Applied Mathematics: Part 2

CS1181

Foreword

These notes have been assembled to cover the Dynamics topics in the module CS1181
Applied Mathematics. It is stressed that these are outline notes and further reading of
the recommended texts is strongly advised.

You will see that “gaps” have been left at various places in the notes: these are to be filled
in during the lectures when the examples are explained. The tutorial exercises at the end
of each topic should be worked through in preparation for the weekly tutorial class, where
discussion of any problems encountered will be conducted. Tutorial questions marked with
an asterisk (in later chapters) denote more difficult and challenging questions.

Dr R B Paris
Reader in Mathematics
Room 4540.1
e-mail: r.paris @ abertay.ac.uk
 CONTENTS

This course consists of the following topics:

Chapter 1: Kinematics in one dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 2: Variable acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Chapter 3: Newton’s laws of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Chapter 4: Momentum and impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Chapter 5: Energy, Work and Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Chapter 6: Projectiles on a horizontal plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Chapter 7: Motion in a horizontal circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Chapter 8: Elastic collisions in two dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

Chapter 9: Motion in one dimension with variable resistance and mass . . . . . . . . . 62

SUGGESTED REFERENCES

The following books are well worth consulting for additional information and examples on
the various topics studied in this course:

Smithers, G. 1995 Mechanics Vol. 1 – 4, Collins Educational.

Hebborn, J. and Littlewood, J. 1996 Mechanics Vol. 1 – 4, Heineman.
Jefferson, B. and Beadsworth, T. 2001 Further Mechanics, Oxford University Press.
 A note on the gravitational acceleration g

In most calculations it is sufficient to use the value g = 9.8m/s2 for the gravitational
acceleration at the Earth’s surface. However, this is only a first approximation. There is
a small variation in g according to position on the Earth’s surface due (i) to centrifugal
effects caused by the Earth’s rotation and (ii) to the fact that the Earth is an oblate
spheroid (i.e., that it is flattened a little at the poles). This flattening was also caused by
rotation effects when the Earth was cooling.

The flattening at the poles is not very great:

Equatorial radius = 6378km

Polar radius = 6357km.

Thus the flattening at the poles only amounts to 2 × 21 = 42 km.

An expression for the variation in g at different latitudes on the Earth’s surface is given
by
g = 9.806 − 0.026 cos 2θ m/s2 ,
where θ denotes the latitude. The values of g at the equator (θ = 0) and the poles
(θ = 90◦ ) are therefore:

g(Equator) = 9.780m/s 2 , g(Poles) = 9.832m/s2 ;

which corresponds to a difference of 0.052 m/s2 .

Thus, a body will weigh slightly more at the poles than at the equator. For example,
if a body is weighed at the equator and is found to “weigh” 80kg then it will “weigh”
9.832
× 80 = 80.4kg
9.780
at the poles.

As one moves away from the Earth’s surface the gravitational acceleration decreases
according to the inverse square law. If the distance from the centre of the Earth is r
and we treat the Earth as a sphere of radius R, then the value g(r) of the gravitational
acceleration at a distance r is given by

R2
g(r) = g ,
r2
where g = g(R) is the acceleration at the surface (which is treated as constant over the
Earth here).

Other interesting facts are:

Gravitational acceleration on the Moon’s surface = 1.62 m/s2
Gravitational acceleration on the Sun’s surface = 273 m/s2
Mass of the Earth = 5.98 × 1024 kg.
Kinematics in One Dimension

Kinematics may be defined as the study of the motion of an object, irrespective of

what causes the motion, and hence the relationships between distance/displacement,
time, speed/velocity and acceleration. Initially we will study motion in a straight line
and in one dimension.

We first of all need to define the important measurable quantities in kinematics:

Time – the continuous, non-reversible, passing of existence (scalar). The SI* unit is
the second (s).
Distance − the length between two points (scalar). The SI unit is the metre (m).
Displacement – the distance in a given direction (vector). The SI unit is the metre.
Speed − the rate of change of distance with time (scalar). The SI unit is metres per
second (m/s or ms-1).
Velocity − speed in a given direction (vector). The SI unit is metres per second.
Acceleration – the rate of change of velocity with time (vector). The SI unit is
metres per second per second (m/s2 or ms-2).
*
SI units stands for “Systeme International d’Unites” which is a universally
recognised system of units.

Notation

Throughout this work we will use the following standard notation for the quantities of
interest:

t - time
s - distance/displacement
u - initial speed/velocity
v - final speed/velocity
a - acceleration

Constant Acceleration Problems

Of the most basic problems in kinematics are those concerned with constant
acceleration. There are four formulae we can use to solve such problems and their
derivation now follows.

From the definition of acceleration we have,

final velocity - initial velocity

acceleration =
time taken
v−u
i.e., a=
t
giving
v = u + at (1)

-1-
We also know that displacement = average velocity × time
i.e.

s=
(u + v ) × t =  u + v  t (2)
 2 
2  

2s
From (2), we see that t = and using this in (1) gives
u+v
2s
v = u + a×
u+v
∴ ( v − u )( v + u ) = 2 as
i.e. v 2 − u2 = 2 as

giving,
v 2 = u2 + 2as (3)

Finally, from (1) substitute for v in (2) gives,

 u + u + at 
s= t
 2 

i.e.
s = ut + 12 at 2 (4)

Equations (1) to (4) are the basic equations for solving constant acceleration
problems. Care has to be taken to choose the right equation for the problem in hand.

v = u + at , v 2 = u 2 + 2as
 u + v
s = ut + 21 at 2 , s= t
 2 

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Examples

1. A body moves with uniform acceleration for 3 seconds and travels 27 m. It

then moves with uniform velocity and during the next 5 seconds travels 60 m.
Find the initial velocity and the acceleration.

Solution

Setting out the quantities we know and those we want to find gives:

60
s = 27 m, v = = 12 ms -1 , t = 3 s, u = ?, a = ?
5
(Notice that v has to be calculated from the information given.)

 u + v  u + 12 
 × 3 ⇒ u = 6 ms .
-1
Use s =   t to find u, i.e. 27 = 
 2   2 
Now use v = u + at to find the acceleration, i.e. 12 = 6 + 3a ⇒ a = 2 ms -2 .

2. A car, starting from rest, accelerates uniformly such that it travels 9⋅5 m in the
10th second after starting. Find the acceleration and the distance covered in the
first 5 seconds of motion.

3. A train increases its speed from 18 km/h to 72 km/h in a distance of 50 metres

under uniform acceleration. Find this acceleration and the speed of the train
when it has covered 25 metres of the distance.

Solutions

-3-
-4-
-5-
 Tutorial Exercise – Kinematics in One-Dimension

1. A train starts from rest at a station and travels with uniform acceleration of 1⋅2
ms-2. What is the speed of the train after 30 seconds and how far has it
travelled?

2. A car travelling at 54 km h-1 is brought to rest with a uniform retardation in 5

seconds. Find its retardation and the distance travelled in this time.

3. A particle moves with uniform acceleration. If the initial velocity is 100 ms-1
and the velocity at the end of 60 seconds is 220 ms-1 find the distance travelled
in 10 minutes and its velocity at the end of this period.

4. A particle starting from rest accelerates at 3 ms-2 for 10 seconds and then
continues at uniform velocity for 4 minutes. It is then brought to rest with a
retardation of 2 ms-2. Calculate the total distance travelled by the particle.

5. A particle travels with uniform acceleration of 4 ms-2 and covers 38 m during

the fifth second of its motion. Using its average velocity in this time period,
or otherwise, find its initial speed.

6. A body moves with uniform acceleration. It travels 8⋅5 m in the eighth second
and 7⋅5 m in the thirteenth second of its motion. Using the average velocities
of the body in these time periods, or otherwise, find the initial velocity and
acceleration of the body.

7. A particle moves in a straight line with an initial velocity and uniform

acceleration. Find how far it travels in 12 seconds, given that it travels 48 m
in the first 6 seconds and 32 m in the last 2 seconds. Also find the initial
velocity.

8. A body moves with uniform acceleration and during the last second of its
motion it covers five ninths of the whole distance travelled. If it started from
rest and covered ½ m during the first second, find how long it was in motion
and the total distance covered.

9. A particle starts with a velocity V and moves in a straight line with constant
acceleration a. When the velocity reaches 5V the particle is subjected to a
constant retardation a. Show that when the particle returns to its starting
position its velocity is –7V.

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10. The times taken by a particle to travel two successive distances of x metres are
t1 and t2 seconds respectively. Show that the acceleration, assumed constant,
is given by
2 x(t1 − t 2 )
.
t1t 2 (t1 + t 2 )

Answers

1. 36 ms-1 ; 540 m

2. − 3 ms-2 ; 37⋅5 m

3. 420,000 m; 1300 ms-1

4. 7575 m

5. 20 ms-1

6. 10 ms-1; − 0⋅2 ms-2

7. 132 m ; 5 ms-1

8. 3 secs.; 4⋅5 m

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Newton’s Laws of Motion

We now look at the laws governing the movement of bodies which were developed by Sir
Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727). Integral to this study are the following definitions:

Mass – the measure of the amount of matter contained in a body. The SI unit is the kilogram
(kg).
Force – a dynamic influence acting on a body that causes it to accelerate. The SI unit is the
Newton (N).
Momentum – the product of the mass of a body and its velocity. The SI unit is the Newton
second (Ns = kg ms-1).

Newton’s three laws of motion may be stated as follows:

1. A body will continue to move in a straight line with constant velocity or remain
at rest until it is acted upon by some externally applied force.

2. The rate of change of momentum of the body is equal to the algebraic sum of the
applied forces.

3. To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Notice that the second law gives

d (mv )
=F
dt
dv
∴ m = F (for a constant mass)
dt

or F = ma

i.e. Force = mass × acceleration

e.g. A body of mass 5 kg that has a force of 50 N acting on it generates an acceleration of

10 m/s2.

An important force that is always present on earth is that due to gravity. For a body of mass
m kg, this gravitational force is given by mg N, where g is the acceleration due to the earth’s
attraction, and is usually taken to be about 9⋅8 ms-2 towards the surface. This value of g does
vary slightly dependent upon where on the planet it is measured from.

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e.g. A stone of mass 0⋅25 kg is thrown vertically in the air such that its acceleration just
before release is 5 ms-2. Calculate the force with which it is thrown.

Solution

When solving such problems, it is always useful to draw a clear diagram of the forces acting
on the body. We shall assume, unless told otherwise, that the only forces acting on the stone
just before release are those due to gravity and the thrower.

F
5 ms-2

mg

If F is the throwing force then by Newton’s 2nd law of motion we have the equation

F − mg = ma

where m = 0⋅25, a = 5 and g = 9⋅8, giving

F = 0⋅25 (5 + 9⋅8) = 3⋅7 N.

Many different types of problems in Dynamics may be solved by applying Newton’s laws.
These are best illustrated by example.

Examples

1. A body of mass 6 kg is pulled along a smooth horizontal table by a light,

inextensible, horizontal string. If it moves with an acceleration of 4 ms-2, find the
tension in the string.

2. A block of mass 20 kg rests on the floor of a lift. Find the reaction force between the
block and the floor of the lift if it accelerates (i) vertically downwards (ii) vertically
upwards, at 3 ms-2.

3. A mass of 2 kg is connected to another of mass 5 kg by a light inextensible string

passing over a smooth fixed pulley in the vertical plane. Find the acceleration of the
system and the tension in the string during the subsequent motion.

4. A mass of 10 kg is held at rest on a smooth horizontal table. It is connected by a

light, horizontal, inextensible string passing over a smooth fixed pulley at the edge of
the table to a mass of 8 kg hanging vertically. Find the common magnitude of
acceleration of the masses when the 10 kg mass is released.

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Solutions
a
1. R
T

mg

Let T be the tension force in the string and R be the normal reaction force that the
table exerts on the body. Notice that, perpendicular to the plane, R and mg are equal
and opposite (Newton’s 3rd law) and so there is no motion in this direction.
However, along the horizontal table, we have the equation of motion

T = ma (no forces due to friction)

=6×4
= 24 N.

- 15 -
- 16 -
 Tutorial Exercise – Newton’s Laws of Motion

1. What force acting on a mass of 12 kg will generate a velocity of 15 km/hour in 5

minutes? [Be careful of the units in this question.]

2. A mass of 5 kg is pulled along a horizontal smooth table by a horizontal inextensible

string. If the acceleration of the mass is 3 m/s2 find the tension in the string.

3. A block of mass 15 kg rests on the floor of a lift. Find the reaction between the block
and the floor of the lift if it accelerates downwards at 4 m/s2.

4. A ship of mass 107 kg slows down from 12 km/h to 10 km/h in a distance of 90 m.

Assuming the resistance to be uniform, calculate its value in Newtons.

5. In a lift accelerated upwards at a certain rate, a spring balance indicates a weight to

have a mass of 10 kg. When the lift is accelerated downwards at twice the upward
rate, the mass appears to be 7 kg. Find the actual mass and the upward acceleration
of the lift.

6. Two particles of masses 5 kg and 10 kg respectively are connected by a light

inextensible string which passes over a smooth fixed pulley in the vertical plane.
Find the acceleration of the system and the tension in the string.

7. A mass of 9 kg resting on a smooth horizontal table is connected by a light,

horizontal, inextensible string passing over a fixed smooth pulley at the edge of the
table to a mass of 7 kg hanging vertically. Find the common acceleration of the
masses and the tension in the string.

8. (i) A light inextensible string passes over a smooth fixed pulley. At one end it
carries a mass of 4 kg and at the other end two masses each of 3 kg. If the
system is allowed to move from rest, find the acceleration of the single mass.

(ii) If one of the 3 kg masses falls off after the 4 kg mass has ascended 2⋅5 metres,
how much further will the 4 kg mass ascend?

9. The diagram shows a mass of m hanging freely from an inextensible light string
passing over a smooth fixed pulley and is connected to a mass of km resting on a
smooth horizontal table. Determine the acceleration of the system.

km

- 17 -
10. A stone of mass 0⋅4 kg is thrown vertically in the air with an initial velocity of 20
m/s. If there is a “drag” force directly resisting the motion of 0⋅2 N, find how far the
stone travels before it comes to rest. Also calculate the overall time taken for it to
return to its point of release.

11. A constant force of 35 N always acting in the same horizontal direction causes a
particle of mass 2 kg to move over a rough horizontal plane. The particle passes two
points, X and Y, 4 metres apart, with speeds of 5 m/s and 10 m/s respectively. The
frictional resistance to motion is constant. Calculate:

(i) the acceleration of the particle;

(ii) the magnitude of the frictional resistance;
(iii) the distance of the particle from X, 4 seconds after it has passed X.

12. Masses of 3m and m are connected by a light inextensible string passing over a fixed
smooth pulley. The system is released from rest with the string taut and with both
masses at a height h above the ground. Determine:

(i) the acceleration of the system;

(ii) the tension in the string before the 3m mass hits the ground;
(iii) the greatest height reached by the smaller mass, and the total time taken to get
there.

(You may assume that the string is long enough to achieve the above situation and
that the smaller mass does not hit the pulley at any time.)

13. A light inextensible string passes over a smooth light fixed pulley and masses of 3 kg
and 7 kg are attached to its ends. The system is held at rest with the string taut, those
parts not in contact with the pulley being vertical, and then released. Find the
acceleration of each mass and the tension in the string.

After the 7 kg mass has descended a distance of one metre it strikes a horizontal
table. Show that the time taken for this to happen is 5/7 seconds from the start of
motion, assuming that the acceleration due to gravity is 9⋅8 m/s2. Find the time
during which the 7 kg mass is at rest on the table (assume that the 3 kg mass does not
reach the pulley throughout the motion).

Answers

1. 1/6 N 2. 15 N 3. 87 N 4. 1⋅89 × 105 N 5. 9 kg; 1⋅09 m/s2

6. 3⋅27 m/s2; 65⋅4 N 7. 4⋅29 m/s2; 38⋅6 N 8. (i) 1⋅96 m/s2 (ii) 3⋅5 m

9. g/(1 + k) 10. 19⋅42 m; 3⋅99 s

11. (i) 9⋅375 m/s2 (ii) 16⋅25 N (iii) 95 m

12. (i) g/2 (ii) 3mg/2 (iii) 5h/2; 3 h / g 13. 3⋅92 m/s2; 42 N; 4/7 s

- 18 -
Momentum and Impulse
Closely related to the work on Newton’s Laws of Motion is the principle of
conservation of linear momentum of a body. This states that if two or more bodies
collide during motion then their combined linear momentum before impact is equal
to that immediately after impact.

This principle may be justified by the following heuristic proof.

Consider the case of two masses m1 and m2 travelling in the same horizontal direction
at constant speeds of u1 and u2 respectively, with u1 > u2, on a smooth surface. The
masses collide and then move off with speeds of v1 and v2, as illustrated.

after collision
v1 v2
m1 F F m2

u1 u2 before collision

During the short collision time period, there will be equal and opposite forces of
magnitude F acting on the two masses (Newton’s 3rd law) and during this time the
equations of motion for the masses will be:

dv1 dv
m1 = − F and m2 2 = F .
dt dt

dv1 dv
Adding these together gives m1 + m2 2 = 0 , and integration yields
dt dt

m1v1 + m2v2 = C (constant)

but when t = 0 (at start of collision) we have v1 = u1 and v2 = u2, so that C is given by
C = m1u1 + m2u2 . Substituting this into the above gives the momentum conservation
equation as

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 .

- 19 -
Examples

1. A bullet of mass 20 grams travelling horizontally at 750 m/s hits a block of

wood of mass 3 kg at rest on a horizontal table. Determine the common
velocity of the embedded bullet and block after impact.

Solution
750 m/s V m/s

Before Impact After Impact

Let V m/s be the common velocity after impact.

The momentum of the bullet before impact = mass × velocity
= 20 × 750 = 15000 g m/s
Momentum of bullet + block after impact = (3000 + 20) × V
= 3020 V g m/s.
By the principle of conservation of momentum we have,

3020 V = 15000 ⇒ V = 4⋅97 m/s.

2. Two particles, A and B, of masses 2 kg and 3 kg respectively travel directly

towards each other on a horizontal smooth plane. A has a speed of 10 m/s and
B has a speed of 5 m/s. If A has a speed of 3 m/s in the opposite direction after
collision then determine the velocity of B after collision also.

Solution
10 m/s 5 m/s
3 m/s V

A B A B
Before Impact After Impact

Let V m/s be the velocity of B immediately after impact.

Linear momentum of the system before impact = 2 ×10 − 3 × 5 = 5 Ns

(Notice that we are assuming that the positive direction is to the right,
although this is optional provided we are consistent throughout the problem it
does not matter.)
Linear momentum of system after impact = −2 × 3 + 3 × V = (3V − 6) Ns.
Hence by the principle of conservation of momentum we have,

3V – 6 = 5 ⇒ V = 11/3 m/s.

- 20 -
3. A canon of mass 5000 kg is free to recoil horizontally when it fires a shell of
mass 10 kg horizontally at 600 m/s. Using the conservation of momentum
principle, calculate the speed of recoil of the gun.

4. A pile-driver of mass 3000 kg falls vertically from a height of 5 metres onto a

pile of mass 600 kg. If the pile is driven downwards, calculate the speed at
which it moves into the ground.

Solutions

- 21 -
- 22 -
Newton’s Experimental Law for Collisions

Newton devised experiments with colliding bodies and observed how their velocities
before and after collisions varied according to the elastic properties of the materials
making up the body masses. From this work he formulated his experimental law of
restitution, which states that for two bodies colliding

velocity of separation = e × velocity of approach

where e is the coefficient of restitution between the colliding bodies, i.e. it gives a
measure of how elastic the collision is. For a perfectly elastic collision, e = 1,
whereas for a perfectly inelastic collision, e = 0. This means that e must always be in
the range 0 ≤ e ≤ 1 .

The above law may be put mathematically by considering two masses travelling with
velocities u1 and u2 before impact ( u1 > u2 ) and v1 and v 2 after impact respectively.

u1 u2 v1 v2

Before Impact After Impact

Velocity of separation = v 2 − v1 , velocity of approach = u1 − u2 , giving

v 2 − v1 = e( u1 − u2 )

[Notice what happens if u2 and/or v1 are in opposite directions to those shown.]

This law may be used with the principle of conservation of momentum to solve
problems involving collisions.

Examples

1. A mass A of 2 kg travelling at 4 m/s collides with a mass B of 4kg travelling in

the same direction at 1 m/s. Determine their respective velocities immediately
after impact given that e = ½.

2. Two small smooth spheres A and B are moving directly towards each other at
speeds of 5 m/s and 3 m/s respectively. If A has mass 4 kg and B has mass 5
kg, determine their velocities immediately after impact given e = ¾ .

3. A ball is dropped freely under gravity from a height of 5 metres above the
ground. If the coefficient of restitution between the ball and the ground is 2/3,
calculate the time taken between the first and second bounces.

- 23 -
 Solutions

1. 4 m/s 1 m/s v1 v2

A B A B
Before Impact After Impact

Let velocities of A and B after impact be v1 and v2 respectively. By the

principle of conservation of momentum we have:

4×2 + 1×4 = 2 v1 + 4 v2 ⇒ v1 + 2 v2 = 6 (1)

By Newton’s experimental rule:

v2 − v1 = e(4 − 1) ⇒ v2 − v1 = 1⋅5 (2)

(1) + (2) ⇒ 3v2 = 7⋅5, giving v2 = 2⋅5 m/s

and (1) ⇒ v1 = 6 − 2 × 2⋅5 = 1 m/s.

- 24 -
- 25 -
- 26 -
 Tutorial Exercise – Momentum and Impulse

1. A bullet of mass 30 g is fired horizontally with a velocity of 840 m/s into a

block of wood of mass 5 kg resting on a flat horizontal table. Find the
common velocity of the embedded bullet and block immediately after impact.

2. A gun of mass 10000 kg, free to recoil in the direction of the horizontal barrel,
fires a shot of mass 100 kg with a velocity of 400 m/s. Find the speed of
recoil of the gun. If the recoil is resisted by a constant force so that the gun
moves back only 12 cm, find the magnitude of this force.

3. A pile driver of mass 5000 kg falls from a height of 3 m on to a pile of mass

1000 kg. If the pile is driven downwards by 8 cm find the average resistance
of the ground (use g = 9⋅8 m/s2). .

4. A sphere of mass 3 kg moving at 4 m/s collides with another sphere of mass 4

kg moving in the same direction with velocity 2 m/s. If e = ¼ find their
velocities immediately after impact.

5. A ball of mass 10 kg moving at 8 m/s collides with another of mass 8 kg

moving in the same direction at 5 m/s. If e = ½ find their velocities after
impact.

6. A ball of mass 10 kg moving at 8 m/s impinges directly on a ball of mass 8 kg

moving in the opposite direction at 4 m/s. If e = 1/3 find their speeds after
impact.

7. A ball of mass m moving at 7 m/s collides with another of mass 2m moving in

the same direction at 1 m/s. If e = ¾ show that the first ball will remain at rest
after the impact.

8. If two perfectly elastic spheres, each of mass m and moving in opposite

directions, impinge directly, show that they will exchange velocities.

9. Three exactly similar spheres A, B and C are at rest in a smooth straight

horizontal tube. The coefficient of restitution between any two of the spheres
is ½. A is projected towards B with velocity u. Determine the velocities of the
three spheres after B has impinged on C and A has impinged a second time on
B. Show also that there will be no more impacts.

- 27 -
10. A ball is dropped freely under gravity from a height of 2 metres above the
horizontal ground. If the coefficient of restitution between the ball and the
ground is ¾, calculate the time that elapses before the ball strikes the ground
for a third time. (Assume that g = 9⋅8 m/s2.)

11. A ball is dropped freely under gravity from a height h above the horizontal
ground. If the coefficient of restitution between the ground and the body is e
then find an expression for the time that elapses before the ball comes to rest
on the ground. [You will need the formula for the sum to infinity of a
geometric series for this problem – see formula booklet.]

Answers

1. 5⋅01 m/s 2. 4 m/s; 667000 N

3. 1530000 N

4. 18/7 m/s , 43/14 m/s

5. 6 m/s, 7⋅5 m/s

6. 8/9 m/s, 44/9 m/s

13 15 9
9. u, u, u
64 64 16

10. 2⋅3 seconds

 1 + e  2h
11.   .
 1 − e g

- 28 -
Energy, Work and Power
If we consider Newton’s second law of motion for a constant mass acted upon by a
constant force we have

dv dv ds
m =F ⇒ m = F (using the chain rule)
dt ds dt
dv
∴ mv = F , and separating the variables gives
ds
∫ mv dv = ∫ F ds
∴ 12 mv 2 = Fs + E (E is a constant).

Now suppose that this equation refers to the motion of a particle dropped freely under
gravity from a height h above the ground.

mg
h

ground

In this case we have, F = −mg and s = h to give, in the above equation,

1 2
2 mv = − mgh + E , or

1
2 mv 2 + mgh = E

This equation is called the energy equation of the system. The energy of a system is
defined as the capacity to change the state of the system and is a scalar quantity.

The term, 21 mv 2 , is defined as the kinetic energy (KE) of the particle and is due to
its velocity; the term, mgh, is defined as the potential energy (PE) of the particle
and is due to its position; E is the total mechanical energy of the particle.

Notice that the energy equation also gives the principle of conservation of energy,
which states: for a system acted upon only by conservative forces, such as gravity,
then the total mechanical energy remains constant. Mechanical energy is only lost
when it is converted to other forms of energy, such as sound, heat and light, as might
happen when two bodies collide.

Notes:

• The SI unit of energy is the Joule or Newton metre (J = Nm)

• Potential energy is measured relative to some fixed level and is therefore arbitrary
in value.

- 29 -
Examples

1. A stone of mass 0⋅5 kg is dropped vertically from the edge of a cliff 50 metres
high. Determine its speed upon hitting the ground at the foot of the cliff
assuming that air resistance is negligible.

2. Two masses, of m and 2m respectively, are connected by a light inextensible

string passing over a smooth fixed pulley in the vertical plane. Initially they
are at rest at the same height h above a horizontal table before being released.
Assuming that the string is long enough to allow the 2m mass to reach the
table and the other mass not to reach the pulley, calculate the common speed
of the masses just before impact with the table.

3. A bullet of mass m kg is fired horizontally from a gun. It embeds itself in a

block of wood of mass M kg, hanging vertically at rest from a light
inextensible string of length L metres with its other end fixed. If the string
remains taut and the combined mass after impact just reaches a point ½L
metres below the level of the fixed point in the vertical direction before it
starts descending, determine the initial speed of the bullet.

Solutions

1. 0⋅5g

50 m

level of PE

Take the level of PE as the foot of the cliff and let the velocity of the stone just
before impact with the ground be v m/s.

PE at start of motion = mgh = 0⋅5 × 9⋅8 × 50 = 245 J

KE at start of motion = 0 (starts from rest)
PE at ground level = 0
KE at ground level = 21 mv 2 = 0⋅5 × 0⋅5 × v2 = 0⋅25 v2 J

By the principle of conservation of energy we have

0⋅25 v2 = 245 ⇒ v = 31⋅3 m/s.

- 30 -
- 31 -
- 32 -
Work and Power

Closely associated with the concept of energy are the definitions of work and power.
The work done by a force acting on a body is the change in energy experienced by the
body due to the force. It is also equal to the product of the force and the displacement
moved in the direction of the force. To illustrate this, consider a mass accelerating in
a horizontal straight line by a force F, i.e.

Work done = change in KE = 1

2
mv 2 − 12 mu 2 = 12 m(v 2 − u 2 )
= 12 m(u 2 + 2as − u 2 ) from kinematics equations
= ma × s
= F × s by Newon's 2nd law of motion.

This also applies to motion in any direction. Hence the relation,

Work Done = Change in Energy = Force × Displacement

Work is a scalar quantity with the SI unit of a Joule (same as energy).

Power is defined as the rate of doing work. The SI unit of power is the Watt or Joules
per second (W = J/s). Notice that using this definition we have

d ( work done)
Power =
dt
d ( Fs) ds
= =F
dt dt
= Fv

Hence we have the alternative formula, for a constant force,

Power = Force × Velocity

Examples

1. Find the work done against gravity by a man lifting a mass of 10 kg vertically
from the floor to a height of 1⋅75 metres.

2. A force acting vertically upwards on a body of mass 25 kg moves it from rest

to a height of 20 m above its starting point, giving it a speed of 6 m/s. Find
the work done by the force.

3. A car has a maximum speed of 100 km/hour on the level with the engine
working at 50 kW. Find the resistance to the motion.

- 33 -
Solutions

1. Take the level of PE to be the floor, then

Work done = change in energy = PE at end − PE at start (no KE)
= 10 × g × 1⋅75 − 0
= 171⋅5 J.
(Also can be done by WD = Force × displacement ).

- 34 -
- 35 -
 Tutorial Exercise – Energy, Work and Power

1. A body of mass 10 kg moves from rest a distance of 9 m horizontally under

the action of a 20 N force. Find the kinetic energy acquired and the final
velocity of the body.

2. A pendulum bob of mass 2 kg is supported by a light inextensible string of

length 1⋅5 m. If the bob is released from rest with the string at an angle of 600
with the downward vertical, find the velocity of the bob at its lowest position
(use g = 10 m/s).

3. Two equal spheres, travelling in opposite directions at speeds of u and 4u

respectively, impinge directly. If the coefficient of restitution is 0⋅2, find the
percentage loss in kinetic energy of the system after collision.

4. A particle of mass 8 kg moves from rest under the action of a constant

horizontal force of 15 N acting for 5 seconds. Find the work done by the force
in this time.

5. A motor of power 3⋅5 kW raises a load of 400 kg through a distance of 20 m.

How long does it take (assume g = 10 m/s2)?

6. A car of mass 2000 kg has a constant frictional resistance against its motion of
2000 N. Determine the acceleration of the car when it has a speed of 7⋅5 m/s
on a level road with the engine working at 90 kW.

7. A locomotive working at 500 kW pulls a train of 200 tonnes (including itself)

along a level track, the resistance to motion being 80 N per tonne. When the
speed of the train is 45 km/h, determine its acceleration. Also find the
maximum speed of the train. (1 tonne = 1000 kg.)

8. A mass of 1 kg rests on a horizontal table. It is connected by a taut, light,

inextensible string passing over a smooth fixed pulley, at the edge of the table,
to another mass of 3 kg hanging vertically. The 3 kg mass is at a height of 0⋅5
metres above an inelastic floor when the system is released from rest. There is
also a frictional resistance to the motion from the table of 0⋅5 N. Determine
the total work done by the frictional force, assuming that the 1 kg mass stops
before reaching the pulley.

Answers

1. 180 J; 6 m/s

2. 3⋅87 m/s

3. 70⋅6%

- 36 -
4. 351⋅56 J

5. 22⋅9 secs

6. 5 m/s2

7. 0⋅12 m/s2; 31⋅25 m/s

8. 3⋅8625 J

- 37 -
Projectiles
We will now consider the motion, in two-dimensions, of a particle projected in the
vertical plane from some point at ground level with velocity V at an angle α to the
horizontal line.

y
V

α
O Range x

To study the resulting motion it is convenient to define the x and y-axes as horizontal
and vertical reference axes respectively. We shall assume that there is no air
resistance on the particle during its flight and that the only force acting is due to
gravity (conservative system).

To obtain the basic equations of motion in the vertical and horizontal directions
respectively, we use the components of the initial velocity in these directions.

1
In the vertical direction we use the equations v = u + at and s = ut + at 2 , with
2
u = V sin α and a = − g . Thus for the vertical component of velocity v and height
y we find

v = V sin α − gt (1)
and
1
y = Vt sin α − gt 2 . (2)
2

In the horizontal direction there is no force (air resistance is ignored) so that the
horizontal component of velocity must remain constant throughout the motion. Its
value must be equal to its initial value, namely V cos α . Hence the horizontal
distance x travelled is

x = Vt cos α . (3)

Equation of the trajectory:

From (3) we have t = x /(V cos α ) . Substitution of this result into (2) then yields

gx 2
y = x tan α − 2
sec 2 α .
2V
This is an equation linking x and y and is the equation of the trajectory of the
projectile. It will be recognised as a parabola (with shifted origin). Thus a projectile in
the absence of air resistance describes a parabolic path.

- 38 -
Equations (1) to (3) may now be used to determine the various characteristics of the
projectile motion.

Greatest Height Reached

From (1), the time at which this occurs is given when v = 0 , i.e., at time
V sin α
t=
g
then substituting this into (2) gives
2
V 2 sin 2 α 1  V sin α 
y max = − 2 g  
g  g 

V 2 sin 2 α
∴ Greatest Height =
2g

Time of Flight

By symmetry of the motion, the time of flight is twice the time taken to reach the
maximum height. So from the above we get

2V sin α
Time of flight =
g

Horizontal Range

This is the distance travelled horizontally by the projectile when it again reaches the
same horizontal level that it started from. This occurs at t = time of flight value, given
above. Substituting this into (3) gives
2V sin α
x = V cos α
g

V 2 sin 2α
∴ Range =
g

Maximum Range

π
From the previous expression, the range will be largest when sin 2α = 1 , i.e. α = 4

(or 45°). This gives,

V2
Maximum Range =
g

- 39 -
Angle of Projection for a given Range

To find the angle of projection to enable a given range (important in “target practice”)
we again use the Range equation above, i.e.,

V 2 sin 2α Rg
R= ⇒ sin2α = 2
g V
 Rg   Rg 
∴ 2α = sin −1  2  or π − sin −1  2 
V  V 

because sine is positive in the first and second quadrants. This gives two possible
values for the angle of projection as

 Rg   Rg 
α = 12 sin −1  2 
or π
2 − 12 sin −1  2 
 V  V 

Examples

1. A golf ball is struck, rising to a maximum height of 12 m and pitches 50 m

further on after reaching this height. Determine its initial velocity when
leaving the ground.

2. A body is projected with a velocity of 50 m/s and the horizontal range is 90 m.

Determine the difference in the times of the two possible trajectories that
achieve this.

3. A stone is projected with a velocity of 60 m/s, at an angle of elevation of 20°,

from a point 20 m above level ground. Find the point at which it will strike
the ground and the magnitude and direction of its velocity at this instant.

Solutions

- 40 -
- 41 -
 Tutorial Exercise – Projectiles

1. A shell is fired with velocity 147 m/s at 45° to the horizontal. How far does it
pass above a target 2 km away on the same horizontal level? How far beyond
the target does it strike the ground?

2. A particle is projected from a point at ground level with a speed of 24 m/s at

an angle of 50° to the horizontal. A wall is situated 30 m away from the
projection point. Find:

(i) how far up the wall the particle hits it;

(ii) the speed of the particle when it hits the wall;
(iii) the direction of motion of the particle at this time.

3. A ball is thrown at such an angle that the range on a horizontal plane is three
times the greatest height attained by the ball. Find the angle to the horizontal
at which the ball is thrown.

4. A ball is thrown from a point on the ground 10 m from a vertical wall and just
clears this wall and another parallel wall. The distance between the walls is 20
m and the height of each wall is 2 m. Find the angle of projection of the ball
and the greatest height above the tops of the walls attained.

5. The maximum range of a certain gun on a horizontal plane is R. Find the two
possible angles α at which the gun can be fired to give a range of ½R. If T1
and T2 are the corresponding times of flight, find T1:T2.

6. A body is projected from a point O on horizontal ground with velocity of 70

m/s. It passes through a point P, which is 45 m above the ground and 50 m
from O horizontally. Find the tangents of the two possible angles of elevation
of the projected body. Find also the gradients at P of the two paths.

7. A cricketer bowls a ball at the wicket, which is at a horizontal distance of 20 m

from him. The ball strikes the wicket 2 m below the level of the point of
release of the ball, without hitting the ground first. The greatest height above
the bowler’s hand reached by the ball is 1⋅6 m. Find the angle of elevation at
which the ball is projected and the angle made with the horizontal by the ball
when it strikes the wicket.

8. A vertical wall of height h stands on horizontal ground. When a particle is

projected in the vertical plane from a point on the ground distant a from the
wall, it just clears the wall at the highest point of its trajectory. Find the speed
and the angle of projection.

9. A long jumper at the instant of leaving the ground has a horizontal velocity of
u (due to his run), together with a velocity of λu inclined at θ to the horizontal,
due to his jump. Find an expression for the horizontal length l of his jump,

- 42 -
 and show that if λ = 1 and θ is chosen to make l a maximum then the greatest
height reached during the jump is approximately 17 l.

10. A ball is thrown with velocity V at an angle of elevation α by a boy standing a

distance a from a smooth vertical wall. The ball is caught by the boy with his
hand in the same position as when the ball was thrown. Show that
ga (1 + 1e )
sin 2α =
V2
where e is the coefficient of restitution between the ball and the wall. [Hint:
use the time of flight in the vertical and horizontal directions.]

Answers

1. 185⋅9 m ; 205 m 2. (i) 17⋅2 m (ii) 15⋅4 m/s (iii) 2⋅5° below
horizontal
3. tan-1(4/3) = 53⋅13° 4. 14⋅93° ; 2/3 m

5. 15°, 75° ; 1:(2 + 3 ) 6. 1, 19 ; 0⋅8, −17⋅2

g ( a 2 + 4h 2 )  2h 
7. 21⋅8°; 31° 8. ; tan −1  
2h  a 

2λu 2 sin θ
9. (1 + λ cos θ )
g

- 43 -
Motion in a Horizontal Circle
Many problems in dynamics involve motion in a circle. For example, vehicles going
around a bend in the road or over a bridge, satellites orbiting the earth, funfair rides,
ice-skating, the rotation of engine components, and so on. We will now consider
motion of a particle in a horizontal circle to give the concept of circular motion. This
theory will be extended to vertical circular motion and rigid body motion in next
year’s course.

Consider a particle P of mass m rotating at constant angular speed ω , anti-clockwise,

in a circular path with radius r and centre at the origin of the horizontal x-y plane.

y v

P
ωt
O r x

This means that its tangential speed v is also constant and is given by v = r ω . Now at
time t, P makes an angle of ω t with the x-axis and hence its position vector is

r = r cos(ω t ) i + r sin(ω t ) j .

Differentiating this expression with respect to time we obtain the velocity and
acceleration in the form
v = − rω sin(ω t ) i − rω cos(ω t ) j
and
a = − rω 2 cos(ω t ) i − rω 2 sin(ω t ) j .
= −ω 2 (r cos(ω t ) i + r sin(ω t ) j ) = −ω 2 r . (1)

Hence, for motion in a circle, the acceleration is directed towards the centre of the
circle and has magnitude ω 2 r . [This is known as the centripetal acceleration.]

Equation (1) gives the fundamental result for circular motion. For a particle to
describe a circular path of radius r with constant angular (or tangential) speed ω (or
v), then it must be acted upon by a force (called the centripetal force) directed towards
the centre of the circle given by

mv 2 2
F = mrω =
r

- 44 -
Examples

1. A particle of mass 0⋅2 kg is attached to one end of a light inelastic string of

length 0⋅5 m, while the other end is fixed to a point on a smooth horizontal
table. Calculate the tension in the taut string when the particle is describing a
circle on the table at 2 rev/s.

2. A satellite orbits the earth in a circular orbit at height h above the earth’s
surface. The gravitational acceleration at a distance r from the centre of the
earth is given by gR 2 / r 2 (when r ≥ R ), where g is the gravitational
acceleration at the earth’s surface and R is the radius of the earth. Show that
the orbital velocity V of the satellite is given by

g
V =R .
R+h

If R = 6400 km and h = 300 km, find the orbital velocity and the period of
revolution.

3. Particles A and B of masses m and 2m respectively are fixed at the ends of a

light inelastic string of length l. Particle A is held on a smooth horizontal table
while particle B hangs vertically at rest with the string passing through a small
smooth hole in the table at a distance ½ l from A. If A is projected with a
constant speed at right angles to the string along the surface of the table,
determine this speed in order that B remains at rest.

Solutions

1. Let ω be angular speed of particle and T

be the tension in the string.
T 0⋅2 kg

r = 0⋅5 m

- 45 -
 2. At a distance h above the earth’s surface we have r = R + h . The
gravitational acceleration at distance r from the earth’s centre is gR 2 / r 2 . To
describe circular orbits around the earth, we require the central force mV 2 / r
on the satellite to equal the gravitational pull (i.e., its weight) m( gR 2 / r 2 ) .
Thus

R 2 mV 2
mg 2 = whence V = R ( g / r ) .
r r

The orbital velocity is therefore given by

g 9.8
V =R = 6400 ×103 = 7740 m/s = 7.74 km/s.
R+h 6700 ×103

The orbital period T = 2π r / V = 2π × 6700 × 103 / 7740 = 5439 s = 90.65 min.

Question: At what distance above the surface should a geostationary satellite orbit
the earth?

- 46 -
- 47 -
 The Conical Pendulum

A particle attached to the end of an inextensible string describing horizontal circles

below the other end, which is fixed in the vertical plane, is called a conical pendulum.
This name follows because the string traces out a cone as the particle goes around its
circular path. The angle the string makes with the downward vertical is called the
semi-angle of the cone vertex (see diagram).

side view

α
l l
h
h
T
T F
ω rads/sec

F mg
mg

Consider a conical pendulum made from a string of length l attached to a particle of

mass m, which describes horizontal circles with constant angular speed ω , such that
the semi-angle of the cone traced out is α . If we consider the forces acting on the
particle at any instant then, vertically, there is no motion. Resolving forces in this
direction gives

T cos α = mg (1)

where T is the tension in the string. Horizontally, we know that the mass describes
circles, but as there is always a constant radius to the motion we may think of the
horizontal forces balancing if we introduce a fictitious force F (sometimes called the
centrifugal force) in the outward direction that is equal and opposite to the centripetal
force. Notice that it is actually the tension in the string that causes the inward
acceleration necessary for circular motion. Resolving the forces horizontally then
gives
F = T sin α
2
or ml sin α ω = T sin α (radius = l sin α )
i.e. T = mlω 2 (2)

Eliminating T from equations (1) and (2) gives

g
ω2 =
l cos α

and the period of the circular motion can be obtained (the time to complete one
complete circle, or 2 π radians) from

2π l cos α
Period = = 2π .
ω g

- 48 -
Further, if h is the vertical height of the cone then h = l cos α , giving

h
Period = 2π .
g

Example

A point mass of 10 kg rests on a rough horizontal table with coefficient of

friction ½. It is attached to one end of a light inelastic string that passes
through a smooth hole in the table and carries a point mass of 4 kg at its other
end. If the 4 kg mass describes a horizontal circle with uniform speed of 8 m/s
and the mass on the table is about to slip, find the radius of the circle and
hence the period of the motion.

Solution

- 49 -
 Tutorial Exercise – Motion in a Horizontal Circle

1. A particle of mass 5 kg is placed on a smooth horizontal table. It is attached to

a string 1⋅2 m long to a fixed point on the table. If the particle describes a
horizontal circle at 2 m/s. find the tension in the string.

2. A mass of 1 kg is swung in a horizontal circle of radius 1⋅5 m at the end of a

string that will break under a tension of 4 N. Determine the greatest speed the
mass can have without breaking the string.

3. A conical pendulum revolves at 80 revolutions per minute. The length of the

string is 1⋅5 m and the mass at its end is 0⋅5 kg. Find the radius of the circle
described by the mass and the tension in the string.

4. The string of a conical pendulum is 1 m long. An initial speed of 3 m/s causes

the bob to describe a horizontal circle. Find the inclination of the string to the
vertical and the time of revolution.

5. Particles of masses 3m and 5m are attached to the ends of a light inelastic

string of length a that passes through a fixed smooth ring at O. The lighter
particle describes a horizontal circle about the heavier particle, which remains
at rest, as centre. Prove that the two particles lie at a vertical distance of 3a/8
below O and that the time of a complete revolution is π 3a / 2 g .

6. Two equal particles A and B are connected by a light inelastic string of length
a. A is also attached to a fixed point by a light inelastic string of length b. The
particles describe horizontal circles with the same angular velocity, the string
joining A to the fixed point making an angle of 45° with the vertical, and the
string joining A to B making an angle of 60° with the vertical. Determine the
ratio of a to b.

Answers

1. 16.67 N

2. Speed < 6 m/s

3. 1⋅49 m, 52⋅64 N

4. 50⋅1°, 1⋅6 secs

6. 1 : 0⋅224

- 50 -
 UNIVERSITY OF ABERTAY DUNDEE

Elastic collisions in two dimensions

We consider the extension of elastic collisions between bodies moving in the same straight
line and normal impact of a particle with a fixed surface to two-dimensional impact
problems. We shall assume throughout that the elastic bodies involved in the collisions
are smooth. This means that the mutual reaction acts along the common normal at
the point of impact. When two elastic spheres collide the mutual reaction acts along the
line joining their centres.
By the impulse-momentum principle there is no change of momentum of the bodies
involved in collision perpendicular to this common normal. This means that:

• The components of the velocities of the bodies involved in the collision perpendicular
to the common normal are unchanged.

The components of the velocities of the bodies in the direction parallel to this common
normal are found in the same way as for direct impact. That is:

• The total momentum in this direction before and after impact is conserved
• the speed of separation in this direction = e× (speed of approach in this direction)

v2 − v1 = −e(u2 − u1 ) (Newton’s law of restitution).

where e is the coefficient of restitution between the bodies.

Thus to deal with two-dimensional collisions, we must treat motions along and perpen-
dicular to the common normal at impact separately. In the case of colliding spheres the
common normal corresponds to the line joining the centres at the point of contact.

Direct impact with a fixed wall

Consider a smooth sphere of mass m moving on a smooth horizontal table with speed u.
The sphere strikes a smooth vertical wall perpendicularly and the coefficient of restitution
between sphere and wall is e.

The speed after impact v is determined by Newton’s law as follows:

v = eu.

Note that momentum balance would seem to predict v = −u. This is incorrect. Why
cannot momentum balance be used here?

51
 Oblique impact with a fixed wall

Consider a smooth sphere moving on a horizontal table striking a fixed smooth vertical
wall obliquely with speed u at an angle α with the wall. Since the sphere and the wall
are both smooth the mutual reaction between the sphere and the wall will act along
the normal to the wall at the point of impact. So we consider the motion parallel and
perpendicular to the wall.

Let the speed of the sphere after impact be v at an angle β to the wall. Then parallel to
the wall we have momentum conservation (since the impact is smooth) and perpendicular
to the wall we apply Newton’s law. Thus:

Parallel to the wall: u cos α = v cos β (1)

Perpendicular to the wall: v sin β = eu sin α. (2)

Equations (1) and (2) can be used to find v and β. We have upon dividing (2) by (1)

v sin β eu sin α
=
v cos β u cos α

⇒ tan β = e tan α
and upon squaring (1) and (2) and adding

v 2 (sin2 β + cos2 β) = v 2 = u2 (cos2 α + e2 sin2 α)

⇒ v 2 = u2 (cos2 α + e2 sin2 α).

Note: When the impact is perfectly elastic (e = 1) these equations tell us that:
• β = α (i.e., the angles of incidence and reflection are equal)
• v = u (i.e., the speeds before and after impact are the same. This means that there
is no loss of KE during the impact).
For inelastic collisions, when e < 1, we find β < α (i.e., the angle of reflection is
always less than the angle of incidence) and v < u, so that there is a loss of KE due to
the impact.

52
Example 1. A small smooth sphere is projected along a smooth horizontal table towards
a fixed smooth vertical wall. Before impact with the wall it has a speed of 12ms−1 and
its direction of motion makes an angle of 30◦ with the wall. Given that the coefficient
of restitution between the sphere and the wall is e = 1/4, find the velocity of the sphere
after impact.

Example 2. A ball moving at 10ms−1 on a smooth horizontal table strikes a smooth

vertical wall at 30◦ and strikes another smooth vertical wall which is perpendicular to the
first wall. Find the direction of motion and the speed of the ball after two impacts when
e = 21 for both walls. Compare these results with the situation when e = 1.

Example 3. Repeat Example 2 for a general velocity u, angle of incidence equal to α

and coefficient of restitution e.

53
.

54
 Example 3. We shall need the following standard results from trigonometry:

tan(90 − A) = cot A,

1 + tan2 A = sec2 A = 1/ cos2 A.

Consider first the direction of motion after 2 impacts:

First impact:
tan β1 = e tan α
Second impact:

tan β2 = e tan α2 = e tan(90 − β1 ) = e cot β1

e e
= = = cot α = tan(90 − α).
tan β1 e tan α
Hence β2 = 90 − α, and so the path AB is parallel to the path CD. Hence after two
impacts the ball moves in a direction parallel to its original direction (but in the opposite
sense).

Now let us consider the speed after 2 impacts:

First impact:

v12 = u2 (cos2 α + e2 sin2 α) = u2 cos2 α(1 + e2 tan2 α)

= u2 cos2 α(1 + tan2 β1 ) = u2 cos2 α sec2 β1 .

Second impact:

v22 = v12 (cos2 α2 + e2 sin2 α2 ) = v12 (sin2 β1 + e2 cos2 β1 ) (since α2 = 90 − β1 )

= v12 cos2 β1 (tan2 β1 + e2 ) = e2 v12 cos2 β1 (1 + tan2 α)

= e2 v12 cos2 β1 sec2 α.
On substituting in the value for v12 we then obtain

v22 = e2 (u2 cos2 α sec2 β1 ) cos2 β1 sec2 α = e2 u2 .

Hence we find the simple result

v2 = eu.

55
Oblique impact of smooth elastic spheres

In the collision of two elastic spheres, we consider the components of the velocity parallel
and perpendicular to the line of centres at impact.

If C1 and C2 are the centres of the two spheres moving with U1 and U2 , respectively,
before impact at angles α and β to C1 C2 , then their velocities perpendicular to the line
C1 C2 are unaltered. Thus, before and after impact the perpendicular components of
the two velocities are:
U1 sin α and U2 sin β.
Let v1 and v2 be the components of velocity in the direction C1 C2 after impact. By
conservation of momentum we have

m1 U1 cos α + m2 U2 cos β = m1 v1 + m2 v2 .

Newton’s restitution law yields:

v2 − v1 = −e(U2 cos β − U1 cos α).

From the last two equations we can calculate v1 and v2 and hence, from the first equation,
the directions of the two spheres after impact.

56
Example 1. A smooth sphere A, of mass 2kg and moving with speed 2m/s, collides
obliquely with a stationary sphere B, also of mass 2kg, the coefficient of restitution being
e = 12 . At the instant of impact the velocity of A makes an angle of 45◦ with the line
of centres of the spheres. Find the magnitude and direction of the velocities of A and B
immediately after impact.

Example 2. A smooth ball of mass 8kg, moving with speed 4m/s, impinges on a ball of
mass 4kg, moving at 2m/s. If the velocities before impact are inclined at angles 30◦ and
60◦ to the line joining their centres at the moment of impact, find their velocities after
impact when e = 21 .

Example 3. A smooth ball A collides with a stationary identical ball B. The direction
of motion of A before impact makes an angle α with the line of centres at the moment
of impact. The coefficient of restitution between the two balls is e. Show that θ, the
angle through which the direction of motion of A is turned (i.e., the angle of deflection),
is given by  
2 tan α
θ = tan −1
− α.
1−e
Find the angle of deflection when α = 45◦ and e = 12 . What is the angle of deflection in
the perfectly elastic case (e = 1)?

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 Tutorial

1. A smooth billiard ball is projected along a smooth horizontal table towards a fixed
smooth vertical cushion. Before impact it has a speed of 20ms−1 and its direction of
motion makes an angle of 30◦ with the cushion. Given that e = 2/5, find the magnitude
and direction of the velocity of the billiard ball after impact.

2. A small smooth sphere is projected along a smooth horizontal table towards a fixed
smooth vertical wall. Before impact with the wall it has speed of 30ms−1 and its direction
of motion makes an angle of 45◦ with the wall. Given that e = 1/3, find the magnitude
and direction of the velocity of the sphere after impact.

3. A smooth ball strikes a smooth vertical wall at an angle of 60◦ to the wall. Given
that the coefficient of restitution between the wall is e = 1/3, show that the ball rebounds
at right angles to its original direction of motion.

4. A smooth snooker ball strikes a smooth cushion when moving in a direction inclined
at 60◦ to the cushion. The ball rebounds at an angle of 45◦ to the cushion. Show that
one half of the kinetic energy of the ball is lost in the impact.

5. A small smooth spherical ball of mass m falls vertically and strikes a fixed smooth
inclined plane with speed u, the coefficient of restitution being e. If the plane is inclined
at an angle θ (where θ < 45◦ ) to the horizontal and the ball rebounds horizontally, show
that (a) e = tan2 θ and (b) a fraction 1 − e of the kinetic energy is lost during the impact.
[Hint: A bit of algebraic manipulation is required for part (b). At some stage it will be
found useful to use sin2 A + cos2 A = 1, to write (1 − e2 ) as (1 − e)(1 + e) and to replace
1 + e by 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ.]

6. A ball moving on a smooth horizontal table at 10ms−1 strikes a smooth vertical

wall at 60◦ and strikes another smooth vertical wall which is perpendicular to the first
wall. Find the direction of motion and the speed of the ball after two impacts when
e = 0.75 for both walls.
Repeat this calculation for the case when the two vertical walls are separated and
parallel to each other. Find the direction of motion and the speed of the ball after two
impacts.

7. A smooth sphere A of mass 2kg and moving with speed 4ms−1 collides with a
stationary sphere B which has the same radius but a mass of 1kg. The coefficient of
restitution between the spheres is e = 12 . At the instant of impact the velocity of A makes
an angle of 60◦ with the line of centres. Find the magnitude and direction of the velocities
of A and B and the loss of kinetic energy as a result of this collision.

8. A sphere of mass m impinges obliquely on a sphere of mass M , which is at rest. The

coefficient of restitution between the spheres is e. Show that, if m = eM , the directions
of motion after impact are at right angles.

9. A smooth elastic sphere A impinges of an identical sphere B at rest. At impact

the direction of motion of A makes an angle of 45◦ with the line of centres of the two
spheres. Show that after impact the direction of motion of A makes an angle θ with this
line of centres, where
(1 − e) tan θ = 2
and e is the coefficient of restitution.

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 10. Two identical spheres are moving with equal speeds V at 90◦ to each other. The
spheres collide and, at the moment of impact, the line joining their centres is along the
direction of motion of one of the spheres, the coefficient of restitution between the spheres
being e = 21 . Find the speeds and direction of motion of the spheres after impact.

11. Two equal smooth spheres of radius a are moving with equal speeds u in opposite
directions along parallel lines whose distance apart is a. The coefficient of restitution
between the spheres is e = 1/3. Find the angle the line of centres makes with the
direction of motion, and the velocities of the spheres after impact.

12*. A small smooth sphere A of mass m collides with a stationary sphere B of the
same radius but of mass M . At the moment of impact the velocity of A makes an angle
θ with the line of centres. The direction of motion of A is turned through a right angle
by the impact. Show that
eM − m
tan2 θ = ,
M +m
where e is the coefficient of restitution between the spheres.

13*. Two smooth vertical walls stand on a smooth horizontal floor and intersect at
an acute angle θ. A small smooth particle is projected along the floor at right angles to
one of the walls and away from it. After one impact with each wall the particle is moving
parallel to the first wall it struck. Given that the coefficient of restitution between the
particle and each wall is e, show that
e
tan θ = √ .
1 + 2e

Answers

1. 17.8ms−1 , 13◦ to the cushion

2. 22.36ms−1 at 18.43◦ to the horizontal
6. Perpendicular walls: First impact: v1 = 8.197ms−1; second impact v2 = 7.5ms−1
Parallel walls: 44.25◦ , 6.98ms−1
7. A: 3.61ms−1 , 73.9◦ to line of centres; B: 2ms−1 along the line of centres;
Loss of KE = 1J √
10. 5V /4 at 53.1◦ to the line of centres, V /4 along the line of centres 11. 30◦ ; u/ 3
(in opposite senses) perpendicular to the original direction

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