Manufacturing Processes Assignment : Dr Arun K Lal

Shaping Processes:
1. Injection Moulding: The shape which is produced is controlled by what is called a mold. The
injection molding machine has two basic parts; the injection unit, which melts the plastic and
then injects or moves it into the mold, and the clamping unit, which holds the mold. Injection
molding is the most common plastic manufacturing process. It is used to produce high volumes
of parts.
Advantages: Complex geometry and fine features are easily produced, because very high
pressures are possible and cycle times are relatively low, and many parts can be made from
a single mold, making extremely high volumes (millions per year) possible.
Disadvantages: The parts are thin-walled (walls greater than 0.125" are not common) and
thermoplastic materials are used in this process (thermoplastics can be remelted, as
opposed to thermosets)
Types:
a. Die Casting: Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterized by
forcing molten metal under high pressure into a mold cavity. The mold cavity is
created using two hardened tool steel dies which have been machined into shape
and work similarly to an injection mold during the process.
i. Acurad: Acurad was a die casting process developed by General Motors in
the late 1950s and 1960s. The name is an acronym for accurate, reliable, and
dense. It was developed to combine a stable fill and directional
solidification with the fast cycle times of the traditional die casting process.
ii. Pore-free: When no porosity is allowed in a cast part then the pore-free
casting process is used. It is identical to the standard process
except oxygen is injected into the die before each shot to purge any air from
the mold cavity.
iii. Heated-manifold direct-injection die casting: also known as direct-injection
die casting or runnerless die casting, is a zinc die casting process where
molten zinc is forced through a heated manifold and then through heated
mini-nozzles, which lead into the molding cavity. This process has the
advantages of lower cost per part, through the reduction of scrap.
iv. Semi-solid die casting: This uses metal that is heated between
its liquidus and either solidus or eutectic temperature, so that it is in its
"mushy region". This allows for more complex parts and thinner walls.
Advantages:
Reduces or eliminates secondary machining operations.
Rapid production rates.
Casting tensile strength as high as 415 megapascals (60 ksi).

b. Metal Injection Moulding: Metal injection molding (MIM) is a metalworking process

by which finely-powdered metal is mixed with a measured amount of binder
material to comprise a "feedstock" capable of being handled by plastic processing
equipment through a process known as injection mold-forming. 
The window of economic advantage in metal injection molded parts lies in
complexity and volume for small-size parts. MIM materials are comparable to metal
formed by competing methods, and final products are used in a broad range of
 industrial, commercial, medical, dental, firearms, aerospace,
and automotive applications
c. Thin Wall Injection Moulding: Thin wall injection molding is a specialized form of
conventional injection molding that focuses on mass-producing plastic parts that are
thin and light so that material cost savings can be made and cycle times can be as
short as possible. Shorter cycle times means higher productivity and lower costs per
part. For example, plastic manufacturer Sabichas a polypropylene food contact
grade plastic which is specifically designed for thin wall margarine containers and
lids. Another plastic manufacturer, Bayer, makes a blend of Polycarbonate (PC)
and Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) specifically designed to make thin wall
mobile housings.
d. Injection Moulding of Liquid Silicone Rubber: Typical applications for liquid silicone
rubber are products that require high precision such as seals, sealing membranes,
electric connectors, multi-pin connectors, infant products where smooth surfaces
are desired, such as bottle nipples, medical applications as well as kitchen goods
such as baking pans, spatulas, etc. Often, silicone rubber is overmolded onto other
parts made of different plastics. For example, a silicone button face might be
overmolded onto an Nylon 6,6 housing.
2. Rotational Moulding: Rotational molding is a manufacturing process used to produce hollow
plastic parts in one piece. This process is utilized by industrial, medical, agricultural and toy
companies among others. Rotational molding is a low cost plastic molding process which offers
affordable tooling and quick turnaround time. In the rotational molding process, heat is used to
melt and fuse a plastic resin in a closed mold. Unlike most other plastic processes, no pressure is
involved. The three-stage process includes loading the resin in the mold, heating and fusion of
the resin and cooling and unloading the mold. 
Advantages:
a. Excellent solution for producing hollow plastic parts, including complex and varied
shapes.
b. Economical startup tooling costs as compared to injection or blow molding.
c. Produces parts with uniform wall thickness and no thinning in the extremities of the
mold.
d. May be used to mold thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics
3. Thermoforming: This method is often used for sample and prototype parts. in-gauge
thermoforming is primarily the manufacture of disposable cups, containers, lids, trays, blisters,
clamshells, and other products for the food, medical, and general retail industries. Thick-gauge
thermoforming includes parts as diverse as vehicle door and dash panels, refrigerator liners,
utility vehicle beds, and plastic pallets .
4. Lamination: Examples of laminate materials include melamine adhesive countertop surfacing
and plywood. Decorative laminates are produced with decorative papers with a layer of overlay
on top of the decorative paper, set before pressing them with thermoprocessing into high-
pressure decorative laminates. Vehicle windshields are commonly made by laminating a tough
plastic film between two layers of glass. This is to prevent shards of glass detaching from the
windshield in case it breaks. Plywood is a common example of a laminate using the same
material in each layer. Glued and laminated dimensioned timber is used in the construction
industry to make wooden beams.

Laminate film is generally categorized into these five categories:

 a. Standard thermal laminating films
b. Low-temperature thermal laminating films
c. Heat set (or heat-assisted) laminating films
d. Pressure-sensitive films
e. Liquid laminate

5. Blow Molding: In the United States soft drink industry, the number of plastic containers went
from zero in 1977 to ten billion pieces in 1999. Today, even a greater number of products are
blown and it is expected to keep increasing.
Examples of parts made by the EBM process include most polyethylene hollow products, milk
bottles, shampoo bottles, automotive ducting, watering cans and hollow industrial parts such
as drums. Advantages of blow molding include: low tool and die cost; fast production rates;
ability to mold complex part; Handles can be incorporated in the design.
6. Shrink Wrapping: The most commonly used shrink wrap is polyolefin. It is available in a variety
of thicknesses, clarities, strengths and shrink ratios. Other shrink films
include PVC, Polyethylene, Polypropylene, and several other compositions. Shrink wrap can be
used to wrap buildings. It can wrap roofs after hurricanes, earthquakes, tornadoes and other
disasters. Shrink wrap can be used for environmental containments to facilitate safe removal of
asbestos, lead and other hazards. Software on carriers such as CDs or DVDs are often sold in
boxes that are packaged in shrink wrap. The licenses of such software are typically put inside the
boxes, making it impossible to read them before purchasing. This has raised questions about the
validity of such shrink wrap licenses.
7. Centrifugal Casting: Typical materials that can be cast with this process are iron, steel, stainless
steels, glass, and alloys of aluminum, copper and nickel. Two materials can be cast together by
introducing a second material during the process. Typical parts made by this process are pipes,
flywheels, cylinder liners and other parts that are axi-symmetric. It is notably used to
castcylinder liners and sleeve valves for piston engines, parts which could not be reliably
manufactured otherwise.
Features of centrifugal casting:
a. Castings can be made in almost any length, thickness and diameter.
b. Different wall thicknesses can be produced from the same size mold.
c. Resistant to atmospheric corrosion, a typical situation with pipes.
d. Only cylindrical shapes can be produced with this process.
e. Size limits are up to 6 m (20 feet) diameter and 15 m (50 feet) length.
f. Wall thickness range from 2.5 mm to 125 mm (0.1 - 5.0 in).
8. Continuous Casting:  "continuous casting" has evolved to achieve improved yield, quality,
productivity and cost efficiency. It allows lower-cost production of metal sections with better
quality, due to the inherently lower costs of continuous, standardised production of a product,
as well as providing increased control over the process through automation. This process is used
most frequently to cast steel (in terms of tonnage cast). Aluminium and copper are also
continuously cast.
9. Investment Casting: There are a variety of materials that can be used for the investment casting
process, including stainless steel alloys, brass, aluminum, and carbon steel. The material is
poured into a ceramic cavity designed to create an exact duplicate of the desired part.
Investment casting can reduce the need for secondary machining by providing castings to shape.
The process is generally used for small castings, but has been used to produce complete aircraft
 door frames, steel castings of up to 300 kg (660 lbs) and aluminium castings of up to 30 kg
(66 lbs). It can produce complicated shapes that would be difficult or impossible with die casting,
yet like that process, it requires little surface finishing and only minor machining. Many intricate
forms with undercuts can be cast. A very smooth surface is obtained with no parting line.
10. Sand Casting:  Over 70% of all metal castings are produced via sand casting process. In addition
to the sand, a suitable bonding agent (usually clay) is mixed or occurs with the sand.  Sand
casting is extensively used, for cast iron and steel parts of medium and large size where surface
smoothness and dimensional precision are the main concerns. Sand casting is also used to make
large parts in material like bronze, brass, aluminum, etc. Also used for casting sculptures which
can have a certain amount of rough surface finish. 
11. Shell Molding:  As compared to sand casting, this process has better dimensional accuracy, a
higher productivity rate, and lower labor requirements. It is used for small to medium parts that
require high precision.  in shell mold casting, the mold is a thin-walled shell created from
applying a sand-resin mixture around a patternShell mold casting allows the use of both ferrous
and non-ferrous metals, most commonly using cast iron, carbon steel, alloy steel, stainless steel,
aluminum alloys, and copper alloys. Typical parts are small-to-medium in size and require high
accuracy, such as gear housings, cylinder heads, connecting rods, and lever arms.
12. Spray Forming: The gas atomised spray forming (GASF) process typically has a molten alloy flow
rate of 1–20 kg/min-1, although twin atomizer systems can achieve metal flow rates of up to
80 kg/min. Special steel billets of 1 tonne or more have been produced by spray forming on a
commercial basis, together with Ni super-alloy ring blanks of up to 500 kg and Al alloy extrusion
billets of up to 400 kg.  it is a flexible process and can be used to manufacture a wide range of
materials, some of which are difficult to produce by other methods, e.g. Al-5wt% Li alloys or Al-
SiC, Al-Al2O3 metal matrix composites(MMCs). One of the major attractions of spray forming is
the potential economic benefit to be gained from reducing the number of process steps
between melt and finished product.
13. Resin Casting: It is primarily used for small-scale production like industrial prototypes and
dentistry. It can be done by amateur hobbyists with little initial investment, and is used in the
production of collectible toys, models and figures, as well as small-scale jewelry production. The
synthetic resin for such processes is a monomer for making a plastic thermosetting polymer.
During the setting process, the liquid monomer polymerizes into the polymer, thereby hardening
into a solid. Resin casting is used to produce collectible and customized toys and figures
like designer toys, garage kits and ball-jointed dolls, as well as scale models, either individual
parts or entire models of objects like trains, aircraft or ships. 
14. Vacuum Molding: A heat-softened thin sheet (0.003 to 0.008 in (0.076 to 0.203 mm))
of plastic film is draped over the pattern and a vacuum is drawn (200 to 400 mmHg (27 to
53 kPa)). The V-process is known for not requiring a draft because the plastic film has a certain
degree of lubricity and it expands slightly when the vacuum is drawn in the flask. The process
has high dimensional accuracy, with a tolerance of ±0.010 in for the first inch and ±0.002 in/in
thereafter. Other advantages include no moisture related defects, no cost for binders, excellent
sand permeability, and no toxic fumes from burning the binders. Finally, the pattern does not
wear out because the sand does not touch it. 
15. Permanent Mold Casting/Slush Casting: In the process the material is poured into the mold and
allowed to cool until a shell of material forms in the mold. The remaining liquid is then poured
out to leave a hollow shell. The resulting casting has good surface detail but the wall thickness
 can vary. The process is usually used to cast ornamental products, such
as candlesticks, lamp bases, and statuary, from low-melting-point materials.[2] A similar
technique is used to make hollow chocolate figures for Easter and Christmas. It uses less
material than solid casting, and results in a lighter and less expensive product. 
16. Forging:  Forging is often classified according to the temperature at which it is performed: cold
forging (a type of cold working), warm forging, or hot forging (a type of hot working). For the
latter two, the metal is heated, usually in a forge. Forged parts can range in weight from less
than a kilogram to hundreds of metric tons. Forging has been done by smiths for millennia; the
traditional products were kitchenware, hardware, hand tools, edged weapons, and jewellery.
Smaller power hammers, 500 lb (230 kg) or less reciprocating weight, and hydraulic presses are
common in art smithies as well. Some steam hammers remain in use, but they became obsolete
with the availability of the other, more convenient, power sources. Some metals may be forged
cold, but iron and steel are almost always hot forged. Alloys that are amenable to precipitation
hardening, such as most aluminium alloys and titanium, can be hot forged, followed by
hardening.
Types of forging:
a. Drop Forging: The dies are usually flat in shape, but some have a specially shaped
surface for specialized operations. For example, a die may have a round, concave, or
convex surface or be a tool to form holes or be a cut-off tool. Open-die forgings can
be worked into shapes which include discs, hubs, blocks, shafts (including step shafts
or with flanges), sleeves, cylinders, flats, hexes, rounds, plate, and some custom
shapes. Open-die forging may also orient the grain to increase strength in the
required direction
b. Press Forging:  The amount of time the dies are in contact with the workpiece is
measured in seconds (as compared to the milliseconds of drop-hammer forges). The
press forging operation can be done either cold or hot. The main advantage of press
forging, as compared to drop-hammer forging, is its ability to deform the complete
workpiece.  Another advantage to the process includes the knowledge of the new
part's strain rate. We specifically know what kind of strain can be put on the part,
because the compression rate of the press forging operation is controlled. The
operation can be used to create any size part because there is no limit to the size of
the press forging machine.
c. Upset Forging: Upset forging increases the diameter of the workpiece by
compressing its length based on number of pieces produced, this is the most widely
used forging process. A few examples of common parts produced using the upset
forging process are engine valves, couplings, bolts, screws, and other fasteners. The
initial workpiece is usually wire or rod, but some machines can accept bars up to
25 cm (9.8 in) in diameter and a capacity of over 1000 tons
d. Automatic Hot Forging: The automatic hot forging process involves feeding mill-
length steel bars (typically 7 m (23 ft) long) into one end of the machine at room
temperature and hot forged products emerge from the other end. This all occurs
rapidly; small parts can be made at a rate of 180 parts per minute (ppm) and larger
can be made at a rate of 90 ppm. Examples of parts made by this process are: wheel
hub unit bearings, transmission gears, tapered roller bearing races, stainless steel
coupling flanges, and neck rings for LP gas cylinders.
e. Roll Forging: Roll forging is performed using two cylindrical or semi-cylindrical rolls,
each containing one or more shaped grooves.The advantage of this process is there
 is no flash and it imparts a favorable grain structure into the workpiece Examples of
products produced using this method include axles, tapered levers and leaf springs.
f. Net-shape and near-net-shape Forging: It was developed to minimize cost and
waste associated with post-forging operations. Therefore, the final product from a
precision forging needs little or no final machining. Cost savings are gained from the
use of less material, and thus less scrap, the overall decrease in energy used, and the
reduction or elimination of machining.
g. Induction Forging
h. Multi-directional Forging
i. Forging of Aluminium: High-strength aluminium alloys have the tensile strength of
medium strong steel alloys while providing significant weight advantages. Therefore,
aluminium forged parts are mainly used in aerospace, automotive industry and
many other fields of engineering especially in those fields, where highest safety
standards against failure by abuse, by shock or vibratory stresses are needed.
i. Aluminium forging is performed at a temperature range between 350 and
550 °C
ii. Forging temperatures above 550 °C are too close to the solidus temperature
of the alloys and lead in conjunction with varying effective strains to
unfavorable workpiece surfaces and potentially to a partial melting as well
as fold formation.[25]
iii. Forging temperatures below 350 °C reduce formability by increasing the
yield stress, which can lead to unfilled dies, cracking at the workpiece
surface and increased die forces
17. Incremental Sheet Forming: Generally, the sheet is formed by a round tipped tool, typically 5 to
20mm in diameter. The tool, which can be attached to a CNC machine, a robot arm or similar,
indents into the sheet by about 1 mm and follows a contour for the desired part. Because the
process can be controlled entirely by CNC processes no die is required as is in traditional sheet
metal forming. The elimination of the die in the manufacturing process reduces the cost per
piece and increases turnaround time for low production runs because the need to manufacture
a die is eliminated. However, for high production run the time and cost to produce a die is
absorbed by the higher per piece speed and lower per piece cost.  In contrast, there is a loss of
accuracy with the ISF process. Ford Motor Company has recently released Ford Freeform
Fabrication Technology, a two-point incremental sheet forming technique being implemented in
the rapid prototyping of automotive parts. 
18. Rolling:  The Great Exhibition in 1851 a plate 20 feet long, 3 ½ feet wide, and 7/16 of inch thick,
weighed 1,125 pounds was exhibited by the Consett Iron Company.
a. Cold Rolling: Cold rolling occurs with the metal below its recrystallization
temperature (usually at room temperature), which increases the strength via strain
hardening up to 20%. Commonly cold-rolled products include sheets, strips, bars,
and rods; these products are usually smaller than the same products that are hot
rolled. Cold-rolled sheets and strips come in various conditions: full-hard, half-
hard, quarter-hard, and skin-rolled. Typical uses for cold-rolled steel include metal
furniture, desks, filing cabinets, tables, chairs, motorcycle exhaust pipes, computer
cabinets and hardware, home appliances and components, shelving, lighting fixtures
b. Hot Rolling: Hot rolling is a metalworking process that occurs above the
recrystallization temperature of the material. To maintain a safety factor a finishing
temperature is defined above the recrystallization temperature; this is usually 50 to
100 °C (90 to 180 °F) above the recrystallization temperature. Hot rolling is used
 mainly to produce sheet metal or simple cross sections, such as rail tracks. Other
typical uses for hot rolled metal includes truck frames, automotive wheels, pipe and
tubular, water heaters, agriculture equipment, strappings, stampings, compressor
shells, railcar components, wheel rims, metal buildings, railroad hopper cars, doors,
shelving, discs, guard rails, automotive clutch plates.
c. Sheet Metal Rolling: The final product is either sheet or plate, with the former being
less than 6 mm (0.24 in) thick and the latter greater than. As the foil sheets come
through the rollers, they are trimmed and slotted with circular or razor-like knives.
Trimming refers to the edges of the foil, while slitting involves cutting it into several
sheets.
d. Shape Rolling: Structural shapes that can be made with this metal forming process
include: I-beams, H-beams, T-beams, U-beams, angle iron, channels, bar stock,
and railroad rails. Structural shapes that can be made with this metal
forming process include: I-beams, H-beams, T-beams, U-beams, angle iron,
channels, bar stock, and railroad rails.
e. Ring Rolling: Ring rolling is a specialized type of hot rolling that increases the
diameter of a ring. Diameters can be as large as 8 m (26 ft) and face heights as tall as
2 m (79 in). Common applications include rockets, turbines, airplanes, pipes,
and pressure vessels.
f. Transverse Rolling:
Transverse rolling is used for working gear teeth and other parts, and rotary rolling is 
used in themanufacture of seamless rolled tubes, balls, axles, and other solids of rev
olution.
g. Cryorolling Rolling: In cryo-rolling we dipped the material in liquid nitrogen (-190*c)
and hold it for a 30 minute or one hour (depends on our requirement) and then
doing a rolling process between two rollers. By cryo-rolling we can achieve a ultra-
fine grain structure which improves a strength and ductility compared to cold rolling
process and handling of the material is easy in cryo-rolling compared to hot rolling
process
h. Orbital Rolling
i. Thread Rolling: Thread rolling is the preferred method for producing strong,
smooth, precise, and uniform external thread forms. Thread rolling is different from
other types of threading processes like cutting, grinding, and chasing .
19. Extrusion: The extrusion process can be done with the material hot or cold. Commonly extruded
materials include metals, polymers, ceramics, concrete, play dough, and foodstuffs. The
products of extrusion are generally called "extrudates". With the advent of industrial
manufacturing, extrusion found application in food processing of instant foods and snacks, along
with its already known uses in plastics and metal fabrication. The anti-cancer drug Doxorubicin in
liposome delivery system is formulated by extrusion, for example.

Materials Used:

a. Copper (1100 to 1825 °F (600 to 1000 °C)) pipe, wire, rods, bars, tubes, and welding
electrodes. Often more than 100 ksi (690 MPa) is required to extrude copper.
b. Lead and tin (maximum 575 °F (300 °C)) pipes, wire, tubes, and cable sheathing.
Molten lead may also be used in place of billets on vertical extrusion presses.
c. Magnesium (575 to 1100 °F (300 to 600 °C)) aircraft parts and nuclear industry parts.
Magnesium is about as extrudable as aluminum.
 d. Zinc (400 to 650 °F (200 to 350 °C)) rods, bar, tubes, hardware components, fitting,
and handrails.
e. Steel (1825 to 2375 °F (1000 to 1300 °C)) rods and tracks. Usually plain carbon
steel is extruded, but alloy steel and stainless steel can also be extruded.
f. Plastic
g. Ceramic
20. Impact Extrusion: Example of products made:
a. Metal toothpaste tube nozzle
b. aluminium bottle
c. CO2 cartridge
d. aluminum baseball bat
e. Apple Mac Pro 2013 Shell
21. Pressing
a. Embossing: Following characteristics are expected:
i. The ability to form ductile metals.
ii. Use in medium to high production runs.
iii. The ability to maintain the same metal thickness before and after
embossing.
iv. The ability to produce unlimited patterns, depending on the roll dies.
v. The ability to reproduce product with no variation.
b. Blanking: Materials that can be fine blanked include aluminium, brass, copper,
and carbon, alloy, and stainless steels. Currently parts as thick as 19 mm (0.75 in)
can be cut using fine blanking.[8] Tolerances between ±0.0003–0.002 in (0.0076–
0.0508 mm) are possible based on material thickness & tensile strength, and part
layout.
c. Drawing
d. Deep Drawing: Commercial applications of this metal shaping process often involve
complex geometries with straight sides and radii. Often components are partially
deep draw in order to create a series of diameters throughout the component (as in
the image of the deep draw line). It common use to consider this process as a cost
saving alternative to turned parts which require much more raw material.
22. Bending:  Typical products that are made like this are boxes such as electrical enclosures and
rectangular ductwork. Material sheet thickness varies from 0.79 to 12.7 mm (0.03 to 0.5 in) in
with length from 150 mm (6 in) to 6 m (20 ft). Ductile materials are best suited for the pressing
like aluminum, mild steel and new plastic materials. Bending is a cost effective process when
used for low to medium quantities. Hemming is the process in which the edge is rolled flush to
itself, while a seam joins the edges of two materials.
23. Shearing: The processes of straight shearing is done on sheet metal, coils, and plates. It uses
a guillotine shear Low alloy steel is used in low production of materials that range up to 0.64 cm
(1/4 in) thick. High-carbon, high chromium steel is used in high production of materials that also
range up to 0.64 cm (1/4 in) in thickness.  Surface finishes typically occur within the 250 to 1000
microinches range, but can range from 125 to 2000 microinches. A secondary operation is
required if one wants better surfaces than this.
24. Coining: Coining is used to manufacture parts for all industries and is commonly used when high
relief or very fine features are required. For example, it is used to produce
coins, medals, badges, buttons, precision-energy springs and precision parts with small or
polished surface features. . Coining typically requires higher tonnage presses than stamping,
 because the workpiece is plastically deformed and not actually cut, as in some other forms
of stamping. The coining process is preferred when there is a high tonnage.
In soldering of electronic components, bumps are formed on bonding pads to enhance adhesion,
which are further flattened by the coining process. 
25. Swaging: Swaging is usually a cold working process; however, it is sometimes done as a hot
working process. In Printed Circuit Board assembly individual connector pins are sometimes
pressed/swaged into place using an arbor press. Heat swaging is a similar process to heat
staking, but it involves rolling or reforming a wall (typically a perimeter) of a plastic part to retain
another part or component. The most common use of swaging is to attach fittings
to pipes or cables. In internal ballistics, swaging describes the process of the bullet entering the
barrel and being squeezed to conform to the rifling.
26. Metal Spinning: Spinning can be performed by hand or by a CNC lathe. Metal spinning does not
involve removal of material, as in conventional wood or metal turning, but forming (moulding) of
sheet material over an existing shape.  Commercial applications include rocket nose
cones ,cookware, gas cylinders, brass instrument bells, and public waste receptacles. Virtually
any ductile metal may be formed, from aluminum or stainless steel, to high-strength, high-
temperature alloys.
27. Peening: It tends to expand the surface of the cold metal, thereby inducing compressive
stresses or relieving tensile stresses already present. Peening can also encourage strain
hardening of the surface metal. The first patent for shot peening was also taken out in Germany
in 1934, but was never commercially implemented. Independently in 1930, a few engineers
at Buick noticed that "shot blasting" (as it was originally termed) made springs resistant to
fatigue.
28. Decambering: This is the metalworking process of removing camber, or horizontal bend, from
strip shaped materials. The material may be finite length sections or continuous coils.
Decambering resembles flattening or levelling processes, but deforms the material edge (left or
right) instead of the face (up or down) of the strip.
29. Curling: Curling can be performed to eliminate sharp edges and increase the moment of
inertia near the curled end. Other parts are curled to perform their primary function, such
as door hinges.

FINISHING PROCESSES:
30. Milling: Milling can be done with a wide range of machine tools. The original class of machine
tools for milling was the milling machine (often called a mill). Computers and CNC machine tools
continue to develop rapidly. The personal computer revolution has a great impact on this
development. By the late 1980s small machine shops had desktop computers and CNC machine
tools. Soon after, hobbyists, artists, and designers began obtaining CNC mills and lathes
31. Annealing: In annealing, atoms migrate in the crystal lattice and the number of dislocations
decreases, leading to the change in ductility and hardness. In the cases of copper, steel, silver,
and brass, this process is performed by heating the material (generally until glowing) for a while
and then slowly letting it cool to room temperature in still air. Copper, silver and brass can be
cooled slowly in air, or quickly by quenching in water, unlike ferrous metals, such as steel, which
must be cooled slowly to anneal. 
a. Normalisation:  It is used on steels of less than 0.4% carbon to
transform austenite into ferrite, pearlite and sorbite. It involves heating the steel to
20-50 Kelvin above its upper critical point. It is soaked for a short period at that
temperature and then allowed to cool in air.  
 b. Process Annealing: The temperature range for process annealing ranges from 260 °C
(500 °F) to 760 °C (1400 °F), depending on the alloy in question.
32. Pickling: is a metal surface treatment used to remove impurities, such as stains, inorganic
contaminants, rust or scale from ferrous metals, copper, precious metals and aluminum alloys. A
solution called pickle liquor, which contains strong acids, is used to remove the surface
impurities. Carbon steels, with an alloy content less than or equal to 6%, are often pickled in
hydrochloric or sulfuric acid. Steels with an alloy content greater than 6% must be pickled in two
steps and other acids are used, such as phosphoric, nitric and hydrofluoric acid. Rust- and acid-
resistant chromium-nickel steels are pickled in a bath of hydrochloric and nitric acid.
Most copper alloys are pickled in dilute sulfuric acid, but brass is pickled in concentrated sulfuric
and nitric acid mixed with sodium chloride and soot.
33. Passivate: Passivation involves a shielding outer-layer of base material, which can be applied as
a micro-coating, or oxidation which occurs spontaneously in nature. As a technique, passivation
is the use of a light coat of a protective material, such as metal oxide, to create a shell
against corrosion. Passivation can occur only in certain conditions, and is used
in microelectronics to enhance silicon.
34. Coating: A coating is a covering that is applied to the surface of an object, usually referred to as
the substrate. The purpose of applying the coating may be decorative, functional, or both. The
coating itself may be an all-over coating, completely covering the substrate, or it may only cover
parts of the substrate. Paints and lacquers are coatings that mostly have dual uses of protecting
the substrate and being decorative, although some artists paints are only for decoration, and the
paint on large industrial pipes is presumably only for the function of preventing corrosion.
35. Turning: Turning can be done manually, in a traditional form of lathe, which frequently requires
continuous supervision by the operator, or by using an automated lathe which does not. Turning
can be done on the external surface of the part as well as internally (boring). The starting
material is generally a workpiece generated by other processes such
as casting, forging, extrusion, or drawing.
a. Tapered Turning: a) from the compound slide b) from taper turning attachment c)
using a hydraulic copy attachment d) using a C.N.C. lathe e) using a form tool f) by
the offsetting of the tailstock - this method more suited for shallow tapers.
b. Hard Turning: Hard turning is a turning done on materials with a Rockwell
C hardness greater than 45. It is typically performed after the workpiece is heat
treated. The process is intended to replace or limit traditional grinding operations.  It
is used for gears, injection pump components, hydraulic components, among other
applications.
c. Spherical Generation: The proper expression for making or turning a shape is to
generate as in to generate a form around a fixed axis of revolution.
d. Facing: This can be performed by the operation of the cross-slide, if one is fitted, as
distinct from the longitudinal feed (turning). It is frequently the first operation
performed in the production of the workpiece, and often the last—hence the phrase
"ending up".
e. Parting: This process, also called parting off or cutoff, is used to create deep grooves
which will remove a completed or part-complete component from its parent stock.
f. Grooving: Grooving can be performed on internal and external surfaces, as well as
on the face of the part (face grooving or trepanning).
g. Boring: This work is suitable for castings that are too awkward to mount in the face
plate. A limited application but one that is available to the skilled turner/machinist
 h. Drilling: This process utilizes standard drill bits held stationary in the tail stock or
tool turret of the lathe. The process can be done by separately available drilling
machines.
i. Knurling: The cutting of a serrated pattern onto the surface of a part to use as a
hand grip using a special purpose knurling tool.
j. Reaming: It is done for making internal holes of very accurate diameters. For
example, a 6mm hole is made by drilling with 5.98 mm drill bit and then reamed to
accurate dimensions.
k. Threading
l. Polygonal Turning
36. Countersinking: A common use is to allow the head of a countersunk bolt or screw, when placed
in the hole, to sit flush with or below the surface of the surrounding material (by comparison,
a counterbore makes a flat-bottomed hole that might be used with a socket-head capscrew). A
countersink may also be used to remove the burr left from a drilling or tapping operation
thereby improving the finish of the product and removing any hazardous sharp edges.
37. Tapping: The process of cutting or forming threads using a tap is called tapping A tap cuts a
thread on the inside surface of a hole, creating a female surface which functions like
a nut. Problems related for tap breakage:
a. Clogging with chips.
b. Misalignment between tap and hole.
c. Over- or under-feeding the tap, causing breakage in tension or compression.
d. Use of improper and/or insufficient cutting lubricant.

38. Filing: Instead of having teeth cut into the file's working surface, diamond files have small
particles of industrial diamond embedded in their surface (or into a softer material that is
bonded to the underlying surface of the file). The use of diamonds in this manner allows the file
to be used effectively against extremely hard materials, such as stone. Files have forward-facing
cutting teeth, and cut most effectively when pushed over the workpiece. Pulling a file directly
backwards on a workpiece will cause the teeth to bend, permanently damaging the file
(especially when an inexperienced user adopts a back-and-forth "sawing" motion). Draw
filing involves laying the file sideways on the work, and carefully pushing or pulling it across the
work. This catches the teeth of the file sideways instead of head on, and a very fine shaving
action is produced. 
39. Broaching: Broaching is used when precision machining is required, especially for odd shapes.
Commonly machined surfaces include circular and non-circular holes, splines,keyways, and flat
surfaces. Typical workpieces include small to medium-sized castings, forgings, screw machine
parts, and stampings. Even though broaches can be expensive, broaching is usually favored over
other processes when used for high-quantity production runs.
40. Chamfer: Outside of aesthetics, chamfering is part of the process of hand-crafting a parabolic
glass telescope mirror. Before the surface of the disc can be ground, the edges must first be
chamfered to prevent chipping. In printed circuit board (PCB) designing, a chamfer occurs when
a right-angled edge is eliminated from the tracks, to strengthen the places where a track meets
another at a right angle.
41. Abrasive Jet Machining:  Common uses include cutting heat-sensitive, brittle, thin, or hard
materials. Specifically, it is used to cut intricate shapes or form specific edge shapes. Material is
removed by fine abrasive particles, usually about 0.001 in (0.025 mm) in diameter, driven by a
high velocity fluid stream; common gases are air or inert gases. Pressures for the gas range from
25 to 130 psig (170–900 kPag) and speeds can be as high as 300 m/s. The main advantages are
 its flexibility, low heat production, and ability to machine hard and brittle materials. Its flexibility
owes from its ability to use hoses to transport the gas and abrasive to any part of the workpiece.
42. Water Jet Cutter: Waterjet cutting is often used during fabrication of machine parts. It is the
preferred method when the materials being cut are sensitive to the high temperatures
generated by other methods. Waterjet cutting is used in various industries,
including mining and aerospace, for cutting, shaping, and reaming. An important benefit of the
water jet is the ability to cut material without interfering with its inherent structure, as there is
no heat-affected zone (HAZ). Minimizing the effects of heat allows metals to be cut without
harming or changing intrinsic properties. Water jet cutters are also capable of producing
intricate cuts in material. With specialized software and 3-D machining heads, complex shapes
can be produced. Meatcutting using waterjet technology eliminates the risk of cross
contamination since there is no contact medium (namely, a blade) between different animals in
the slaughterhouse.
43. Photochemical Machining: The tooling is inexpensive and quickly produced. This makes the
process useful for prototyping and allows for easy changes in mass production. It maintains
dimensional tolerances and does not create burrs or sharp edges. It can make a part in hours
after receiving the drawing. PCM can be used on virtually any commercially available metal or
alloy, of any hardness. It is limited to materials with a thickness of 0.0005 to 0.080 in (0.013 to
2.032 mm). Metals
include aluminium,brass, copper, inconel, manganese, nickel, silver, steel, stainless
steel, zinc and titanium. Industrial applications include fine screens and meshes, apertures and
masks, battery grids, fuel cell components, sensors, springs, pressure membranes, heat
sinks, flexible heating elements, RF and microwave circuits and components, semiconductor
leadframes.
44. Honing: Typical applications are the finishing of cylinders for internal combustion engines, air
bearing spindles and gears. There are many types of hones but all consist of one or more
abrasive stones that are held under pressure against the surface they are working on.
a. Electro-chemical grinding: The wheels and workpiece are electrically conductive.
Electrochemical grinding is often used for hard materials where conventional
machining is difficult and time consuming such as stainless steel and some exotic
metals. For materials with hardness greater than 65 HRC, ECG can have a material
removal rate 10 times that of conventional machining. 
45. Surface Finishing:  Finishing processes may be employed to: improve appearance, adhesion
or wettability, solderability, corrosion resistance, tarnish resistance, chemical resistance, wear
resistance, hardness, modify electrical conductivity, remove burrs and other surface flaws, and
control the surface friction.
a. Blanching: is the whitening of metal, by various means, such as soaking in acid or by
coating with tin. This term is commonly used in coinage, in which pieces are given
a lustre and brilliance before images are struck into the surface.

b. Burnishing: Burnishing processes are used in manufacturing to improve the size,

shape, surface finish, or surface hardness of a workpiece. It is essentially a forming
operation that occurs on a small scale. The benefits of burnishing often include:
Combats fatigue failure, prevents corrosion and stress corrosion, textures surfaces
to eliminate visual defects, closes porosity, creates surface compressive residual
stress.
c. Case-hardening:  For iron or steel with low carbon content, which has poor to
no hardenability of its own, the case-hardening process involves infusing additional
carbon into the case. Case-hardening is usually done after the part has been formed
into its final shape, but can also be done to increase the hardening element content
of bars to be used in a pattern welding or similar process. Parts that are subject to
high pressures and sharp impacts are still commonly case-hardened. Examples
include firing pins and rifle bolt faces, or engine camshafts. In these cases, the
surfaces requiring the hardness may be hardened selectively, leaving the bulk of the
part in its original tough state.
d. Ceramic Glaze: Glaze can serve to color, decorate or waterproof an item. Glazing
renders earthenware vessels suitable for holding liquids, sealing the
inherent porosity of terracotta. Glaze is also used on stoneware and porcelain. In
addition to their functional aspect, glazes can form a variety of surface finishes,
including degrees of glossy or matte finish and color. Glazes may also enhance the
underlying design or texture either unmodified or inscribed, carved or painted.
e. Cladding: The United States Mint uses cladding to manufacture coins from different
metals. This allows a cheaper metal to be used as a filler. Most suited technique
for graded material application.
f. Corona Treatment: A linear array of electrodes is often used to create a curtain of
corona plasma. Materials such as plastics, cloth, or paper may be passed through the
corona plasma curtain in order to change the surface energy of the material. All
materials have an inherent surface energy. Many plastics, such
as polyethylene and polypropylene, have chemically inert and nonporous surfaces
with low surface tensions causing them to be non-receptive to bonding with
printing inks, coatings, and adhesives. Although results are invisible to the naked
eye, surface treating modifies surfaces to improve adhesion.
g. Electroplating: Electroplating changes the chemical, physical, and mechanical
properties of the workpiece. An example of a chemical change is when nickel plating
improves corrosion resistance. An example of a physical change is a change in the
outward appearance. An example of a mechanical change is a change in tensile
strength or surface hardness which is a required attribute in tooling industry.
Electroplating is widely used in various industries for coating metal objects with a
thin layer of a different metal. The layer of metal deposited has some desired
property, which the metal of the object lacks. For example, chromium plating is
done on many objects such as car parts, bath taps, kitchen gas burners, wheel rims
and many others for the fact that chromium is very corrosion resistant, and thus
prolongs the life of the parts. 
h. Galvanization: At about 300 °C zinc will diffuse into the substrate to form a zinc
alloy. The preparation of the goods can be carried out by shot blasting. The process
is also known as dry galvanizing, because no liquids are involved, there will be no
danger of hydrogen embrittlement of the goods. The dull-grey crystal structure of
the zinc diffusion coating has a good adhesion to paint, powder coatings, or rubber.
It is a preferred method for coating small, complex-shaped metals, and for
smoothing rough surfaces on items formed with powder metal. This is the most
common use for galvanizing, and hundreds of thousands of tonnes are galvanized
annually worldwide. In developed countries most larger cities have several
 galvanizing factories, and many items of steel manufacture are galvanized for
protection. 
i. Gilding: The gilding of decorative ceramics has been undertaken for centuries, with
the permanence and brightness of gold appealing to designers. Both porcelain
andearthenware are commonly decorated with gold, and in the late 1970s it was
reported that 5 tonnes of gold were used annually for the decoration of these
products. After application the decorated ware is fired in kiln to fuse the gold to
the glaze and hence ensure its permanence. The most important factors affecting
coating quality are the composition of applied gold, the state of the surface before
application, the thickness of the layer and the firing conditions.
j. Peening: is the process of working a metal's surface to improve its material
properties, usually by mechanical means, such as hammer blows, by blasting with
shot (shot peening), or blasts of light beams with laser peening.
i. Shot Peening: Shot peening is often called for in aircraft repairs to relieve
tensile stresses built up in the grinding process and replace them with
beneficial compressive stresses. Depending on the part geometry, part
material, shot material, shot quality, shot intensity, and shot coverage, shot
peening can increase fatigue life up to 1000%
ii. Laser Peening: One application is for metal shaping or forming. By
selectively laser shocking areas on the surface of metal sheets or plates, or
smaller items such as airfoils, the associated compressive residual stresses
cause the material to flex in a controllable manner. In this way a particular
shape can be imparted to a component, or a distorted component might be
brought back into the desired shape. Thus, this process is capable of
bringing manufactured parts back into design tolerance limits and form
shaping thin section parts.
k. Thermal Spraying: This technique is mostly used to produce coatings on structural
materials. Such coatings provide protection against high temperatures (for
example thermal barrier coatings for exhaust heat
management),corrosion, erosion, wear; they can also change the appearance,
electrical or tribological properties of the surface, replace worn material, etc. This
application is mainly used to modify the surface chemistry of polymers.
l. Laser Ablation: The simplest application of laser ablation is to remove material from
a solid surface in a controlled fashion. Laser machining and particularly laser
drilling are examples; pulsed lasers can drill extremely small, deep holes through
very hard materials. Very short laser pulses remove material so quickly that the
surrounding material absorbs very little heat, so laser drilling can be done on
delicate or heat-sensitive materials, including tooth enamel (laser dentistry). 
m. Polishing: n some materials (such as metals, glasses, black or transparent stones)
polishing is also able to reduce diffuse reflection to minimal values. When an
unpolished surface is magnified thousands of times, it usually looks like mountains
and valleys. By repeated abrasion, those "mountains" are worn down until they are
flat or just small "hills." The process of polishing with abrasives starts with coarse
ones and graduates to fine ones.

46. Hobbing:  Compared to other gear forming processes it is relatively inexpensive but still quite
accurate, thus it is used for a broad range of parts and quantities. It is the most widely used gear
cutting process for creating spur and helical gear and more gears are cut by hobbing than any
 other process since it is relatively quick and inexpensive. Hobbing is used to produce
most throated worm wheels, but certain tooth profiles cannot be hobbed. If any portion of the
hob profile is perpendicular to the axis then it will have no cutting clearance generated by the
usual backing off process, and it will not cut well.
47. Grinding: Grinding practice is a large and diverse area of manufacturing and toolmaking. It can
produce very fine finishes and very accurate dimensions; yet in mass production contexts it can
also rough out large volumes of metal quite rapidly.
48. Gashing: is a machining process used to rough out coarse pitched gears and sprockets. It is
commonly used on worm wheels before hobbing, but also used on internal and external spur
gears, bevel gears, helical gears, and gear racks. The process is performed
on gashers or universal milling machines, especially in the case of worm wheels.
49. Bio Machining:  Certain bacteria, such as Thiobacillus ferrooxidans and Thiobacillus thiooxidans,
which are also used in the mineral refinement process of bioleaching, utilize the chemical energy
from oxidation of iron or copper to fix carbon dioxide from the air. A metal object, when placed
in a culture fluid containing these metal-metabolizing bacteria, will have material removed from
its surface over time. This process has been successfully used to cut both pure iron and pure
copper.

JOINING PROCESSES

50. Welding: Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials,

usually metals or thermoplastics, by causing fusion, which is distinct from lower temperature
metal-joining techniques such as brazing and soldering, which do not melt the base metal.
a. Arc: is a type of welding that uses a welding power supply to create an electric
arc between an electrode and the base material to melt the metals at the welding
point. 
i. Manual Metal: Because of the versatility of the process and the simplicity of
its equipment and operation, shielded metal arc welding is one of the
world's first and most popular welding processes.  The process is used
primarily to weld iron and steels (including stainless steel)
but aluminium, nickel and copper alloys can also be welded with this
method.
ii. Shielded Metal: In recent years its use has declined as flux-cored arc
welding has expanded in the construction industry and gas metal arc
welding has become more popular in industrial environments. SMAW is
often used to weld carbon steel, low and high alloy steel, stainless steel, cast
iron, and ductile iron. While less popular for nonferrous materials, it can be
used on nickel and copper and their alloys and, in rare cases, on aluminium. 
iii. Gas Metal: Along with the wire electrode, a shielding gas feeds through the
welding gun, which shields the process from contaminants in the
air. Originally developed for welding aluminum and other non-ferrous
materials in the 1940s, GMAW was soon applied to steels because it
provided faster welding time compared to other welding processes.  is used
extensively by the sheet metal industry and, by extension, the automobile
industry. There, the method is often used for arc spot welding, thereby
replacing riveting or resistance spot welding. It is also popular for automated
 welding, in which robots handle the workpieces and the welding gun to
speed up the manufacturing process.[
iv. Gas Tungsten: GTAW is most commonly used to weld thin sections
of stainless steel and non-ferrous metals such as aluminum, magnesium,
and copper alloys. The process grants the operator greater control over the
weld than competing processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas
metal arc welding, allowing for stronger, higher quality welds. While the
aerospace industry is one of the primary users of gas tungsten arc welding,
the process is used in a number of other areas. Many industries use GTAW
for welding thin workpieces, especially nonferrous metals. It is used
extensively in the manufacture of space vehicles, and is also frequently
employed to weld small-diameter, thin-wall tubing such as those used in the
bicycle industry.
v. Submerged: SAW is normally operated in the automatic or mechanized
mode, however, semi-automatic (hand-held) SAW guns with pressurized or
gravity flux feed delivery are available. The process is normally limited to the
flat or horizontal-fillet welding positions (although horizontal groove
position welds have been done with a special arrangement to support the
flux). Deposition rates approaching 45 kg/h (100 lb/h) have been reported —
this compares to ~5 kg/h (10 lb/h) (max) for shielded metal arc welding.
Although currents ranging from 300 to 2000 A are commonly
utilized, currents of up to 5000 A have also been used (multiple arcs).
vi. Plasma Arc:
vii. Carbon Arc: In a carbon arc lamp, the electrodes are carbon rods in free air.
To ignite the lamp, the rods are touched together, thus allowing a relatively
low voltage to strike the arc.  If the points of the electrodes are touching (as
in start-up) the resistance falls, the current increases and the increased pull
from the solenoid draws the points apart. If the arc starts to fail, the current
drops and the points close up again.
b. Oxy-Fuel Gas: As well, oxy-fuel has an advantage over electric welding and cutting
processes in situations where accessing electricity (e.g., via an extension cord or
portable generator) would present difficulties; it is more self-contained, and, hence,
often more portable. In short, oxy-fuel equipment is quite versatile, not only
because it is preferred for some sorts of iron or steel welding but also because it
lends itself to brazing, braze-welding, metal heating (for annealing or tempering,
bending or forming), rust or scale removal, the loosening of corroded nuts and bolts,
and is a ubiquitous means of cutting ferrous metals.
i. Oxy-Acetylene Gas
ii. Oxy-Hydrogen
c. Resistance Welding:  In general, resistance welding methods are efficient and cause
little pollution, but their applications are limited to relatively thin materials and the
equipment cost can be high (although in production situations the cost per weld
may be low).
51. Butt Welding: Butt welding is a welding technique used to connect parts which are nearly
parallel and don't overlap. Usually, a butt-welding joint is made by gradually heating up the two
weld ends with a weld plate and then joining them under a specific pressure. This process is very
suitable for prefabrication and producing special fittings. Afterward, the material is usually
ground down to a smooth finish and either sent on its way to the processing machine, or sold as
a completed product.
i. Shot Welding: Shot welding is a specific type of spot welding used to join
two pieces of metal together. This is accomplished by clamping the two
pieces together and then passing a large electric current through them for a
short period of time. Assuming the right amount of current for the right
time, this will weld the two pieces of metal together.
ii. Spot Welding: Spot welding is typically used when welding particular types
of sheet metal, welded wire mesh or wire mesh. Thicker stock is more
difficult to spot weld because the heat flows into the surrounding metal
more easily. Perhaps the most common application of spot welding is in
the automobile manufacturing industry, where it is used almost universally
to weld the sheet metal to form a car. Another application is spot welding
straps to nickel–cadmium or nickel–metal hydride cells to make batteries. 
b. Projection Welding: Projection welding is a modification of spot welding. In this
process, the weld is localized by means of raised sections, or projections, on one or
both of the workpieces to be joined. Projection welding is often used to weld studs,
nuts, and other screw machine parts to metal plate. It is also frequently used to join
crossed wires and bars. This is another high-production process, and multiple
projection welds can be arranged by suitable designing and jigging.
c. Seam
d. Upset Welding:  The difference from flash welding is that the parts are clamped in
the welding machine and force is applied bringing them tightly together. High-
amperage current is then passed through the joint, which heats the abutting
surfaces. When they have been heated to a suitable forging temperature an
upsetting force is applied and the current is stopped. The high temperature of the
work at the abutting surfaces plus the high pressure causes coalescence to take
place. After cooling, the force is released and the weld is completed.
e. Friction Welding: The combination of fast joining times (on the order of a few
seconds), and direct heat input at the weld interface, yields relatively small heat-
affected zones. Another advantage is that the motion tends to "clean" the surface
between the materials being welded, which means they can be joined with less
preparation. Other common uses for these sorts of bi-metal joins is in the nuclear
industry, where copper-steel joints are common in the reactor cooling systems; and
in the transport of cryogenic fluids, where friction welding has been used to join
aluminum alloys to stainless steels and high-nickel-alloy materials for cryogenic-fluid
piping and containment vessels.
f. Laser Welding: The beam provides a concentrated heat source, allowing for narrow,
deep welds and high welding rates. The process is frequently used in high volume
applications, such as in the automotive industry. It is based on keyhole or
Penetration mode welding.

g. Electron Beam Welding: Electron beam equipment must be provided with an

appropriate power supply for the beam generator. The accelerating voltage may be
chosen between 30 and 200 kV. Usually it is about 60 or 150 kV, depending on
various conditions. With rising voltage the technical problems and the price of the
equipment rapidly increase, hence, whenever it is possible a lower voltage of about
 60 kV is to be chosen. The maximum power of the high voltage supply depends on
the maximum depth of weld required.
h. Thermite Welding
i. Induction Welding: Induction welding is used for long production runs and is a
highly automated process, usually used for welding the seams of pipes. It can be a
very fast process, as a lot of power can be transferred to a localised area, so
the faying surfaces melt very quickly and can be pressed together to form a
continuous rolling weld.  Plastic can also be induction welded by embedding the
plastic with electrically conductive fibers like metals or carbon fiber. Induced eddy
currents resistively heat the embedded fibers which lose their heat to the
surrounding plastic by conduction. Induction welding of carbon fiber reinforced
plastics is commonly used in the aerospace industry. 
52. Brazing: Brazing differs from welding in that it does not involve melting the work pieces and
from soldering in using higher temperatures for a similar process, while also requiring much
more closely fitted parts than when soldering. 
a. Torch Brazing: Manual brazing is most commonly used on small production volumes
or in applications where the part size or configuration makes other brazing methods
impossible.  The advantage of this method is that it reduces the high labor and skill
requirement of manual brazing. The use of flux is also required for this method as
there is no protective atmosphere, and it is best suited to small to medium
production volumes.
b. Furnace Brazing: Furnace brazing is a semi-automatic process used widely in
industrial brazing operations due to its adaptability to mass production and use of
unskilled labor. There are many advantages of furnace brazing over other heating
methods that make it ideal for mass production. One main advantage is the ease
with which it can produce large numbers of small parts that are easily jigged or self-
locating.
c. Silver Brazing: The braze alloy joins the materials and compensates for the
difference in their expansion rates. It also provides a cushion between the hard
carbide tip and the hard steel, which softens impact and prevents tip loss and
damage—much as a vehicle's suspension helps prevent damage to the tires and the
vehicle.
d. Braze Brazing: Another effect of braze welding is the elimination of stored-up
stresses that are often present in fusion welding. This is extremely important in the
repair of large castings. The disadvantages are the loss of strength when subjected
to high temperatures and the inability to withstand high stresses.
e. Cast iron Brazing: Ductile cast iron pipe may be also "cadwelded," a process that
connects joints by means of a small copper wire fused into the iron when previously
ground down to the bare metal, parallel to the iron joints being formed as per hub
pipe with neoprene gasket seals.
f. Dip Brazing: Dip brazing is especially suited for brazing aluminium because air is
excluded, thus preventing the formation of oxides. 
g. Vacuum Brazing: Vacuum brazing is often conducted in a furnace; this means that
several joints can be made at once because the whole workpiece reaches the
brazing temperature. The heat is transferred using radiation, as many other
methods cannot be used in a vacuum
53. Soldering: Soldering is used in plumbing, electronics, and metalwork from flashing to jewelry.
Soldering provides reasonably permanent but reversible connections between copper pipes
in plumbing systems as well as joints in sheet metal objects such as food cans, roof flashing, rain
gutters and automobile radiators. Electronic soldering connects electrical wiring and electronic
components to printed circuit boards (PCBs).
a. Induction soldering: Some metals are easier to solder than others. Copper, silver,
and gold are easy. Iron, mild steel and nickel are next in difficulty. Because of their
thin, strong oxide films, stainless steel and aluminium are even more difficult to
solder. Titanium, magnesium, cast irons, some high-carbon steels, ceramics,
and graphite can be soldered but it involves a process similar to joining carbides:
they are first plated with a suitable metallic element that induces interfacial
bonding.
b. Silver Soldering: With silver soldering, small pieces of solder wire are placed onto
the metal prior to heating. A flux, often made of boric acid and denatured alcohol, is
used to keep the metal and solder clean and to prevent the solder from moving
before it melts.
c. Resistance Soldering: Resistance soldering equipment, unlike conduction irons, can
be used for difficult soldering and brazing applications where significantly higher
temperatures may be required. This makes resistance comparable to flame soldering
in some situations. When the required temperature can be achieved by either flame
or resistance methods the resistance heat is more localized because of direct
contact, whereas the flame will spread thus heating a potentially larger area.
54. Sintering: Sintering is part of the firing process used in the manufacture of pottery and other
ceramic objects. These objects are made from substances such
as glass, alumina, zirconia, silica, magnesia, lime,beryllium oxide, and ferric oxide. Some ceramic
raw materials have a lower affinity for water and a lower plasticity index than clay, requiring
organic additives in the stages before sintering. Plastic materials are formed by sintering for
applications that require materials of specific porosity. Sintered plastic porous components are
used in filtration and to control fluid and gas flows. Sintered plastics are used in applications
requiring wicking properties, such as marking pen nibs.
55. Interference Fit: For metal parts in particular, the friction that holds the parts together is often
greatly increased by compression of one part against the other, which relies on
the tensile and compressive strengths of the materials the parts are made from. Typical
examples of interference fits are the press fitting of shafts into bearings or bearings into their
housings and the attachment of watertight connectors to cables. An interference fit also results
when pipe fittings are assembled and tightened. A press fit is also required to mount wheels on
an axle to make a wheel set.
56. Riveting: Before welding techniques and bolted joints were developed, metal framed buildings
and structures such as the Eiffel Tower, Shukhov Tower and the Sydney Harbour Bridge were
generally held together by riveting. Also automobile chassiswere riveted. Riveting is still widely
used in applications where light weight and high strength are critical, such as in an aircraft. Many
sheet-metal alloys are preferably not welded as deformation and modification of material
properties can occur.
57. Clinching: Clinching is used primarily in the automotive, appliance and electronic industries,
where it often replaces spot welding. Clinching does not require electricity or cooling of the
electrodes commonly associated with spot welding. Being a mechanical joining process, clinching
can be used to join materials showing no electrical conductivity such as polymers. Clinching does
not require a pre-cleaning of the surfaces, which is needed before applying adhesives. Clinching
is almost an instant joining process (the required joining time is lower than a second) while
adhesive joining often requires a much longer time mainly owing to the curing of the joint (up to
many hours).