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Department of Electrical and Computer Systems Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
Centre for Electrical Power Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
Abstract
This paper contains a review of methods published by two standards organizations on the estimation of
the hot spot temperature within a transformer, addressing some issues concerning the accuracy of their
results. Included are summaries of articles on modelling techniques and the reasons offered by their
authors regarding their effectiveness, focussing on their advantages and disadvantages. The paper also
engages in some discussion on the current use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) systems on the dissolved
gas analysis (DGA) results of transformer oils, and how similar AI systems are being adopted to
estimate hotspot temperatures. Finally, some mention is made of the application of fibre temperature
probes that have been recently developed. Such technology has been valuable to corroborate results and
secure the validity of works done in this area. But there are limitations on their application, and these
are discussed, highlighting the economic and safety implications.
Put into perspective, power transformers are probably However, the techniques used to predict a
the single most expensive asset within an electrical transformer’s loading limits are still too primitive to
transmission and distribution network [1], and that provide any guarantees. Any inadvertent abuse, where
alone justifies the requirement of developing the transformer’s temperature thresholds are exceeded
appropriate reliable systems ensuring their availability will compromise the performance of the transformer, a
and reliability. result caused by the application of stresses beyond the
anticipated design limits, and possibly generating
They are designed with a nominal life expectancy in undetected incipient faults. Albeit the transformer may
years, evaluated for a rated load under ideal conditions survive, avoiding premature failure, there will remain
as indicated by their nameplate. Excluding unusual a high level of doubt concerning its state of reliability.
circumstances unrelated to the normal functioning of a
power transformer, failure is expected to occur as the An obvious resolution to this matter lies in the ability
windings’ paper insulation erodes past its limit to to accurately predict the safe limitations of power
sustain appropriate structural and electrical stresses. transformers and the associated loss-of-life trade-off.
The degradation is cumulative and adversely affected Such calculations will enable operational strategies
by the presence of both heat and oil contaminants, that address economic and reliability issues without
including gases and water [2]. exceeding those thresholds that result in transformer
damage or failure.
Limited excessive loading beyond the transformer’s
nameplate rating is permissible and often experienced 2 DYNAMIC LOADING
during emergency conditions, but the trade-off is an
accelerated demise of the transformer towards an end- “…A candle that burns twice as bright lasts half as
of-life condition. long …”. So too transformers can run at over rated
loadings within limits, consequently shortening their
In Australia, the privatisation of the electricity utilities expected service life. A transformer’s loading capacity
has met with increasing pressure by investors and is related to the exposure of its insulation to heat, the
shareholders to maximise Return-On-Investment highest temperature of which is referred to as the Hot
(ROI). Utilities in the electricity industry must now re- Spot Temperature (HST). The HST’s effect on the
examine operating strategies on long term, back up windings’ paper insulation is used to quantify the limit
and failure procedures balancing the demands for both of its temperature range over a calculated period of
reliable and economic performance. Obviously, under time. The problem, however, is that these limits are
utilised equipment, especially at the size of expense of dynamic due to the changing transformer
power transformers, is undesirable. Ultimately the characteristics, and varying ambient climate conditions.
Page 2
simplified observation of the exponential cooling of Also, whilst for new transformers the task of
lumped heated bodies, others such as Swift et al. [5] embedding fibre optic cable into its windings is a
have suggested that a thermodynamic and heat transfer seemingly easy and inexpensive task, it provides no
approach would be more appropriate. reprieve for the vast majority of older transformers,
many of which have operated undisturbed for the past
They explain that by incorporating the significance of few decades, and for economic reasons, may be wisely
the heat transfers between mediums such as the left that way.
transformer oil and transformer tank-wall, a more
practical and accurate estimation is probable. But even 9 DGA USING AI SYSTEMS
this model suggests the need for accurate parameter
estimation and the assumption that the transformer is
A common method for identifying developing faults
operating in an environment that supports nominal
in power transformers is the Dissolved Gas Analysis
operation.
(DGA) [8]. Analysis of ratios of specific dissolved gas
concentrations, their generation rates, and the measure
7 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)
of total combustible gases are used as the attributes for
classification. Thresholds are designed to partition the
Owing to the complexity and variations in transformer attributes into intervals. Specific combinations of
design and operation, the expectation that a reliable these intervals are then used to identify the fault.
and accurate “one size fits all” mathematical model is However, in much the same way as determining
possible, is questionable. In any case, isolated hotspots, the results can differ, dependent on the
experiments conducted using this method have met thresholds used, coupled with the almost infinite
with the requirement for precision that is impractical, variations and combinations of factors that influence
as discovered by Tylavski et al. [6]. Ultimately, such the results. These are the classic characteristics that
models are not capable of identifying and adjusting for advocate the use of Fuzzy Sets (FS) and Artificial
the effects of aging, inaccurate inputs, and incipient Neural Network (ANN) systems.
faults. The identification of these difficulties has
ignited particular interest in two categories of AI: 10 CONCLUSIONS
Fuzzy Logic and Neural Networks.
A variety of models and techniques have been
As a research tool, the Fuzzy Inference System (FIS)
assessed over the years, with claims of improvement
has been applied to a variety of similar projects where
and higher dependability. Works done in this area by
there has been a need to address the issue of
D.J. Tylavsky et al. [8] convincingly show that there is
inaccurate information and also apply heuristic
a balance between complexity and accuracy of results,
reasoning [7].
and that in fact the major sources of error occurred
from imprecision at the input.
Similarly, Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) has
found implication where dynamic parameters are
AI systems are customarily designed for these types of
difficult to define mathematically [7] where training of
problems. Coupled with physical and mathematical
the model can recognise trends and the dynamic
models would assist in the development of a system
nature of some of the parameters that might once had
that was both accurate and simple to implement.
been believed to be constant.
11 REFERENCES
8 FIBRE OPTIC TEMPERATURE PROBES
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Model for Use in An On-Line Monitoring And
Diagnostic System”, IEEE Transactions on Power [7] M. Kezunovic, “Intelligent Systems in
Delivery, Vol. 12, No. 1, January 1997 Protection Engineering”, Power System Technology,
2000. Proceedings. PowerCon 2000. International
[5] G.Swift, T.S. Molinski, W. Lehn, “A Conference on, Volume: 2, 2000
Fundamental Approach to Transformer Thermal Page(s): 801 -806 vol.2
Modeling – Part I: Theory and Equivalent Circuit”,
IEEE Transaction on Power Delivery, Vol. 16, No. 2, [8] Y.C. Huang, H.T. Yang, C.L. Huang,
April 2001 “Developing a New Transformer Fault Diagnosis
System through Evolutionary Fuzzy Logic” IEEE
[6] D.J. Tylavsky, Q. He, J. Si, G.A. McCulla, Trans on Power Delivery, Vol. 12, No. 2, April 1997.
J.R. Hunt, “Transformer Top-Oil Temperature