OUTLINE

1. Design Criteria and selection of processing equipment

1. CRITERIA AND SELECTION OF PROCESSING EQUIPMENT

The variety of plastics has led to a diversification of the technical processes through which the finished
plastic products can be obtained.

Optimizing the equipment design process is one of the elements that can ensure high efficiency of the
entire process.

In the world of plastic part fabrication, every process, be it injection molding, machining or extrusion, has
an important place. Confusion regarding these processes persists in many industries. That confusion can
have profound effects on the final product, both – in cost and- performance.

Design Considerations

Before settling on a process or a resin to work with, a few things need to be understood. These include:

1. Performance requirements – What will the part have to do once it is installed, and what kind of
forces and stresses will it have to endure?
2. Dimensional attributes – What is the required size and shape– of the fabricated component -, and
what surface qualities will it need?
3. Target cost – What kind of budget is there to work with? How can that budget maximize part
performance while remaining at or under the target?

For design engineers, the first two are elementary, and require little more than applied knowledge to
answer. However, cost is something that is rarely understood well. That’s because there is a pervading
assumption in many industries that plastic components are always less expensive than components made
from other materials, specifically metal.

That is a poor assumption. Many high- performance polymers are on a volume basis much more
expensive than the most expensive metal alloys. Although process options like injection molding offer
molding to final form options helping to reduce unit manufacturing costs, engineers must account for the
cost of the mold itself.
Injection molding is often assumed to be a cost effective option because the expected volume of a
production run pushes down the cost per part. However, molds need to be machined out of extremely
durable metals to withstand thousands of parts which can drive total project costs up unexpectedly.

While injection molding can still be the right process even when cost is considered, it bears mentioning
that machining components from stock shapes reduces the need for expensive tooling while speeding up
delivery of initial parts. Also, machining maintains a precision advantage, which often leads to better
performance and dimensional versatility.

SELECTING A PROCESS

Having handled material selection in the previous lecture, the final resin selected will depend on the
process selected as well. Design engineers should note that process selection influences the resin choice
and can greatly impact the cost of the project, as well as the parts’ performance.

Comparing between injection molding and machining or why process/ machining:

1. When to choose machining – If the parts need to be fabricated to at a large size (wall thickness
greater than .5” or 12mm), machining is the right choice. Also, if impact strength and toughness
are priorities, or if the parts need to be fabricated within tight tolerances with no drafting,
machining makes the most sense. Finally, if production is going to be kept to smaller runs (less
than 5,000 parts or less during a single year), then machining will be a cost-effective option.
2. When to choose injection molding – If the parts are designed with features that are difficult to
machine, or if larger production runs are required (more than 5,000 parts annually), then injection
molding is the right choice.

Even after the resin and process are both selected, there may be some fine-tuning left. This will likely
require input from the polymer supplier or manufacturer.

A common issue arises is when a resin grade that is not designed for machining is nonetheless selected
for machining. Extruded shapes are nearly always produced using high viscosity resins, as they offer
superior stiffness and strength both during and post extrusion processing.

Make sure that if machining is the preferred part production process, that a high viscosity resin is
selected, as this will ensure that there are stock shapes can be produced to machine from. It can be tricky
to decipher industry nomenclature without some professional guidance.
In short, injection molding is the fastest and most efficient conversion route, but there can be challenges
namely start-up costs and lead time. Machining parts from extruded shapes may be the fastest route to
prototyping parts but also deserves consideration even once parts become standard production. The
material selected may sound the same and may even carry the same resin tradename but process
differences and seemingly subtle grade differences can result in unexpected outcomes when these
considerations are ignored.

Factors to be considered when selecting a manufacturing process for your product

i. Form(geometry design)

Do your parts have complex internal features or tight tolerance requirements? Depending on the geometry
of a design, manufacturing options may be limited, or they may require significant design for
manufacturing (DFM) optimization to make them economical to produce.

ii. Volume/cost:

What’s the total or the annual volume of parts you’re planning to manufacture? Some manufacturing
processes have high front costs for tooling and setup, but produce parts that are inexpensive on a
per-part basis. In contrast, low volume manufacturing processes have low startup costs, but due to slower
cycle times, less automation, and manual labor, cost per part remains constant or decreases only
marginally when volume increases.

iii. Lead time:

How quickly do you need parts or finished goods produced? Some processes create first parts within 24
hours, while tooling and setup for certain high volume production processes takes months.

iv. Material:

What stresses and strains will your product need to stand up to? The optimal material for a given
application is determined by a number of factors. Cost must be balanced against functional and aesthetic
requirements. Consider the ideal characteristics for your specific application and contrast them with the
available choices in a given manufacturing processes
 v. Costs.

The set up cost, tooling cost. This must also be considered when selecting the process.
In general, the open-mold processes can be expected to have lower tooling costs than any of the closed-
mold processes for parts of equivalent complexity because only one side of a mold has to be built.

1. Design criteria for Injection molding process

Plastic products can be manufactured using various processing methods. One of these processing methods
is injection molding. Essentially, the injection molding supposes the melting of the plastic at a certain
temperature and subsequently, the melted material is pressed through a nozzle in a cavity of a mold; after
cooling, a part that has the mold cavity shape is obtained. In principle, the injection molding process is
efficient in the case of high series or mass production, due to its high productivity. A disadvantage of the
injection molding process is the relatively high price of the mold and of the injection molding equipment.

Injection molding is a manufacturing technique for making parts from both thermoplastic and
thermosetting plastic materials in production.

Molten plastic is injected at high pressure into a mold, which is the inverse of the product's shape. After
aproduct is designed, usually by an industrial designer or an engineer, molds are made by a moldmaker
(or toolmaker) from metal, usually either steel or aluminium, and precisionmachined to form the features
of the desired part. Injection molding is widely used for manufacturing a variety of parts, from the
smallest component to entire body panels of cars.
Injection molding is the most common method of production, with some commonly made items including
bottle caps and outdoor furniture.

The most commonly used thermoplastic materials are polystyrene (low cost, lacking the strength and
longevity of other materials), ABS or acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (a terpolymer or mixture of
compounds used for everything from Lego parts to electronics housings), polyamide (chemically
resistant, heat resistant, tough and flexible – used for combs), polypropylene (tough and flexible – used
for containers), polyethylene, and polyvinyl chloride or PVC (more common in extrusions as used for
pipes, window frames, or as the insulation on wiring where it is rendered flexible by the inclusion of a
high proportion of plasticiser).
Injection molding can also be used to manufacture parts from aluminium or brass (die
casting). The melting points of these metals are much higher than those of plastics; this makes for
substantially shorter mold lifetimes despite the use of specialized steels. Nonetheless, the
costs compare quite favorably to sand casting, particularly for smaller parts.
The process of injection molding could be considered as a complex process. As abovementioned,
initially, the plastic material must be heated up to a temperature at which it arrives in a plastic state that
facilitates its pressing and penetration into the mold cavity. If the mold walls found in contact with the
melted plastic is cold, an immediate increase of the plastic viscosity is expected and just a solidification
process could appear.
On the other hand, it is important that the plastic is characterized at least by good processability by plastic
injection. This means that among other requests, the plastic must maximally maintain its capacity to fill
the cavity that exists into the injection mold.

1.2 Equipment
Injection molding machines, also known as presses, hold the molds in which the components are shaped.
Presses are rated by tonnage, which expresses the amount of clamping force that the machine can
generate. This pressure keeps the mold closed during the injection process.
Tonnage can vary from less than 5 tons to 6000 tons, with the higher figures used in comparatively few
manufacturing operations.

1.2.1 Mold
Mold (Tool and/or Mold) is the common term used to describe the production tooling used to
produce plastic parts in molding.
Traditionally, molds have been expensive to manufacture. They were usually only used in mass
production where thousands of parts were being produced. Molds are typically constructed from hardened
steel, pre-hardened steel, aluminium, and/or beryllium-copper alloy. The choice of material to build a
mold is primarily one of economics. Steel molds generally cost more to construct, but their longer
lifespan will offset the higher initial cost over a higher number of parts made before wearing out. Pre
hardened steel molds are less wear resistant and are used for lower volume requirements or larger
components.

The steel hardness is typically 38-45 on the Rockwell-C scale. Hardened steel molds are heat treated after
machining. These are by far the superior in terms of wear resistance and lifespan.
Typical hardness ranges between 50 and 60 Rockwell-C (HRC). Aluminium molds can cost substantially
less, and when designed and machined with modern computerized equipment, can be economical for
molding tens or even hundreds of thousands of parts. Beryllium copper is used in areas of the mold which
require fast heat removal or areas that see the most shear heat generated. The molds can be manufactured
by either CNC machining or by using Electrical Discharge Machining processes
1.2.2 Design
Molds separate into two sides at a parting line, the A side, and the B side, to permit the part to be
extracted. Plastic resin enters the mold through a sprue in the A plate, branches out between the two sides
through channels called runners, and enters each part cavity through one or more specialized gates. Inside
each cavity, the resin flows around protrusions (called cores) and conforms to the cavity geometry to
form the desired part. The amount of resin required to fill the sprue, runner and cavities of a mold is a
shot. When a core shuts off against an opposing mold cavity or core, a hole results in the part. Air in the
cavities when the mold closes escapes through very slight gaps between the plates and pins, into shallow
plenums called vents.

To permit removal of the part, its features must not overhang one another in the direction that the mold
opens, unless parts of the mold are designed to move from between such overhangs when the mold opens.
Sides of the part that appear parallel with the direction of draw (the direction in which the core and cavity
separate from each other) are typically angled slightly with (draft) to ease release of the part from the
mold, and examination of most plastic household objects will reveal this. Parts with bucket-like features
tend to shrink onto the cores that form them while cooling, and cling to those cores when the cavity is
pulled away.

The mold is usually designed so that the molded part reliably remains on the ejector (B) side of the mold
when it opens, and draws the runner and the sprue out of the (A) side along with the parts. The part then
falls freely when ejected from the (B) side. Tunnel gates tunnel sharply below the parting surface of the B
side at the tip of each runner so that the gate is sheared off of the part when both are ejected. Ejector pins
are the most popular method for removing the part from the B side core(s), but air ejection, and stripper
plates can also be used depending on the application.

Most ejector plates are found on the moving half of the tool, but they can be placed on the fixed half if
spring loaded. For thermoplastics, coolant, usually water with corrosion inhibitors, circulates through
passageways bored through the main plates on both sides of the mold to enable temperature control and
rapid part solidification.
To ease maintenance and venting, cavities and cores are divided into pieces, called inserts, and
subassemblies, also called inserts, blocks, or chase blocks. By substituting interchangeable inserts, one
mold may make several variations of the same part.

More complex parts are formed using more complex molds. These may have sections called slides, that
move into a cavity perpendicular to the draw direction, to form overhanging part features. Slides are then
withdrawn to allow the part to be released when the mold opens.
Slides are typically guided and retained between rails called gibs, and are moved when the mold opens
and closes by angled rods called horn pins and locked in place by locking blocks, both of which move
cross the mold from the opposite side.

Some molds allow previously molded parts to be reinserted to allow a new plastic layer to form around
the first part. This is often referred to as overmolding. This system can allow for production of one-piece
tires and wheels.

2-shot or multi shot molds are designed to "overmold" within a single molding cycle and must be
processed on specialized injection molding machines with two or more injection units.
This can be achieved by having pairs of identical cores and pairs of different cavities within the mold.
After injection of the first material, the component is rotated on the core from the one cavity to another.

The second cavity differs from the first in that the detail for the second material is included. The second
material is then injected into the additional cavity detail before the completed part is ejected from the
mold. Common applications include "soft-grip" toothbrushes and freelander grab handles.

The core and cavity, along with injection and cooling hoses form the mold tool. While large tools are very
heavy weighing hundreds and sometimes thousands of pounds, they usually require the use of a forklift or
overhead crane, they can be hoisted into molding machines for production and removed when molding is
complete or the tool needs repairing.

A mold can produce several copies of the same parts in a single "shot". The number of "impressions" in
the mold of that part is often incorrectly referred to as cavitation. A tool with one impression will often be
called a single cavity (impression) tool. A mold with 2 or more cavities of the same parts will likely be
referred to as multiple cavity tooling. Some extremely high production volume molds (like those for
bottle caps) can have over 128 cavities.

In some cases multiple cavity tooling will mold a series of different parts in the same tool.
Some toolmakers call these molds family molds as all the parts are not the same but often part of a family
of parts (to be used in the same product for example).

1.2.3 Machining
Molds are built through two main methods: standard machining and EDM machining.
Standard Machining, in its conventional form, has historically been the method of building injection
molds. With technological development, CNC machining became the predominant means of making
more complex molds with more accurate mold details in less time than traditional methods.
The electrical discharge machining (EDM) or spark erosion process has become widely used in mold
making. As well as allowing the formation of shapes which are difficult to machine, the process allows
pre-hardened molds to be shaped so that no heat treatment is required.
Changes to a hardened mold by conventional drilling and milling normally require annealing to soften the
steel, followed by heat treatment to harden it again. EDM is a simple process in which a shape electrode,
usually made of copper or graphite, is very slowly lowered onto the mold surface (over a period of many
hours), which is immersed in paraffin oil. A voltage applied between tool and mold causes erosion of the
mold surface in the inverse shape of the electrode.

1.2.4 Cost
The cost of manufacturing molds depends on a very large set of factors ranging from number of cavities,
size of the parts (and therefore the mold), complexity of the pieces, expected tool longevity, surface
finishes and many others.

2. Design criteria for Blow molding process

1.1 Blow ratio.

The ratio of the surface area of the expanded surface to that of its original surface is referred to as the
blow ratio,

Determining the blow ratio will help determine localized thinning (areas of the part that might get thin
during the blow molding process). when a part design has multiple blow ratio conditions, each individual
draw area can affect the other. Once you’ve determined the blow ratio, adjustments can be made to the
thickness of the parison as it is being extruded, enabling it to have different thicknesses at specific points
along the tube to compensate.

𝐻
Blow ration = 𝐷 , H maximum height of projection perpendicular to the mold parting line.

D smallest dimension at the base of the projection in the plane parallel to the parting line

1.2 Draft of part

Utilizing draft, or taper, is critical to the moldability of your part. Without it, parts can have problems
ejecting from the mold, damaging both the part and the mold.

No single draft angle can be applied to all part designs, but a good rule of thumb is to allow for as much
draft as possible, with at least one degree of draft per inch of cavity depth
 1.3 Shrinkage.

This refers to the contraction of a plastic molded part as it cools. Every plastic resin has a shrink rate. This
means your part and part features will inevitably shrink as they cool. Understanding how design impacts
the degree of shrinkage will help you avoid unacceptable shrinkage and other deformations. Part
shrinkage can be affected by:

Cooling time, cores. Take offs etc

3. Design criteria for thermoforming process

i. The design of the part will often determine the thermoforming technique to use or if the
thermoforming technique should be used at all.
ii. Stretch ratio, Depth of draw, level of surface detail required, ribbing, fillets, stress concentration,
shrinkage, expansion and undercuts are all the factors which should be considered when creating
your part design.

3.1 Stretch ratio.

The starting gauge of the original material before stretching divided by the final thickness of the piece
part is called stretch ratio. The stretch ratio is determined by the following formula;

A stretch ratio of 2 means that the final thickness is half the starting gauge and a stretch ratio of 3 means
it is a third probably for good design.

Starting gauges for sheet thermoforming lie between 0.05 in and 0.5in.

The thinner gauges suited for vacuum thermoforming while thicker gauges of range 0.125 inch to
0.250inch are suitable for pressure thermoforming.

3.2 Deep draw ratio.

This is the ratio of the maximum depth of the part to the minimum distance across the face of the die at
any location on the die.

While most thermoformed parts are much shallower than they are wide, draw ratios of 1:1 are fairly
common and ideal for pressure thermoforming and an excess of 1:1 can be achieved for careful part
design, tool construction and manufacturing controls.

This is ideal for plug assist ,snap back and billow forming
Design illustration of a thermoformed part.

3.3 Positive and negative moulds

In male thermoforming ,the first part of the mould to contact the sheet is the highest point on the form. In
most cases, this will be the thickness point of the part(T2).As the sheet is stretched over the mould, it thins
out.

Therefore the thinnest part of a male thermoforming will be along its edges(IR3).The reverse is true for the
female moulds where the outer edges of the piece part make first contact. The thinnest wall will therefore
be at the bottom(T2).

3.4 Draft

The amount of draft varies according to the type of die used. The majority of thermoformed products are
made from negative moulds because it produces a finished outer surface.

In female moulds, the part shrinks away from the surface. While a generous draft of 3° to 5° is desirable for
economic moulds, parts have been made with a draft as low as 1° per side.

Male formed parts need more draft because with a male die, the part shrinks down on the mould and grips
tightly. For these parts, a draft of 3 to 5° is needed.

3.5 Radii and chamfers

The corner radii also help in removal of the part from the mould.
A large radii grips the mould less than a small radii. However in stretching, a large radii thins out than the
sharp radii.

Male thermoformed parts naturally thin out the most at the extremities of the part and have generous radii
at these locations.

Female thermoformed parts are thinnest at the inside of the part and need the most generous radii at these
locations.

The general rule for vacuum thermoforming is that it should have a minimum inside radius(IR1) equal to
the starting gauge(IR1>=T1) increasing to 4 times the starting gauge(T1) at its thinnest point.

Pressure thermoforming can handle as much tighter radii of 0.25T1(Starting gauge) at the thickest point
increasing to 0.75T1.

For uncontrolled radii such as IR2 and IR4 assume wall thickness equal to the starting gauge.

The inside angle of the corner created by the two intersecting walls(A) is also significant. The 90° corner is
normally done. However wider(120°) is better. Narrower is mostly and 60° is the minimum.

In female thermoforming, the outer radius is determined by the mould.

For vacuum thermoforming, it would be quite large ,equal to the inside radius+thickness of the sheet at the
point on the part.

However pressure thermoforming is capable of forcing material deep in the cavity and can readily create
outer radii(OR5) as small as 0.015 inch.

3.6 Ribs

Pressure thermoforming can create free standing ribs(R1) for the purpose of stiffening the part to a limited
extent.

For a rib height(H1), no greater than the wall thickness(T2), a rib is as narrow as one wall thickness can be
created.

Stiffening of the thermoformed parts can be created with design features such as hollow ribs(R2) or
shoulders(S).The width(W2) of the hollow rib should be equal or greater than 1.75 times the height.

Corners such as the one at the right edge of the part(IR3) also provide stiffening. Care must be taken to
leave atleast 0.30inch of the flange in place.
Additional stiffness is also provided by adding a step shoulder in the wall(S).If the design does not support
the addition of the step shoulder, large flat areas can be domed to prevent buckling. A rise of 0.05in/in is
desirable.

Force fits and snap fits are used for thermoformed parts. Outside walls can be held to +-0.015 inch for the
first +-0.001inch can be held for projections such as ribs.

4.Design criteria for Rotational molding process

4.1 Venting.

Due to gasses that are expelled when the resins cures, a vent hole is required in all molds and therefore
products. The size of the vent is dependent upon the volume of the cavity.

Multiple vent holes may be required for larger and more complex parts.

4.2 Shrinkage.

Various resins have different shrinkage, .007, .025, .030, .035in/in. cast aluminium molds shrink to
0.011in/in. The molding process can also vary these shrinkages. Restricted areas will also vary the
shrinkage to some degree.

The type of mold release or permanent coating will having varying shrinkage. If you are trying to create
around since the parting line will restrict the material shrinkage and force the part into an oblong.

4.3 Radiuses & angles

Due to nature of how the material flows and forms, sharp corners usually result in blow holes and porosity
in the corners. Adding a generous radius improves the molding of corners and distributes the stress over a
broader area adding to the product’s strength. The minimum recommended angle at the corner of a part for
polyethylene and PVC is 30°, nylon is 20°, polycarbonate is 45°. Corner angles less than these amounts can
result in a bridging of plastic, increased porosity and excessive shrinkage.
4.4 Wall thickness.

It should be noted that because of material flow characteristics outside corners tend to be thicker that
nominal wall {usually an advantage since outside corners are frequently heavily loaded} whereas
projections into the moulding tend to thin out. These are generally not regarded within the general wall
tolerance.

A tolerance of +‐20% should be considered as a commercial tolerance whereas +‐10% would be precision
and be more expensive to maintain.

4.5 Flatness.

The flatness of product surface is subject to the design and cooling process.

Typical flatness tolerances for polyethylene would be 5% ideal with 2% as a commercial tolerance and 1%
as a precision tolerance.

If at all possible, the design of parts to be rotationally moulded should avoid large flat areas. If absolutely
necessary they should be broken up by reinforcing ribs (see next section) or possibly have a gentle
curvature on them. Moulded in detail, such as lettering, logo’s etc. can also break a flat surface up visually
so that lack of flatness is disguised.

Corners and their radius can affect the flatness of adjacent surfaces as differential cooling rates can cause
the corner angle to distort. This effect is minimised by careful design of the corner, the tooling and cooling
process.
5.Design criteria for Transfer molding process

A transfer mold is comprised of various components including, vents, sprues, gates and cores, cavity and
the material of the mold itself. This presentation tackles the design of these components, material selection
for the material of the transfer mold and criterion for choosing this type of molding.

5.1 Vent design:

Typical vents design for a phenolic part should be 1⁄4" (6 mm) wide with a recommended depth of
0.003”-0.0035” (0.08 mm - 0.09 mm) deep and vents for polyester parts should be 1⁄4" (6 mm) wide and
0.002" - 0.0025" (0.05 mm - 0.06 mm) deep.

Along with location and depth of the vents is the vent length, which is the distance from the part to the
vent relief. The vent should be approximately 1” (25mm) long to allow pressure to build in the cavity after
the material in the vent cures. After this point, the vent can be relieved to a depth of 0.01" - 0.02" (0.25 mm
- 0.50 mm).

It is sometimes necessary to vent “dead” areas of a mold with vented ejector pins. Before adding the
vents, an ejector pin should fit the hole in which it will operate within 0.001" (0.025 mm). A flat is then
ground on the diameter no deeper than 0.005" (0.13 mm) for a distance that will take the vent 1⁄8" (3 mm)
below the fit length of the pin. Normally the fit length should be 1⁄2" - 5⁄8" (13 mm - 16 mm) long.
5.2 Runner Design for transfer molds;

When designing runners for transfer molds we can choose from the following types;

Standard full round with a centerline: This is the most efficient runner, but in some cases it is necessary
for the runner to be in only one half of the mold.

Standard trapezoid runner: This is often used in situations that require the runner to be only in one mold
half. The effective runner size is shown below;

The four corners become "dead" areas with nearly no material movement. This can be modified to reduce
the dead centers thus reducing the dead areas while maintaining the effectiveness of the runner.
5.3 Gates design for transfer molds:

The gates for thermoset molds are high wear areas of the mold and thus should be made using a replaceable
insert so when it becomes badly worn it can easily be replaced hence it should be made of materials that do
not wear easily. Materials commonly used for gate inserts are D-2, M-3 and Ferrotic steel.

When designing an edge gates for thermoset materials, the width of the gate can be as small as 1/16" (1.5
mm) but the depth of the gate should not be less than 0.050" (1.3 mm). A gate should be large enough to
allow the part to fill without using excessive transfer pressures or requiring long transfer times. Transfer
times of 3 - 8 seconds and transfer pressures of 1,100 psi (7.6 MPa) or less are desirable.

5.4 Subgate addition in transfer molding:

A gate cutter can be used to mold a part with nearly all signs of the gate gone. A gate cutter is a blade or a
pin that is located in the mold directly below the gate and its role is to seal off the gate once mold material
has been injected into the cavity. This can be demonstrated in Figure (2)

Once the blade is in the forward position the material cures against it producing the same finish as the rest
of the part. The only visible trace of a gate is a witness line.
5.5 Cavities and core design in transfer molds:

The types of cavities and cores applied inserted in nature such that when an individual cavity or core gets
damaged, it can be removed and repaired while the rest of the mold is put into service. When the parts are
very small and there is a large number of cavities, individual cavity inserts might not be feasible. In those
situations we suggest using cavity blocks consisting of 3 or 4 cavities. The materials most commonly used
for cavity inserts are H-13 and S-7. Both of these materials will harden to Rockwell 52 to 54 Rc. and can
be polished to produce an excellent surface finish on the parts.

5.6 Ejector Pin Location and Design:

Ejector pins are used in part removal after completion of molding by pushing the part out of the mold
without distorting it.

Ejector pins should be located in the deepest points of the cavity or core specifically on the deepest points
of ribs and bosses.
Upon location determination, size of the ejector pin ought to be accomplished and notably very small
diameter ejector pins can be problematic since they are easily prone to breaking. Due to this, ejector pins
smaller than 3/32" (2.4 mm) in diameter are not recommended.

Another common problem is material flowing down around the ejector pin and jamming it so it breaks
when the ejectors are actuated. To prevent this from happening, the hole for the pin should only be 0.001"
(0.025 mm) larger than the pin for a depth of 1⁄2" 5⁄8" (13 mm - 16 mm) from the cavity. Making it deeper
can result in the pin binding and breaking.

5.7 Center Supports design:

Molds built to run thermoset materials usually have little or no support in the middle and as a result heavy
flash around the sprue is a consquence and thus parts vary in thickness from the stationary (sprue) side to
the movable side. To resolve this problem we suggest installing substantial support pillars down the center
of the mold between the parallels 2” (50.8mm) diameter if possible.

6.Design criteria and selection of Structural foam moulding equipment or process

Structural foam molding is a low-pressure, closed-mold process which provides a finished surface on both
sides of the part. In structural foam molding, a mixture of plastic and blowing agent is injected into the
mold, simultaneously resulting in a lower-pressure fill than injection molding.

The material does not completely fill the mold until the gas expansion takes place. The result is a part with
a skin of relatively rigid material with cells of increasing size toward the center of the wall. Due to the
space occupied by the gas, the part will weigh less than an equivalent part of the same wall thickness.

However, this process requires a minimum wall thickness of 0.187 in for there to be much in the way of
gas expansion. If the wall thickness must be increased in order to utilize this process, this advantage is lost.

Structural foam mold foaming process

Factors to consider while selecting structural foam process

i. Application of the part. Within each shape category, the plastic product designer must be concerned
with the ability of the process to produce the level of detail necessary for the application.
ii. The material (plastic) used in the process.
iii. shape of the product, these includes hollow products
iv. Tooling involved in the process.
v. The size of the parts to be produces.
vi. Cost. Labor is related to process selection because some plastics processes permit the combining of
parts to eliminate labor cost. For example, the cost of blow molding a hollow container must be
compared to the cost of injection molding two halves and assembling them. Tooling amortization
and piece part cost are directly related to anticipated annual volume, which is often difficult to
forecast for new products.

There are some special considerations in performing product strength computations on structural foam
parts. The most significant of these is the basic fact that, since the center of the wall is not solid material,
the data provided on the resin suppliers’ material specification will not be directly applicable.

Tensile strength will be reduced, the amount being dependent on the thickness of the wall and the amount
of foaming that has occurred. Countering that is the effect of the greater wall thickness in creating
increased rigidity as the rigidity of the part will increase by the cube of its relative wall thicknesses.

(A 0.250-in wall thickness is 4 times as stiff as a 0.150-in wall.) The result is a more rigid part with a lower
tensile strength (for the same weight of material).
Designing equipment for structural foam process

The recommended nominal wall (W) increases with the distance the material must flow. For a flow path up
to 12 in, the recommended wall thickness is 0.187 in; from 12 to 20 in, the wall thickness should be 0.250
in; and from 20 to 28 in, a wall thickness of 0.312 in is desirable.

In general, if the wall thickness is less than 0.187 in, very little foaming will take place and what results is
an unnecessarily expensive thick-walled solid part. There are, however, some specially formulated resins
which purport to permit foamed wall thicknesses as low as 0.125 in.

Flow paths greater than 28 in are not recommended. Structural foam parts should be designed to be gated
in a thin section and fill into a thicker section as this practice requires less press than gating into a thick
section.

This process is contrary to standard injection molding practice.

6.1 Wall thickness

Structural foam is more tolerant of nonuniform wall thicknesses than solid injection molding and variations
of 75 to 100% are acceptable for standard foam and co-injected walls. Thin foamed walls (0.156 in) should
not vary more than 50 to 75%. The change in wall thickness should be very gradual and abrupt wall
thickness changes must be avoided to reduce stress concentrations. Wall thickness tolerances of ±0.005 in
can be held.

6.2 Shrinkage

The shrink rate is the amount the part will reduce in size as it cools from processing temperature to room
temperature. It is described in terms as the amount of shrinkage per inch of part size. Thus, a piece part 1 in
long made of a material with a shrinkage rate of 0.005 in/in will require a mold 1.005 in long if the final
part is to wind up a true 1 in in length. Mold dimensions for other sizes would be determined by using
1.005 as a multiplier. Thus, the mold for a 1.500-in dimension would be determined by multiplying 1.500
by 1.005 (1.508 in). Normally, the mold designer performs these computations and this is not a concern for
the part designer.

The shrink rate for plastics as found on the specifications supplied by the resin manufacturer is often
indicated as a range (0.004 to 0.006 in/in). That is because the rate of shrinkage will vary according to the
thickness of the wall, with thicker walls shrinking at a higher rate than thinner walls. Depending on the
material, this shrinkage can range from very slight (0.001 to 0.002 in/in) to as much as 0.050 in/in. The
shrinkage rate for some resins is uniform both in the direction of flow from the gate and in the transverse
direction (isotropic shrinkage). The shrinkage for other resins varies according to the direction of flow of
the resin in the cavity (anisotropic shrinkage). In most cases, it is greater in the transverse direction.

The use of fillers can significantly alter both the amount of shrinkage and its direction. For example, glass
fibers align in the flow direction which causes lower shrinkage in that direction. However, there is little or
no reduction in shrinkage in the transverse direction. The result is in an increase in differential shrinkage
and a greater tendency to warp

6.3 Draft angle

When the part shrinks onto a core, it grips the core very tightly and cannot be removed without
considerable force. That force will tend to distort the part; therefore, the cycle must be extended long
enough for the part to be removed from the mold without damage. The force can be reduced by placing a
slight angle on the walls of the part perpendicular to the parting line. This angle is referred to as draft and is
common to all molded plastic parts.

In the past, we followed the general rule that 1° per side of draft is ideal and 1/2° per side is a bare
minimum. However, economic pressures require ever shorter cycles, and improvements in equipment,
materials, and tooling allow this demand to be met. However, in order to permit parts to be removed from
the mold in less time, they must be ejected at higher temperatures when they are softer. Therefore, greater
draft is required. Thus, the use of 2° and 3° per side drafts have become commonplace. For deep parts
(beyond 6 in), a 3° per side draft is definitely called for and more would be better.
6.4 Tolerances

Overall tolerances in structural foam molding vary with the size of the part.

For dimensions of less than 4 in, tolerances of ±0.005 in can be held. From 4 to 10 in, the minimum
tolerance should be ±0.010 in. From 10 to 20 in, tolerances of ±0.015 in should be regarded as a minimum
and beyond 20 in the tolerance should be ±0.050 in. Co-injection structural foam and thinwall structural
foam tolerances would be similar to those for injection molding.

The guidelines for inside radii (IR). The ideal inside radius is 0.5 to 0.6 times the wall thickness (IR = 0.5
to 0.6 W). The minimum inside radius should be 0.093 in for most parts, 0.060 for thin wall (0.156-in)
parts. The same recommendations apply for co-injection molded parts. The outside radius should be equal
to the inside radius plus a wall thickness (OR = IR + W).