and agencies may extend counseling to vulnerable communities.

 Another important issue of coping mechanism is proper measures for long time
recovery, based on existing codes and norms for sustainable development. Temporary
measures can give partial relief but not a permanent solution of the problem.

 Proper management and mobilization of counter disaster resources at right time and
place are equally important to deal with disasters.

PHILOSOPHY AND FUNDAMENTAL FACTORS FOR COPING WITH DISASTERS

Why we need coping strategies?

The basic reason is that, a disaster has wide range negative affects on people and government
of a nation. We need proper coping strategies to mitigate loss and damage to life and property
of the people and hence to minimize national loss. So, it is the responsibility of national
government to find out and implement coping strategies for mitigation of disaster risk of the
nation. But, without active cooperation from non government organizations and vulnerable
communities, government alone can not achieve this goal. Government agencies may face
some problems in dealing with a disaster situation.

 The government agencies may not have enough resources to meet the needs of
affected population.
 The line departments and organization may have to work under tremendous political
pressure without having adequate manpower, equipment and fund.
 Lack of cooperation among different organizations may lead chaos.

Therefore, there should be a dedicated disaster management system administered by the

government organizations in coordination with other non-government organizations and
community members.

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 To develop major requirements for coping with disasters, we must take care of some
fundamental factors.

 The organizational structure responsible for national disaster management should be

familiar with the national disaster scenario and its management principles.
 Micro level risk assessment to understand the nature of disaster risk of different
vulnerable communities and their needs to cope with disasters.
 Active involvement of vulnerable communities in the process of assessment of their
risk and needs by outside organizations.
 Proper training of the members of disaster management agencies to make them
familiar with the methodologies of risk assessment and damage mitigation. One wrong
decision may enhance magnitude of loss and damage rather than mitigating disaster
risk.
 Proper mechanism and policy for collection of genuine data and information. Usually,
the data acquisition processes in most of the countries are not that much reliable due to
lack of expertise, facilities and fund. This leads wrong assessment and planning for
coping mechanism.
 A comprehensive national disaster management policy for effective management of
disasters.

ALTERNATIVE ADJUSTMENT PROCESSES

As discussed earlier, the developing and third world countries suffer maximum loss and
damage due to natural disasters. Because, the common people of these nations do not have
capacity to take proper measures for damage mitigation. The national governments also do
not have enough resources and strengths to deal with disasters. So, alternative adjustment
processes based on scientific approaches synchronized with available resources, traditional
knowledge and practical experiences of vulnerable communities are found to be useful tools
for damage mitigation.

Let us start with one practical example.

Observations on damage characteristics of past two great earthquakes in Northeastern region

of India in 1897 and 1950 showed,

 In both the cases, there were significant structural damages in major cities like
Shillong and Guwahati. But, interestingly many Assam type buildings of wooden
framework remained intact under the impact of such high magnitude earthquake.

This indicates the role of hazard resistant housing pattern in earthquake damage
mitigation. While a costly engineering structure may fail to sustain against moderate
or high magnitude earthquake hazard, a simple structure constructed based on
traditional knowledge and experience may be resilient to the high magnitude
earthquake hazard.

 There were huge landslides across the foothills of Himalaya and Garo Hills during
1950 earthquake. This resulted artificial blockade to few major tributaries of
Brahmaputra. People living in the lower catchment areas had to suffer heavy loss and
damage due to flash floods caused by sudden burst of artificial dams. Vast area of land
either elevated or subsided, altering the drainage network of this region. Worst
liquefaction damages were also reported from alluvial plains.

In case of a high magnitude earthquake in this region, the damage and disruption due
to earthquake induced flood and liquefaction may be much higher than the past record.
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 This is because of; human induced disturbances in upper catchment areas, like
construction of big dams, shifting cultivation, deforestation etc.; unsustainable
structural development in alluvial plains; haphazard urbanizations in the entire region.

Naturally, the government as well as population living in lower catchment areas

should be more careful to adopt certain measures for minimizing loss and damage.
Disturbances in upper catchment areas of river network and construction of high-rise
buildings in alluvial plains/sandy soils could be avoided. To avoid loss and damage
due to earthquake, the people of this region needs to enhance their preparedness level
for fire, landslide and flood along with earthquake.

We can take some more examples of adjustment methods adopted by the vulnerable
communities living in flood prone areas of Assam.

“Dhemaji” is one of the most flood prone districts in Assam. Situated in the eastern most part
of Assam, the district is chronically flood affected due to its geographical location. The
district is situated in the foothills of lower Himalayas. A good numbers of tributaries of
Brahmaputra River, originated from Himalayan foothills, are flowing through the district.
The foothills of Himalayas experience heavy rainfall, an average 5000 – 6000 mm per year.
The entire riverine system of the district was severely disturbed during 1950’s great
earthquake. The huge sediment influx from Himalayan foothills reduced the carrying
capacity of the riverine system significantly. Flood resistance measures are also not adequate
for minimizing magnitude and frequency of floods in the district.

As a result, the local environment of the district becomes extremely favourable for flood
disaster. A large area of paddy fields and human habitats of the district and part of NH 52,
connecting the district with rest parts of the country, are now extremely vulnerable to flood.
During monsoon season, the entire population becomes almost isolated from other parts of the
state. Most of the flood-affected people, living in remote areas of the district, do not get
proper external supports for rescue, relief and rehabilitation. Moreover, heavy damage of crop
and huge sand deposition in paddy fields are major problems for the localities.

Huge volume of send deposited in the paddy field and human habitats due to flood

Despite all these problems, most of the population opted to live with flood disasters rather
than migrating to other parts of the state. People have developed and adopted different
adjustment mechanisms to cope with flood, based on their traditional knowledge, experience
and practices. Interestingly, the loss of life due to flood in the district is also negligible
compared to other parts of the country.

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 A traditional Chang-Ghar (House with raised platform) in a flood prone area
The vulnerable communities understand their risk of flood disaster and take appropriate
measures for mitigation of loss and damage to their life and property. They have great idea
about warning signs of flood, but prefer to stay in their own houses during flood period, rather
than taking shelter in the evacuation centres. The concept of “Chang-Ghar”, the traditional
flood proof housing system with raised platform, is a common practice among vulnerable
communities. To construct these houses, people take care of highest flood levels in their
respective flood prone areas, construction materials and other safety norms.

People have country boats for transportation

The vulnerable communities assess their needs for survival during floods in advance and
make arrangements of emergency items and alternative communication facilities. Normally,
the individual household or community as a whole makes advance arrangements for safe
storage of food-grains by constructing high platform flood resistant storehouses; alternative
drinking water by means of deep tube-wells and flood friendly communication facilities like
raft made up of banana plant and bamboo etc. to survive during flood without any external
support.

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 Raft made by locally available resources is used for rescue
of flood affected population

People generally use available local resources like bamboo, banana stem etc. to make rafts for
alternative mode of communication in flood. Most people are good swimmers and trained to
rescue people from floodwater. Most of the households have deep tube–wells to manage
drinking water during flood. The vulnerable people store a variety of traditional dry foods,
prepared from locally available food-grains, for flood season. Most importantly, people are
mentally prepared to live with flood disasters without any psychological stress. Of course,
during off-season of flood, people take advantage of government schemes to enhance their
preparedness level to cope with flood disasters.

Other means of adjustment

Alternative agriculture is another important mode of adjustment process for managing

floodplain agro-system. Researches are going on worldwide to develop flood resistant crops.
Cultivation of off-season crops is now getting importance among vulnerable communities to
avoid scarcity of food during flood disaster.

But, problem is that, farmers of most of the floodplains in India are dependent on rainfall and
hence prefer to go for kharif crops during rainy season. To encourage the farmers of the
floodplains for mixed cropping, kharif and rabi crops, during rainy season and post-flood
periods; government should take appropriate measures for flood resistance devices and
irrigation facilities. Efforts should be there to educate vulnerable communities about
floodplain farming systems and provide incentives for adopting mixed cropping system to
achieve food security.

Flood insurance schemes to regulate land use in flood plains are popular in many countries.
The values of premiums of such insurance schemes depend on types of activities and
locations of the flood plains. Charge of insurance premium is more for the activities in high
flood prone areas. Such step is necessary to reduce risk of the insurance companies and
motivate people to follow the land use regulations for flood damage mitigation.

The alternative adjustment processes have some limitations and can not fill up the place of
long term risk mitigation measures. We can not apply a standard set of adjustment processes
for different disaster situations. It is not possible to fix a particular set of adjustment
mechanisms for a particular hazard prone area, because the characteristics of hazard are also

121 | P a g e 121
 changing with rapid change of climatic and environmental conditions in the area. Of course,
it is one of the important aspects of risk mitigation measures and coping mechanism.

CHANGING CONCEPTS FOR DISASTER RISK MITIGATION

The vulnerable communities living in hazard prone areas may be the first target of any
disaster. In case of a disaster, the vulnerable communities suffer most due to direct loss and
damage to their life and property. There may be some secondary affects on people living in
safe locations and government machineries. Capacity building mechanism of the vulnerable
communities has direct relation with national disaster risk reduction policy

Starting with IDNDR programme for international cooperation, numbers of other Disaster
Risk Reduction programmes are in place for affective management of disasters worldwide.
But in practice, magnitude of loss and damage due to natural hazards are increasing day by
day. Without addressing problem areas and enhancing the preparedness levels of the
vulnerable communities, it is not possible to mitigate disaster risk of a nation. Hence, we need
a paradigm shift in the approaches of disaster management.

Based on study material of Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre, Bangkok, a standard set of
changing concepts for disaster risk mitigation and coping with disaster is presented below.

In most of the cases, victims of a disaster depend on outside agencies for their rescue, relief
and rehabilitation due to their poor state of preparedness level. Under this situation, the
vulnerable communities suffer from maximum loss and damage. They may not even get due
attention of the disaster management agencies for their rescue and relief on time. Due to
several other constraints, the response forces may not be able to extend necessary supports to
the affected communities.

The changing concept for damage mitigation suggests that, the vulnerable communities living
in hazard prone areas should assess their own disaster risk and develop coping strategies
ahead of a probable disaster. The vulnerable communities should try to arrange basic
requirements of their survival in disaster situation, in coordination with government and non-
government counter disaster agencies.

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-+

In most of the countries, yet the disaster management systems are relief centric. During a
disaster, depending on magnitude of disaster, many national and international agencies take
part in rescue and relief operations. But, it takes reasonable time for initiating rescue and
relief operations by the external agencies due to some administrative and policy related
matters. The affected communities have to bear the pain before the external agencies reach to
them. Moreover, smooth conduct of relief operation by the outside agencies is another
difficult task.

As per the new concept, the national disaster management policy of a country should have the
provision to improve the preparedness levels of the vulnerable communities to cope with
disasters, based on their own resources, means and strengths. People living in hazard prone
areas should get opportunity to prepare their own response plan and act accordingly to
manage the situation. The external disaster management agencies should try to contribute in
the capacity building process of the vulnerable communities, rather than participating in the
relief operation only.

In the event of a big disaster, generally disaster management agencies and institutions take
part in the process of damage assessment to estimate the total loss and further requirements
for recovery of the situation. Without active participation of the affected communities, it is
almost impossible to assess the total loss and needs of the people accurately. The affected
communities know better about nature of loss and damage and their needs for recovery.
Participation of affected communities is necessary in the process of damage assessment and
preparation of recovery plan.

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 Disaster management activities in most of the countries involve either prevention of hazards
by means of hazard resistance devices or physical and material supports to the victims of
disasters.

For example, disaster management agencies try to prevent flood hazard by constructing
embankments. In case of a flood disaster due to breaching of embankment, they try to manage
the situation by providing physical and material supports to the victims. Such kind of disaster
management policy is not suitable for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) of a hazard prone area
to reduce the loss and damage and prevent repetition of same kind of disaster.

For genuine Disaster Risk Reduction of a vulnerable community, it is essential to have a

practical plan for reduction of vulnerability factors of the community addressing their root
causes. In this case, active participation of the members of the community is necessary for
proper identification of their unsafe conditions and root causes of these vulnerable conditions.
The people living in the hazard prone areas are also responsible to take appropriate measures
for reduction of these unsafe conditions by eliminating their root causes.

Of course, along with vulnerability reduction plan, the disaster management agencies as well
as the members of vulnerable communities should have suitable plans for response and
recovery. Because, it is not possible to eliminate all the vulnerability factors of a community
to make the disaster risk of the community to a zero level.

As discussed earlier, disaster is one kind of humanitarian crisis. It affects every members of a
vulnerable community irrespective of rich, poor, literate or illiterate. One particular member
or family of a community can not contribute much in the process of disaster risk mitigation of
the community. Now a days, we are more concerned about our own problems rather than
problems of the community. There should be a community based disaster risk mitigation plan,
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 involving all community members and organizations in the process of disaster risk assessment
and damage mitigation planning. In this case, proper utilization of knowledge, skill and
efficiency of the individual members and organizations is necessary.

In general, government and non-government organizations, working in the field of disaster

management, take part in the process of capacity building and relief operation without
genuine assessment of risk and needs of the vulnerable communities. In most of the cases, the
relief materials provided by the donor agencies do not match with the needs of the affected
people. Such mechanisms create chaotic situation in relief operation. So, prior to planning for
capacity building and relief operation; risk and needs of the communities should be assessed
properly involving the community members.

In case of a disaster, the affected population becomes helpless victims due to lack of
preparedness to cope with disasters. The victims of disaster depend on outside agencies for
their rescue, relief and rehabilitation. Unless the vulnerable communities are capable enough
to mitigate their own disaster risk and cope with disasters, they are bound to suffer from large-
scale damage and disruption. Disaster management agencies may provide academic,
administrative, material and financial supports; but ultimately it is the duty of community
members to respond appropriately for their risk mitigation.

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 As stated earlier, the major aim of relief centric disaster management system is to manage a
crisis situation by taking some emergency measures. Such a management policy gives stress
on response and rehabilitation to make the situation normal before initiating the recovery
process. The relief centric disaster management systems are not efficient mechanisms for
disaster risk reduction.

To reduce the disaster risk of our systems, we need suitable plans for capacity building to
prevent hazards and minimize the vulnerable conditions of our systems, based on risk and
needs assessment. In this process the role of community members as well as disaster
management agencies are equally important.

SAFETY NORMS AND SURVIVAL KITS

INDUSTRIAL SAFETY NORMS

Unsafe production industries located in thickly populated areas may become major sources of
big disasters. Bhopal gas tragedy is the perfect example of such disasters. So, production
based industries must take appropriate safety and security measures to reduce disaster risk of
the industry as well as the population living in the vicinity of the industry. Some important
aspects of industrial safety plan are presented below based on the contents of the book
“Industrial Disaster Management and Emergency Response” written by U. K. Chakrabarty,
Published by Asian Books Pvt. Ltd.

 Location and layout of an industry are the most important factors relevant to disaster risk of
the industry. Hazardous industries in thickly populated area generally enhance the disaster risk
of the entire area. So, the prime condition for safety is that, such industries should be located
in isolated places. Moreover, design and layout for arrangement of processing units and
equipments of the industry, utilizing the available space, also play vital role in minimizing
disaster risk of the industry.

 Utmost care should be taken for safe installation and operation of utility systems of the
industry. These may include Power sources, fire fighting equipments, arrangements for water
and electricity, communication systems, air and inert gas control systems, hazardous waste
product disposal system etc.

 Care should be take for proper functioning of the emergency shut down systems, which
generally shut off a particular unit or the entire industry in view of any abnormality in
operation or chance of accident.

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  Proper installation and maintenance of flare systems for efficient handling of the discharges of
relief systems of different units of the industry.

 The pressures vessels of the industry for handling the flammable substances should be kept
away from ignition sources. Pipe-works of the plant should be done in such a way that, these
are isolated from electric cables and slopes are maintained for easy flow of liquid substance.
Special blast proof construction needed for utility area, process area and critical process
control rooms.

 Ignition sources, like Fired Process Equipment, should be placed away from processing units
of the industry. Special safety provisions should be there for loading and unloading of
flammable liquids. Fire station equipped with skilled manpower and equipment, emergency
health care centre, Emergency control room etc. should be available and located in safe areas
to respond to any accident. Safe storage facility for flammable and toxic substances is a
mandatory requirement for any industry.

 Electrical sub-stations should be located in isolated places, which are free form flammable
liquids, gases and vapours. Pipelines carrying flammable liquids, gases, hazardous chemicals
etc. should be kept away from populated areas.

 Special care should be taken for disposal of hazardous solid and liquid waste materials, so
that, these should not pollute environment and create health hazards for the people living near
the industry.

 Industries must have their own disaster management plans based on nature of risk factors
associated with the industry, impact of probable accidents, nature of expected damage etc.
Provisions should be there to aware the people living within and outside the industry about the
risk factors of the industry, and safety and preparedness measures to handle disasters, in view
of any accident in the industry. If necessary, the industry should provide safety devices/kits to
the people.

OTHER GENERAL SAFETY NORMS

To improve our preparedness level to cope with disasters, we must take care of some general
safety norms and survival kits. Though, the damage characteristics of different hazards are
different; but some common norms, tools and kits are useful to deal with disaster situations.

What measures we can take to mitigate damage and cope with disasters?

 There should be separate disaster management plans for every family and community
as a whole, addressing the role and responsibility of every member of the individual
family and community, during a disaster.
 Each family should have the information about police, fire service, district control
room, response forces and other counter disaster resources to access their services
during a disaster.
 The vulnerable community should make provisions for their safe shelter and medical
care during disaster.
 The vulnerable community should have evacuation plan for shifting of affected people
to safe locations during disaster.
 Special care should be taken for protection and safety of children, old and ill people.
 Important family documents should be kept in hazard proof systems.
 Each family should have minimum basic facilities to deal with disaster situation like,
emergency tools and equipments, fire extinguisher, emergency lighting, emergency
food, drinking water, emergency medicine etc. for use during disaster.

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  People living in earthquake prone areas should inspect their houses on regular
intervals, especially after a moderate earthquake. The basic elements to be checked are
corner columns and beams; peripheral columns and beam; cantilevered beams
(specially beams of balcony); staircase and lifts; water tanks; partition walls; junctions
of beam and columns etc. It is advisable to take help of experienced structural
engineer.
 Special care should be taken in fittings and fixings of the buildings. Because the
falling objects of the buildings cause maximum damage during earthquake.
 People should aware about basic do’s and don’ts factors for different natural hazards.

SURVIVAL KITS

Here the lists of general emergency survival kits are given. Individual families or community
may acquire these items as per their needs and limitations.

Home and office first aid kits

First Aid Station for

over 100 People.

Source :
keysan.com/ksu0722.htm

Courtesy : ACME UNITED

CORPORATION

Medications
 Antibiotic ointment
 Aspirin and / or pain relief medication
 Diarrhoea medication, eye drops
 Cold / cough syrup
 Insect spray, ear and nose drops
 Hydrogen peroxide, skin disinfectant spray
 Extra prescription medication
 Old pair of eyeglasses as spare

Medical materials
 Band aids, medical latex gloves
 Surgical mask , Instant cold packs
 Instant Hot Packs, Ace bandages
 Butterfly bandages, Gauze pads, Cotton swabs
 Adhesive tape, 2" & 4" wide sterile bandage rolls
 Triangular bandage for sling, etc. (37" x 37" x 52")
 Tongue depressors (pop-sickle sticks), Splint material
 Spray bottle with 10% bleach solution for disinfecting objects.

Sanitation items
 Plastic bags (heavy duty and smaller zip-lock types)

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  Powdered chlorine lime (proper storage is required, it is an oxidizer and it is
corrosive)
 Portable camp toilet with chemicals, toilet paper, handy wipes, etc. for water
free cleanup
 Toilet Supplies (Towels, shampoo, toothpaste, deodorant, sanitary napkins,
etc.)
 Insect sprays

Emergency items
 Work Gloves, Shovel (flat head
and pointed)
 Broom, Hammer and Nails,
Screwdrivers, Crowbar or Claw
Tool (36" or Longer)

 Plastic Sheeting Rolls (4 Mil. IO' Picture source :

X 25'), Plastic Garbage Bags 98

 Small and Large Plastic Bags,

Coils of Rope 1/4", 1/2", 3/4" (25'
- 50')
 Coil of Wire, Tent (Family or
Tube Type)
 Tarp (PVC or Canvas, Minimum
Two, 8' X IO') Picture source :
 Sleeping Bags, Blanket, or Space dorlingkoper.co.uk/sportsbag.htm
Blanket
 Cheese Cloth (To Strain Particles
From Water)
 CASH MONEY (Small Picture source :
Denominations & Coin) hscripts.com/freeimages/icons/electrical
/torch-light-clipart.php

 Dry Food, Water, Clothing,

Walking Shoes and Socks, Local
Road Map

 Fire Extinguisher (Dry chemical

type with a minimum size rating of
2A -IOBC, with an earthquake
restraining strap, a hose type Picture source : cgi.ebay.com/Fire-
nozzle, and a metal head.) Extinguisher-Lighter-Keychain-

 Compass
 Flashlight With Batteries,
Chemical Light Sticks and
Matches, In Waterproof Container
 Small Radio (Battery Powered
Portable)
129 | P a g e 129
  Entertainment Pack - Family Picture source :
Photos, Notebooks, Literature, and
Games

amazon.co.uk/exec/obidos/ASIN/B0000
C720L/203-6464294-7632769

Purifying water

 Add eight drops of pure unscented liquid bleach (available with Public Health
Engineering Department and General Medical Stores) in one gallon of water to
reduce the contaminants.
 Add the bleach when you first store the water away.
 Rotate your water in every six months (one or two gallons of pure and sealed drinking
water).

WHAT WE LEARNT FROM THIS UNIT?

The concept of coping mechanism conceived with the idea of making the vulnerable people
adequately prepared to cope or live with disasters. It is the vulnerable community, who needs
to have practical damage mitigation plan and coping strategies for their survival in disastrous
situation. Outside agencies can only extend academic, physical, material and financial
supports for preparation and implementation of such plans and strategies.

To develop suitable coping mechanism, we must have clear idea about our threats,
vulnerability and needs. So, the process of developing coping mechanism for a particular
vulnerability community involves entire process of risk management comprising hazard,
vulnerability and capacity analysis of the community.

Coping strategy gives us guidelines for enhancing our preparedness level to mitigate disaster
risk and live with disasters. The possible measures to improve our preparedness levels for
coping with disaster may be; DRR planning involving all stakeholders, land use regulations,
building codes, early warning mechanisms for different hazards, evacuation plan, alternative
mode of communication facilities, hazard resistant structures, hazard proof housing, response
plan, alternative livelihood opportunities, alternative means of production, management and
mobilization of counter disaster resources etc.

To adopt suitable coping mechanism, we have to follow some fundamental factors relevant to
risk and needs of community, organizational structure, training and drill, plan and policy etc.

Alternative adjustment processes based on traditional knowledge, experience and resources of

the vulnerable community play vital role in enhancing the preparedness level of the
community. The changing concept of disaster management gives stress on active participation
of the community members in the process of assessment and planning. At the same time,
safety norms and survival kits are also equally important for risk mitigation and coping with
disaster.

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 PROBABLE QUESTIONS
1. Explain coping mechanism.
2. What is specific risk?
3. What is the role of NDRF?
4. What kinds of information required for making preparedness plan?
5. Discuss some common measures of coping mechanism.
6. What fundamental factors are relevant for coping mechanism?
7. Give some examples of alternative adjustment processes.
8. Give few examples of changing concepts of disaster management?
9. Write few conditions of industrial safety policy.
10. Mention few survival kits.

SUGGESTED READINGS

1. Carter, W. N., Disaster Management: A Disaster Management Handbook, Published

by Asian Development Bank, 1991
2. India: IDNDR & Beyond, NCDM Publication, 2000
3. Study material: Fourth International Course on CBDM, ADPC, 2000
4. Brahmi, A. & Poumphone, K., Case Study Report, Study on Local Coping
Mechanisms in Disaster Management, 2002
5. Chakrabarty, U. K., Industrial Disaster Management and Emergency Response,
Published by Asian Books Pvt. Ltd., 2007
6. Study material, Training Programme on Environment and Disaster Management,
NIDM, 201

131 | P a g e 131
 UNIT-5
DISASTER MANAGEMENT ACT OF INDIA

UNIT STRUCTURE
INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES
DISASTER MANAGEMENT ACT
WHAT IS AN ACT?
NATIONAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT ACT OF INDIA
PROVISIONS OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT ACT 2005
NATIONAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY (NDMA)
NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE (NAC)
NATIONAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE (NEC)
NATIONAL PLAN
STATE DISASTER MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY (SDMA)
STATE ADVISORY COMMITTEE
STATE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE (SEC)
DISTRICT DISASTER MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY (DDMA)
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT
NATIONAL DISASTER RESPONSE FORCE (NDRF)
NATIONAL DISASTER RESPONSE FUND
NATIONAL DISASTER MITIGATION FUND
PROVISIONS OF OTHER FUNDS
PUNITIVE MEASURES AND PENALTIES
OTHER IMPORTANT PROVISIONS
NATIONAL POLICY FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENT
WHAT IS POLICY?
WHY WE NEED A DISASTER MANAGEMENT POLICY?
NATIONAL POLICY ON DISASTER MANAGEMENT (NPDM) IN INDIA
WHAT WE LEARNT FROM THIS UNIT?

INTRODUCTION
Disaster management is a multidisciplinary approach, where every individuals, departments
and organizations have specific roles and responsibilities. We need a strong organizational
structure for practical risk reduction planning and effective management of disasters.
Moreover, formulation of strategy for capacity building of the concerned organizations and
resource mobilization is also integral part of disaster management.
In view of increasing trends of disaster events and subsequent loss and damage worldwide, the
United Nations and many other international agencies have initiated different programmes for
global disaster risk reduction. But, even then the magnitude of loss and damage due to different
natural hazards is increasing significantly year by year. This is perhaps due to lack of proper
institutional, legal, financial and coordination mechanisms to deal with disasters at national,
state, district and local levels in most of the countries.
It is now clear that, relief centric disaster management approach is not an effective mechanism
for disaster risk reduction of a system or community. A disaster management plan should have
the provisions for genuine risk assessment and planning for prevention, mitigation,
preparedness, response and recovery.

132
 Planning for risk and crisis management needs active participation of disaster
management agencies, NGOs, CBOs and community members in the process of
assessment, analysis and planning. Strong coordination among different stakeholders is
also necessary for genuine implementation of the action plan. Strong legal-institutional
arrangements at national and state levels are also necessary for effective management of
disasters. To achieve these, there should be proper legislations and policies at national
and state levels for effective management of disasters.
In this chapter, we shall discuss about Disaster Management Act and Policies of India.
OBJECTIVES
The main objective of this chapter is to highlight the issues relevant to

 Concept of National Act and Policy.

 Present structure and provisions of Disaster Management Act of India.
 Process and elements of disaster management policy.
 National Policy on Disaster Management in India.
DISASTER MANAGEMENT ACT
WHAT IS AN ACT?

An Act is a legislation enacted by the national parliament or state assembly to deal with a
particular issue, subject, or institution effectively. In India, a legislative proposal in the form of
a bill has to pass through various stages to get the status of an Act. The common procedure for
adopting a national Act is described below
First reading stage
The process starts with the introduction of a bill or draft of legislative proposal in either house
of parliament i.e., Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha by a minister or private member as government
bill or private member’s bill. To introduce a bill in the house, the member-in-charge of the bill
need to take permission to introduce the bill to introduce the bill. The leave may or may not be
granted by the house. If the bill is opposed, the speaker may permit a full discussion followed
by vote in the house. This stage is known as “First Reading of the Bill”.
If the house permits to introduce the bill, then the draft of the bill could be published in the
official gazette. After introduction of a bill, the presiding officer of the house may refer the bill
to concerned Standing Committee for examination and preparation of a report thereon. The
Standing Committee may take expert opinion or public opinion before finalizing the report for
submission to the house.
Second reading
This again comprises two stages for consideration of the bill.
The first stage comprises general discussion on the bill including underlying principles of the
bill. The house may refer the bill to a select committee of one house or a joint committee of
both the houses to examine the bill clause-by-clause and make amendments to different
clauses. The house may also consider the bill straightway without referring the same to a select
or joint committee. The government may circulate the bill to states and union territories for
their opinion.
The second stage of this phase comprises clause-by-clause consideration of the bill, as
introduced or reported by a select or joint committee. Amendments on different clauses could
be done based on voting amongst the members present in the house. In this stage, the house
also decides the long title and enacting formula of the bill.

133
 Third reading
In this stage, the member-in-charge can move to pass the bill in the house. At this stage, the
debate confines to the arguments either in support or rejection of the bill. To pass an ordinary
bill, a simple majority of members present in the house on voting is necessary. If a bill needs
amendment of constitution, then a majority of total memberships of the house and a majority
not less than two-third of the members present in both houses is required to pass the bill in the
parliament.
If the bill is passed by one house, it has to send to other house for concurrence. Like this, the
parliament adopts Acts on different matters.
NATIONAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT ACT OF INDIA
One year after the great Tsunami in 2004, the Government of India had enacted an Act called
“Disaster Management Act, 2005 (No. 53 of 2005) for effective management of disasters in
India. The Disaster Management Act. came into force considering the need for a paradigm shift
in the approach of disaster management from relief centric approach to a proactive regime to
give greater emphasis on prevention, mitigation and preparedness.
The Disaster Management Act lays stress on following matters.
 It gives emphasis on institutional, legal, financial and coordination mechanisms for
disaster management at national, state, district and local levels.
 It defined the roles and responsibilities of central and state governments; their
ministries, line departments, local authorities as well as other stakeholders.
 As per this Act, preparation of Disaster Management Plans for all the states and
districts of India is mandatory.
 It has provided the scope for establishment of Response Forces at national, state and
district levels.
 It has the provision for generation of national and state disaster response fund for
capacity building of response forces and smooth functioning of response operations
during disasters.
 It has provided the scope for emergency procurement of equipments and tools, to be
used during response operation.
 The Act provides budgetary provisions for disaster management activities at national,
state and district levels under different central and state government ministries and
departments.
 It laid stress on punitive action for negligence in duty, creating obstruction in disaster
management activities, false claim, misappropriation of fund, discrimination in
providing relief materials and compensation to the disaster victims etc.
 It has provided the scopes for delegating power to disaster management agencies and
response forces; making new regulations and amendments of existing rules;
emergency requisition of resources at the time of disaster etc.
 It laid stress on timely utilization of fund, proper accounting and preparation of annual
progress reports on disaster management activities at all levels.
PROVISIONS OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT ACT 2005
NATIONAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY (NDMA)
As per sub-section (1) of section (3) of Disaster Management Act, a central authority called
“National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)” is to be established with the Prime
Minister of India as Chairperson and maximum nine other members nominated by the
chairperson. The chairperson may designate one of the members as Vice-Chairperson.
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The chairperson may conduct meeting of the central authority as and when necessary. In
absence of chairperson, the vice-chairperson is authorized to preside over the meeting.
The central government shall provide offices, consultants and other employees as per
requirement of NDMA. The NDMA is responsible for laying down policies, plans and
guidelines for timely and effective management of disaster situation and response to disasters.
In case of emergency, the chairperson can exercise all or any of the powers of the authority.
The NDMA shall recommend guidelines for minimum standards of relief to be provided to the
effected persons. In case of severe disaster, the NDMA may recommend for relief in repayment
of loans or granting fresh loans to the affected persons.
NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE (NAC)

The NDMA may constitute a National Advisory Committee with the members having expertise
in the field of disaster management and practical experience of disaster management at national,
state and district levels. The members of advisory committee shall be entitled to get allowances
as per central government rules. The advisory committee shall provide necessary supports to
NDMA in formulating plans and policies.
NATIONAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE (NEC)

There shall be one National Executive Committee for formulation of disaster management
plans and implementation of plans. The Secretary of the nodal ministry of government of India,
which has administrative control over national disaster management, shall be the Chairperson
of the committee. The secretaries of the central ministries or departments having administrative
control of the agriculture, atomic energy, defence, drinking water supply, environment and
forest, finance, health, power, rural development, science and technology, space,
telecommunication, urban development, water resources as well as the Joint Chief of defence
staff shall be the members of the committee.
The Chairperson of NEC may invite other central or state government officers for attending
the meeting of NEC. The NEC may constitute one or more sub-committees for its efficient
functioning. The NEC shall be responsible to assist the NDMA in formulating plans and
policies and implementing these plans and policies. The NEC shall also be responsible to
ensure smooth functioning of disaster management activities at all levels as per direction of
central government. The NEC is the coordinating and monitoring body for disaster
management in India.
NATIONAL PLAN
The NEC shall prepare National Plan for disaster management for whole of the country in the
line of national guidelines and in consultation with state governments, expert bodies or
organizations working in the field of disaster management. The national plan shall be approved
by the NDMA. The national plan shall include
 Measures to be taken for prevention of disasters and damage mitigation.
 Actions to be taken for integration of mitigation measures.
 Measures to be taken for preparedness and capacity building to deal with disaster
situations.
 Roles and responsibilities of different ministries and departments for effective disaster
management, strategies.
The national plan shall be reviewed and updated annually. The central government shall
provide financial support to implement the national plan. Different ministries and departments
shall formulate their own disaster management plans in accordance with the national plan.

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 STATE DISASTER MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY (SDMA)
Like NDMA for entire India, all states of India shall have State Disaster Management
Authorities. The Chief Minister of the states shall be the Chairpersons of the SDMAs of the
respective states. The Chairperson of the SDMA shall nominate other members of the state
authority, not exceeding eight members. The Chairperson may nominate one of the members as
Vice-Chairperson under clause (b) of sub-section (2) of the DM Act. In case of SDMA, Delhi,
the Lieutenant Government of Delhi shall be the Chairperson and Chief Minister of Delhi shall
be the Vice-Chairperson. The Chairpersons of the State Executive Committees shall be the
Chief Executive Officers of SDMAs.
The state government shall appoint officers, consultants and other staff of the SDMA. The
SDMA may meet as and when necessary at suitable place and time. The meeting of SDMA
shall be presided over by the chairperson. But, in absence of chairperson, the vice-chairperson
shall be entitled to preside over the meeting.
Subject to the provisions of Disaster Management Act, the SDMA has the responsibility of
laying down plans and policies for effective management of disasters in the state. As per the
guidelines of NDMA, the SDMA shall lay down detail guidelines for minimum standard of
relief to be provided to the effected people.
STATE ADVISORY COMMITTEE
The SDMA may constitute an Advisory Committee for recommendations on different aspects
of disaster management at state and district levels with experts of having practical experience
in the field of disaster management. The members of advisory committee shall be entitled to
get due allowances as per state government regulations.
STATE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE (SEC)
There shall be one State Executive Committee for each state to formulate state disaster
management plan in the line of national plan and implement this plan effectively. The Chief
Secretaries of the respective states shall be the Chairpersons of the state executive committees.
Secretaries of the four other departments, as the state government thinks fit for, shall be the
members of the executive committee. The SEC may constitute one or more sub- committees for
its efficient functioning. The SEC shall be the coordinating and monitoring body of all disaster
management related activities in the state.
The SEC shall prepare state disaster management plan as per guidelines laid down
by the NDMA and in consultation with district and local authorities. The state plan shall
include
 Hazard and vulnerability characteristics of the state.
 Measures to be taken for prevention of disasters or mitigation of damage and
disruptions.
 Integration of mitigation measures with development plans and projects.
 Preparedness and capacity building measures for damage mitigation and coping with
disasters.
 Roles and responsibilities of state government ministries and departments in relation
to the measures to be taken for prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response and
recovery.
 Budgetary provisions to implement the plan.
 Provisions to review and update the plan annually.

DISTRICT DISASTER MANAGEMENT AUTHORITY (DDMA)

By notification in the Official Gazette under sub-section (1) of section (14) of the Disaster
Management Act, the state government may constitute District Disaster Management
Authorities for every districts of the state. The DDMA shall have a Chairperson and members
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 not exceeding seven. The Deputy Commissioner / District Collector or Magistrate
shall be the Chairperson of the DDMA. The elected representative of the local authority
/ Chief Executive member of District Council shall be the Co-Chairperson of DDMA.
The Chief Executive Officer of District Authority, Superintendent of Police, Chief
Medical Officer of the district shall be the ex officio. The state government shall
appoint two other district level offices as the members of DDMA.
If the district has Zila Parishad, the chairperson of the Zila Parishad shall be the Co-
Chairperson of the DDMA. The state government shall appoint one Chief Executive
Officer of DDMA, who is not below the rank of Additional Deputy Commissioner or
Additional District Collector/Magistrate. Other officer, consultants and employees of
DDMA shall be appointed by the state government.
The DDMA shall be responsible for preparation of the District Disaster Management Plan
and taking all measures for disaster management in the district in accordance with the
guidelines laid down by national and state authorities. DDMA is the planning,
coordinating and monitoring body for disaster management in the district. The District
Disaster Management Plan shall include
 Hazard maps of the district showing the areas prone to different natural hazards.
 Vulnerability analysis of the district to identify the hazard and location specific
vulnerability factors.
 Measures to be taken by different government departments and local authorities for
prevention of hazards, mitigation of damage and disruption.
 Preparedness and capacity building measures to deal with disaster situation.
 Practical and effective response plan elaborating the responsibilities of different
departments and local authorities, procedure for prompt response and relief operation,
provision for procurement of essential resources, options for establishment of
communication links, method for dissemination of information to the public etc.
 The DDMP shall be reviewed and updated annually. The DDMA shall send copies of
DDMP to the SDMA and State Government.
By order, the DDMA may engage any district level officer or district level department or local
authority in disaster management activities of the district as and when necessary. The officers
and departments shall be bound to carry out such duties.
The DDMA has the power and responsibility to
 give direction to district level departments and local authority to release their
resources as and when necessary
 restrict vehicular traffic and control movement of people
 conduct search, rescue and relief operations in disaster prone areas
 establish emergency communication systems in affected areas
 remove debris and dispose off unclaimed dead bodies
 use the amenities from any authority or person
 demolish hazardous structures and construct temporary bridges and other structures
 regulate the activities of non-governmental organizations in disaster effected areas
 recommend state government to take supports of military organizations and external
disaster management agencies in managing an extreme disaster situation.

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 NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT (NIDM)
The Central Government shall establish an institute called the “National Institute of Disaster
Management” (NIDM). There shall be a governing body for the institute constituted by the
Central Government. The NIDM shall function within the broad policies and guidelines of the
NDMA. The Central Government shall provide officers, consultants and employees to NIDM
for carrying out its functions. NIDM shall be responsible for
 planning and promoting training and research in the area of disaster management
 documentation and development of database at national level
 developing training modules
 preparation of comprehensive human resource development plan
 providing assistance in national level planning
 providing required assistance to other training and research institutes to conduct
training programmes for different stakeholders
 providing assistance to State Governments and State Training Institutes to formulate
plan, policies and frameworks and also conduct training programmes
 developing course materials for professional courses on Disaster Management
 conducting or facilitating others to conduct conferences, workshops, courses and
training within and outside the country
 publication of research journal on disaster management
 undertaking any other function assigned by the Central Government.
NATIONAL DISASTER RESPONSE FORCE (NDRF)
As per Disaster Management Act. 2005, the Central Government may constitute National
Disaster Response Force for the purpose of specialist response in disaster situations in the
country. The general superintendence, direction and control of the NDRF shall be vested by
NDMA. Command and supervision of the NDRF shall be done by a Director General,
appointed by the Central Government.
NATIONAL DISASTER RESPONSE FUND
The Central Government shall constitute a fund called “National Disaster Response Fund” for
meeting expenditures of disaster response activities. The National Disaster Response Fund
shall be available to the National Executive Committee (NEC) to meet the expenses for
emergency response, relief and rehabilitation in accordance with the guidelines of Central
Government and in consultation with NDMA.
NATIONAL DISASTER MITIGATION FUND
The Central Government may constitute another fund called “National Disaster Mitigation
Fund” exclusively for the projects meant for mitigation of disaster risk of the country at all
levels. The National Disaster Mitigation Fund shall be applied by NDMA.

PROVISIONS OF OTHER FUNDS

Similarly, the State Governments shall constitute “State Disaster Response Fund” and “State
Disaster Mitigation Fund” for the purpose of disaster response and mitigation activities in the
states. The State disaster response and mitigation funds shall be available with the State
Executive Committee and SDMA respectively.

Every state and central government ministries and departments shall make provisions of special
funds in their annual budget for the purpose of carrying out disaster management activities and
programmes as per their disaster management plans.

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 PUNITIVE MEASURES AND PENALTIES
There is provision in the Disaster Management Act for punitive measures and penalties due to
 Creating obstruction in the functioning of disaster management agencies or refusing
to comply with the direction given by central and state governments; national, state or
district disaster management authorities; national or state executive committees under
this Act.
 False claim for obtaining relief, assistance, repair, reconstruction or other such
benefits consequent to any disaster.
 Misappropriation of money and material meant for providing relief to disaster
victims.
 Making or circulating a false warning about occurrence and magnitude of disaster,
which may cause panic of common people.
 Any offence committed by any department or head of the department or any
government official.
 Failure or refusal in performing duty by any officer or concerned official.
 Contravention of any order regarding requisition of resources.
 Offence committed by any company or corporate body in the matter of disaster
management activities. In this case, the director, manager, secretary, or other officers
of the company or corporate body shall be declared guilty and punished accordingly.
 Discrimination in distributing relief material or compensation to the disaster victims
on the ground of sex, caste, community, religion or political affiliation etc.
OTHER IMPORTANT PROVISIONS
 The central government may issue any direction in writing to central or state
ministries, departments, authorities, executive committees, statutory bodies or any
officer of these agencies for any assistance in disaster management related activities.
 On request or order of national, state and district authorities or executive committees;
the officers or employees shall perform any of the functions in connection with the
prevention of disaster or mitigation or rescue or relief wok.
 The national and state executive committees or district authority or any authorized
officer shall have the power of requisition of any resources or facilities for the purpose
of prompt response; any premises needed or likely to be needed for rescue operation;
any vehicle needed or likely to be needed for transportation of resources or people in
connection with rescue, relief and reconstruction.

The period of requisition shall not extend beyond the period for which these resources,
premises or vehicle needed. Requisition of these resources, facilities, premises or
vehicle shall be made on payment as determined by central or state government.
 The national or state or district authority may recommend the government to give
direction to the controlling authorities of print and electronic media to carry out
warning or advisories regarding disasters.
 If necessary, the national or state executive committee may delegate certain powers to
the chairperson or any member or any officer of the committee in writing or issuing
order.
 The national authority shall prepare annual report comprising full account of activities
of previous year and submit the same to the central government. The central
government shall place the report before both the houses of the parliament within one
month of its receipt. Similarly, the state authority shall prepare annual report of the
state comprising activities undertaken during previous year and submit the same to the

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 state government. The state government shall place the report before legislative
assembly.
 As per this Act, “No court (except the Supreme Court or a High Court) shall have
jurisdiction to entertain any suit or proceeding in respect of anything done, action
taken, orders made, direction, instruction or guidelines issued by the Central
Government, National Authority, State Government, State Authority or District
Authority in pursuance of any power conferred by, or in relation to its functions, by
this Act.”

Moreover, the Central Government shall have the power to make rules for carrying out the
purposes of this Act. The National Institute of Disaster Management with prior approval of
Central Government may make regulations consistent with this Act and the rules thereunder.

The rules made by Central Government and regulations made by National Institute of Disaster
Management shall be laid before each house of parliament during parliament session.

NATIONAL POLICY FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENT

WHAT IS POLICY?
The term policy depicts a set of basic principles and associated guidelines formulated by the
authorized body of an organization to achieve a particular goal. Government policies are
generally made in pursuance of specific Acts enacted by the parliament and may not
necessarily be passed by the parliament of a nation. A policy may need approval of union
cabinet or governing body of an organization. The policy refers the procedure and protocol to
carry out certain activities or preserve the interest of national community.

Policy may be a set of guidelines for subjective and objective decision-making. The guidelines
for subjective decision-making assist decision makers in considering the relative merits of
number of factors before taking a decision. For example, policy for construction of big dams
assists the engineers to design a dam considering hazard and vulnerability factors, impact
factors on environment and downstream population, hazard resistant construction norms etc.
The guidelines for objective decision-making are generally operational in nature, e.g., inbuilt
operational policy for downloading a software, book, references etc. from a website.

WHY WE NEED A DISASTER MANAGEMENT POLICY?

The disaster management policy is required to establish suitable organizational structure and
develop adequate infrastructure and faculties along with necessary budgetary provisions to deal
with different aspects of disaster management at national to local levels.

A strong disaster management policy considers the following major factors

 Importance of hazard, vulnerability and capacity assessment to assess the disaster risk
of an area or a system or an establishment.
 Probable impact of the hazards to the system and community.
 Resource assessment to assess the capacity and needs of the community and disaster
management agencies to deal with hazards or disasters.
 Organizational arrangement required for risk and crisis management.
 Guidelines for sustainable development and protection of environment.

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The basic advantages of a comprehensive disaster management policy are
 It allows both government and non-governmental agencies to play leading role in
disaster management related activities in coordination with vulnerable communities.
 It provides basic guidelines and norms for integrated and coordinating efforts of all
stakeholders to deal with disaster situations.
 It defines the organizational structure required to deal with different aspects of disaster
and responsibilities of different organizations and individuals.
 It gives guidelines for procurement and optimum utilization of resources.
 It gives scope to educate people about their risk and motivate them towards adopting
measures for disaster risk reduction and preparedness to cope with disaster.
 It also provides opportunity to get international assistance and cooperation during
severe disasters.
NATIONAL POLICY ON DISASTER MANAGEMENT (NPDM) IN INDIA

Background
The Union Cabinet of India approved the National Policy on Disaster Management (NPDM) in
2009. The NPDM was prepared in pursuance of the Disaster Management Act, 2005 with a
vision to make India safe and disaster resilient.

The main objective of this policy is to develop a holistic, proactive, technology driven and
multi disaster oriented strategy to address all aspects of disaster management covering
prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery phases; institutional, legal and
financial arrangements; techno-legal regime; capacity development; knowledge management;
research and development.

This policy has laid stress on risk assessment; modern technology oriented and environment
friendly risk mitigation measures; early warning and contemporary forecasting mechanisms;
involvement of media in educating vulnerable community about their risk and risk mitigation
measures; needs assessment of vulnerable community; capacity building; efficient response
and relief; disaster resilient structures and habitat; and sustainable development.

This policy also addresses the concerns of vulnerable people including women, children,
differently able persons and other disadvantage groups. Due consideration has been given to
the issues of equity and inclusiveness in formulating the guidelines for grant of relief and
rehabilitation of affected persons.
The NPDM was formulated to bring the transparency and accountability in all aspects of
disaster management by involving all stakeholders covering vulnerable community,
community based organizations, civil society, local bodies and Panchayati Raj Institutions
(PRIs).
Institutional and legal arrangements for disaster management

The NPDM has recommended institutional and legal framework for disaster management in
India in the tune and in pursuance of Disaster Management Act, 2005. The policy also suggest
continuation of earlier institutional arrangements. The institutional and legal framework
includes
 National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
 National Executive Committee (NEC)
 State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA)
 State Executive Committee (SEC)
 District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA)
 Local Authorities including Panchayati Raj Institutions, Municipalities, District and
Cantonment Boards and Town Planning.
 National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)

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  National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)
 State Disaster Response Force (SDRF)
 Cabinet Committee on Management of Natural Calamities (CCMNC)
 Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS)
 High Level Committee (HLC)
 Central Government and its Ministries and Departments
 National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC)
 State Government and its Ministries and Departments
 District Administration
 Armed Forces
 Central Para Military Forces
 State Police Forces and Fire Services
 Civil Defence and Home Guard
 National Cadet Corps (NCC)
 National Service Scheme (NSS)
 Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan (NYKS)
Financial arrangements

The NPDM recommended guidelines for financial arrangement to deal with different aspects of
disaster management in the tune of Disaster Management Act, which include
 Creation of National Disaster Response Fund.
 Creation of National Disaster Mitigation Fund.
 Budgetary provision for all central ministries and departments to support their disaster
management plans.
 Creation of state disaster response and mitigation funds.
 Provisions of fund for national, state and district level disaster mitigation projects.
 Generation of financial tools like catastrophic risk financing, risk insurance,
catastrophe bonds, micro-finance, calamity relief fund, environmental relief fund,
disaster risk insurance, micro insurance, warranty of newly constructed houses etc.
Disaster Prevention, Mitigation and Preparedness

The NPDM suggested proper planning in developmental process to avoid a disaster like
situation or mitigate loss and damage or prepare to cope with disaster. As per this policy,
special emphasis should be given to undertake mitigation measures including
 Measures in all developmental projects.
 Initiation of national disaster mitigation projects in high priority areas by NDMA
with the support of Central Ministries and Departments as well as State
Governments.
 Special assistance to State Governments for state level mitigation projects and
programmes.
 Adoption of indigenous knowledge and coping mechanisms for disaster risk
mitigation.
Risk assessment and vulnerability mapping

Hazard zonation, hazard mapping and vulnerability analysis to be carried out by using modern
technological know-how; like GIS and remote sensing, GPS technology etc.; for multi hazard
prone areas. Central ministries and departments, national agencies, knowledge based
institutions, State and District level Disaster Management authorities are to carry out risk and
vulnerability assessment of all disaster prone areas.
Urban development

Considering the increasing trend of disasters in urban areas, the NPDM recommended for
special action plans to check unplanned urbanization, improve urban drainage systems with
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special focus on non-obstruction of natural drainage systems; develop Decision Support
System (DSS) for urban risk management through mapping of infrastructure of spatial
resolution; initiate special training for search and rescue etc.
Other important guidelines of NPDM

 Utmost importance to be given for safety and sustainability of critical infrastructures.

 Environmentally sustainable development for maintaining the ecological balance.
 Strategies for climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction.
 Capacity building of Disaster Management agencies and vulnerable communities.
 Development of forecasting and early warning systems.
 Proper utilization of communication and information technology in decision making,
advance warning etc.
 Strengthening of the Emergency Operation Centres (EOCs).
 Medical preparedness and mass casualty management.
 Training and mock drill.
 Community based disaster preparedness.
 Corporate Social Responsibility and Public Private Partnership.
 Revision of municipal regulations and master plans of cities.
 Micro level land use planning.
 Safe construction practices.
 Role of DM authorities, DM executive committees, different ministries, line
departments etc. in disaster response.
 Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) and Incident Command System (ICS)
 Management of relief camps and relief supplies.
 Intermediate shelter, temporary livelihood options, socio-economic rehabilitation.
 Recovery and safe development.
 Livelihood restoration.
 Disaster management education in education institutes.
 Synergic application of science and technology.
 Research and development.
 Knowledge dissemination through Information and Communication Technology
(ICT)

WHAT WE LEARNT FROM THIS UNIT?

We need genuine strategies and strong organization arrangements for disaster risk reduction
and disaster response. For proper and effective management of disasters, we also need strong
institutional and legal arrangements at national and state levels. To achieve these, all nations
should have proper legislations and policies at national and state levels.

An Act is basically a legislation enacted by the national or state government to deal with a
particular issue. Policy means a set of basic principles and associated guidelines formulated by
an authorized body to achieve a particular goal.
The Disaster Management Act of India was enacted by the Government of India in 2005, just
one year after the great tsunami. This Act came into force considering the need for a paradigm
shift in the approach of disaster management from relief centric approach to proactive regime
to give greater emphasis on prevention, mitigation and preparedness.

The DM Act 2005 deals with the issues related to institutional, legal, financial and coordinating
mechanisms; role and responsibilities of DM agencies; response activities; procurement of
emergency equipments and tools; budgetary provisions for DM activities; delegation of power;
fund utilization and accounting; punitive measures etc.

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Disaster Management Policy is required to establish suitable organizational structure and
develop adequate infrastructure and facilities to deal with different aspects of disaster
Management.

The Union Cabinet of India approved the National Policy on Disaster Management (NPDM) in
2009. The NPDM is prepared in the tune and in pursuance of the DM Act 2005 with a vision of
making India safe and disaster resilient.

The main objective of this policy is to develop, proactive, technology driven and multi disaster
oriented strategy to address all aspects of disaster management covering prevention,
mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery phases; Institutional, legal and financial
arrangements; techno-legal regime; capacity development; knowledge management; research
and development.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. Define Act.
2. Discuss the procedure of enacting an Act in India.
3. Discuss important points of DM Act 2005 of India.
4. What is NDMA?
5. Mention the role of SDMA?
6. Mention few factors under the provision of punitive measures of DM Act 2005.
7. What do you mean by policy?
8. Describe basic advantages of DM policy.
9. Write few lines on NPDM.

RECOMMENDED BOOKS AND REFERENCES

1. National Policy on Disaster Management, Published by NDMA, New Delhi, 2009.
2. Disaster Management Act. (2005), Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India,
2005.

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PLANNING STRATEGIES
UNIT STRUCTURE
INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND LEGAL-INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK IN
INDIA
CONCEPT OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
DISASTER MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE IN INDIA
LEGAL-INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK AS PER DM ACT, 2005
NODAL MINISTRIES AND ORGANIZATIONS FOR DM IN INDIA
NATIONAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
NODAL MINISTRIES, WHICH DEAL WITH SPECIFIC DISASTERS IN
INDIA
OTHER PRIME ORGANIZATIONS AND TASK FORCES INVOLVED IN
DM
ACTIVITIES.
UN DISASTER MANAGEMENT AND MITIGATION SYSTEM
OFFICE OF THE UNITED NATIONS DISASTER RELIEF COORDINATOR
(UNDRO)
UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (UNDP)
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION (FAO)
WORLD FOOD PROGRAMME (WFP)
WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION (WHO)
UNITED NATIONS HIGH COMMISSION FOR REFUGEES (UNHCR)
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND CULTURAL
ORGANIZATION (UNESCO)
UNITED NATIONS CENTRE FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENTS (UNCHS)
UNITED NATIONS INTERNATIONAL CHILDREN’S EMERGENCY FUND
(UNICEF)
GENERAL STRATEGIES FOR FORMULATION OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT
PLAN
WHAT IS PLAN?
STRATEGIES FOR FORMULATION OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT
PLAN
SUPPORT REQUIREMENTS FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENT
STEPS FOR RISK REDUCTION PLANNING
INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM (ICS)
WHAT WE LEARNT FROM THIS UNIT?
PROBABLE QUESTIONS
SUGGESTED READINGS

INTRODUCTION
Now we are familiar with the fact that, the complete disaster management cycle has
many stages, which involves pre, and post disaster management related activities and
during disaster management. Practical planning for disaster management needs to have
the strategies for risk management and crisis management. This involves risk
assessment, early warning, prevention of disaster, damage mitigation, preparedness to
cope with disaster, rescue, safe shelter, relief operation, rehabilitation of disaster
victims and recovery of normal condition.

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 That is why, the approach of disaster management is multidisciplinary. Only national
and state governments can not prepare and implement disaster management plans. It
needs support from different government, non-governmental and academic
organizations as well as community based organizations.

It is essential to find out the suitable organizations to be involved in the process of

formulation and implementation of disaster management plans. Also, there should be a
clear organizational framework defining vertical and horizontal coordination
mechanism and sequence of activities to be carried out by these organizations. The
planning strategies should also reflect resource assessment and mobilization of counter
disaster resources; command, control and coordination mechanisms.

In this unit, we shall discuss different issues and aspects of disaster management
planning.

OBJECTIVES
The major objectives of this chapter are
 To discuss about sensible organizational framework for disaster management.
 To discuss the strategies need to be adopted for effective disaster management
planning.
 To determine the support requirements for disaster management.
 To define the steps of disaster management planning.
 To highlight the importance of Incident Command System in dealing disastrous
incidents.

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND LEGAL-INSTITUTIONAL

FRAMEWORK IN INDIA

CONCEPT OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

Though, the national and state governments are primarily responsible for preparation of
disaster management plans for national to local levels; but the organizational structure for
disaster management at all levels comprises central and state ministries and line departments,
disaster management authorities and institutions, local governments and Panchayati Raj
Institutions. Non-governmental organizations, community based organizations and community
people play supportive role to the organizational structure in the process of assessment,
planning and execution of plans. The Disaster Management Act 2005 and National Policy for
Disaster Management of India defined the organizational structure and their framework for
managing disasters at national to local levels. In unit 01, we have elaborately discussed about
Disaster Management Act. Here, we shall specifically discuss about organizational framework
for disaster management in India.

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 DISASTER MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE IN INDIA

Source : Disaster Management in India, published by Ministry of Home Affairs,

Government of India, 2011
The central government is the supreme authority to take all measures for the purpose of
disaster management in India. The central government has the power to formulate rules and
guidelines and make necessary amendments in these rules and guidelines, as it deems
necessary. The central government appoints officers, consultants and employees of National
Disaster Management Authority and has the power to assign any job related to disaster
management to any officer or organization at any time.
The Cabinet Committee on Management of Natural Calamities (CCMNC) was constituted to
oversee different aspects of management of natural calamities including assessment and
identification of the measures to reduce the impacts of these natural calamities.
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The Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS) looks after the issues related to defence of the
country, law & order, internal security, policy matters concerning internal and external security
implications, political and economic issues related to national security.

The high-level committee comprises Finance Minister as the Chairman and Home Minister,
Agriculture Minister and Deputy Chairman of Planning Commission as members of the
committee. The high-level committee is mainly responsible to approve the recommendations of
the Inter-Ministerial Central Team on central assistance to be provided to the disaster- affected
states. The Inter-Ministerial Central Team generally makes recommendations based on
assessment of damage caused by severe disasters in the states.

As discussed earlier, the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is the Central
Authority and has the power to approve the plan, policy and guidelines prepared by National
Executive Committee (NEC) in consultation with National Advisory Committee and other
experts of disaster management.

Similarly, there are State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs), State Executive
Committees (SECs), District Disaster Management Authorities (DDMAs) and local authorities
to formulate plan and policy for effective management of disasters at state, district and local
levels.

The National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC) comprises high-level officials of

Government of India headed by Cabinet Secretary to deal with major crises of the country. The
Crisis Management Group (CMG) comprising Central Nodal Ministries supports the NCMC.

The Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India is the Nodal Ministry to look after all
disaster management related issues and activities in the country. All other Central Ministries
and Departments have the key role in managing disasters as assigned by the Central
Government and Authority.

In case the situation is beyond control of the Civil Administration, the Armed Forces are called
upon to assist the civil authority. The Armed forces also participate in imparting training to
trainers and disaster Management officials. Similarly, Central Paramilitary Forces, Civil
Defence, Home Guards, NCC, NSS, Nehru Yuva Kendra Sangathan, State Police, Fire
Services etc. play vital role in response activities.

There is one National Institute of Disaster Management, which is basically responsible to

carryout academic and research works, conduct training programmes, prepare documentation,
develop training modules and database, assist the government in formulating disaster
management plans, publish journal etc.

There is National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) for the purpose of specialist response in
disaster situations in the country, under the general superintendence, direction and control of
NDMA. Similarly, many states already have State Disaster Response Forces (SDRFs), which
are responsible to carry out response operation during disaster situation under the guidance and
control of SDMA.

Academic Institutions, Scientific Organizations, Technical Institutions, Professional Bodies,

Corporate Sectors, NGOs, CBOs and community members have supportive role to assist the
organizational structure in assessment, planning, technology development, training and
awareness, response, relief etc.

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 LEGAL-INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK AS PER DM ACT, 2005

Central
Government MHA
(DM Cell) National
Nodal Ministry NDMA Executive
Committee

NIDM NDRF
State
Government
State
Executive
SDMA
Committee
DMD
District
Administration

Panchayat Municipality DDMA

Source : Disaster Management in India, published by Ministry of Home Affairs,

Government of India, 2011
NODAL MINISTRIES AND ORGANIZATIONS FOR DM IN INDIA

NATIONAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

As per Disaster Management Act 2005, the National Executive Committee (NEC) is the
supreme body to formulate and implement plans and policies. The NEC is also responsible for
smooth functioning of disaster management activities in India. The NEC is the coordinating
and monitoring body for disaster management in India.
The Secretary of the Ministry of Home Affairs, which is the nodal ministry and has
administrative control over disaster management in India, is the Chairperson of NEC. The
members of the NEC are the Secretaries of the ministries and departments, which have
administrative control over
 Agriculture
 Atomic Energy
 Defence
 Drinking water supply
 Environment and forest
 Finance
 Health
 Power
 Rural development
 Science and technology
 Space
 Telecommunication
 Urban development
 Water resources
 Chief of integrated defence staff
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 NODAL MINISTRIES, WHICH DEAL WITH SPECIFIC DISASTERS IN INDIA

 Ministry of Civil Aviation deals with Air Accidents.

 Ministry of Home Affairs deals with Civil Strife.
 Ministry of Railways deals with Railway Accidents.
 Ministry of Environment and Forest deals with Chemical Disasters.
 Ministry of Health deals with Biological Disasters.
 Ministry of Agriculture deals with Natural Disasters.
 Department of Atomic Energy is responsible to deal with the Nuclear Accident inside
or outside the country, which may cause serious threat to the people of India.
OTHER PRIME ORGANIZATIONS AND TASK FORCES INVOLVED IN DM
ACTIVITIES.

INDIAN METEOROLOGICAL DEPARTMENT (IMD)

Indian Meteorological Department (IND) is responsible to collect data of all natural

phenomena and develop effective warning systems for timely forecasting of occurrence of
natural hazards. The IMD is involved in following activities
 It receives basic meteorological information from surface observatories.
 It operates Pilot Balloon, Radio Sonde/Radio Wind observatories.
 It runs current weather observatories to meet the requirements of aviation industry.
 It has established Cyclone Detection Radar system.
 It has established INSAT Meteorological Data Processing System for reception and
processing of imagery.
 It runs observational programmes to support hydrologists, agriculture scientists,
seismologists, and environmentalists.
 It operates Cyclone Warning Centres in cyclone prone states.
 It has developed models of numerical weather prediction.
 The IMD communicates the warnings of probable natural hazards through different
communication channels like point to point teleprinter links, linking of Regional
Collecting Centres to Regional Telecom Hub, telex, Radio Tele Type broadcast,
VSAT technology, VHF and HF/RT links, All India Radio hook-up, Television.
Central Water Commission (CWC)

The CWC is a national apex engineering organization for water resource development in the
country. By this time, it has developed significant technological know-how for planning,
investigation, management and design of different schemes related to water resource
development.

This organization has contributed a lot in the field of irrigation, flood management, flood
forecasting, hydro-power generation etc. This organization is responsible for water storage and
inflow forecast. The CWC provides relevant data to local authorities for issuing advance
warning of flood to mitigate loss and damage. It also provides data to agriculture ministry
relevant to availability of water for irrigation.

Collection of rainfall and river discharge data through gauge stations and discharge network is
its another mandate to facilitate academic and administrative organizations in developing
schemes for flood management and taking advance measures for flood damage mitigation. It
also prepares daily water level and flood forecast bulletins using suitable computer software.

The major responsibilities of CWC are

 Extending supports to states in preparation of master plans and schemes for flood
control.
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  Development of flood forecasting mechanism and warning network for mitigating
flood damage.
 Scrutinizing the flood control master plans and schemes of the states for consideration
by the planning commission.
 Examination of multipurpose schemes for drainage network and flood control.
 Study of river morphology and river mechanics.
 Develop facilities for hydrological observations.
 Extending supports to state government for water resource development.
 Conducting training programmes for technical staff.
 Monitoring of dam safety.
Task forces and line departments linked to these task forces

There are many task forces associated with different aspects of disaster management. Let us
discuss about few important task forces and the organizations linked to these task forces.
 Warning: IMD, CWC, Water Resources Department, Radio, Doordarshan, DIPRO,
Department of Telecommunication, Police etc.
 Evacuation & Rescue: NDRF, SDRF, Armed Forces, State Police, VDP, Fire
Services, Civil Defence, Home guards, Zila Sainik Board, NCC, NYK, NSS,
Department of Forests, Soil conservation, PWD, Department of Sports, Scouts &
guides, PRIs etc.
 Shelter Management: Revenue Department, DRDA, PRIs, Police, VDP, NCC, NSS,
Transport Department, Railways, PWD, Water Resources Department, Electricity
Board, Forests Department, DIC, Housing Board, Scouts & Guides etc.
 First Aid & Medical: Health & Family Welfare, Red Cross, DSWO, ICDS,
Ayurvedic and Homeopathy Colleges, Veterinary etc.
 Water & Sanitation: Public Health Engineering Department, DRDA, PRIs,
Municipality, Town Committee, Irrigation, Agriculture Engineering etc.
 Carcass disposal: Municipality, Town Committee, Veterinary, Police, VDP, PRIs,
Department of Fisheries etc.
 Trauma counseling: Health & Family Welfare, Red Cross, ICDS etc.
 Damage assessment: Revenue and all other developmental departments.
 Relief & coordination: Revenue and Relief Department, Food & Civil supplies, FCI,
Warehousing Corporation, Veterinary Department, Fisheries, Agriculture etc.
 Patrolling: Police, VDP, Nagarik Samities, Zila Sainik Board, Scout & Guide, NSS,
NCC etc.
UN DISASTER MANAGEMENT AND MITIGATION SYSTEM
Though, it is the duty of a national government to deal with disasters of the country, but the
United Nations coordinates international cooperation in the field of disaster management
through the organizations under its aegis. The United Nations agencies are providing support
systems to all the countries, specially the developing and third world countries, for capacity
building, disaster risk reduction, disaster response and reconstruction. In the event of severe
disaster in a country, the United Nations agencies under the aegis of United Nations – Disaster
Management Team (UN-DMT) are responsible for providing technical and material assistance
to the government of the affected country and mobilizing its resources for response and
recovery.
The following organizations are playing vital role under the aegis of United Nations in the field
of international cooperation for disaster management.
OFFICE OF THE UNITED NATIONS DISASTER RELIEF COORDINATOR
(UNDRO)

It is the focal point of United Nations Disaster Management system and responsible for
mobilizing and coordinating the emergency relief to the disaster affected countries. The major
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activities of UNDRO are to promote the culture of preparedness for risk mitigation,
disseminate information, plan for risk reduction, and provide financial support to the
government of the disaster-affected country based on request of the concerned government and
with approval of UNDRO Coordinator.
UNITED NATIONS DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (UNDP)
The UNDP provides technical and financial assistance to the governments of the disaster prone
countries to carry out activities related to disaster risk mitigation, planning for sustainable
development, training and awareness programmes, and other aspects of disaster management.
This organization is also responsible to extend technical, material and financial supports for
post disaster relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction; promoting risk reduction techniques;
emergency management etc. UNDP can approve certain amount of fund to the disaster-affected
country for immediate relief, rehabilitation, reconstruction and emergency management.
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION (FAO)

This organization has the responsibility of extending technical and financial supports to the
natural hazard prone countries for vulnerability reduction; rehabilitation of agriculture,
livestock, fisheries, and local food production etc. This organization also monitors the status of
food production of different countries and assesses the requirements of exceptional food
assistance.
WORLD FOOD PROGRAMME (WFP)
WFP is responsible for providing required food to disaster affected country for humanitarian
relief and extending necessary supports to the disaster-affected countries for rehabilitation,
reconstruction and risk reducing development programmes. Funds for these purposes are
allocated from WFP general resources and International Emergency Food Reserve.
WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION (WHO)
WHO is the international nodal organization, which provides advice and assistance to all the
countries for preventive and curative health care; preparedness and capacity building of the
national and regional health services for rapid disaster response and other medical health care
related matters.
UNITED NATIONS HIGH COMMISSION FOR REFUGEES (UNHCR)
The UNHRC looks after the issues related to protection of refugees and provides necessary
assistance to the concerned nations for permanent solution of the problems.
UNITED NATIONS EDUCATIONAL, SCIENTIFIC AND
CULTURAL ORGANIZATION (UNESCO)
The UNESCO’s main objective is to carry out scientific works related to disaster risk
mitigation. It conducts programmes for risk assessment and risk mitigation. This also assists
the national governments in carrying out studies on hazards of geological and hydro-
meteorological origins.
UNITED NATIONS CENTRE FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENTS (UNCHS)
The UNCHS is primarily responsible to develop and promote innovative methodologies to
determine the level of disaster risk, based on hazard and vulnerability analysis, and assist the
vulnerable countries in formulating plans for damage mitigation. This organization provides
supports in developing safe platforms for human settlement through planning for sustainable
development, hazard resistant design and construction.
UNITED NATIONS INTERNATIONAL CHILDREN’S EMERGENCY FUND
(UNICEF)
The UNICEF takes care of child health and nutrition programmes of all the countries,
especially the disaster prone and disaster-affected countries. It has the authority to provide
technical, material and financial supports to the disaster prone countries for conducting

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training and awareness programmes; promoting culture of preparedness; and dealing with
disaster situations.
GENERAL STRATEGIES FOR FORMULATION OF DISASTER
MANAGEMENT PLAN

WHAT IS PLAN?
The term PLAN depicts tentative course of action or scheme or method or programme or
systematic arrangement of elements for the accomplishment of an objective. We can formulate
a plan based on some real or imaginary parameters. To formulate a practical plan; we must be
careful about target of the plan, activities to be undertaken to achieve the target, sequence of
activities, role of different organizations or individuals, provisions for procurement of
necessary resources, budgetary provision to meet the expenditures related to all activities etc.
Otherwise, we will not be able to translate the plan into action plan.
So, prior to preparation of a plan to address a particular issue, we must do some groundwork to
understand the issues pertaining to the target of the plan including assessment of our needs to
implement the plan and our capacity to fulfill the needs. Most of the plans are not formulated
based on genuine assessment of needs and capacity. Implementation of some mega plans may
need huge fund, manpower and resources. If we do not have capacity to meet the requirements
of fund, manpower and resources to implement the plan, it will be a futile exercise. There
should be genuine strategies to achieve the objectives of the plan.
STRATEGIES FOR FORMULATION OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT PLAN
As discussed earlier, disaster management is a multidisciplinary subject, where every
individual/organization/institution has certain role and responsibility. Broadly, disaster
management covers two aspects, risk management and crisis management. The activities
pertaining to disaster management plans are pre disaster, during disaster and post disaster
activities.
Pre disaster activities are linked to disaster risk mitigation comprising risk assessment,
measures for risk mitigation i.e, prevention of disasters, mitigation of damage and preparedness
to cope with disaster. Rescue and safe shelter of disaster victims are integral parts of disaster
activities. Post disaster actions include relief, rehabilitation and recovery. So, to make a
practical disaster management plan, we must try to address all these elements of activities. Let
us see some general perspectives of disaster management plan step-by-step.
The purpose of disaster management plan
The purpose of a disaster management plan is to anticipate the probability of damage and
disruption in the event of occurrence of a hazard and measures to be taken for mitigation of
damage and disruption. The disaster management plan also takes care of wide range
requirements for counter disaster activities. A practical disaster management plan addresses the
whole scope of disaster management cycle including pre, during and post disaster management
related activities.
So, the objectives of the disaster management plan are to
 Anticipate the future situation through genuine risk assessment.
 Identify the suitable measures for risk mitigation.
 Enhance the preparedness level of the vulnerable community for coping with
disasters.
 Assess the available counter disaster resources and further needs.
 Enhance the capacity of disaster management agencies for effective response.
 Find out the scopes for rehabilitation and reconstruction.
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  Define the budgetary provision for proper implementation of the plan.
Considering the above-mentioned broad objectives, we can formulate disaster management
plan for a particular disaster prone area.
Risk assessment
As we have already discussed earlier, disaster risk of an area is directly related to
characteristics of hazards to which the area is exposed and the vulnerability profile of the area.
An area may be single hazard or multi hazard prone. The risk of the area is proportional to
frequency, magnitude, response time and exposure time of the hazards. At the same time, it is
also dependent on elements at risk and susceptibility of elements at risk to probable hazards.
So, the disaster risk is largely hazard and location specific.
For genuine risk assessment, hazard and vulnerability assessments are necessary. Use of
remote sensing generated satellite imagery and Geographic Information System (GIS) is also
unavoidable for genuine risk assessment of natural hazard prone areas.
So, provisions should be there in the Disaster Management Plan for genuine risk assessment of
the hazard prone areas including primary and secondary data collection, procurement of
satellite imagery, establishment of analytical laboratory having GIS tools and software,
preparation of hazard map, data analysis, and determination of disaster risk factors of the
hazard prone areas.
Risk management
Risk management involves the appropriate measures for prevention of hazards, mitigation of
damage or preparedness to cope with disaster. Risk management activities are linked to risk
assessment, because such measures are variables to the characteristics of hazards and
vulnerability factors. One set of measures may not be suitable for different hazard prone areas.
In this stage, both structural and non-structural measures are involved. So, the disaster
management plan should address the issues relevant to scopes and facilities to identify and
implement the appropriate measures required for prevention, mitigation and preparedness. This
stage also involves capacity and needs assessments in terms of skilled manpower, tools,
equipments, fund etc.
For example, if an area is flood prone and the disaster risk is high i.e., the probability of
damage and disruption is high, then
 For prevention of flood, we may need to go for an embankment. For proper design and
construction of the embankment, involvement of Water Resources Department is
necessary. For funding of the scheme, the direct involvement of government is
essential. For supervision of progress and monitoring of the condition of the
embankment, involvement of both Water Resources Department and community
people are required.
 For damage mitigation, vulnerable community should try to follow land-use and
building regulations. For which, active involvements of government bodies/authorities
as well as community people are equally important. Early warning mechanism is also
a part of this stage.
 For preparedness to cope with disaster, vulnerable people should try to adopt all
mitigation measures as well as alternative adjustment processes. For this, provisions
should be there for community awareness, insurance, compensation, material support
etc.
Response
This stage of planning is also related to risk assessment and risk management. Based on nature
of risk and damage, we can identify the requirements for response activities. This stage

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of plan covers the aspects of formation of response forces, capacity building of the response
forces, training of response forces and volunteers, procurement of required resources and
timely mobilization of resources, strategies for timely rescue and safe shelter of the victims,
management of evacuation centres, effective relief operation, coordination amongst different
agencies involved in response activities etc.
Recovery
This stage of planning involves statement of policy of recovery process; concrete programme
for rehabilitation and reconstruction; role and responsibilities of government bodies and
authorities; role of affected communities; provisions of fund and other requirements; prospects
and constraints etc.
Organizational structure
The plan should clearly define the organizational structure required for formulation and
implementation of the disaster management plan. This should also highlight the sequence of
activities to be carried out and role of different organizations relevant to these activities. The
organizational structure may involve government authorities, government departments, non-
governmental organizations, local authorities, academic institutions, community based
organizations etc.
Operational implementation of the plan
The plan should have strategies for proper implementation, monitoring and timely review of
the plan.
SUPPORT REQUIREMENTS FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENT

Though, disaster management agencies are primarily responsible for formulation and
implementation of disaster management plan, but long-term planning for disaster management
needs supports of different organizations and logistics. Codes, norms, guidelines, training,
awareness and research programmes are also part of the support system for long-term disaster
management. Long-term disaster management plan addresses all phases of disaster
management cycle i.e., prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. It is the
duty of disaster management authorities to recognize the important support systems and
involve these support systems in planning and decision making process.
Some of the important resources, from which DM agencies may get significant inputs for
hazard analysis and prevention of hazards, are
 Academic and research institutions.
 Technical authorities and scientific programmes.
 Government departments having public safety responsibilities.
 Industrial safety organizations.
 Agencies connected with national and international developmental projects.
 National planning authorities or commissions.
 Private sector companies and contractors.
 Military forces.
 Non-governmental organizations and media.
The support requirements for effective damage mitigation and preparedness may be
 National Act and Policy.
 Land use regulation and building codes.
 Organizations involved in assessment and monitoring of hazards and vulnerability.
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  Organisations having resources and expertise for analyzing mitigation projects.
 Warning systems.
 Incentive, compensation and insurance.
 Indigenous adjustment methods.
 Training, awareness etc.
Resources essential for response activities are
 Trained and well equipped Response and Task forces.
 Trained volunteers.
 Equipments and tools.
 Warning systems.
 Geographical and hazard maps.
 Past records on damage characteristics and post disaster response activities.
 National policy for international assistance.
 Effective relief mechanism.
 Emergency support services.
 Technical advisory services.
 Standard emergencies services.
 Military services.
 NGOs and CBOs familiar with response activities etc.
For effective disaster management, we need proper logistics. Here, logistics implies
arrangement of facilities and procurement and delivery of right supplies in sufficient quantity,
good condition, and right place and time. The logistics required for disaster management
related activities may be,
 Infrastructure, facilities and laboratories for data collection and analysis.
 Transport facilities for land, sea, inland water, air etc.
 Operational support items like fuel, lubricants etc.
 Malignance items like spare parts etc.
 Emergency and survival kits.
 Items likely to be required for reconstruction, like building materials.
 Safe storage facilities at major distribution points.
 Evacuation centres at safe and hazard free areas.
 Well equipped control rooms and Emergency Operation Centres (EOCs).
 Hazard preventive devices.
 Commodities required for relief operation.
 Commodities required for response activities.
 Alternative communication facilities.
 Data base, satellite imagery, GIS based digital maps etc.
Other support requirements for disaster management are

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  Training Centres to conduct trainings for trainers and others on different
aspects of disaster management. The trainings courses may be on general
disaster management, skill development, coordinated disaster management
action, specialized training etc.
 Public awareness to educate and aware the common public about their disaster
risk and risk reduction measures. Such programmes help to motivate the
vulnerable people for participation in disaster management related activities.
 Research on different aspects of disaster management is essential to develop
new methodologies and technologies for risk assessment and risk reduction
measures. The research information can be utilized for understanding hazard
characteristics, progression of vulnerability, risk factors, damage mitigation
approaches etc.
STEPS FOR RISK REDUCTION PLANNING

 Hazard mapping & zoning are required to demarcate the hazard prone locations in an
area, identify the types of hazards to which the area is exposed, and determine the
possible impact of hazards on the physical and living elements of the area.
 Vulnerability assessment is essential to identify the unsafe conditions of an area and
understand the progression of vulnerability factors involving dynamic pressure and
root causes of the unsafe conditions. This is required to take appropriate measures for
damage mitigation.
 Capacity and needs assessments are essential to identify the available resources,
means and strengths and further needs of these to deal with disaster situations.
 Assessment of resources and elements at risk are essential to determine the existing
recourses, which are either useful to mitigate disaster risk or at risk. This enables the
Disaster Managers to take corrective measures.
 Target and activities should be clearly defined to understand the objectives of the plan
and sequence of activities to be done. This is necessary to define the organizational
structure and role of different organizations and to determine the support requirements
for proper implementation of the plan.
 Incident Command System (ICS) is required to define the organizational structure for
command, control and coordination. This is also a tool for defining emergency
response and incident management systems.
 Command, priorities and coordination policies help the organizational structure to
work effectively, on priority basis and maintain coordination amongst different
organizations under the leadership of a central commander.
 Contingency planning based on hazard, vulnerability and capacity assessments is
required for prevention of hazards, damage mitigation, preparedness, community
mobilization, rescue, relief, rehabilitation, recovery etc.
 Assignments to individuals and organizations; based on their expertise, skill and
capacity; should be clearly defines to get timely and effective supports form all the
individuals and organizations in disaster management related activities.
 Legislations and policies are required for proper and timely implementation of the
plan.
 Monitoring of progress is also essential for timely actions and genuine implementation
of all the mitigation measures.

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  Drill should be the integral part of the plan to maintain the momentum of disaster
management related activities in true spirit and develop the skill and efficiency of
individuals and organizations involved in organizational structure.
 Annual report and review of plan are mandatory parts of any plan to see the progress
of work, determine the gaps and constraints and review the plan accordingly for better
management of disasters in future.
INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM (ICS)

Incident Command System (ICS) is a systematic tool or standardized method, which guides to
have a strong and effective organizational structure for proper command, control and
coordination. ICS is a management system that is flexible and adaptable to deal with any scale
of natural as well as manmade hazard induced disasters.
Initially the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India and United States Agency for
International Development (USAID) have developed the concept of ICS to address the
following issues.
 How to achieve quick and effective response during an emergency, where several
departments and agencies are involved?
 How to maintain better coordination amongst responding agencies, which have
different organizational structures, line of authority and communication patterns?
 How to enhance the ability and competence of the personnel involved in disaster
management system for effective management of crisis situation?
Broadly, ICS is based on five management principles; Command, Planning, Operation, Logistics
& Finance and administration.

Incident
Commander

Information Safety
Officer Officer

Liaison
Officer

Operations Planning Logistics Finance &

Section Section Section Administration

Fig.: Incident Command

System

Central commander: who is in overall charge of the incident command mechanism and
responsible to deal with an incident like major earthquake, Air accident etc.
Operations section: The operations section is the key section of ICS responsible for giving
directives for tactical actions to meet incident objectives.

158
Planning section: The responsibility of the planning section is collection, evaluation, and
display of incident information; maintaining status of resources; and preparing the incident
action plan and incident-related documentation.
Logistics section: The logistics section is responsible for providing adequate services and
support to the responding agencies required to deal with all incidents.
Finance/Administration: The Finance & Administration Sections are responsible for keeping
track of incident-related costs, personnel and equipment records, and administering
procurement contracts associated with the incident or event.
Information Officer: The Information Officer is responsible for compiling and releasing the
information about an incident to the news media, incident personnel, and other appropriate
agencies and organizations.
Liaison Officer: Incidents that are multi-jurisdictional or have several agencies involved may
require the Liaison Officer position to assist the Command staff for maintaining coordination
with each department/agency representatives.
Safety Officer: The role of Safety Officer on the Command Staff is to anticipate hazardous
and unsafe situations and recommend the measures for safety of the personnel.
Additional organizational units with delegation of authority and power may be attached to each
of these functional areas if needed. For examples, organizational structure of operations section
may be as

Operations Section
Chief

Operations Branch
Branches

Divisions and Tactical Group

Groups
Support Group

Task Forces

Single Resources

159
 Planning section structure may be as

Planning
Section Chief

Situation Unit Resource Demobilization Documentation

Leader Unit Leader Unit Leader Unit Leader

Structure of logistics section may be as

Logistics Section
Chief

Service Branch Support Branch

Communications Supply Unit

Unit

Facilities Unit
Medical Unit

Ground Support
Food Unit Unit

Finance & administrative section structure may be as

Finance & Administrative

Section Chief

Time Unit Procurement Unit Claims Unit Cost Unit

WHAT WE LEARNT FROM THIS UNIT?

Practical planning for disaster management needs to have proper strategies for risk and crisis
management. Selection of genuine organizations, suitable for disaster management related
activities at all levels, is essential for effective disaster management. A strong organizational
framework is necessary for planning and timely response to crisis situation. The organizational
structure for disaster management at all levels must have participation of central and state
ministries and line departments; disaster management authorities and institutions; local
governments and Panchayati Raj Institutions. Non-governmental organizations, community
based organizations and community people should play supportive role in the process of
assessment, planning and execution of plans.

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 The National Disaster Management Structure of India is formulated based on Disaster
Management Act 2005. National Policy for Disaster Management was approved by the
Cabinet of Government of India in 2009 to formulate the guidelines for disaster
management activities in India.
We need practical disaster management plan to anticipate the probability of damage and
disruption in the event of occurrence of a hazard and measures to be taken for
mitigation of damage and disruption. The disaster management plan also takes care of
wide range requirements for counter disaster activities. A practical disaster management
plan addresses the whole scope of disaster management cycle including pre, during and
post disaster management related activities.
Disaster management plan should have the scopes for hazard mapping & zoning;
vulnerability assessment; capacity and needs assessments; assessment of resources and
elements at risk; target and activities to be done; Incident Command System (ICS);
command, priorities and coordination; contingency planning; assignments to
individuals and organizations; legislations and policies; monitoring of progress; drill;
and preparation of annual report and review of plan.
Incident Command System (ICS) is a systematic tool or standardized method, which
guides us to have a strong and effective organizational structure for proper command,
control and coordination. ICS is a management system that is flexible and adaptable to
deal with any scale of natural as well as manmade hazard induced disasters.
PROBABLE QUESTIONS

1. Why we need a strong and effective organizational framework?

2. What is the role of CCS?
3. Elaborate Legal-Institutional Framework as per DM Act 2005.
4. Who are the members of National Executive Committee for disaster management?
5. Which central ministries deal with different types of disasters?
6. What is the role of CWC?
7. Discuss the objectives of DM plan.
8. Write the steps of DRR planning?
9. What do you mean by ICS?
10. What is the role of planning section in ICS?

SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Carter, W. N., Disaster Management: A Disaster Management Handbook, published
by Asian Development Bank, 1991.

2. India: IDNDR & Beyond, NCDM Publication, 2000, pp 4, 6.

3. Manual on Natural Disaster Management in India, NCDM Publication, 2001, pp 8.

4. National Disaster Management Guideline, Published by Ministry of Home Affairs,

Government of India, pp 30.

5. Chakrabarty, U. K., Industrial Disaster Management and Emergency Response,

Published by Asian Books Pvt. Ltd.
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 PREPARATION OF STATE AND DISTRICT LEVEL DM PLANS

INTRODUCTION
OBJECTIVES
BACKGROUND
ROLE OF DIFFERENT AGENCIES IN DM PLANNING
CRITERIA AND GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT PLAN
CRITERIA
GUIDING PRINCIPLES
SUGGESTED OUTLINE FOR PREPARATION OF SDMP
THE FRAMEWORK OF THE PLAN
COORDINATING AND MONITORING MECHANISM
SECTIONS OF THE PLAN
SUGGESTED OUTLINE OF THE SDMP
PREPARATION OF DDMP
TECHNICALITY AND CONTENT
CONTENT PRESENTATION
SUGGESTED OUTLINE OF THE DDMP
WHAT WE LEARNT FROM THIS UNIT?
PROBABLE QUESTIONS
SUGGESTED READINGS

INTRODUCTION
Active participation of different government and non-governmental organizations as well as
the community members is necessary in the process of formulation and proper implementation
of disaster management plans at various levels. In chapter 01, we have discussed in detail
about Disaster Management Act and Policy of India. These Act and policy were adopted by the
Government of India for effective management of disasters in India.
In chapter 02, detail about concept of disaster management planning, strategies for formulation
of a disaster management plan, support requirements for disaster management, provisions of
risk reduction planning, organizational structure and legal-institutional framework in India for
disaster management etc. are discussed.
In chapter 03, we have discussed about the issues and concerns relevant to a practical disaster
management plan, including the methods and tools required for assessment and analysis of
different parameters.
In this chapter, we shall discuss about principles and guidelines for formulation of state and
district disaster management plans.
OBJECTIVES
The main objectives of this unit are
 To discuss about importance of state and district disaster management plans.
 To highlight the basic principles for preparation of disaster management plan.
 To discuss about the existing guidelines for preparation of state and district disaster
management plans.

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 BACKGROUND
The Indian subcontinent is exposed to most of the natural hazards like flood, earthquake,
cyclone, landslide, hailstorm, drought etc. About 68% landmass of India is drought prone,
almost 60% landmass is earthquake prone, flood prone areas cover around 12% of landmass,
about 8% of landmass is prone to cyclonic storm, landslide prone areas cover around 15% of
the landmass.
EM-DAT: CRED database showed that, the number of people in India vulnerable to drought is
much higher than any other natural hazards. Flood hazard also affects a sizable number of
populations in India. Though, the frequency of earthquake is quite low, but it kills maximum
number of people in India followed by storm. The alarming rate of crop damage due to flood,
drought, storm etc. is also the major concern for the Government of India.
At the same time, the numbers of disastrous events, in particular hydro-meteorological
disasters, are increasing day by day. The increasing trend of population affected by different
natural disasters during last few decades is also a mater of concern. The damage to property
and economic loss due to disasters are increasing alarmingly all over the world including India.

In view of the increasing trend of loss and damage to life and property due to disasters,
particularly in the developing countries, the General Assembly of the United Nations
designated the decade of 1090’s (1990-1999) as the International Decade for Natural Disaster
Reduction (IDNDR) for global cooperation to mitigate disaster risk.

During last few decades, many international and national agencies have undertaken a series of
programmes for disaster risk mitigation. Different academic institutions have been conducting
academic and research programmes on disaster management. But, even then the frequency of
occurrence of natural hazards and their impacts are increasing year by year.

Most of the states and districts in India have relief centric disaster management plans, which
give enough emphasis on post disaster emergency response activities. These plans are not
formulated based on micro-level risk assessment of different hazard prone areas of the districts.
As a result, risk management part is ignored in most of these plans. We know that, a complete
disaster management plan has two distinct parts, risk management and crisis management.
Moreover, planning for crisis management or emergency response is not possible without
genuine risk assessment. In view of these, works are going on at various levels to find out
comprehensive models for disaster management planning at national, state and district levels.

In 1999, the High Power Committee under the Chairmanship of Shri J.C. Pant prepared
comprehensive model plans for disaster management at national, state and district levels. After
Gujrat earthquake in 2001, the National Committee on Disaster Management was set-up to
explore the scopes of practical disaster management plan and effective disaster mitigation
mechanisms.

One year after the great Tsunami in 2004, the Government of India had enacted an Act called
“Disaster Management Act, 2005 (No. 53 of 2005) for effective management of disasters in
India. The Disaster Management Act. came into force considering the need for a paradigm shift
in the approach of disaster management from relief centric approach to a proactive regime to
give greater emphasis on prevention, mitigation and preparedness. This Act provided the
scopes for creation of disaster management policy, formation of legal- institutional framework,
preparation of disaster management plans at national, state and district levels.

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The Union Cabinet of India approved the National Policy on Disaster Management (NPDM) in
2009. The NPDM was prepared in pursuance of the Disaster Management Act, 2005 with a
vision to make India safe and disaster resilient.
The Disaster Management Act and NPDM have drawn the guidelines for preparation of state
and district disaster management plans covering all the important aspects of risk and crisis
managements.
ROLE OF DIFFERENT AGENCIES IN DM PLANNING
The Disaster Management Act 2005 of India defined the roles and responsibilities of different
national and state authorities and bodies in formulating policies and plans for disaster
management at national to local levels.
The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), for which the Prime Minister of
India is the Chairperson, is responsible for laying down policies, plans and guidelines for
timely and effective management of disaster situation and response to disasters. NDMA also
lays down the policies and guidelines for other statutory authorities to formulate their own
plans, with due emphasis on prevention, mitigation, preparedness, emergency response,
rehabilitation and recovery.
The National Advisory Committee; comprising members having expertise in the field of
disaster management and practical experience of disaster management at national to district
levels provides academic and technical supports to NDMA in formulating plans and policies.
The National Executive Committee (NEC) having its members from the ministries of
government of India, which have administrative control over national disaster management as
well as other relevant fields, is responsible for formulating and implementing the disaster
management plans as per National Disaster Management guidelines. The NEC is the
coordinating and monitoring body for disaster management in India. The NDMA approves the
national plan prepared by NEC.
As per section 23 of Disaster Management Act 2005, every state of India shall have a State
Disaster Management Plan (SDMP). The State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA), for
which the Chief Minister of the state is the Chairperson, has the responsibility of laying down
plans and policies for effective management of disasters in the state, in pursuance with the
guidelines of NDMA. The SDMP should be prepared in the line of National Disaster
Management Plan. The role of State Advisory Committee (SAC), having members with
practical experience in the field of disaster management, is to extend supports to SDMA and
give recommendations for formulation of plan and policies at state level.
The responsibility of State Executive Committee (SEC) is to prepare and implement the State
Disaster Management Plan (SDMP). The SEC prepares the SDMP as per guidelines laid down
by the NDMA and in consultation with district and local authorities.
The District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA) is responsible for preparation of the
District Disaster Management Plan (DDMP) and taking all measures for disaster management
in the district in accordance with the guidelines laid down by national and state authorities.
DDMA is the planning, coordinating and monitoring body for disaster management in the
district.
Besides these authorities and bodies, the National Institute of Disaster Management and other
academic and technical institutions of the country have the responsibility to extend research
based academic supports to the central and state authorities and bodies in formulating disaster
management plans at national to local levels. The concerned non-governmental and community
based organizations have also significant role in the process of preparation and execution of
disaster management plans.

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 CRITERIA AND GUIDING PRINCIPLES OF DISASTER
MANAGEMENT PLAN
CRITERIA
As per Disaster Management Act 2005 and National Policy on Disaster Management 2009, in
formulating disaster management plans at various levels the following criteria must be
followed.
 The disaster management plan should give top priority on culture of prevention and
preparedness instead of culture of relief.
 The plan should ensure that, the community is the most important stakeholder in the
disaster management process.
 The plan should give stress on adopting state-of-the-art technology based and
environment friendly damage mitigation measures.
 The disaster management plan should have close link with developmental planning
process.
 The plan should have the provision to establish efficient legal-institutional framework
and organizational structure for effective management of disasters.
 The plan should have scopes for creating early warning systems backed by fail-safe
and information technology supports.
 The plan should have provision for productive partnership with print and electronic
media for community awareness towards capacity building and damage mitigation
approaches.
 The plan should give due stress on needs assessment of the vulnerable community for
efficient response and relief operations.
 Reconstruction phase of the plan should give due emphasis on hazard resilient
structures and habitats.
 Provisions should be there in the plan to bring back the affected community to a better
and safer state than pre disaster state.
GUIDING PRINCIPLES
National Disaster Management Guidelines for preparation of SDMP derived some guiding
principles. As per the guiding principles, the SDMP should be prepared based on following
themes and conditions.
 The vulnerability of different parts of the state to different kinds of disasters.
 The measures to be adopted for prevention and mitigation of disasters.
 The manner in which mitigation measures shall be integrated with developmental
plans and projects.
 The capacity building and preparedness measures to be taken.
 The roles and responsibilities of each department of the government of the state in
relation to the measures specified above.
 The roles and responsibilities of different departments of the government of the state
in responding to any threatening disaster situation or disaster.
 The state plan will be reviewed and updated annually.
 Appropriate provisions will be made by the state governments for financing the
measures to be carried out under the state plan.
 Copies of the state plan will be made available to the departments of the government
of the state and such department will draw up their own plans in accordance with the
state plan.
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Besides all these, the plan should be prepared through a participatory approach with the aims at
strengthening the communities, elected local bodies and state administration’s response and
preparedness. The plan should have the scope for community based disaster management to
ensure community’s participation.
SUGGESTED OUTLINE FOR PREPARATION OF SDMP

The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has prepared an outline for preparation
of State Disaster Management Plan.

THE FRAMEWORK OF THE PLAN

The framework of the plan should cover the following issues
 General issues including broad vulnerability profile of the state. It will also comprise
other thematic issues like community based disaster management, medical
preparedness, awareness generation, training needs analysis and development of a
state Human Resources (HR) plan, knowledge management, early warning and
forecasting system standards for relief, rehabilitation etc.
 Disaster specific issues and methodologies.
 Cross-cutting issues common to all situations in any disaster. It will specifically deal
with implementation, monitoring and review arrangements.
 The plan will also address cross-cutting activities in DM, the vertical and horizontal
linkages requiring coordination between the union, state and local governments on one
hand and a host of government departments and agencies on the other.
COORDINATING AND MONITORING MECHANISM

This should include the following issues

 The role of elders, senior citizens and locally respected leaders.
 The role of the NGOs, self Help Groups and other Community Based Organizations.
 The role of women as active participants in disaster management including risk
reduction, mitigation, preparedness and awareness generation.
 The role of urban and rural local bodies particularly gram sabhas.

SECTIONS OF THE PLAN

a) Operational, which should

 Take into account the socio-cultural aspects of the state, differential needs of all
sections of the society, concerns of women etc.
 Be in harmony with national, state, district, block, village and community level plans
and incorporate implementation strategies.
 Develop a baseline for determination of total and minimum acceptable level of risk.
 Capture all aspects of disaster management cycle.
 Include a reference to the components of the state Human Resource Development
(HRD) plan for disaster management.
 Contemplate professional training for micro planning and develop inbuilt simulation
techniques.
 Describe the role of the Emergency Operations Centre (EOC).
 Incorporate Medical Preparedness and Mass Casualty Management.
 Outline various life-line structures/infrastructure and highlight the arrangements for
maintenance and management of these structures during disasters.
 Take note of the existing National Disaster Response Forces, which are established to
help the state DM agencies in response activities.
 Consider coordinated response of municipal corporations during disaster.
 Include the essentials of a scientific approach in damage assessment exercise.
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  Identify the emergency management problems.
 Give due emphasis on the mock exercises and drills.
 Describe the mechanism of convergence of existing national, state, district and local
resources.
 Address logistic issues in preparedness, response, rehabilitation and recovery related
matters.
 Incorporate the modalities for inter-state and inter-country coordination.
 Include the requirements of infrastructure, communication, training and HRD in a
phased manner.
b) Administrative
 The plan must be in accordance with the development plans of the state five-year plan
and in conformity with the State Disaster Management Policy.
 The systems and institutions for implementation of the plans must be clearly identified
and spelt out.
 The plan should consider the scopes for public-private partnership, knowledge
management etc.
 The plan should have the provision for documenting the indigenous local practices for
disaster management.
 Scopes for regular undation of the resource inventory.
 The plan should consider inter-state and inter-district coordination issues.
 Provisions for utilizing the facilities of Disaster Management Cells and Administrative
Training Institutes in developing disaster management related skills.
 The plan should clearly mention the interface with Panchayati Raj Institutes, NGOs,
CBOs and community.
 Mechanism for regular updating of the plan should be there.
c) Financial
 The plan should be supported with necessary budget provisions for short, medium and
long-term activities. The modalities for creation and utilization of State Disaster
Response Fund and District Disaster Response Fund may be incorporated in the
annexure of the plan.
 The plan must spelt out details about mitigation and capacity building measures and
incorporate disaster management concerns into developmental plans.
 The plan should be a component sub-plan of the state’s annual and five-year plans.
 The plan must have provision of adequate funds for acquiring required relief material,
the forces to be engaged in relief operation, district and local authorities etc.
 The plan should furnish detail about scopes of external aid and nodal arrangement for
coordination of external aid.
d) Legal
This section should cover the following issues
 The responsibility of the State Executive Committee; like coordinating and monitoring
the implementation of national policy, national and state plans; providing information
to NDMA relating to various parameters of disaster management; earmarking the
funds for disaster management etc.
 Techno-legal regimes like amending building bye-laws, bringing in flood plain zoning
legislation etc.
e) The process
This section should
 Designate the nodal department for coordinating formulation of the state plan.
 Identify the focal point in each relevant department, consisting of a core group of
officers, and provide scopes for training to professionalize their approach.
 Involve administrative and technical institutions for providing technical support.
 Describe nodal department(s) for involvement of NGOs, CBOs, corporate sector,
youth organizations, educational institutions, Panchayati Raj Institutions, urban local
bodies, media and other stakeholders and the modalities of such partnerships.

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  Outline the logistics management in all aspects of disaster from preparedness to
recovery.
 Describe the consultative process with local authorities, district authorities and
people’s representatives.
SUGGESTED OUTLINE OF THE SDMP

Part I: General
Chapter I: Introduction. This chapter may comprise state profile (social, economic and
demographic); vision, theme and objectives.
Chapter II: Vulnerability Assessment and Risk Analysis. This chapter may include history of
vulnerability of the state to different types of hazards; hazard and vulnerability assessment;
hazard mapping; threat of man-made disasters; district hazard profile; emerging concerns such
as urbanization, environment degradation, population explosion etc.
Chapter III: Preventive measures. This chapter may include state specific natural and man-
made disasters; early warning and its dissemination mechanism; prevention and mitigation
plans; short, medium and long term structural and non-structural measures required to be taken
for damage mitigation; nodal departments for each activities etc.
Chapter IV: Mainstreaming DM concerns into developmental plans / programmes /
projects. This may include; economic and social infrastructure like irrigation, power, drinking
water, sanitation, roads, buildings, schools, hospitals, housing, heritage, monuments etc.;
elementals of impact assessment and risk reduction; classification of disasters and residual
agenda means logistics management to be incorporated in respective SOPs.
Chapter V: Preparedness measures. This may include; resource availability with national and
state agencies, government, private and civil society; community based disaster management;
training, capacity building and other proactive measures; awareness generation; application of
GIS; techno-legal regime; medical preparedness; knowledge management; fail- safe
communication; mock drills and rehearsals etc. At the time of updating the plan, lessons learnt
may be incorporated.
Chapter VI: Response. This chapter may highlight the issues related to; Incident Command
System; Emergency Operations Centres; alert mechanism; disaster risk reduction framework;
state act and policy; roadmap for risk management; yearly schedule for conducting mock drills;
mechanism for activation of response plan upon occurrence of a disaster.
Chapter VII: Partnership with other stakeholders. This may include; the role of different
organizations, institutions and media in different phases of disaster management, along with
names and designations of nodal persons.
Chapter VIII: Financial arrangement. This may include; arrangement for funding of the
different components of the state plan; provision of fund for specific mitigation projects;
provision for State Disaster Response and Mitigation funds at state and district levels; SOPs of
each department to make provision of fund for its own DM in its annual budget etc.
Part II: Disaster specific action plan
The chapters under this part should be based on probable hazards of the state.
Part III: Cross-cutting issues
This part may include the following chapters
Review and updation of the plans. The plan should include a schedule for submitting action
taken reports confirming that their components have been duly updated.
Coordination and implementation. This may include; the tasks entrusted to various agencies
involved in disaster management and coordination amongst these agencies; mechanisms of
SDMA/SEC/DDMA for ensuring the active participation of concerned government and non-
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governmental organizations; scopes of coordination of efforts amongst government
departments and other stakeholders; acquisition and application of resources in accordance
with requirements; monitoring mechanism; regular Management Information System for
timely reporting etc.
PREPARATION OF DDMP
The model template prepared by the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)
suggested some general guidelines for preparation of a District Disaster Management Plan
(DDMP).
TECHNICALITY AND CONTENT
a) General characteristics of DDMP
 It should be clear & precise.
 It should not be too much technical or verbose, so that everyone can understand.
 The year of preparation of the plan should be clearly mentioned to facilitate updation.
 It should provide flexibility in execution: seasonality of hazards and roles of DM
agencies should be clearly mentioned.
 It should use all existing management information systems for maximum efficiency.
 It should mention about continuity in management in case of a change.
 It should maximize the resource utilization.
 It should include/link with the secondary/support plans such as specific departmental
plans and industrial plans located in the district.
 It should be integrated with lower level plans such as Block or Village DMP and also
with the State and National level policies and strategies.
 It should facilitate coordination at all levels.
 It should emphasize the training & practice, so that the plan is executed with precision.
 It should stress on the post-disaster evaluation and updation for continuous
improvement of the same.
 The plan should also be technically competent with no errors.

b) Hazard, risk, vulnerability and capacity analysis

It is observed that, most of the district plans do not give due emphasis on hazard and location
specific risk assessment, which needs in-depth analysis of hazard, vulnerability and capacity.
Hazard, vulnerability and capacity assessment is essential to identify the locations prone to
most damaging hazards vulnerability factors that make the people living in hazard prone
locations susceptible to the impacts of hazards, capacity of the vulnerable community to
mitigate damage and cope with the hazards. So, the provision of risk analysis through hazard,
vulnerability and capacity assessment should be there in the district plan. It is equally important
to understand the methodology of risk analysis for genuine risk assessment of the district.
Because, planning for disaster management; which includes prevention, mitigation,
preparedness, response and recovery; depends entirely on micro level risk assessments of the
district. The district authority may take help from academic and research institutions for this
purpose.
It is also important to study, whether the existing resources, manpower and equipments, are
sufficient to deal with a emergency situation, in the event of a disaster. So, along with capacity
assessment, needs analysis is also equally important to identify the requirement of resources.
Resource inventory should be disaster specific. Further, the resource assessment should be
based on reliable resources only, which are functional and efficient to deal with disaster.
During preparation resource inventory, the dysfunctional or incapacitated resources should be
excluded from the list. DDMP must take care of genuine risk and needs assessment for
designing proper risk mitigation plan.

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 c) Maps and data
Data acquisition and preparation of latest hazard maps are essential for risk analysis and
planning for risk and crisis management. The DDMP must have scopes to develop proper
mechanism for collection of genuine data (spatial and non-spatial) form different sources and
analysis of these data correctly. For multi-hazard prone zones, GIS technology may be used for
preparation of digital hazard maps. A GIS based multi-hazard map facilitates the planners to
prepare a practical disaster management plan, relevant to the real-world scenario of the district.
d) Standard Operational Procedures (SOPs)
Different government departments, involved in disaster management of the district, may have
separate Standard Operational Procedures to deal with the incidents. So, the SOPs of different
departments should be classified under the heads of mitigation, response, relief and
rehabilitation. The plan should also highlight the common and hazard specific SOPs separately
in a format. SOPs of Armed Forces for disaster response should co-ordinate with district
administration for efficient functioning.
e) Linkage
One of the important aspects of disaster management is sustainable development. So, linkage
of DDMP with developmental plans and projects of the district is important for proper
implementation of hazard resistant codes and norms. Moreover, a developmental plan may
have secondary negative impacts on life, property and environment. This may also enhance
disaster risk to a particular area of the district by generating more unsafe conditions. Hence,
every developmental plan must use disaster management plan as a resource for its own
sustainability and reducing the negative impact on population, property and environment.
The DDMP should mention the roles of sub plans of different departments and organizations
like fire, irrigation, water resources, electricity, agriculture, major industries, armed forces etc.
in disaster management plan of the district. The plan should also highlight the mechanism of
linkage amongst these sub plans for better result in search, rescue and relief operations.
The plan should highlight the linkage with the NGOs and other organizations involved in
disaster management at district level. Mention should be made in the plan, how the community
level volunteers and management teams are linked with the government disaster management
systems for efficient response in the wake of a disaster.
f) The plan should have the scopes for regular updation of relevant data and information,
drills, rehearsals, monitoring and evaluation. The plan should have clear guidelines for
continuous updating, monitoring and evaluation of the plan.
g) Specific detailed plans for hazard specific prevention, mitigation, preparedness, response
and rehabilitation should be incorporated in the plan.
h) Various forms, checklists and job-aides like damage assessment, reporting, regular
checking of resources etc. may be included in the plan as annexure.
i) The response plan of the DDMP should give special emphasis on relief management.
j) The major responsibilities of the various functionaries may be put down under a separate
head in the plan. A job chart and checklist for pre, during and post disaster functions would be
useful.
k) Scope of getting services of senior citizens in disaster management related activities, may
be in control room, should be there in the plan.
l) A clear note should be incorporated in the plan regarding financial, legal and administrative
liabilities of the state government for proper execution of the DDMP.

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 m) The plan should have provision to give specific power to the district administration for
taking immediate decision to manage a sudden crisis. In this regard, the financial
administration should be absolutely clear and transparent.
n) There should be scopes of getting supports of the public representatives and corporate
sector operating in the district in preparedness and other DM activities.
o) A mechanism for dealing with public grievances and media management should be there
in the plan.
CONTENT PRESENTATION
a) To get quick grasp and increase the functionality of the plan, an abstract of the plan may be
incorporated after the content page.
b) Wordy explanations and big paragraphs should be avoided for better understanding of the
plan by all stakeholders.
c) To make the plan functional, theoretical explanations of certain issues may be provided in a
support handbook.
d) Data and information should be presented in the form of pie chart, bar diagram, line
diagram etc.
SUGGESTED OUTLINE OF THE DDMP
The National Institute of Disaster Management had organized a consultation workshop in
2004, attended by district and state administrations, Ministry of Home Affairs, NIDM and
UNDP, to prepare a model template for district Disaster Management Plan. The workshop
finally recommended a common template, after lots of consultation and analysis. The following
is the structure of the model template.
A) DDMP
This chapter is basically abstract of the entire plan, reflecting all major aspects of the plan.
This should be designed in such a way that the entire plan is understood in a glimpse.
B) Introduction
This chapter should include
 Necessity of the plan.
 Changing context of disaster management.
 Objectives of the plan.
 Departments responsible for development of DDMP.
 Year of preparation of the plan and when it is to be reviewed.
 All other information, that helps in understanding the context and relevance of the
plan.
C) District profile
This chapter should provide an overview of the district in terms of its climate and weather;
geographical and geological characteristics; topography, demography, river and road networks;
critical infrastructure and facilities etc.
D) Hazard, Risk, Vulnerability and capacity analysis
This chapter should comprise the process and methodology of hazard and location specific risk
assessment of the district. This should include hazard and vulnerability analysis of the district,
multi-hazard mapping, capacity and needs assessment, impact analysis of the damaging
hazards, elements at risk, susceptibility of elements at risk to different hazards, preparedness
analysis etc.
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 E) Institutional mechanism
This chapter should include the structure of disaster management mechanism in the district,
linkage of the plan with sub-plans of the other departments and organizations.
F) Mitigation plan
This chapter should highlight on
 Various ways and means for prevention of probable damaging hazards.
 Hazard specific damage mitigation measures.
Sector specific mitigation plan.
 Structural and non-structural aspects of mitigation plans.
 Strategy for implementing codes, norms, regulations, legislations etc. for hazard
resilient developments.
 Organizations and departments responsible for implementation of mitigation
strategies.
 Indigenous mitigation measures and modalities for adopting these measures.
 Strategy to train-up the government and non-governmental cadres.
 Preparedness plan to deal with incident.
G) Response plan
The district plan should focus on
 Operational direction and coordination.
 Emergency warning and dissemination.
 Rapid damage assessment and reporting.
 Incident Command System.
 Search and rescue.
 Medical response.
 Logistic arrangements.
 Communication.
 Temporary shelter management.
 Law and order.
 Public grievances.
 Animal care.
 Management of deceased.
 Linkage with voluntary organizations and NGOs.
 Relief management plan etc.
H) Recovery and reconstruction plan
This chapter should highlight the plans relevant to
 Restoration of basic infrastructure.
 Reconstruction / repairing of buildings, infrastructure and facilities.
 Restoration of livelihoods.
 Medical rehabilitation etc.
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 I) Standard Operating Procedures and checklists
This chapter should include SOPs of different departments and organizations, clearly
mentioning their roles and responsibilities during various stages of disaster management.
For examples, SOPs for DDMC, Information Management Team, Search and Rescue Team,
Emergency Health Management Team, Relief Team, Transport Management, Infrastructure
Management Team, Animal Management Team, District EOC. This may include SOPs of
different departments like, Irrigation, Electricity, Agriculture, Police, Water Resources, Health,
PWD, Telecommunication, PHE, Fire Service, Food and Civil Supply, Veterinary etc.
This should also include checklists for
 District Collector / Deputy Commissioner
 Various Disaster Management Teams
 District EOC
 Urban Local Bodies like Municipal Corporation etc.
J) Linking with the developmental plans
The basic aim of this chapter should be to aware the planners of developmental plans and
projects about the location specific threat and vulnerability aspects, risk associated with the
developmental project, impact assessment of the project etc. for incorporation and integration
of damage mitigation components within the developmental project.
Mention should be made in this chapter about different existing and ongoing developmental
plans/projects in the district and their linkage with DDMP in order to take appropriate
measures for risk reduction.
K) Budget and other financial allocations
This chapter should include the references related to budget and other financial allocations
made at district level for preparation and implementation of the DDMP.
L) Monitoring and evaluation
This chapter should mention the rules and regulations for
 Proper monitoring and evaluation of the DDMP.
 Post disaster evaluation.
 Regular undation of the plan.
 Uploading of updated plan in relevant disaster management network.
 Conducting periodic drills.
 Training of the personnel, involved in disaster management.
M) Annexure
This may include annexure of District profile; Resources; Checklists; Media and Information
Management; Process of development of DDMP; Important contact numbers; Do’s and Don’ts
of possible hazards; Important Government Orders etc.
WHAT WE LEARNT FROM THIS UNIT?
The Indian subcontinent is exposed to most of the natural hazards like flood, earthquake,
cyclone, landslide, hailstorm, drought etc. Since last few decades, central and state
governments, government departments, different government and non-governmental
organizations are involved in disaster management related activities. But, the numbers of
disastrous events, in particular hydro-meteorological disasters, are increasing day by day. The

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 increasing trend of population affected by different natural disasters during last few
decades is a mater of concern. The damage to property and economic loss due to
disasters are also increasing alarmingly all over the world including India.

Most of the states and districts in India have relief centric disaster management plans,
which do not cover entire disaster management cycle. In view of this, works were going
on at various levels to find out comprehensive models for preparation of state and
district disaster management plans.

The Disaster Management Act 2005 has made it mandatory for all the states and
districts of India to have comprehensive disaster management plans, addressing all
possible aspects of risk mitigation, emergency response and recovery. The National
Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has prepared an outline for preparation of
State Disaster Management Plan in the line of National Disaster Management
Guidelines.
The model template prepared by the National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM),
prior to the enactment of DM Act 2005, suggested some general guidelines for
preparation of a District Disaster Management Plan (DDMP). This model template was
prepared through a consultation workshop and in consultation with district and state
administrations, academic and research institutions, Ministry of Home Affairs, UNDP
etc.
PROBABLE QUESTIONS

1. Which agency prepares National Disaster Management Plan?

2. Which agencies are responsible for formulation of SDMP and DDMP?

3. Mention few important criteria of DM plan.

4. Write down three important themes / conditions of SDMP.

5. Which authority prepared outline for SDMP?

6. What points should be included under coordinating and monitoring mechanism of

SDMP?

7. What are the themes of different chapters under part I of SDMP?

8. Mention general characteristics of DDMP?

9. What factors should be included in district profile?

10. Discuss detail about mitigation plan of DDMP.

SUGGESTED READINGS
1. National Disaster Management Guideline, Preparation of SDMA, Published by
NDMA, Government of India, 2007.

2. District Disaster Management Plan - Model Template, Published by NIDM, Ministry

of Home Affairs, Government of India, 2005.

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