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Descriptive Study Design July 22, 2015
Dra. Abat

OUTLINE Ecological Correlation

Learning Objectives: - FREQUENCY and TRENDS of the suspected
causes/risk factors Correlated with PREVALENCE
1. DEFINITION OF DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES or INCIDENCE of the disease occurring in a
particular area
2. TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE STUDY DESIGN
3. COMPONENTS OF THE DISEASE AND Non-sense Correlation
POPULATIONS TO BE DESCRIBED
- this study of co-occurrence does not speak of the
DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES
causal association always
- one must beware of non-sense correlation.
THEY ARE SO CALLED BECAUSE THEY DESCRIBE ALL
ASPECTS OF Advantages:
1) THE DISEASE AND • Conducted at group level- easy to do and quick
2) THE POPULATION AFFECTED • use existing data
- PURPOSE • generate and support new hypotheses
To formulate worthy hypotheses for taking health action. • ecological studies conducted over time on a
- UNIT OF THE STUDY specific geographical area - more convenient to
Carried out in populations or its sub-groups. perform
NATURE OF THE STUDY
• for hypotheses rather than studying whole
- Observance of the events; no intervention done populations or its samples as done in descriptive
- a.k.a. OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES studies
Types of Descriptive Studies:
Disadvantages:
1. Ecological or Correlational Studies • Ecological Fallacy - error in inference that occurs
2. Cross-sectional or Prevalence Studies
3. Longitudinal or Incidence Studies when association observed between variables of a
group level, is assumed to exist at an individual
ECOLOGICAL STUDIES level.
Example of Ecological Studies:
• Aggregate study (population) “Cancer cervix is rare in Jewish women due to male
• Units of analysis is a group circumcision.”
• Incidence, prevalence or mortality data “Sickle-cell disease is more seen in Indian tribes.”
• Primary feature: joint distribution of study factors and
disease within each group is not known
• Easier to study (no field study) CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES
• studies conducted in specific pulsation groups (e.g. (PREVALENCE STUDIES)
slims, Catholics Jews, etc.) having specific
characteristics in a specified geographical area - a cross-section of a community (frequently total
population samples) is studied at a particular point or a
ECOLOGICAL STUDY METHOD period of time.
- causes or risk factors are studied with regard to
the diseases and deaths curing in a particular Nature of the Study:
population. • they can be of descriptive nature when one
- both are linked together and their co-occurrence variable or each variable in a group or population is
(correlation) is established in these studies or studied
hypothesis formation. • of analytical type as they are sought to provide
information about the presence and strength of
association.

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TRANSCRIBERS: Santos, Chua
Descriptive Study Design

When to conduct prevalence studies?

Population at Risk
They are conducted for chronic diseases having HIGH
PREVALENCE with VERY LOW INCIDENCE.

Prevalence Study Methodology - 1

- it can be done at a single point of calendar time
(POINT PREVALENCE)
- when the measurement of causal relationship
relate to the same point in study members’ lives
- can be completed in few months or years
(PERIOD PREVALENCE)

Prevalence Study Methodology - 2

- data collection (SURVEY)
- the information taken from the individuals in a
group or population

Rapid methods of prevalence studies

- cluster surveys
- computer simulation
- random digit dialing for sampling
- computer-based interviews and use of
spreadsheet

Public Health Uses:

- the cross-sectional studies if repeatedly done
serve the purpose of health and disease surveillance f
the population.

Disadvantages:
1. Time consuming and expensive.
2. Subjected to recall bias and confounding bias. Reference Populations
3. Information and Investigator bias - the population which is at risk and the health action
4. May not represent people with a short-course of has to be initiated after the study is over
disease - the population in which a particular disease or
5. Limited to studies of diseases that are chronic. exposure has occurred and is to be investigated
- reference population is the one which has to be
LONGITUDINAL STUDIES benefited after the descriptive study
- conducted at a two or different points of time in the
lifetime of individuals under study. Study Population
- this is the population on which the hypothesis is
Methodology: actually studied and tested
1. Defining and describing the population affected - may be the entire reference population itself (if it is
• Reference Population small and feasible for study) or a representative portion
• Study Population of it (SAMPLE)
2. Defining and describing the disease. Describing the Study Population
• Operational Case definitions (Time, place, - age
person trends) - sex
Formulation of Hypothesis - occupation
- socioeconomic status
- education
- social customs, habits

TRANSCRIBERS: Santos, Chua Page 2 of 3

Descriptive Study Design

- specific lifestyle
Formulation of Hypothesis
- knowledge of health facilities available and their
Sources to form hypothesis:
utilization
1. Descriptive Studies.
2. Ecological studies of specific groups.
Vital Requirements of Study Population
3. Observation of the data / information available.
1. Its REPRESENTATIVENESS to the parent reference
4. Inductive reasoning (Mill’s Cannons)
population.
5. Deductive reasoning.
2. Its optimum size.
* THEN ONLY THE RESULTS OF HYPOTHESIS
Data and Hypothesis
TESTED ON ANY STUDY POPULATION CAN BE
- keen observation of any data collected for specific
GENERALIZED TO THE REFERENCE POPULATION.
purpose, any purpose, or without purpose can also yield
information for hypotheses forming.
Defining and Describing the Disease
Case Definition - an operational working definition to
SUMMARY
make uniform and unbiased counting in populations.
Descriptive epidemiology is hence rightly called the
hypothesis forming stage of epidemiological sequence
Time Distribution:
as descriptive epidemiology is very useful in providing
- epidemic
immense information regarding the various variables
- endemic
like time, place, person, clustering, etc to form the
- sporadic
hypothesis.
- cyclical trends
- seasonal trends
- secular trends

Place Distribution:
- international variations
- national variations
- urban-rural comparisons
- clustering of disease
- disease mapping

Person Distribution:
- age influence
- race, religion, ethnicity
- marital status
- socioeconomic status (SES)
- migration
- personal habits
- lifestyles

APPLICATIONS
1. To formulate CAUSAL Hypothesis.
2. Indicate the DISEASE LOAD and FREQUENCY
ALTERATIONS and thereby help to make future
projections.
*Diagnosing and telling the prognosis.

ECOLOGICAL AND INDIVIDUAL LEVELS OR

CONTEXTS
- the hypothesis to be studied will be more meaningful
when it is applicable at both ecological and individual
levels or contexts and also explains the ecological
(group) to individual correlation.

TRANSCRIBERS: Santos, Chua Page 3 of 3