CSIRO PUBLISHING

Exploration Geophysics
http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/EG15081

Acquisition, processing and interpretation of high-resolution seismic

data using a small-scale multi-channel system: an example
from the Korea Strait inner shelf, south-east Korea

Dong-Geun Yoo1,2 Nam-Hyung Koo1,2,3 Ho-Young Lee1 Byoung-Yeop Kim1 Young-Jun Kim1
Snons Cheong1
1
Petroleum and Marine Research Division, Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources (KIGAM),
124 Gwahang-no, Yuseong-gu, Daejon 34132, Korea.
2
Department of Petroleum Resources Technology, University of Science and Technology (UST),
124 Gwahang-no, Yuseong-gu, Daejon 34132, Korea.
3
Corresponding author. Email: nhkoo@kigam.re.kr

Abstract. A high-resolution seismic survey was designed to improve the quality of seismic data and study the evolution
of inner shelf deposits off the southern coast of Korea. A 0.5 L air gun and 6- or 8-channel streamer cable with a 5 m group
interval were used as a seismic source and receiver system, respectively. Data recording was digitally performed at a
shot interval of 2 s and a sample interval of 0.1 ms using a personal computer (PC)-based recording system with an analogue
to digital (A/D) converter. In the data processing, deconvolution and static corrections were very effective for improving the
data resolution. The data resolution and signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio were improved by using multi-channel digital seismic
systems as opposed to a single-channel analogue streamer. The results show that a small-scale multi-channel seismic system is
an effective way to investigate late Quaternary deposits. Seismic stratigraphic analysis of the high-resolution seismic profiles
revealed that inner shelf deposits, up to 30 m thick, consist of three sedimentary units, which comprise transgressive and
highstand systems tracts deposited after the last glacial period. The transgressive systems tract includes two units (I and II)
separated by a ravinement surface (RS). The lower Unit I, lying below the RS, consists of estuarine sediments left behind
by shoreface erosion during transgression, and represents a paralic component. The upper Unit II, including two sub-units (IIa
and IIb), lies above the RS and consists of sand produced by shoreface erosion during landward transgression, which
corresponds to a marine component. The uppermost Unit III lies above the maximum flooding surface and consists of
thick mud clinoforms of the modern Nakdong and Seomjin subaqueous deltas. This unit likely formed during the recent sea
level highstand and represents the highstand systems tract.

Key words: late Quaternary, multi-channel seismic system, seismic stratigraphic analysis, systems tract.

Received 27 August 2015, accepted 30 August 2015, published online

Originally submitted to KSEG 24 March 2015, accepted 3 August 2015

Introduction Various investigations on late Quaternary deposits in the South

Seismic stratigraphic analysis has proven useful for depicting
the depositional environments and subsurface geology of shelf
sediments, and has garnered much attention since publications
made by the Exxon Production Research Group (e.g. Mitchum
et al., 1977). The identification of seismic sequences and the
nature of the acoustic characteristics of sedimentary deposits
have enhanced our understanding of the depositional history
and sedimentation patterns of shelf deposits. The sequence-
stratigraphic concept has been applied to the study of late
Quaternary sediments based on the interpretation of high-
resolution seismic profiles associated with sediment data, and
several results have yielded detailed identifications of shallow
sedimentary units and depositional models in response to sea level
changes (Boyd et al., 1989; Hernandez-Molina et al., 1994; Okyar
et al., 1994; Saito, 1994; Trincardi et al., 1994; Yoo and Park,
2000; Lobo et al., 2004; Zecchin et al., 2008).
The study area (Figure 1) in the South Sea off Korea serves
as the major depocentre of terrigenous sediments derived from
the Nakdong and Seomjin rivers during the late Quaternary
(e.g. Park and Yoo, 1988; Yoo and Park, 2000; Yoo et al., 2014a).
Sea have been carried out using high-resolution seismic profiles
and sediment data (Suk, 1989; Min, 1994; Park and Yoo, 1988;
Yoo and Park, 2000; Yoo et al., 2003, 2014b); however, most of
them used only a single-channel analogue seismic system. High-
resolution seismic data have been acquired digitally using small-
scale multi-channel systems to gather information on subsurface
geology (e.g. Davies and Austin, 1997; Lericolais et al., 1990;
Lee et al., 1996, 2004, 2014; Marsset et al., 1998; Morend et al.,
2002; Nissen et al., 1999; Pugin et al., 1999). The data quality and
resolution of shallow seismic data can be improved by using
multi-channel seismic systems (Lee et al., 1996, 2004, 2014).
In addition, the rapid development of personal computers (PCs)
and peripheral devices has enabled economical recording and
processing of digital data (Miller et al., 1995). In this study, a high-
resolution multi-channel seismic survey was designed to improve
the quality of seismic data, and a test survey was carried out on
the inner shelf off south-east Korea (Figure 2). To achieve both a
high vertical resolution and penetration depth, a single air gun
was selected as the seismic source. To receive high-frequency
reflected waves, high-resolution 6- or 8-channel streamer cables

Journal compilation ! ASEG 2015 www.publish.csiro.au/journals/eg

B Exploration Geophysics
120°E 130°E 140°E
50°N
N
0 50 km
40°N
30°N
128°E
Fig. 1. Location and bathymetry map of the study area. Contour interval is 10 m.
were used. Seismic signals were recorded, processed and analysed
using a PC. In this paper, we present the high-resolution seismic
data collected using this multi-channel seismic system, and discuss
the acoustic characteristics and distribution pattern of inner shelf
deposits to reconstruct late Quaternary sequence stratigraphy and
depositional history related to sea level changes.
Regional setting
The South Sea is fringed to the north by numerous islands
and embayments, forming a typical ria-type coast (Figure 1). It
is wider towards the south-west, and becomes narrower towards
the north-east. The bathymetric contours generally trend in a
NE–SW direction, showing a gradual deepening to the south-east.
Tidal currents play an important role in the transport and dispersal
of sediments in the nearshore zone. They flow west- to south-
westward during flood and east- to north-eastward during ebb,
with a maximum velocity of 190 cm/s (Korea Hydrographic
Office, 1982). Superimposed on these tidal currents is an east-
to north-eastward coastal current (Kim et al., 1986). Offshore,
however, hydrodynamic conditions are dominated by the north-
eastward-flowing Tsushima Warm Current, which is a branch of
the Kuroshio Warm Current. The speed of the surface Tsushima
D.-G. Yoo et al.
36°°N
35°N
34°N
129°E 130°E
Current is ~30–90 cm/s (Korea Hydrographic Office, 1982); it is
strongest in summer and weakest in winter. In contrast, a cold
water mass flows southward below the Tsushima Current, along
the south-eastern coast of the Korean Peninsula. As this water
mass approaches the trough region, the flow slows down and
becomes very weak.
Two major sediment dispersal systems, the Nakdong and
Seomjin rivers, deliver sediments and freshwater to the South
Sea shelf. The Nakdong River is the second largest fluvial
system in Korea with a drainage basin area of 23556 km2 and
is a major source of terrigenous sediment to the Korea Strait
(Kim et al., 1986). This river annually discharges ~6.3 ! 1010 tons
of sediment into the Korea Strait, with the majority of discharge
occurring during the rainy season from July to August. During
summer floods, the discharged water extends up to ~20 km
offshore, forming turbid river plumes with current-driven
dispersal patterns parallel to the coast (Kim et al., 1986).
Data acquisition
The data used in this study consists of high-resolution seismic
reflection profiles (3.5 kHz, sparker and air gun) acquired by the
Korea Institute of Geosciences and Mineral Resources (KIGAM)
High-resolution seismic study in south-east Korea Exploration Geophysics C

36°N
N

0 50 km

35°N
34°N
6- or 8-channel digital
air gun data
High-resolution (chirp)
and analogue sparker data

128°E 129°E 130°E

Fig. 2. Track lines of air gun seismic profiles represented by a solid line. Heavy lines denote the selected profiles
shown in Figures 4–8.

(Figure 2). Single-channel analogue seismic investigations were

carried out during 1988 and 2000 by deployment of a 3.5 kHz sub-
bottom profiler, a 1–2 kJ multi-electrode sparker system and a
single-channel streamer. Analogue recording of the data was
performed on EPC recorders (EPC Laboratories, Inc.) at a 0.5 s
sweep rate. To test the effects of multi-channel digital acquisition
and the processing parameters, air gun data were also acquired
using a PC-based digital acquisition system from KIGAM
(Figure 2; Lee et al., 1996). The layout of the survey is shown
in Figure 3. The energy source was a 0.5 L air gun and the receiver
was either a 40 m long 8-channel or 30 m long 6-channel streamer
cable with a group interval of 5 m. The towing depth of the 0.5 L
air gun was ~2–3 m. The offset distance between the source and
the first channel was 20 m. The shooting interval was 5 m (~2 s) or
12.5 m (~5 s). Data were digitally recorded with a sample interval
of 0.2 ms and a record length of 1 or 2 s using the KIGAM data Fig. 3. Layout of the high-resolution shallow marine seismic survey. The
acquisition and processing system (KDAPS) – a PC-based system seismic source was a 0.5 L air gun and the receiver was a 6- or 8-channel
with an analogue to digital (A/D) converter and analogue filter streamer cable with a group interval of 5 m.
board. The survey equipment and detailed acquisition parameters
are shown in Table 1. Ship-board navigation was controlled using Data processing
a differential global positioning system (DGPS). Vessel speed We applied conventional seismic data processing steps to the
was maintained at ~5 kn. acquired data. The processing sequence was composed of gain
D Exploration Geophysics D.-G. Yoo et al.

recovery, deconvolution, frequency filtering, normal moveout procedure using Namhae data (Table 1) is shown in Figure 4.
(NMO) correction, common midpoint (CMP) sorting and The data processing flow and parameters are shown in Table 2.
stacking. An example of the processing effect of each Figure 4c shows gain recovery and frequency filtering. Figure 4d
shows the result after gain recovery, deconvolution and frequency
Table 1. Survey equipment and data acquisition parameters for the filtering. Figure 4e shows the result after NMO correction of the
high-resolution seismic survey.
CMP gather in Figure 4d. After NMO correction, the reflectors
Area Off Namhae Off Busan were aligned horizontally. For the NMO correction, we used one
single-stacking velocity function for all of the data. Results of
Survey vessel Tamhae II Tamhae II
the stacking (Figure 4f) shows that the S/N ratio is improved after
Positioning system TRINAV DGPS TRINAV DGPS
Source Bolt air gun (0.5 L) Bolt air gun (0.5 L)
4-fold stacking. Figure 4g shows a stack section including 140
Gun depth ~3 m ~2 m CMP traces. Data quality was degraded due to the up-and-down
Shot point interval 2 s (~5 m) 12.5 ms (~5 s) movement of the air gun and streamer associated with sea
No. of channel 8 6 swells, which in turn caused the static effect seen in the stack
Channel interval 5m 5m section (Lee et al., 2004; Lee et al., 2014). To improve the quality
Streamer depth 0–0.5 m 0–0.5 m of the stacked section, we identified the reference traveltime for
Offset to 1st channel 20 m 20 m static correction by picking and averaging the traveltimes of the
Recording instrument KDAPS KDAPS sea-bottom reflector. We then applied the swell effect correction,
Sample interval 0.1 ms (10 kHz) 0.2 ms (5 kHz) which improved the horizontal continuity of the reflectors.
(sample frequency)
Results from Figure 4c and d show that the wavelet becomes
Record length 1.0 s 2.0 s
Analogue filter not used 20–1200 Hz
compressed and sharpened after spiking deconvolution,
indicating that this technique is very effective for improving

(a) (b) (c) (d)

1 2 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06

0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07

Time in seconds

0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08

0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09

0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10

0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11

(e) (f ) (g)
1 2 3 4 1 2 34 50 100
0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06

0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07

Time in seconds

0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08

0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09

0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10

0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11

Fig. 4. An example of the processing effect of each procedure using Namhae data (Table 1; for location, see Figure 2). (a) A field data shot gather. (b) A CMP
gather. (c) After gain recovery and frequency filtering (without deconvolution). (d) After gain recovery, spiking deconvolution and frequency filtering. (e) After
NMO correction. (f) After stacking. (g) The stack section, including 140 CMP traces.
High-resolution seismic study in south-east Korea Exploration Geophysics E

Table 2. Data processing flow and parameters.

CMP sorting Shot interval 5 m, CMP interval 2.5 m

Gain recovery (A, B, C), gain (db) = A ! t + B ! 20 ! log (t) + C [t = time in seconds] 0, 0.1, 60
Deconvolution (operator length in ms, lag in ms, window in ms) 6, 0.1, 20–120
Frequency filtering (trapezoid band (Hz)) 40, 80, 1200, 2400
NMO correction (time (s) – velocity (m/s) pairs) (0.05, 1480), (0.1, 1550), (0.2, 1700), (0.4, 2000)
Stacking 4-fold stack

the vertical resolution. Although our field seismic data were

collected using a 0.5 L air gun, and contained frequency (a)
100 200 300 400 500
components below 350 Hz, the high-frequency components up 0.10 0.10
to 1 kHz were greatly enhanced following spiking deconvolution 0.11 0.11
(Lee et al., 2014). To further demonstrate the deconvolution 0.12 0.12
0.13 0.13
effect, we show the processed stack section with and without
0.14 0.14
deconvolution for the 6-channel streamer data acquired off Busan 0.15 0.15
(Figure 5); after spiking deconvolution, the reflectors are 0.16 0.16
sharpened and the vertical resolution is improved (Lee et al., 0.17 0.17
2004). 0.18 0.18
0.19 0.19
0.20 0.20
Interpretation of seismic data 0.21 0.21
0.22 0.22
Description of seismic units 0.23 0.23

Time in seconds
0.24 0.24
Based on the interpretation of the seismic profiles, three seismic Time in seconds
0.25 0.25
units, each with different seismic facies and geometries were
identified within the inner shelf deposits (Figures 6–8; Table 3). (b)
These units are referred to as Units I, II and III (oldest to youngest), 100 200 300 400 500
and their corresponding boundaries are referred to as R1, R2 0.10 0.10
0.11 0.11
and R3, respectively. The boundaries of the units are represented
0.12 0.12
by relatively continuous reflectors in the seismic records. R1, 0.13 0.13
the top of the older sedimentary strata, is an irregular erosional 0.14 0.14
unconformity with a high acoustic impedance contrast (Figures 7 0.15 0.15
and 8). In contrast to R1, R2 (between Units I and II) is 0.16 0.16
characterised by an erosional surface that is relatively smooth 0.17 0.17
0.18 0.18
and flat (Figure 6; Yoo and Park, 2000). R3, the first sub-bottom
0.19 0.19
reflector, can be traced over most of the inner shelf. It is well 0.20 0.20
defined by a non-erosional surface with a strong, continuous 0.21 0.21
reflection on seismic profiles (Figures 6 and 8; Min, 1994). It 0.22 0.22
occurs at depths of ~10–30 m below the seafloor and crops out on 0.23 0.23
the seafloor at the seaward termination of Unit III. 0.24 0.24
0.25 0.25
Unit I fills the underlying, erosive and irregular surface
(R1) and is acoustically characterised by complex seismic Fig. 5. A portion of the line 02NR-202 section showing the spiking
facies, including semi-transparent reflectors with weakly deconvolution effect (for location, see Figure 2). The reflectors in the
stratified reflections (Figures 7 and 8). Some channel-fills with seismic section with spiking deconvolution (a) are sharper and clearer than
divergent or prograding patterns are also present within this unit. those in the section without deconvolution (b).
Unit I also contains an acoustically turbid layer, which masks
the underlying unit. This acoustically turbid layer is seen on small a series of sand ridges oriented in an NE–SW, ENE–WSW or
to large spatial scales over several kilometres (Figure 9). A similar E–W direction, and is acoustically characterised by inclined,
feature has been reported in many parts along the southern coast prograding reflectors with some hummocky or chaotic
of Korea (Min, 1994; Park and Yoo, 1988) and is thought to reflections. Its upper surface is mostly smooth without any
result from trapped gas bubbles produced by the biochemical bedforms such as sand waves or dunes (Figure 6).
degradation of organic matter. Unit I is usually 10–15 m thick Unit III, the uppermost unit, is acoustically defined by semi-
with a maximum thickness of 25 m associated with a deep transparent sub-bottom, or weakly stratified, internal reflections
erosional depression of the underlying sedimentary strata. The (Figures 6–8). Landward near the Nakdong River mouth, however,
top of Unit I is truncated by an erosional surface (R2) (Figure 6). this unit shows continuous, well stratified reflection patterns
Unit I is completely covered by Unit II. (Park and Yoo, 1988). The internal reflectors are concordant
Unit II covers a wide area of the inner shelf with a low gradient, with the seafloor and show parallel to slightly progradational
and based on seismic characters and geometries, can be divided configurations. Heading offshore, internal reflectors become
into two sub-units (IIa and IIb). Unit IIa is widely distributed gradually weak with low continuity and transparent seismic
on the inner shelf (Figures 6 and 7), whereas Unit IIb occurs facies. Over most of the inner shelf, Unit III displays
only on the mid-shelf off Namhae and Geoje islands (Figure 6). transparent or semi-transparent acoustic characters. According
Unit IIa is relatively thin (less than a few metres thick), laterally to its external form, Unit III is wedge shaped, with decreasing
discontinuous, with a sheet-like external form (Figure 8). thickness seaward (Figures 6 and 7). Detailed isopach mapping
Acoustically, Unit IIa appears as a semi-transparent feature with shows thick accumulations of Unit III in the inner shelf along
low-amplitude and hummocky reflections. Unit IIb, which forms the coast (Figure 9) with two distinct depocentres: one located on
F Exploration Geophysics D.-G. Yoo et al.

NW SE
0

50

100
Two-way traveltime (ms)

150
Multiple

R3
50 Unit IIa
Unit III Unit IIb

ATZ R2
100
Unit I R1
Older sedimentary strata
150
3 km

Fig. 6. High-resolution seismic profile and interpretation from the inner shelf off Namhae Island (for
location, see Figure 2) showing three seismic units separated by mid-reflectors (R1, R2, and R3). When
observing internal reflectors and geometries, Unit II can be divided into two types: sand sheet and sand ridge.
ATZ, acoustically turbid zone.

W E
Two-way traveltime (ms)

50 Unit III
Unit IIa
R3
R2
Unit I
ATZ
R1
90
Older sedimentary strata 1 km

Fig. 7. High-resolution (chirp) seismic profile and interpretation from the inner shelf area east
of Geoje Island (for location, see Figure 2) showing three seismic units separated by mid-reflectors
(R1, R2, and R3). Note that Unit IIa is relatively thin, laterally discontinuous and shows a sheet-like
external form. ATZ, acoustically turbid zone.

the western part of the inner shelf, south of the Seomjin River, was located ~60 km south-east of its present position, and much
and another located on the eastern part of Geoje Island, off the of the study area was subaerially exposed (Figure 10; Suk, 1989;
mouth of the Nakdong River. Unit III extends down to a water Xu et al., 1997; Park et al., 2000; Lee and Nam, 2003), resulting
depth of ~70 m (Figure 9) and is generally 20–30 m thick with in subaerial erosion associated with fluvial incision (Fig. 11a).
a maximum thickness of >30 m. In the Korea Strait, a subsequent rise in sea level, initiated at
the beginning of the Holocene transgression at ~15 ka BP, flooded
Deposition of inner shelf deposits in response the exposed shelf (Suk, 1989; Park et al., 2000). The major
to changes in sea level depocentre then migrated from the shelf margin to the present-
Late Quaternary sedimentation in the Korea Strait shelf is closely day inner shelf as the shoreline migrated north-westward across
related to relative changes in sea level and high sediment the shelf (Park et al., 2000; Yoo and Park, 2000). As the shoreline
discharge from the Nakdong and Seomjin rivers (Suk, 1989; in the mid-shelf area migrated more rapidly landward due to a
Park and Yoo, 1992; Min, 1994; Park et al., 2000; Yoo and Park, low shelf gradient, it is likely that the rate of increase in the
2000). During the fall in sea level, a forced regression occurred accommodation space exceeded the rate of sediment supply (Yoo
on the shelf in the Korea Strait and the depocentre shifted towards et al., 1996, 2014b). At ~11 ka BP, the shoreline approached
the shelf edge (Yoo and Park, 1997). When sea level reached its the southern tip of the study area at ~70–80 m water depth below
lowest value at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), the shoreline the present sea level (Figure 11b; KIGAM, 2000). Since that time,
High-resolution seismic study in south-east Korea Exploration Geophysics G

N S
0

100

Two-way traveltime (ms)

200
0

Unit III
R3 Unit IIa R2
100 ATZ Unit I
ATZ
R1
Older sedimentary strata

1.5 km
200

Fig. 8. High-resolution seismic profile and interpretation from the inner shelf area east of Geoje
Island (for location, see Figure 2) showing three seismic units separated by mid-reflectors (R1, R2,
and R3). ATZ, acoustically turbid zone.

Table 3. Classification and characteristics of the sedimentary units of the study area.
HST, highstand systems tract; TST, transgressive systems tract

Systems Seismic Location External form Acoustic characteristics Lithology Interpretation Reference
tracts units
HST Unit III Inner shelf Wedgeshape Semi-transparent Mud Subaqueousdelta KIGAM (2000)
TST Unit IIb Mid-shelf (off Namhae Bankor mound Seaward inclined Sand Tidal sand ridge Park et al. (2003)
and Geoje islands) or chaotic
Unit IIa Inner shelf Sheetor drape Semi-transparent Sand Transgressive Min (1994);
or hummocky sand sheet Park and Choi (1986)
Unit I Inner shelf Ponded shape Semi-transparent Sandy mud Transgressive Yoo and Park (2000);
or weakly stratified or muddy sand estuary KIGAM (2000)

an estuarine environment likely developed around the inner shelf
between Geoje Island and the Nakdong River mouth (Yoo and
Park, 2000). A similar condition has also been identified on the
inner shelf between Namhae and Geoje islands (Park et al., 1996).
The sediments derived from the palaeo-Nakdong and Seomjin
rivers were trapped within the estuary, forming Unit I (Fig. 11b).
According to Nam et al. (2003), species of benthic foraminifers
(A. beccarii, E. advenum, and Q. seminulum) are common in
Unit I, which may indicate a brackish-water environment. The
geochemical data of Unit I, such as high carbon/nitrogen (C/N)
ratio (> 10), low calcium carbonate (CaCO3) content (< 5%)
and depleted organic carbon (d13Corg; < "24‰), also indicate a
strong influence of terrigenous organic matter (KIGAM, 2000).
Thus, Unit I is considered to be an estuarine deposit related to the
extent of palaeo-rivers, as proposed by Min (1994) and Yoo and
Park (2000). Well studied examples of inner shelf estuarine
deposits associated with palaeo-fluvial environments include
the Adriatic Sea shelf (Trincardi et al., 1994), the Tyrrhean
shelf (Tortora, 1996), the Yellow Sea (Lee and Yoon, 1997;
Shinn et al., 2007) and the East China Sea (Yoo et al., 2002).
As the sea level continued to rise during the Holocene
transgression, the underlying sediment was reworked and
eroded by shoreface erosion, resulting in an erosional surface
(R2). The wave erosion in the shoreface environment formed a
thin lag of Unit IIa, including mainly sands, on the erosive top
surface of Unit I (Fig. 11b). Previous work (Suk, 1989; Park and
Yoo, 1992; Yoo et al., 1996) confirmed that Unit IIa in this
area represents relict facies that experienced subaerial and/or
subaqueous weathering for considerable time during the
Holocene transgression. Based on sediment data collected
from the study area, Unit IIa consists of medium to fine sands,
including gravel and shell debris, with sand content # 90% and
mud content < 5% (KIGAM, 2000). Shells and shell fragments
are scattered throughout the unit, which also contains iron-stained
quartz grains of brownish or reddish colour (Yoo et al., 2014b).
Thus, Unit IIa is interpreted as the product of reworking and
resuspension of shoreface sediments by wave and current action
during the transgression.
In contrast to the thin sand lag features of Unit IIa, Unit
IIb forms a series of sand ridges up to 10–20 m thick and is
characterised by stratified, dipping strata, similar to tidal-
influenced sand ridges commonly observed on modern shelves
(Stride, 1982; Yang, 1989; Berne et al., 2002; Yoo et al., 2002;
Park et al., 2003). Previous studies (Min, 1994; Park et al., 2003)
on the palaeo-Seomjin River courses and associated sand ridge
field (Unit IIb) suggest that Unit IIb was primarily sourced from
river-mouth sandy shoals that developed into shore-parallel,
linear sand bodies under high-energy conditions. The tidal
H Exploration Geophysics
GEOMUN-DO
128°E
Fig. 9. Isopach map (contours in metres) of Unit III. Conversion of traveltimes into sediment thickness was carried
out using a sound velocity of 1550 m/s (Kim et al., 1992).
model for the transgression at 9 ka BP suggests that palaeo-tidal
currents in this area were much stronger than today (up to 100 cm/
s at the surface) and generally flowed in an E–W direction (Oh and
Lee, 1998). A similar type of sand ridge is found in the submerged
palaeo-valley associated with the Yangtze River in the East China
Sea, which is also oriented to the prevailing tidal currents during
the Holocene transgression (Yang, 1989; Berne et al., 2002).
Thus, the combined effect of coastal currents (tidal and longshore)
and offshore ocean currents was likely responsible for shore-
parallel sediment transport and the growth of the Unit IIb sand
ridges. The continual rise in sea level during Unit IIa deposition
substantially reduced the strength of the current, causing Unit IIb
to remain on the shelf as a moribund feature.
The sea level rise decelerated after ~7 ka BP and sea level
reached its present position at ~6 ka BP (Fig. 11c; Suk, 1989; Min,
1994; Park et al., 2000; Yoo et al., 2014a). From that time, the inner
shelf began to receive large amounts of fine-grained sediments
from the Nakdong and Seomjin rivers, resulting in the thick
accumulation of Unit III (Figures 9 and 11c). The fine-grained
fluvial-sourced sediments began to progressively overwhelm the
transgression and, in turn, the river mouth prograded seaward with
continuous accumulation of delta facies showing a strata wedge
that thins seaward.
High-resolution sequence analysis
Bounding surfaces
In the inner shelf area off the southern coast of Korea, three
bounding surfaces were identified: the sequence boundary (SB),
ravinement surface (RS) and maximum flooding surface (MFS)
(Figure 11c). The base of Unit I (R1) is characterised by a high
acoustic impedance contrast and forms an irregular erosional
unconformity, probably resulting from subaerial exposure and
D.-G. Yoo et al.
35°N
N
34°N
20 40 km
129°E
concurrent subaerial erosion from fluvial incision (Figures 6–8).
Previous researchers have interpreted this surface as representing
a SB formed during the fall in sea level from the last glacial
period (Park and Yoo, 1988; Suk, 1989; Min, 1994; Yoo et al.,
2014a). R1 in our seismic data are in good agreement with those
of previous studies. Thus, R1 is considered a SB formed from
subaerial erosion associated with valley incision during fall in sea
level and the LGM. A similar erosional surface, the Pleistocene-
Holocene boundary, has been reported in many continental
shelves, including the Rhone shelf (Tesson et al., 2000), the
south-eastern Black Sea (Okyar et al., 1994), the shelf along
the southern coast of Korea (Min, 1994; Yoo and Park, 2000)
and the East China Sea shelf (Yoo et al., 2002).
Erosional surface R2, between Units I and II, is relatively flat
compared to the SB (Figure 6). Based on borehole data, R2 also
shows bedding truncation below (bottom surface of Unit II), rip-
up clasts and shell lag above (upper part of R2 (Unit II)), and a
distinctive change in lithofacies from sandy mud to sand with
gravel and shell debris (KIGAM, 2000). The distinct lithologic
change across R2 suggests that it is a RS (i.e. marine transgressive
surface of erosion) created by shelf erosion during the Holocene
transgression (Nummedal and Swift, 1987; Saito, 1994; Trincardi
et al., 1994). A similar, flat-lying RS has been reported for many
continental shelves (Saito, 1994; Lee and Yoon, 1997; Trincardi
et al., 1994; Yoo et al., 2002; Shinn et al., 2007; Lee et al., 2013;
Yoo et al., 2014b).
R3, the uppermost bounding surface within the inner
shelf sequence, can be traced over much of the inner shelf
(Figures 6–8). It shows a conformable surface that appears
non-erosional in the seismic records. Thus, R3 is considered
to represent the MFS (Saito, 1994; Lobo et al., 2004) and the
shelf-wide sedimentary change from a retrogradational phase,
forming transgressive deposits (Units I and II), to a progradational
phase of highstand deposits (Unit III).
High-resolution seismic study in south-east Korea Exploration Geophysics I

(a) (b)

40°

35°N

N
50 km

35° 34°

33°

30°
Path of the Tsushima Current
128° 129° 130° 131°E

120° 125° 130°

Fig. 10. (a) Palaeogeography map at the LGM in the Korea Strait shelf and adjacent area (modified from Xu et al., 1997, Park et al., 2000
and Yoo et al., 2003) and (b) magnified view of the Korea Strait showing the path of the Tsushima Current. 1, Palaeo-Han River; 2,
Palaeo-Aprok River; 3, Palaeo-Huanghe River; 4, Old Huanghe River; 5, Palaeo-Changjiang River; 6, Palaeo-Seomjin River; 7,
Palaeo-Nakdong River. GR, Geum River; SR, Seomjin River; NR, Nakdong River.

(a) Lowstand stage to early transgressive stage (>11 ka) (b) Transgressive stage (11 – 6 ka)
Sea level Sea level
Nakdong River mouth

Subaerial erosion
Time Time

Older sedimentary strata

Older sedimentary strata

Sea level Sea level

Seomjin River mouth

Subaerial erosion

Older sedimentary strata Older sedimentary strata

(c) Highstand stage (after 6 ka)

Sea level

Time

Older sedimentary strata

Sea level

Older sedimentary strata

Fig. 11. Schematic diagram showing the evolution of sedimentary units in response to changes in sea level: (a) lowstand to early transgressive
stage; (b) transgressive stage; and (c) highstand stage. Note that the inner shelf sequence above the sequence boundary consists of three
stratigraphic units forming transgressive and highstand systems tracts separated by the ravinement and maximum flooding surfaces. HST,
highstand systems tract; TST, transgressive systems tract; MFS, maximum flooding surface; RS, ravinement surface; SB, sequence boundary.
J Exploration Geophysics
Sequence stratigraphy for the South Sea inner shelf
The inner shelf deposits consist of three sedimentary units
comprising transgressive and highstand systems tracts deposited
after the last glacial period. The transgressive deposits include
two sedimentary units (I and II) separated by a RS (Yoo et al.,
2014b). The lower Unit I, lying below the RS, consists of
estuarine sediments left behind by shoreface erosion during
transgression and represents a paralic component. The middle
Unit II, above the RS, consists of sandy sediment produced by
shoreface erosion during landward transgression and corresponds
to a marine component. Based on geometry and seismic facies,
Unit II can be divided into two types: thin sand veneer (IIa) and
sand ridge (IIb) (Figure 11c). Unit IIa is distributed widely on the
inner shelf adjacent to the Seomjin and Nakdong rivers, whereas
Unit IIb is confined to the mid-shelf off Namhae and Geoje
islands, forming a series of sand ridges nearly parallel to the
present bathymetry (Figure 11a, b; Park et al., 2003). The upper
Unit III, above the MFS, represents the highstand systems tract
that formed during the recent highstand of sea level. It is confined
to the inner shelf off the Nakdong and Seomjin river where it
forms a subaqueous delta.
Conclusions
A high-resolution, shallow seismic survey was designed and
tested using a small-scale multi-channel seismic system. The
S/N ratio and resolution could be improved by 6- or 8-channel
seismic data acquisition and processing. Conventional seismic
data processing steps were applied to improve the data quality;
spiking deconvolution and swell effect correction were effective.
The inner shelf deposits, up to 30 m thick, consist of three
sedimentary units comprising transgressive and highstand
systems tracts deposited after the LGM. Each unit was
deposited during distinctive time periods associated with sea
level changes. The transgressive systems tract between the SB
and MFS comprises two sedimentary units (Units I and II)
separated by a RS. The lower Unit I, lying below the RS,
correlates with the estuarine sediments preserved by shoreface
erosion during transgression. The middle Unit II, which can
be divided into two subunits (IIa and IIb) above the RS,
consists of sediment produced by shoreface erosion during
landward transgression. Subunit IIa consists of a thin veneer
of transgressive sands, whereas Subunit IIb is made up of sand
ridges. The upper Unit III, above the MFS, represents the
highstand systems tract formed during the recent highstand of
sea level and forms a subaqueous delta.
Acknowledgements
This work was financially supported by the KIGAM and was a part of a
National Research Laboratory (NRL) project supported by the Ministry of
Science and Technology (MOST). The high-resolution seismic and sediment
data used in this study were collected through several marine geophysical
surveys by KIGAM. We thank the officers and crew of the R/V Tamhae II of
the KIGAM for helping with seismic survey and sampling operations. We also
thank anonymous reviewers for constructive reviews.
References
Berne, S., Vagner, P., Guichard, F., Lericolais, G., Liu, Z., Trentesaux, A.,
Yin, P., and Yi, H. L., 2002, Pleistocene forced regressions and tidal sand
ridges in the East China Sea: Marine Geology, 188, 293–315. doi:10.1016/
S0025-3227(02)00446-2
Boyd, R., Suter, J., and Penland, S., 1989, Relation of sequence stratigraphy to
modern sedimentary environments: Geology, 17, 926–929. doi:10.1130/
0091-7613(1989)017<0926:ROSSTM>2.3.CO;2
D.-G. Yoo et al.
Davies, T. A., and Austin, J. A. Jr, 1997, High-resolution 3D seismic reflection
and coring techniques applied to late Quaternary deposits on the New
Jersey shelf: Marine Geology, 143, 137–149. doi:10.1016/S0025-3227
(97)00094-7
Hernandez-Molina, F. J., Somoza, L., Rey, J., and Pomar, L., 1994, Late
Pleistocene-Holocene sediments on the Spanish continental shelves:
model for very high resolution sequence stratigraphy: Marine Geology,
120, 129–174. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(94)90057-4
KIGAM (Korea Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources) 2000, Study
on Quaternary Stratigraphy and Environmental Changes: Report of Korea
Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources, Daejon, 665 pp. [in
Korean].
Kim, M. S., Chu, K. S., and Kim, O. S., 1986, Investigation of some influence
of the Nakdong River water on marine environment in the estuarine area
using Landsat imagery: Technical Report of Korea Ministry Sciences
Technology, Inchon, pp. 93–147 [in Korean].
Kim, D. C., Park, Y. A., Lee, C. B., Kang, H. J., and Choi, J. H., 1992,
Sedimentation and physical properties of inner shelf sediments South
Sea of Korea: Journal of Geological Society of Korea, 28, 604–614.
Korea Hydrographic Office, 1982, Marine environmental atlas of Korean
waters. Research Report, 38 pp.
Lee, E., and Nam, S. L., 2003, Freshwater supply by Korean rivers to the East
Sea during the last glacial maximum: a review and new evidence from the
Korea Strait region: Geo-Marine Letters, 23, 1–6. doi:10.1007/s00367-
003-0118-1
Lee, H. J., and Yoon, S. H., 1997, Development of stratigraphy and sediment
distribution in the northeastern Yellow Sea during Holocene sea-level rise:
Journal of Sedimentary Research, 67, 341–349.
Lee, H.-Y., Hyun, B.-K., and Kong, Y.-S., 1996, PC-based acquisition and
processing of high-resolution marine seismic data: Geophysics, 61,
1804–1812. doi:10.1190/1.1444096
Lee, H. Y., Park, K. P., Koo, N. H., Yoo, D. G., Kang, D. H., Kim, Y. G.,
Hwang, K. D., and Kim, J. C., 2004, High-resolution shallow marine
seismic surveys off Busan and Pohang, Korea, using a small-scale
multichannel system: Journal of Applied Geophysics, 56, 1–15.
doi:10.1016/j.jappgeo.2004.03.003
Lee, G. S., Kim, D. C., Yoo, D. G., and Yi, H. I., 2013, Sedimentary
environment and sequence stratigraphy of Late Quaternary deposits in
the East China Sea: Marine Georesources and Geotechnology, 31, 17–39.
doi:10.1080/1064119X.2012.661031
Lee, H. Y., Kim, W. S., Koo, N. H., Park, K. P., Yoo, D. G., Kang, D. H., Kim,
Y. G., Seo, G. S., and Hwang, K. D., 2014, Resolution analysis of shallow
marine seismic data acquired using an airgun and an 8-channel streamer
cable: Journal of Applied Geophysics, 105, 203–212. doi:10.1016/j.
jappgeo.2014.03.021
Lericolais, G., Allenou, J. P., Berné, S., and Morvan, P., 1990, A new system
for acquisition and processing of very high-resolution seismic reflection
data: Geophysics, 55, 1036–1046. doi:10.1190/1.1442916
Lobo, F. J., Tesson, M., and Gensous, B., 2004, Stratal architectures of
late Quaternary regressive-transgressive cycles in the Roussillon Shelf
(SW Gulf of Lion, France): Marine and Petroleum Geology, 21,
1181–1203. doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2004.07.003
Marsset, B., Missiaen, T., De Roeck, Y. H., Nobile, M., Versteeg, W., and
Henriet, J. P., 1998, Very high resolution 3D marine seismic data
processing for geotechnical applications: Geophysical Prospecting, 46,
105–120. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2478.1998.00076.x
Miller, R. D., Markiewicz, R. D., Merry, C., Xia, J., and Maples, C., 1995,
Improvements in shallow high-resolution seismic reflection through PC-
based systems: Computers & Geosciences, 21, 957–964. doi:10.1016/
0098-3004(95)00032-4
Min, G. H., 1994, Seismic stratigraphy and depositional history of Plio-
Holocene deposits in the southeastern shelf, Korean Peninsula: Ph.
D. thesis, Seoul National University.
Mitchum, R. M., Vail, P. R., and Sangree, J. B., 1977, Stratigraphic
interpretation of seismic reflection patterns in depositional sequence, in
C. E. Payton, ed., Seismic stratigraphy – application to hydrocarbon
exploration: AAPG Memoir, 26, 117–133.
Morend, D., Pugin, A., and Gorin, G. E., 2002, High-resolution seismic
imaging of outcrop-scale channels and an incised-valley system within the
fluvial-dominated Lower Freshwater Molasse (Aquitanian, western Swiss
 High-resolution seismic study in south-east Korea
Molasse Basin): Sedimentary Geology, 149, 245–264. doi:10.1016/
S0037-0738(01)00176-2
Nam, S. L., Chang, J. H., Kong, G. S., Kim, S. P., and Yoo, D. G., 2003,
Holocene sea-level rise and paleoenvironmental changes in the Korea
Strait shelf: Korean Journal of Quaternary Research, 17, 7–16. [in Korean
with English abstract]
Nissen, S. E., Combes, J. M., and Nekut, A. G., 1999, Acquisition, processing,
and analysis of shallow, high-resolution seismic data from the outer
continental shelf and upper slope, offshore Louisiana: Journal of
Sedimentary Research, 69, 300–316. doi:10.2110/jsr.69.300
Nummedal, D., and Swift, D. J. P., 1987, Transgressive stratigraphy at
sequence-bounding unconformities: some principles derived from
Holocene and Cretaceous examples, in D. Nummedal, O. H. Pilkey,
and J. D. Howard, eds., Sea-level fluctuation and coastal evolution: SEPM
Special Publication, 41, 241–260.
Oh, I. S., and Lee, D. E., 1998, Tides and tidal currents of the Yellow and East
China Seas during the last 13,000 years: Journal of the Korean Society of
Oceanography, 33, 137–145. [in Korean]
Okyar, M., Ediger, V., and Ergin, M., 1994, Seismic stratigraphy of the
southeastern Black Sea shelf from high-resolution seismic records:
Marine Geology, 121, 213–230. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(94)90032-9
Park, Y. A., and Choi, J. Y., 1986, Factor analysis of the continental shelf
sediments of the southeast coast of Korea and its implication of the
depositional environments: Journal of Oceanological Society of Korea,
21, 34–45.
Park, S. C., and Yoo, D. G., 1988, Depositional history of Quaternary
sediments on the continental shelf off the southeastern coast of Korea
(Korea Strait): Marine Geology, 79, 65–75. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(88)
90157-0
Park, S. C., and Yoo, D. G., 1992, Deposition of coarse-grained sediments in
the Korea Strait during late Pleistocene low sea level: Geo-Marine Letters,
12, 19–23. doi:10.1007/BF02092104
Park, S. C., Hong, S. K., and Kim, D. C., 1996, Evolution of late Quaternary
deposits on the inner shelf of the South Sea of Korea: Marine Geology,
131, 219–232. doi:10.1016/0025-3227(96)00006-0
Park, S. C., Yoo, D. G., Lee, C. W., and Lee, E. L., 2000, Last glacial sea-level
changes and paleogeography of the Korea (Tsushima) Strait: Geo-Marine
Letters, 20, 64–71. doi:10.1007/s003670000039
Park, S. C., Han, H. S., and Yoo, D. G., 2003, Transgressive sand ridges on the
mid-shelf of the southern sea of Korea (Korea Strait): formation and
development in high-energy environments: Marine Geology, 193, 1–18.
doi:10.1016/S0025-3227(02)00611-4
Pugin, A., Pullan, S. E., Burns, R. A., Douma, M., and Good, R. L., 1999,
High-resolution, multichannel, marine seismic surveying using a small
airgun source: SAGEEP Meeting, Oakland CA, Extended Abstract,
255–264.
Saito, Y., 1994, Shelf sequence and characteristic bounding surfaces in a
wave-dominated setting: latest Pleistocene-Holocene examples from
Northeast Japan: Marine Geology, 120, 105–127. doi:10.1016/0025-
3227(94)90080-9
Shinn, Y. J., Chough, S. K., Kim, J. W., and Woo, J., 2007, Development
of depositional systems in the southeastern Yellow Sea during the
postglacial transgression: Marine Geology, 239, 59–82. doi:10.1016/
j.margeo.2006.12.007
www.publish.csiro.au/journals/eg
View publication stats
Exploration Geophysics K
Stride, A. H., 1982, Offshore tidal sands, processes and deposits: Chapman
and Hall.
Suk, B. C., 1989, Quaternary sedimentation processes, structures and sea level
changes in the East China Sea, the Yellow Sea and the Korea-Tsushima
Strait Regions: Ph.D. thesis, University of Tokyo.
Tesson, M., Posamentier, H. W., and Gensous, B., 2000, Stratigraphic
organization of late Pleistocene deposits of the western part of the
Golfe du Lion Shelf (Languedoc Shelf), western Mediterranean Sea,
using high-resolution seismic and core data: The American Association
of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, 84, 119–150.
Tortora, P., 1996, Depositional and erosional coastal processes during the
last postglacial sea-level rise: an example from the central Tyrrhenian
continental shelf (Italy): Journal of Sedimentary Research, 66, 391–405.
Trincardi, F., Correggiari, A., and Roveri, M., 1994, Late Quaternary
transgressive erosion and deposition in a modern epicontinental shelf:
the Adriatic semienclosed basin: Geo-Marine Letters, 14, 41–51.
doi:10.1007/BF01204470
Xu, D., Liu, X., Zhang, X., Li, T., and Chen, B., 1997, China offshore geology:
Geological Publishing House.
Yang, C. S., 1989, Active, moribund and tidal sand ridges in the East
China Sea and the southern Yellow Sea: Marine Geology, 88, 97–116.
doi:10.1016/0025-3227(89)90007-8
Yoo, D. G., and Park, S. C., 1997, Late Quaternary lowstand wedges on
the shelf margin and trough region of the Korea Strait: Sedimentary
Geology, 109, 121–133. doi:10.1016/S0037-0738(96)00035-8
Yoo, D. G., and Park, S. C., 2000, High-resolution seismic study as a tool
for sequence stratigraphic evidence of high-frequency sea-level changes:
latest Pleistocene-Holocene example from the Korea Strait: Journal of
Sedimentary Research, 70, 296–309. doi:10.1306/2DC40912-0E47-
11D7-8643000102C1865D
Yoo, D. G., Park, S. C., Shin, W. C., and Kim, W. S., 1996, Near-surface
seismic facies at the Korea Strait shelf margin and trough region: Geo-
Marine Letters, 16, 49–56. doi:10.1007/BF02202598
Yoo, D. G., Lee, C. W., Kim, S. P., Jin, J. H., Kim, J. K., and Han, H. C., 2002,
Late Quaternary transgressive and highstand systems tracts in the northern
East China Sea mid-shelf: Marine Geology, 187, 313–328. doi:10.1016/
S0025-3227(02)00384-5
Yoo, D. G., Park, S. C., Sunwoo, D., and Oh, J. H., 2003, Evolution and
chronology of late Pleistocene shelf-perched lowstand wedges in the
Korea Strait: Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, 22, 29–39. doi:10.1016/
S1367-9120(03)00020-8
Yoo, D. G., Kim, S. P., Chang, T. S., Kong, G. S., Kang, N. K., Kwon, Y. K.,
Nam, S. L., and Park, S. C., 2014a, Late Quaternary inner shelf deposits
in response to late Pleistocene-Holocene sea level changes: Nakdong
River, SE Korea: Quaternary International, 344, 156–169. doi:10.1016/
j.quaint.2014.02.004
Yoo, D. G., Kim, S. P., Lee, C. W., Chang, T. S., and Kang, N. K., 2014b, Late
Quaternary transgressive deposits in a low-gradient environmental
setting: Korea Strait shelf, SE Korea: Quaternary International, 344,
143–155. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2014.03.034
Zecchin, M., Baradello, L., Brancolini, G., Donda, F., Rizzetto, F., and
Tosi, L., 2008, Sequence stratigraphy based on high-resolution seismic
profiles in the late Pleistocene and Holocene deposits of the Venice area:
Marine Geology, 253, 185–198. doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2008.05.010