Unit 2.

Biomedical Blood Gas Analyzers

2.1 Acid base Balance

Blood gas analyzer is instruments used to measure pH, partial pressure of oxygen (pO 2) and
partial pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) of body fluid. The measurement of these parameters is
vital in the evaluation of the normal or the diseased condition. These measurements reflect the
acid base balance of the body.

Sudden pH and pCO2 may result in Arrhythmias, ventricular hypotension and even death.

This acid base balance in human body is maintained by

– Buffering by chemical means:Controlling blood pH involves the use of buffer systems,

which guard against sudden shifts in acidity and alkalinity. The pH buffer systems are
combinations of the body's own naturally occurring weak acids and weak bases. These
weak acids and bases exist in pairs that are in balance under normal pH conditions. The
pH buffer systems work chemically to minimize changes in the pH of a solution by
adjusting the proportion of acid and base.
The most important pH buffer system in the blood involves carbonic acid (a weak acid
formed from the carbon dioxide dissolved in blood) and bicarbonate ions (the
corresponding weak base).
– Respiration:One mechanism the body uses to control blood pH involves the
release of carbon dioxide from the lungs.By adjusting the speed and depth of breathing,
the brain and lungs are able to regulate the blood pH minute by minute.
– Excretion:The kidneys are able to affect blood pH by excreting excess acids or
bases. The kidneys have some ability to alter the amount of acid or base that is
excreted, but because the kidneys make these adjustments more slowly than the lungs
do, this compensation generally takes several days.

2.2 Blood Ph Measurement

pH:This is algorithmic expression of hydrogen ion concentration the acidity or alkalinity of the
blood. The normal human arterial pH is 7.4. Any pH below this is acid, and any pH above it is
alkaline. There is a narrow range of pH values (7.35 to 7.45) that the human body.

The normal ranges of these parameters are listed below:

• PH value for Human Blood

– Normal: 7.35 - 7.45

– Acidosis: < 7.35

 – Alkalosis: >7.45

pH Electrode (Theory of Operation)

The pH electrode uses voltage to measure pH. It compares a voltage created through the blood
sample (with unknown pH) to known reference voltage (in a solution with known pH). pH
electrode is constructed of two half cells, which develop an electrical potential when connected
together. Reference electrode maintains a constant potential and is bathed in KCl and a glass
electrode develops an electrical potential that is proportional to the amount of H+ present. This
glass terminal allows the hydrogen ions to diffuse into it from each side. The difference in the
hydrogen ions concentration across this glass terminal creates a net electrical potential
(voltage). A specific equation is used to calculate the blood sample pH, using the reference fluid
pH, the created voltage, and the fluid temperature.

Figure 1 pH Measurement

2.3 Blood pO2 Measurement

PO2: The partial pressure of oxygen in the blood is measured directly by electrode.

The normal acceptable range is roughly between 85 and 100. An increased PO 2 is usually the
result of excessive oxygen administration that needs to be adjusted downwards on such results.
A decreased PO2 is often the result of any number of respiratory or cardiopulmonary problems
which also needs to be taken care of.

PO2 Electrode(
Electrode( Theory of operation )
The PO2 electrode basically consists of two terminals:

(1).The cathode, which usually made of platinum (negatively charged) and

(2) the anode, which usually made of silver– sliver chloride (positively charged).
The electricity source (battery or wall electricity) supplies the platinum cathode with energy
(voltage of 700 mV).This voltage attracts oxygen molecules to the cathode surface, where they
react with water. This reaction consumes four electrons for every oxygen molecule reacts with
water and produces four hydroxyl ions. The consumed four electrons, in turn, are replaced
rapidly in the electrolyte solution as silver and chloride react at the anode.

This continuous reaction leads to continuous flow of electrons from the anode to the cathode
(electrical current). This electrical current is measured by using an ammeter (electrical current
flow meter). The current generated is indirect proportion to the amount of dissolved oxygen in
the blood sample, which in direct proportion to PO2 in that sample.

Figure 2 PO2 Measurement

2.4 Blood pCO2 Measurement

PCO2: This value is measured directly by the CO 2electrode. An increased PCO2 Is often the result
of acute, chronic or impending respiratory failure, whereas a decreased PCO 2 is the result of
hyperventilation stimulated by a metabolic acidosis or hysteria and severe anxiety reactions.
The normal arterial PCO2 is 40 mmHg.

PCO2 Electrode(
Electrode( Theory of operation )

The PCO2 electrode is a modified pH electrode. There are two major differences between this
electrode and the pH electrode. The first difference is that in this electrode, the blood sample
comes in contact with a CO2 permeable membrane (such as Teflon, Silicone rubber), rather than
a pH-sensitive glass (in the pH electrode). The CO2 from the blood sample diffuses via the CO2
permeable (silicone) membrane into a bicarbonate solution.

The amount of the hydrogen ions produced by the hydrolysis process in the bicarbonate
solution isproportional to the amount of the CO2 diffusedthrough the silicone membrane. The
difference in thehydrogen ions concentration across the pH-sensitiveglass terminal creates a
voltage. The measuredvoltage (by voltmeter) can be converted to PCO2units. The other
difference is that the CO2 electrodehas two similar electrode terminals (silver–silverchloride).
However, the pH electrode has twodifferent electrode terminals (silver–silver chlorideand
mercury–mercurous chloride)

Figure 3 pCO2 Measurement

A complete blood gas analyzer

A complete blood gas analyzer are equipment designed to measure pH, pCO2,and pO2 from a
single sample of whole blood. These equipments are also capable of computing CO2, HCO3 etc.
form the same sample. A typical block diagram of the blood gas analyzer is given below:

The output from the multiple electrodes (Sensors) is driven from multiplexer to ADC converter.
The data is processed in microcontroller, which is connected to PC or other instrumemt through
RS-232, USB or Ethernet. A digital to analog converter is used to calibrate the sensor amplifiers
to maximize the sensitivity of the electrodes.
The system also contains high input impedance amplifiers designed to operate in the specific
range of each measuring electrodes and a separate module is added in system to
thermostatically control of the electrodes.