Sanitary Engineering 2010

Curso de Mestrado Profissional „Engenharia Urbana e Ambiental”:
Sanitary Engineering / Engenharia Sanitária
Docente:
Prof. Dr.-Ing. N. Dichtl, Technische Universität Braunschweig
n.dichtl@tu-braunschweig.de
Dr. José Tavares Araruna, PUC, Rio de Janeiro
araruna@civ.puc-rio.br)
Realizado com apoio do/Supported by:

DAAD – Serviço Acadêmico Alemão de Intercâmbio
DAAD – German Academic Exchange Service
Índice/Content
1 Processes in Bodies of Water ................................................................................ 7

1.1 General Introduction.................................................................................................. 7
1.2 Hazards to Standing Water Bodies............................................................................ 7
1.3 Hazards to Flowing Water Bodies (Rivers, Creeks) .................................................. 9
1.4 Hazards to Ground Water ....................................................................................... 11
1.5 Hazards to Oceans ................................................................................................. 11
1.6 Wastewater Treatment Procedures for Water Pollution Control .............................. 11
1.7 Characterization of Water Quality............................................................................ 11
1.7.1 Flowing Water Bodies ...................................................................................... 11
1.7.2 Lakes and Reservoirs ...................................................................................... 14
1.8 References for Chapter 1 ........................................................................................ 15
2 Drinking Water Supply .......................................................................................... 16
2.1 General Information ................................................................................................ 16
2.2 Elements of Water Supply ....................................................................................... 16
2.3 Water Demand and Water Consumption................................................................. 16
2.3.1 Development of Water Consumption ............................................................... 17
2.3.2 Annual Variations in Water Consumption......................................................... 18
2.3.3 Diurnal Variations in Water Consumption......................................................... 19
2.3.4 Prognosis of Water Demand ............................................................................ 21
2.4 Water Supply........................................................................................................... 22
2.4.1 Rainfall............................................................................................................. 22
2.4.2 Collection of Spring Water................................................................................ 22
2.4.3 Water Withdrawal from Flowing Water Bodies ................................................. 23
2.4.4 Water Withdrawal from Lakes and Impoundments .......................................... 24
2.4.5 Withdrawal of ground water ............................................................................. 24
2.4.6 Artificial Groundwater Recharge and Bank Filtration ....................................... 27
2.4.7 Protection of Water Catchment Areas............................................................. 27
2.5 Water Treatment...................................................................................................... 28
2.5.1 Requirements for the Quality of Drinking Water............................................... 28
2.5.2 Solids Removal................................................................................................ 36
2.5.3 Precipitation and Coagulation .......................................................................... 38
2.5.4 Water Softening ............................................................................................... 39
2.5.5 Acid Neutralization ........................................................................................... 40
2.5.6 Removal of Organic Trace Elements ............................................................... 41
2.5.7 Removal of Iron and Manganese..................................................................... 41
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2.5.8 Nitrate Removal ............................................................................................... 43
2.5.9 Disinfection ...................................................................................................... 43
2.5.10 Multi-Stage Water Treatment ........................................................................... 45
2.6 Water Reservoirs..................................................................................................... 46
2.6.1 Purpose of Water Reservoirs ........................................................................... 46
2.6.2 Type and Position of Water Reservoirs ............................................................ 46
2.6.3 Dimensioning of Reservoirs ............................................................................. 47
2.7 Water Withdrawal and Water Distribution................................................................ 52
2.7.1 Pumps.............................................................................................................. 52
2.7.2 Basics of Pipe Hydraulics ................................................................................ 61
2.7.3 Design of Water Distribution Systems.............................................................. 65
2.7.4 Hydraulic Calculation of Water Distribution Systems ....................................... 66
2.7.4.1 Fundamentals .................................................................................................. 66
2.7.4.2 Dimensioning of a branching system ............................................................... 67
2.7.4.3 Dimensioning of a circle or loop system........................................................... 71
2.7.5 Pipe Materials, Joints and Fittings ................................................................... 76
2.8 References Chapter 2 ............................................................................................. 78
3 Wastewater Collection .......................................................................................... 79
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 79
3.2 Wastewater Quantity and Dry Weather Flow........................................................... 80
3.2.1 Domestic Wastewater ...................................................................................... 81
3.2.2 Commercial and Industrial Wastewater ........................................................... 82
3.2.3 Infiltration / Inflow............................................................................................. 83
3.2.4 Calculation of Dry Weather Flow...................................................................... 83
3.3 Stormwater Flowrate ............................................................................................... 84
3.3.1 Precipitation ..................................................................................................... 85
3.3.2 Stormwater Run-Off ......................................................................................... 93
3.3.3 Allocation and Delimitation of Drainage Areas ................................................. 95
3.4 Wastewater Flow..................................................................................................... 96
3.5 Calculation of Stormwater-Run-off .......................................................................... 97
3.6 Hydrological Dimensioning of Sewers ..................................................................... 98
3.6.1 Flood Plan Method........................................................................................... 98
3.6.2 Hydrograph Superposition ............................................................................. 100
3.6.3 Time Coefficient Model .................................................................................. 102
3.6.4 Example Calculation for the Time Coefficient Model...................................... 104
3.7 Hydraulic Calculation of Sewer Pipeline Cross-Sections .......................................111
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3.7.1 Calculation for complete filling ........................................................................111
3.7.2 Calculation for partial filling ............................................................................ 114
3.7.3 Roughness Values koperation for Generalized Approaches ............................... 115
3.7.4 Flow Velocities ............................................................................................... 116
3.7.5 Example Calculation for Dimensioning of a Pipe Diameter............................ 118
3.8 Drainage Methods................................................................................................. 119
3.8.1 Criteria for the Choice of a Drainage System................................................. 119
3.8.2 Combined Sewer Systems............................................................................. 119
3.8.3 Separate Sewer Systems .............................................................................. 120
3.8.4 Vacuum Drainage Systems............................................................................ 120
3.8.5 Pressure Drainage Systems .......................................................................... 122
3.8.6 Percolation..................................................................................................... 124
3.9 Parts of the Sewer System.................................................................................... 126
3.9.1 Sewer Pipes................................................................................................... 126
3.9.2 Inspection Manholes ...................................................................................... 127
3.9.3 Drop Manholes .............................................................................................. 129
3.9.4 Inverted Siphon.............................................................................................. 129
3.9.5 Stormwater Overflows.................................................................................... 130
3.9.6 Stormwater Retention Tanks .......................................................................... 131
3.9.7 Stormwater Regulation Tanks ........................................................................ 131
3.9.8 Sewers with Storage Capacity ....................................................................... 133
3.9.9 Stormwater Sedimentation Tank .................................................................... 134
3.9.10 Pumping Stations ........................................................................................... 134
3.10 References Chapter 3 ........................................................................................... 138
4 Wastewater Treatment ........................................................................................ 139
4.1 Objectives of Wastewater Treatment..................................................................... 139
4.2 Wastewater Constituents....................................................................................... 140
4.3 Composition of the Raw Wastewater .................................................................... 143
4.4 Wastewater Quantity ............................................................................................. 144
4.5 Effluent Standards for Sewage Treatment Plants .................................................. 145
4.6 Municipal Wastewater Treatment Processes......................................................... 146
4.6.1 Mechanical treatment..................................................................................... 147
4.6.1.1 Screens.......................................................................................................... 147
4.6.1.2 Grit Chamber and Grease Trap ..................................................................... 149
4.6.1.3 Primary Settling ............................................................................................. 154
4.6.2 Basics of the Biological and Advanced Wastewater Treatment...................... 157
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4.6.2.1 Aerobic Degradation of Organic Carbon ........................................................ 157
4.6.2.2 Degradation of Nitrogen................................................................................. 157
4.6.2.3 Degradation of Phosphorus ........................................................................... 158
4.6.3 Technical Realizations of Biological Wastewater Treatment .......................... 158
4.6.4 The Activated-Sludge Process....................................................................... 159
4.6.5 Attached-Growth Biological Processes .......................................................... 168
4.6.6 Wastewater Lagoons ..................................................................................... 169
4.6.7 Constructed wetlands .................................................................................... 169
4.6.8 Small Wastewater Treatment Plants .............................................................. 170
5 Sewage Sludge Treatment.................................................................................. 173
5.1 Sewage Sludge Production ................................................................................... 173
5.2 Objectives of Sludge Treatment ............................................................................ 174
5.3 Legal Regulations ................................................................................................. 177
5.4 Process Steps of Sludge Treatment ...................................................................... 178
5.4.1 Sludge Thickening ......................................................................................... 178
5.4.2 Sludge Stabilization........................................................................................ 180
5.4.2.1 Aerobic Sludge Stabilization .......................................................................... 183
5.4.2.2 Anaerobic Sludge Stabilization (Digestion) .................................................... 187
5.4.3 Sludge Dewatering and Conditioning............................................................. 190
5.4.4 Heat Drying.................................................................................................... 191
5.4.5 Sludge Incineration ........................................................................................ 191
6 Symbols ............................................................................................................... 194
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Basics of Sanitary and Environmental Engineering
Introduction
Sanitary and Environmental Engineering is a branch of water management. It deals with

the use of water in the surroundings of settlements. It covers:
• water supply and production, treatment and distribution of drinking water and proc-
ess water;
• collection and treatment of wastewater and the safe discharge of treated wastewater
into nature;
• the treatment, reuse or disposal of sewage sludge produced during wastewater
treatment;
• discharge or percolation of unpolluted rain water as well as the treatment of polluted
rain water.
The here presented study notes are intended as a study guide for the class "Basics of
Sanitary Engineering" and will give a general survey of this engineering branch and will
introduce fundamental concepts, methods and processes as a basis for further studies.
According to the course of water from drinking water production to the discharge of
treated wastewater to nature these study notes are divided into the chapters drinking
water supply, wastewater collection, wastewater treatment and sludge treatment.
In order to understand which consequences result from anthropogenic use of water, a
chapter about the general processes in water bodies precedes the above mentioned
chapters.
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1 Processes in Bodies of Water
1.1 General Introduction
Water is an essential part of life on earth. No organism can exist without water. Human
beings for example need between 2 and 4 litres of water every day for survival. Addi-
tionally, water is used for cleaning, as a solvent and diluter, as a means of transport and
as a means of disposal. Anthropogenic water utilization presents a grave interference in
the natural water cycle and in the biochemical (self-)cleaning processes of bodies of wa-
ter.
The objective of sanitary and environmental engineering is to minimize risks for the
aquatic system caused by human water utilization and to safeguard water supply. To do
so, it is necessary to understand basic processes in water bodies and to know which
substances are hazardous to water bodies in which way.
Bodies of water can be divided into four groups, each with its own special characteris-
tics. These four groups are
• body of standing water
• body of flowing water
• ground water
• oceans
If wastewater is discharged into a body of water, then it is called a receiving body of wa-
ter or a receiving water course.
1.2 Hazards to Standing Water Bodies
Standing water bodies are lakes, marshes, swamps and reservoirs. Caused by the sea-
sonal change in water temperature, the mixing in standing water bodies varies in de-
pendence on morphology of the water body. This is of great importance for the circula-
tion pattern of oxygen and other dissolved substances (such as nutrients) (see Fig. 1.1).
Changes in the temperature profile with depth within a lake system is called thermal
stratification. This profile changes from one season to the next and creates a cyclical
pattern that is repeated from year to year.
spring
summer autumn winter
epilimnion
epilimnion
hypolimnion
metalimnion
metalimnion
hypolimnion
Fig. 1.1: Temperature profile of a lake [according to Kayser]
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To begin with, one must understand the temperature-density relationship for water. For
the most part, as water increases in temperature it becomes less dense. Conversely,
water becomes more dense as it decreases in temperature. The exception to this rule is
that water reaches its maximum density at approximately 4° Celsius.
During summer stagnation the sun heats the standing water body. As the amount of
solar radiation absorbed decreases with depth, the lake heats from the surface down.
The warm water is less dense than the colder water below resulting in a layer of warm
water that floats over the cold water. The layer of warm water at the surface of the lake
is called the epilimnion. The cold layer below the epilimnion is called the hypolimnion.
These two layers are separated by a layer of water which rapidly changes temperature
with depth. This is called the metalimnion. The three distinct layers of water, each with
a different temperature or range of temperatures, is an excellent example of thermal
stratification within a lake system.
As autumn approaches and temperatures decrease, the epilimnion begins to decrease
in depth. Eventually the epilimnion gets so shallow that it can no longer be maintained
as a separate layer and the lake loses its stratification. Thus, as in the spring, the lake
water in the autumn has generally uniform temperatures (about 4°C in late autumn), and
wind can once again thoroughly mix the lake water. In addition, surface water, which is
in direct contact with the cold air, gets cooled faster than the water below. This cold,
dense water sinks and further helps to mix the lake, and once more oxygen and nutri-
ents are replenished throughout the lake. This process is called autumn overturn.
As winter approaches, the surface water is eventually cooled below 4° C. At this point,
the water no longer sinks. The water molecules begin to align themselves (form more
hydrogen bonds) to solidify. As water temperatures at the surface reach 0°C, ice begins
to cover the surface of the lake. During the winter, ice cover prevents wind from mixing
the lake water. Again, stratification can occur. A layer of low density water colder than
4°C, but warmer than 0°C forms just under the ice. Below this water, the remainder of
the lake water is usually near 4° C. At this point, a lake is said to be in winter stagna-
tion.
After the ice melts on a lake, the lake water is generally the same temperature from the
surface to the bottom. Wind allows circulation and mixing of the lake water. Surface wa-
ter can be pushed to the lake bottom and bottom water can rise to the surface. This cir-
culation pattern is very important in that it allows relatively large amounts of oxygen to
reach the bottom of the lake. Otherwise, oxygen would have to reach the bottom by the
relatively slow process of diffusion. The mixing of the lake water at this time of year is
called spring overturn [1].
Anthropogenic influences are a hazard to standing water bodies. Agricultural runoff
(e.g. fertilizers and pesticides), urban runoff (such as irrigation overflow in combined
sewer systems), municipal and industrial sewage discharges, air pollution, and intense
use of recreational areas can endanger the ecological balance of the water body.
In the following, the most important wastewater constituents, such as settleable solids,
oxygen depleting substances (BOD5), nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen) as well as haz-
ardous and toxic substances and their influence on standing water bodies will be pre-
sented.
Wastewater discharges contain settleable solids. These sink to the bottom of the lake
and are there degraded aerobically (with oxygen consumption) and anaerobically (with-
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out oxygen consumption). This may cause problems to the oxygen balance in the
hypolymnion.
Bacteria decompose oxygen depleting substances using dissolved oxygen. If oxygen
consumption of the bacteria exceeds oxygen uptake from the atmosphere, then the
oxygen concentration is reduced and the body of water will be harmed. Lack of oxygen
has devastating consequences for life in water bodies, even for short periods of time.
The discharge of plant nutrients has the highest and most persistent impact on lake
water quality. Most important are phosphorus and nitrogen, since they are generally
found to be the nutrients limiting growth of autotrophic organisms (such as phytoplank-
ton, algae, aquatic plants) in aquatic systems. Production of organic matter in an
aquatic system is therefore determined by the nutrient content (trophy). Trophy is de-
fined as the rate at which organic matter is supplied to lakes. Aquatic systems are often
classified according to their trophy or degree of enrichment with nutrients and organic
matter - they are classified by trophic state. An aquatic system with a low degree of nu-
trient enrichment is an oligotrophic aquatic system, one with a high nutrient enrichment
is an eutrophic aquatic system.
Eutrophication is the term used to describe the process of phosphorus enrichment. It
can be defined as the over-enrichment of lakes and rivers with nutrients, usually phos-
phorus or nitrogen, leading to excessive growth of algae (algal blooms) and other
aquatic plants. This enhanced growth of algae leads to clouding and discoloring of the
water in the epilymnion and shorelines are fouled by masses of rotting, stinking algae.
Because the algae produce O2 during photosynthesis, oxygen concentration increases
during the day. During the night in darkness, algae consume the oxygen thus causing a
complete oxygen depletion in the water. Algae which grow in the epilymnion, sink to the
bottom and are degraded by oxygen depleting organisms living in the hypolymnion.
Oxygen depletion cannot be compensated by a possible oxygen surplus in the epilym-
nion, since no mixing of the water takes place during stagnation phases. Therefore oxy-
gen concentration in the hypolymnion of the lake decreases continuously during sum-
mer and finally leads to a total oxygen depletion and an anaerobic state of the lake (dy-
ing lake). The consequence are fish kills, degradation processes and a destruction of
the complete flora and fauna.
If the discharged wastewater contains biologically non-degradable pollutants, these will
accumulate in the lake. These compounds (e.g. insecticides, herbicides) will be con-
sumed by organisms and will affect human beings through the food chain or will form
persistent settleable pollutants, which accumulate in the sludge at the lake bottom.
1.3 Hazards to Flowing Water Bodies (Rivers, Creeks)
While lakes can be considered a closed system, bodies of flowing water are called open
systems. Due to turbulent currents, the river water is mixed, thus up-taking oxygen de-
pending on flow velocity and water depth. During a river's course from the source to the
mouth, river gradient and velocity decline. At the same time the river collects more wa-
ter, variations in temperature rise and due to the decreasing velocity less oxygen uptake
happens. Nutrient content of a river highly depends on the geological formation of the
river channel and the amount of human influence. All these circumstances together in-
fluence the typical biocoenoses in the various river courses. Species which prefer cold
water and have a high oxygen demand live in the upper course of the river. Species with
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a low oxygen demand and a high tolerance to temperature variations live in the lower
course of the river. Longitudinal gradients of the environmental parameters are shown in
Fig. 1.2.
relative portion age of the flow
biol. chem.
oxygen demand
temperature
sludge deposits
velocity
atmospheric aeration
river - km
source lower reaches
Fig. 1.2: Longitudinal gradients of important environmental parameters in a river dur-

ing summer
Although a river constantly takes up oxygen, oxygen consuming substances are the
primary problem for a body of flowing water. Due to the high population density, large
amounts of wastewater are produced. These lead to oxygen depletion, when they are
discharged into a receiving body of water (river). If oxygen depletion is higher than oxy-
gen up-take from the atmosphere, oxygen content in the body of water decreases. If to-
tal oxygen depletion occurs, the body of water will die. Consequences were already de-
scribed in the paragraph on standing bodies of water.
Nitrogen enrichment is of less importance for a body of flowing water, since phosphate
normally has a limiting effect. Phosphate leads to excessive growth of algae and un-
derwater plants. This may clog the river, slow down water flow and interfere with fishery
and outdoor activities.
Nitrogen in wastewater exists mainly as ammonium (NH4+). When being converted to ni-
trate (NO3-), oxygen is consumed. During conversion the fish poison nitrite (NO2-) is
generated as an intermediate product. Ammonium as well as nitrate endanger drinking
water supply, if limits are exceeded.
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1.4 Hazards to Ground Water
Groundwater is any water found below the land surface. It is found in aquifers, in the
pore spaces of rocks, in unconsolidated sediments, as permafrost, and as soil moisture.
Groundwater flows to the surface naturally at springs and seeps and can form oases or
swamps. It may also be tapped artificially by the digging of wells. It is naturally replen-
ished from above, as surface water from precipitation or fresh surface water sinks into
the ground. Its temperature varies only insignificantly. In general groundwater has drink-
ing water quality, because it is protected by the soil filter (microbial mineralization, iron
and manganese oxidation, unfavorable conditions for the survival of pathogens.
Nitrate, which enters the groundwater via wastewater and agriculture (manure, over-
fertilization) is a hazard for its drinking water quality.
1.5 Hazards to Oceans
Oceans cover 71 % of the earth's surface and are all connected to each other. On the
average ocean water contains 3,5 % of dissolved salts. Strong winds, rotation of the
earth and density variations cause large continuous ocean currents. Nevertheless, al-
most closed oceans such as the Baltic Sea and coastal waters show similar behavior to
standing bodies of water. High nutrient discharge leads to excessive algae growth and
to a decreased O2-concentration in deep waters.
1.6 Wastewater Treatment Procedures for Water Pollution Control
Necessary wastewater treatment procedures for water pollution control can be deter-
mined directly from examining problems caused by wastewater discharge to water bod-
ies:
• Biologically degradable organics must be kept from bodies of water (prevention of di-
rect oxygen depletion).
• Discharge of the plant nutrients nitrogen and phosphorous into the receiving water
bodies must be limited (in order to limit biomass production, whose degradation also
means oxygen depletion).
• Toxic substances must be kept from bodies of water.
1.7 Characterization of Water Quality
1.7.1 Flowing Water Bodies
In Germany the most common system for classifying flowing water bodies is the Sapro-
bien Index (DIN 38410). The determination of water quality categories on the basis of
the saprobien index is regulated by the German Working Group of the Federal States on
Water Issues (Länderarbeitsgemeinschaft Wasser, LAWA) and is presented in water
quality maps of Germany. The basis for assessing water quality is the determination of
the state of the aquatic biocoenosis. Since organisms respond to the organic pollution in
water, a defined biocoenosis of microorganisms and fish exists depending on water
quality. The system classifies the pollution with degradable organic substances in flow-
ing bodies of water and presents resulting consequences for the oxygen content. Figure
1.3 shows water quality maps for Northrhine-Westfalia.
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Classification of flowing water bodies includes seven zones:

Zone I (oligosaprobic ) dark blue; very slight pollution and complete oxidation, wa-
ter is rich in oxygen and poor in nutrients, low bacteria concentration;
moderately populated with algae, moss, worms and insect larvas; spawn-
ing habitat for game fish
Zone I-II (oligosaprobic to ß-mesosaprobic) light blue; reaches of a stream with low
inorganic and organic pollution without any noteworthy oxygen depletion,
densely and diversely populated.
Zone II (ß-mesosaprobic) dark green; reaches of a stream with moderate pollution
and good oxygen supply; high diversity and density of algae, snails, small
crustaceans and insect larvas; aquatic plants may cover large areas, rich
fishery waters.
Zone II-III (ß-mesosaprobic to α-mesosaprobic) light green; reaches of a stream in
critical condition due to organic oxygen depleting organisms; fish kills pos-
sible due to a lack of oxygen; decreasing number of macro organisms;
overpopulation of certain species; algae often cover large areas.
Zone III (α-mesosaprobic) yellow; reaches of a stream with high organic pollution,
low oxygen saturation; local sewage sludge development; filamentous
bacteria and fungi are common, few algae are present, massive popula-
tion of macro organisms unaffected by lack of oxygen; low fish eggs pro-
duction, periodic fish kills.
Zone III-IV (α-mesosaprobic to polysaprobic) pink; reaches of a stream which is heav-
ily polluted, at times complete oxygen depletion, often additional toxic in-
fluences, turbid water due to large numbers of bacteria and colloids, sew-
age sludge deposits, most autotrophic organisms are missing, decrease of
filamentous bacteria, fishes exist only temporarily and locally.
Zone IV (polysaprobic) red; grossly polluted or septic zone, where inorganic condi-
tions can occur depending on the organic load, degradation is predomi-
nant, at times total oxygen depletion; populated by bacteria, flagellates
and paramecium; total lack of fish, heavy toxic load, biological devastation.
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unpolluted unpolluted
hardly polluted hardly polluted
moderately polluted moderately polluted
critically polluted critically polluted
heavily polluted heavily polluted
very heavily polluted very heavily polluted
excessively polluted excessively polluted
Fig. 1.3: Water quality chart for North-Rhine Westfalia (left: 1969, right: 1999)
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Another ecological evaluation system is the surveying and mapping of the structure of
the body of water and its surrounding landscape such as river banks and floodplains.
The whole area is classified from an ecological point of view into seven zones from
natural to unnatural structure.
Besides the biological analysis, chemical indices have been developed which above
all take into account those parameters, which are influenced by the biochemical degra-
dation of organic substances. Such parameters are e.g. oxygen saturation, BOD5 (see
chapter 4.2), pH, conductivity, water temperature, NH4 , NO3 and orthophosphate.
1.7.2 Lakes and Reservoirs
Lake quality is classified according to the so-called trophic status. Evaluation criteria
have not finally been defined. The trophic status is determined by such parameters as
nutrient content, oxygen concentration, biological productivity (chlorophyll content) and
visible depth or water clarity.
Table 1.1: Trophic states and oxygen concentrations (annual mean values and – for
chlorophyll – mean maximum values).
Parameters oligotrophic mesotrophic eutrophic hypereutrophic
3
Total-P (mg P/m ) 8,0 26,7 84,4 (750-1200)
Total-N (mg N/m³) 661 753 1875 -
3
chlorophyll a (mg/m ) 1,7 4,7 14,3 (100-150)
chlorophyll a, 3
(mg/m ) 4,2 16,1 42,6 -
max. values
visible depth (m) 9,9 4,2 2,45 (0,4-0,5)
Hypolimnion
residual O2 (%) 70 30-70 0-30 generally 0
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1.8 References for Chapter 1
[1] http://faculty.gvsu.edu/videticp/stratification.htm
[2] Vesilind, P.A. (ed.): Wastewater Treatment Plant Design, Water Environment
Federation, IWA Publishing (2003).
[3] Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. Wastewater Engineering - Treatment and Reuse 4th Edition,
McGraw Hill Companies, New Companies, New York (2003)
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2 Drinking Water Supply
2.1 General Information
Water is our most important good. No organism can live without water. Furthermore
humans need water for various purposes. In technical language water can be defined
as drinking water and process water.
Drinking water is defined as water that is safe for human consumption according to
drinking water standards established by state agencies (e.g. Safe Drinking Water Act,
Trinkwasserverordnung/TrinkwV, DIN 2000 or DIN 2001).
Process water is used for commercial, industrial, agricultural and similar purposes. It
comes in various qualities according to its further purpose. It can be used as a resource
(brewing water), for transport (sugar beet factories) or as auxiliary material (cooling pur-
pose).
2.2 Elements of Water Supply
Water supply management is responsible for supplying the consumers with sufficient
amounts of water in a hygienically, chemically and physically safe quality.
In order to fulfill this task, water supply management covers the following points:
Water supply includes water withdrawal from ground or surface water for human use,
analysis of origin and quality of the raw water, any collection or storage facilities and the
protection of the quality and quantity of the resources.
If raw water quality does not fulfill water standards for drinking water or process water, it
must be treated. Water treatment is used to process raw water with varying qualities, in
order to prepare it for human consumption.
Every large water supply system must have reservoirs for guaranteeing consistent wa-
ter supply, if water consumption fluctuates.
Water distribution is responsible for transporting drinking water to the consumers.
2.3 Water Demand and Water Consumption
Water requirements for a particular purpose are called water demand. Water demand is
a design parameter for water supply systems and takes into account required fluctuat-
ing drinking water and process water quantities during day and night times so that water
utility companies or waterworks can calculate and design capacities for water supply.
Water consumption means the actual amount of water used by the consumer during a
specific time frame. Consumption is calculated by measuring.
The diurnal average value of water consumption (qd,mean) per inhabitant (I) is calculated
from the annual average consumption(Qa):
Qa
q d,mean = [L/(I ⋅ d)]
365 ⋅ I
In 1997 average water consumption in Germany amounted to 164 L/(I*d). This value
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also includes industrial water use. Not considering industrial water use, domestic water
consumption and water consumption of small trades was about 130 L/(I*d).
Water consumption and water demand are divided into:
• Consumption/demand of households and small trades;
• Consumption/demand of public buildings and facilities (schools, ad-ministration,
hospitals), requirements of waterworks
• Consumption/demand of trade and industry
• Consumption/demand for fire-fighting water
Standard values for water consumption of households and small trades, as well as sin-
gle bulk consumers (e.g. schools, hospitals) are given in the tables of the DVGW-
Regelwerk W 410 (Technical rules of the German Technical and Scientific Association
for Gas and Water) [1].
2.3.1 Development of Water Consumption
Fig. 2.1 gives an overview of the development of water consumption in liters per inhabi-
tant [I] and day [d] in Munich.
Fig. 2.1: Development of the average water consumption [L/(I*d)] in Munich (source:
Stadtwerke München) [2]
The figure above shows that the average water consumption per inhabitant and day de-
creased after World War II. This is a general tendency in Germany. The reasons for de-
creasing water consumption are an increased environmental awareness, improved wa-
ter installations and water-saving appliances.
It must be considered that industrial businesses often have their own water supply sys-
tem so that their water consumption is not considered in the above figure. In 1995 about
5% of the overall consumption was drawn from public water supply systems. Water
consumption of trade and industry is decreasing slightly and amounted to about around
10,0 * 109 m3 in Germany in 1995 (cooling water not included).
Page: 17
In comparison with other European countries (Fig. 2.2) Germany has a comparatively
low water consumption.
[L/i*d]
total water supply water utilities [L/i*d]

water supply for households and small trades [L/i*d]
Fig. 2.2: Average water supply of public water suppliers in 1997 in the European
countries and Bavaria (BY) (source: IWSA-Internat. water statistics) [2]
Per capita water consumption in the individual countries depends of the following fac-
tors:
• Climate, such as average annual maximum temperature, max. summer temperatures
• Habits and standards of living (especially sanitary and technical standard of build-
ings, apartments with bath, toilets, washing machines, dishwashers as well as private
swimming pools )
• Price of water and control of actual amounts of water consumed
• Available water sources (water deficiency in arid areas).
2.3.2 Annual Variations in Water Consumption
The above mentioned water consumption is an average value calculated by the chart
for annual variations in water consumption. As an example you can see in Fig. 2.3 the
annual variations in water supply of the Frankfurt/Main water supplier (WVU) in 1968.
You can see clearly the seasonal variations. The peak water consumption was noticed
during the warm summer months and the lowest in winter.
During the weekends as well as on public holidays, such as Easter and Christmas you
can see very low water consumption.
Page: 18
water supply Qd (1000 m³/d)
max. water consumption

271000 m³
= diurnal average + 32 %
13 work day with max. diurnal

consumption of 237000 m³
diurnal average + 15 %
237000 m³
diurnal average
206000 m³
minimum 140000 m³
01.Jan. = diurnal average - 32 Easter Whitsun Christmas
%
Fig. 2.3: Chart for annual variations in water supply Qd of the Frankfurt/Main water
suppliers in 1968, according to Wirth [2]
For the design of waterworks and pipe network it is necessary, to calculate the maxi-
mum daily consumption using the diurnal peak factor fd; fd is the quotient of maximum
diurnal consumption Qd,max [m3/d] und the diurnal consumption averaged over the year
Qd,mean [m3/d].
Q d,max
fd = => Q d,max = f d ⋅ Q d,mean
Q d,mean
The peak factor depends on the number of inhabitants in the supply area. Specific peak
factors are given in the technical rule W 410 of the DVGW.
2.3.3 Diurnal Variations in Water Consumption
The diurnal variations in water consumption are the basis for the dimensioning of reser-
voirs and pipe networks. Fig. 2.4 shows typical diurnal variations in supply areas that
vary in size. In small supply areas like villages or in purely residential areas distinct con-
sumption peaks will occur, whereas in bigger or commercial and industrial districts, no
pronounced peak will be seen in diurnal water consumption.
The maximum hourly consumption is calculated by the hourly peak factor fh. This factor
is quotient of the maximum hourly consumption Qh,max and the average hourly con-
sumption of the day of the year with the highest consumption Qd,max.
From what follows:
Q h,max [m³/h] fh
fh = => Q h,max [m³/h] = ⋅ Q d,max [m³/d]
Q d,max [m³/d] / 24 [h/d] 24[h/d]
Page: 19
The peak factor fh depends on the number of inhabitants in the supply area. Specific
peak factors can be found in [1].
Diurnal water consumption of a small village Diurnal water consumption of a small town
Diurnal consumption of a medium size town Diurnal consumption of a big town
Fig. 2.4: Time variation curve of diurnal water consumption in varying supply areas [2]
The time variation curves shown above can be influenced by specific events. Fig. 2.5
shows the time variation curve of water consumption in Munich on the 8th of July 1990.
On this day the final of the soccer world championship between Argentina and Germany
took place. It started at 8 pm, halftime break was from 8:45 to 9 pm. The time variation
curve mirrors clearly the increasing water consumption before, after and during the half-
time of the game, caused by the collective use of toilets.
Page: 20
soccer world
championship
Fig. 2.5: Time variation curve of water consumption in Munich on the 8th of July 1990
[2]
2.3.4 Prognosis of Water Demand
To forecast the water demand of settlement areas one has to consider not only the
domestic, public, commercial and industrial water demand, but also the demand of the
waterworks itself, loss and fire water demand.
The water consumption of waterworks amounts to 1-2 % of the supplied water quan-
tity.
Water loss in pipe networks in Germany adds up to 5 % of the supplied water quantity
in new networks and 10% in old ones. In developing countries the loss of water in pipe
networks can be calculated with 50% of the supplied water quantity. The losses partly
result from leaks in mains and illegal withdrawal of water from the net.
Water for fire fighting usually is taken from the public water supply system. Therefore
the water suppliers are legally obliged of cover demands for fire-fighting. Standard val-
ues for fire water demand are given in the technical rule W 405 of the DVGW [3].
The future water demand is calculated by the water consumption of the previous
years, by predicting population development and the development of the water con-
sumption per capita.
The planning horizon of the individual facilities is determined by the technically ex-
pected useful life of the components (wear and tear) also considering possible exten-
sions and cost effectiveness.
Page: 21
2.4 Water Supply
Drinking and process water supplies in Germany are mainly taken from ground and sur-
face water:
• ground water 62.9 %
• lakes and impoundments 11.3 %
• spring water 9.8 %
• recharged groundwater 9.7 %
• bank filtrate 5.2 %
• river water 1.1 %
Other sources for drinking water are precipitation and sea water.
2.4.1 Rainfall
Only small quantities of rain water are collected from roofs and are stored in cisterns.
From the legal point of view rain water is no drinking water, because it does not meet
sanitary requirements. But it is useful for various purposes in the household (toilet flush-
ing and washing). Therefore new buildings nowadays often are equipped with systems
for rain water reuse.
2.4.2 Collection of Spring Water
A spring is a place where groundwater flows naturally from a rock or the soil. If collected
appropriately, spring water has the same characteristics as ground water and might be
used as drinking water without any treatment at all.
Fig. 2.6 shows an example of spring water collection scheme of extraction of spring wa-
ter. The water is collected in the collection chamber, where quality and quantity should
be monitored.
Page: 22
collection chamber
concrete gravel
Fig. 2.6: Example for spring water collection [5]
2.4.3 Water Withdrawal from Flowing Water Bodies
The quality of water from rivers and creeks can fluctuate rapidly. That is why water from
flowing water bodies is only collected for drinking water supply, if the water demand
cannot be covered by ground water and water from standing water bodies. On the other
hand conditioned river water more and more often is used indirectly by recharging
ground water and collecting bank filtrate. The following Fig. 2.7 shows an example of
indirect water withdrawal from a river.
Fig. 2.7: Tower for water withdrawal from a river [6]
Page: 23
2.4.4 Water Withdrawal from Lakes and Impoundments
Lake water should be withdrawn far below the metalimnion (see chapter 1) the layer
with rapidly changing temperatures. In a depth of about 30 m the lack of sunlight keeps
the growth of plankton to a minimum and temperature and water quality are constant.
Water should be withdrawn 5 m above ground to prevent the intake of sediments. Fig.
2.8 shows a possible setup for lake water withdrawal.
suction pipe
and fish protection screen
30-60 m deep
10 m above ground level
Fig. 2.8: Setup for lake water withdrawal with underwater suction pipe [5]
Impoundments usually are located at the upper, relatively clean reaches of rivers.
Withdrawal of impoundment water is carried out using intake towers with openings at
different levels. This allows the withdrawal of water of the best quality depending on the
season and actual water level of the river. The lowest withdrawal points are located 5-10
m above ground, the highest about 15 m below maximum storage level.
2.4.5 Withdrawal of ground water
In Germany ground water is the most important drinking water source. Due to the good
filtering capability of the soil, ground water can be used as drinking water without or with
little treatment.
Vertical wells (Fig. 2.9) are the most common constructions for the withdrawal of
ground water. For constructing a vertical well, water-bearing layers are tapped vertically
and if the result is positive, then the drill hole is expanded into a well. The well consists
of the following main parts:
• well screen
• well screen adaptor
• pump with sludge sump
• gravel pack with decreasing grain size to the outside
Page: 24
• sealing against the drill hole wall

• well cap
• well casing with distribution line and monitoring equipment.
Fig. 2.9: Scheme of a vertical well
If the water-bearing layers are small, horizontal wells are used (Fig. 2.10). These can
only be used in granular soil. They are installed by:
• constructing a collection pipe (max. 30 –35 m)
• sealing its bottom and
• compressing the horizontal filter lines.
There type of wells have a relatively high capacity (about 1000-3000 m3/h) and require
little space, but have high construction costs.
Page: 25
Fig. 2.10: Scheme of a horizontal well
Page: 26
2.4.6 Artificial Groundwater Recharge and Bank Filtration
By construction of a well in a river valley, water that is withdrawn from the well comes
from native groundwater as long as the pumping water level is not lowered too much.
Increased pumping action creates a pressure head difference between the river and the
aquifer and induces the river water to flow through the riverbed towards the pumping
well that consequently extracts a mixture of groundwater originally present in the aquifer
and bank filtrated surface water from the river. (Fig. 2.11). Bank filtration provides pre-
liminary purification of the surface water. The filtering characteristics of water-bearing
stratums cause the detention of suspended solids and some dissolved substances. For
the microbiological quality of the water the residence time in the soil is relevant. In gen-
eral 50 days of residence time are required. Knowing specific soil parameters such as
grain size, the necessary distance between surface water and well can be calculated.
Fig. 2.11: Bank Filtration
2.4.7 Protection of Water Catchment Areas
In order to prevent pollution of drinking water resources, water catchment areas are es-
pecially protected. According to the Water Resources Act and its implementation in the
federal states certain activities are restricted or prohibited in these protected water
catchment areas. Special water protection areas exist for ground water, impoundments,
lakes and rivers. Several protection areas are described in the following.
Water protection areas for groundwater:
Zone I (withdrawal point) protects the direct surrounding of the water withdrawal point
(minimum 10 m). This area is protected by a fence.
Zone II (close protection area) extends from zone I up to an imaginary line from where
the groundwater takes 50 days to flow to the withdrawal point. Settlement and housing
generally is forbidden to avoid ground water contamination.
Zone III (wider protection area) reaches from zone II up to the edge of the catchment
area. Zone III is to protect the area from contamination by non degradable or heavily
degradable substances. Industrial firms producing dangerous wastes or wastewater are
not allowed in this zone.
Page: 27
Water protection areas for impoundments:

Zone I includes the storage capacity and a minimum area of 100 m surrounding the
reservoir. Building houses, shipping and swimming are forbidden.
Zone II depends on topography and utilization. Aboveground inflows within this zone
also have a protection area of 100 m on both sides. Building houses, industrial settle-
ment and grave yards are forbidden.
Zone III covers the complete catchment area of the impoundment. Municipal wastewa-
ter must be kept from the impoundment.
Principles for the declaration of protection areas are given in the technical rule of the
DVWK
W 101 Protection areas for groundwater withdrawal
W 102 Protection areas for impoundments
W 103 Protection areas for lakes.
2.5 Water Treatment
The function of water conditioning is to treat the natural water in such a way that it
meets the requirements for drinking water or process water. Additionally the treated wa-
ter has to be free from corrosive substances and organic compounds, so that no micro
organisms can grow and re-contaminate the treated water.
2.5.1 Requirements for the Quality of Drinking Water
The council directive 98/83/EG of the 3rd of November 1998 on the quality of water
intended for human consumption gives the requirements for drinking water quality in
the European Union. These requirements had to become national law by the 25th of Oc-
tober 2000. They represent the minimum standards for drinking water.
In the EU-directive the requirements are structured into parameters with protective
function and parameters with monitoring function.
The following parameters belong to those with protective function:
Microbiological parameters
• Escherichia coli and Enterococci are non-pathogenic intestinal bacteria, that are an
indicator for microbial cleanness. Pathogenic microbes in critical concentration can
be screened out, if Escherichia coli and Enerococci are not detectable.
Page: 28
Chemical parameters (toxic and carcinogenic substances)
• Heavy metals (lead, cadmium, etc.)

• Cyclic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (benzol, benzo(a)pyrene)
• Chlorinated hydrocarbons, amides
• Pesticides
• Nitrite, nitrate are especially relevant for babies up to three month. It can interfere the
binding of oxygen to haemoglobin and cause cyanosis. The conversion of NO2 with
organic amines or amides in the body is suspected of causing cancer.
Parameters with monitoring function are indicator parameters. They are mainly used
for monitoring the conditioning and distribution of water:
• Sensory parameters
color, odor, taste, • Drinking water has to be appetizing
turbidity • It has to be colorless, clear, odorless and well tasting
• Sensory parameters are a first indicator for water quality
problems
• Microbiological parameters
clostrida perfingens • non-pathogenic, indicator for spore forming bacteria
coliform bacteria • non-pathogenic, indicator for fecal contamination
colony count • unspecific parameter for biological contamination
• Chemical parameters
Aluminium • key source: coagulants from water conditioning, effect:
turbidity
Ammonium • indicator for anthropogenic pollution, feces, fertilizer,
oxidation to nitrite
Chloride • in general geogenic sources, salty taste, corrosion
Iron • in general geogenic sources
Manganese • clouding, unpleasant taste, accumulation of sludge in
pipe system
Sodium • in general geogenic sources, salty taste
Sulfate • anthropogenic and geogenic sources, unpleasant taste,
corrosion
• Radioactivity • indicator of anthropogenic contamination
The differing limit values of the old EU council directive (1980), the German Drinking
Water Ordinance (1990) and the actual EU council directive (1998) are listed in the fol-
lowing table 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3. Brazilian limit values given by the Ministerio Do Meio Am-
biente, Conselho Nacional do Meio Ambiente are listed in table 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6 (source:
Ministerio Do Meio Ambiente, Conselho Nacional do Meio Ambiente-CONAMA, Resolu-
cao No 357, de 17 de Marco de 2005).
Page: 29
Table. 2.1: Microbiological Parameters

Parameter EU Council Directive German Drinking Wa- EU Council Directive
July 1980 ter Ordinance 1990 November 1998
Enterococci - - 0/100 mL
Escherichia coli - 0/100 mL 0/100 mL
Fecal streptococci 0/100 mL 0/100 mL -
Sulfite reducing clostrides 0/20 mL - -
Table. 2.2: Chemical Parameters

Parameter EU Council Directive German Drinking Water EU Council Directive
July 1980 Ordinance 1990 November 1998
Acrylamide - - 0,10 µg/L
Aldrin, Dieldrin, Heptachlorine,
- - 0,03 µg/L
Heptachlorineepoxide
Antimony 10,0 µg/L 10,0 µg/L 5,0 µg/L
Arsenic 50 µg/L 10 µg/L 10 µg/L
cumulative parameter
Benzo-(a)-pyrene - 0,010 µg/L
0,2 µg/L
Benzol - - 1,0 µg/L
Lead 50 µg/L 40 µg/L 10 µg/L
Boric 1,0 mg/L 0,2 mg/L 1,0 mg/L
Bromate - - 10 µg/L
Cadmium 5,0 µg/L 5,0 µg/L 5,0 µg/L
Chromium 50 µg/L 50 µg/L 50 µg/L
Cyanide 50 µg/L 50 µg/L 50 µg/L

1,2-dichloroethane - - 3,0 µg/L
Epichlorohydrin - - 0,10 µg/L
Fluoride 0,7/1,5 mg/L 1,5 mg/L 1,5 mg/L
Copper 3,0 mg/L 3,0 mg/L 2,0 mg/L
Nickel 50 µg/L 50 µg/L 20 µg/L
Nitrate 50 mg/L 50 mg/L 50 mg/L
Nitrite 0,10 mg/L 0,10 mg/L 0,50 mg/L
Pesticide (total) 0,50 µg/L 0,50 µg/L 0,50 µg/L
Pesticide 0,10 µg/L 0,10 µg/L 0,10 µg/L
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocar-
0,20 µg/L 0,20 µg/L 0,10 µg/L
bons
Mercury 1,0 µg/L 1,0 µg/L 1,0 µg/L
Tetrachloroethene + Trichlo-
(10 µg/L) 10 µg/L 10 µg/L
roethene
Selenium 10 µg/L 10 µg/L 10 µg/L
individual values after
Trihalomethanes (total)* - 100 µg/L
conditioning
Vinyl chloride - - 0,50 µg/L
* The specified compounds are chloroform, bromoform, dibromochloromethane, Bromodichloromethane
Page: 30
Table. 2.3: Indicator parameters

Parameter EU Council Directive German Drinking Water EU Council Directive
July 1980 Ordinance 1990 November 1998
Aluminium 200 µg/L 200 µg/L 200 µg/L
Ammonium 0.50 mg/L 0.50 mg/L 0.50 mg/L
Chlorine 25 mg/L (GL*) 250 mg/L 250 mg/L
Clostridia perfringens - - 0/100 mL
Coliforme bacteria 0/100 mL 0/100 mL 0/100 mL
Iron 200 µg/L 200 µg/L 200 µg/L
-1 -1 -1
Conductivity 400 µS/cm (GL) 2000 µS/cm 2500 µS/cm
acceptable to con-
-1
Color 20 mg/L Pt/Co** 0,5 m (436 nm) sumers and no ab-
normal change
acceptable to con-
Odor 2 TON*** at 12 °C 2 TON at 12 °C sumers and no ab-
normal change
Total organic carbon
- - no abnormal change
(TOC)
acceptable to con-
Taste 3 TTN at 12 °C - sumers and no ab-
normal change
Manganese 50 µg/L 50 µg/L 50 µg/L
Sodium 150 mg/L 150 mg/L 200 mg/L
Oxidizability 5 mg/L O2 5 mg/L O2 5 mg/L O2
Hydrogen ion concentra-
tion > 6.5 - < 9.5 > 6.5 - < 9.5 > 6.5 - < 9.5
(pH-value)
Tritium - - 100 Bq/L
Sulfate 250 mg/L 240 mg/L 250 mg/L
acceptable to con-
Turbidity 10 mg/L SiO2 1,5 FNU sumers and no ab-
normal change
*GL = guide level **Pt/Co = Platinum-Cobalt Scale ***TON = Threshold Odor Number ****TTN= Threshold
Taste Number *****FNU = Formazin Nephelometric Unit
Table. 2.4: Water quality parameters for drinking water

(Brazilian Environmental Council)
Parameters Maximum Value
Chlorophyll a 10 µg/L
3
Cyanobacteria density 20.000 cel/mL or 2 mm /L
Total dissolved solids 500 mg/L
pH 6-9
BOD5 3 mg/L O2
Dissolved oxygen 6 mg/L O2
Page: 31
Page: 32
Table. 2.5: Inorganic water quality parameters for drinking water

Inorganic Parameters Maximum Value
Dissolved aluminium 0,1 mg/L Al
Antimony 0,005mg/L Sb
Total arsenic 0,01 mg/L As
Total barium 0,7 mg/L Ba
Total beryllium 0,04 mg/L Be
Total boron 0,5 mg/L B
Total cadmium 0,001 mg/L Cd
Total lead 0,01mg/L Pb
Free cyanide 0,005 mg/L CN
Total chloride 250 mg/L Cl
Residual total chloride (combinado + livre) 0,01 mg/L Cl
Total cobalt 0,05 mg/L Co
Dissolved copper 0,009 mg/L Cu
Total chromium 0,05 mg/L Cr
Dissolved iron 0,3 mg/L Fe
Total fluoride 1,4 mg/L F
Total phosphorus (lenthic environment) 0,020 mg/L P
Total phosphorus (ambiente intermediário, com tempo de residência 0,025 mg/L P
entre 2 e 40 dias, e tributários diretos de ambiente lêntico)
Total phosphorus (ambiente lótico e tributários de ambientes 0,1 mg/L P
intermediários)
Total lithium 2,5 mg/L Li
Total manganese 0,1 mg/L Mn
Total mercury 0,0002 mg/L Hg
Total nickel 0,025 mg/L Ni
Nitrate 10,0 mg/L N
Nitrite 1,0 mg/L N
Nitrogen (amonnia) 3,7mg/L N, for pH 7,5
2,0 mg/L N, for 7,5 < pH 8,0
1,0 mg/L N, for 8,0 < pH 8,5
0,5 mg/L N, for pH > 8,5
Total silver 0,01 mg/L Ag
Total selenium 0,01 mg/L Se
Total sulphate 250 mg/L SO4
Sulphite (H2S non dissociated) 0,002 mg/L S
Total uranium 0,02 mg/L U
Total vanadium 0,1 mg/L V
Total zinc 0,18 mg/L Zn
Page: 33
Table. 2.6: Organic water quality parameters for drinking water

Organic parameters Maximum Value
Acrilamide 0,5 µg/L
Alachlor 20 µg/L
Aldrin + Dieldrin 0,005 µg/L
Atrazina 2 µg/L
Benzene 0,005 mg/L
Benzidine 0,001 µg/L
Benzo(a)antracene 0,05 µg/L
Benzo(a)pyrene 0,05 µg/L
Benzo(b)fluoranthene 0,05 µg/L
Benzo(k)fluoranthene 0,05 µg/L
Carbaril 0,02 µg/L
Chlordane (cis + trans) 0,04 µg/L
2-Chlorophenol 0,1 µg/L
Chyrisene 0,05 µg/L
Demeton (Demeton-O + Demeton-S) 0,1 µg/L
Dibenzo(a,h)antraceno 0,05 µg/L
1,2-Dichloroethane 0,01 mg/L
1,1-Diclhoroethylene 0,003 mg/L
2,4-Dichlorophenol 0,3 µg/L
Dicloromethane 0,02 mg/L
DDT (p,p’-DDT + p,p’-DDE + p,p’-DDD) 0,002 µg/L
Endosulfan (α + β + sulfate) 0,056 µg/L
Endrin 0,004 µg/L
Ethylbenzene 90,0 µg/L
Total phenol 0,003 mg/L C6H5OH
Glifosate 65 µg/L
Gution 0,005 µg/L
Heptachlor epoxide 0,01 µg/L
Hexaclhorobenzene 0,0065 µg/L
Indeno(1,2,3-cd)pireno 0,05 µg/L
Lindane (g-HCH) 0,02 µg/L
Malation 0,1 µg/L
Metolachloride 10 µg/L
Metoxichloride 0,03 µg/L
Paration 0,04 µg/L
Page: 34
Organic parameters Maximum Value

PCBs 0,001 µg/L
Pentachlorophenol 0,009 mg/L
Simazina 2,0 µg/L
Surfactants 0,5 mg/L LAS
Toluene 2,0 µg/L
Toxaphene 0,01 µg/L
2,4,5-TP 10,0 µg/L
Trichlorobenzene (1,2,3-TCB + 1,2,4-TCB) 0,02 mg/L
Triclhoroethylene 0,03 mg/L
2,4,6-Triclorofenol 0,01 mg/L
Xilene 300 µg/L
Toluene 2,0 µg/L
Page: 35
2.5.2 Solids Removal
Depending on particle size various processes exist for the removal of particulate sub-
stances. Fig. 2.12 gives an overview over the efficiency range of various processes.
Fig. 2.12: Application area of treatment processes for solids removal
The oldest and most important process of water treatment is filtration. The common
method for filtration of water is to pass it through a layer of sand. By passing water
through sand, suspended and colloidal matter are partially removed, the chemical char-
acteristics of water are changed, and the quantity of bacteria is materially reduced. De-
pending on the filtration rate, rapid and slow sand filters are distinguished.
Slow sand filters consist of a basin containing a layer of quartz sand 0,7 to 1,2 m thick
supported on a layer of gravel. The effective size of sand ranges from 0.2 to 2 mm. The
filtration rate is very low with about 0,05 to 0,1 m/h (m3 water per m3 filter surface per
hour). The small grain size and the low filtration rate result in the solids being removed
almost entirely in a thin layer on top of the sand bed. This thin layer, composed of dirt
and living and dead micro- and macroorganisms from the water, the so-called schmutz-
decke (dirty skin), becomes the dominant filter medium as the filter cycle progresses. As
Page: 36
the water enters the schmutzdecke, biological action breaks down some organic matter,
and inert suspended particles may be physically strained out of the water. In addition,
living organisms in the filter cause reduction of concentrations of organic constituents
and can promote chemical transformations such as the oxidation of ammonia to nitrate.
The set-up of a slow sand filter is shown in Fig. 2.13. When the head loss becomes ex-
cessive, the filter is cleaned by draining it below the sand surface and then physically
removing the dirty layer along with 15 to 30 cm of sand. The removed sand is usually
cleaned hydraulically and stockpiled for later replacement in the filter. Typical cycle
length may vary from 1 to 6 months depending on source water quality and the filtration
rate [8].
schmutzdecke
Fig. 2.13: Set-up of a slow sand filter [5]
Rapid sand filters, also called rapid granular bed filters, usually consist of passage of
pre-treated water through a granular bed at rates of between 4 to 7 m/h for open con-
structions and rates of 10 to 20 m/h for closed constructions. Both gravity and pressure
filters are used. Flow is typically downward through the bed. The set-up of a closed
rapid filter is shown in Fig. 2.14. During operation, solids are removed from the water
and accumulate within the voids and on the top surface of the filter medium. This clog-
ging results in gradual increase in head loss if the flow rate is to be sustained. After a
period of operation, the filter is cleaned by backwashing with an upward flow of water,
usually assisted by some auxiliary scouring system. Typical filter cycles range from 12
hours to 96 hours. Pre-treatment of surface waters by chemical coagulation is essential
to achieve efficient removal of particulates in rapid filters. [8]
Page: 37
Fig. 2.14: Closed rapid filter [2]
2.5.3 Precipitation and Coagulation
Precipitation is the process of transferring dissolved substances into undissolved com-

pounds, so that they can easily be removed from water. The undissolved compounds
are characterized by a low water solubility and consist of very small particles, that are
suspended in the water.
Typical precipitants are:
• lime (CaO or Ca(OH)2) for iron removal and water softening
• Sodium carbonate for water softening
• Barium chloride for sulfate removal
• sodium hydroxide for iron removal
The small particles formed during precipitation have to agglomerate to heavier aggre-
gates so that they can be removed by for example sedimentation or filtration. The proc-
ess of agglomeration of small particles to bigger aggregates is called coagulation. Co-
agulation is a process for increasing the tendency of small particles in an aqueous
suspension to attach to one another and to attach to surfaces such as the grains in a fil-
ter bed. To accelerate the process of coagulation, coagulants are used. In practice the
method consists of mixing the coagulant chemicals with the water in sufficient strength
to produce the required precipitate and then allowing the water to stand quietly in, or to
flow slowly through, a sedimentation tank in which the coagulant settles to the bottom. A
typical set-up for precipitation and coagulation is given in the picture below.
Page: 38
coagulation tank
coagulant
addition
Fig. 2.15: Set-up for precipitation and coagulation
2.5.4 Water Softening
Hardness in natural water is caused by the presence of Calcium and Magnesium

cations. The degree of hardness depends on their concentration. One degree German
hardness (1 DG, 1° dH, Deutsche Härte) equals 7.1 mg Ca2+/L or 4.25 mg Mg2+/L. One
distinguishes between carbonate or temporary hardness and noncarbonate or so
called permanent hardness. Carbonate hardness is caused by cations from the dissolu-
tion of calcium and/or magnesium carbonate and bicarbonate in the water. Noncarbon-
ate hardness results form cations from calcium and magnesium compounds of sulfate,
chloride or silicate that are dissolved in the water. Depending on the degree of hardness
a water is called soft or hard (see Tab. 2.4).
Table. 2.7: Hardness classification scale
Degree of hardness Hardness description Hardness range [DG]
1 soft 0-7
2 moderately hard 7-14
3 hard 14-21
4 very hard >21
During softening calcium and magnesium ions are removed from the water. Nowadays
this process is mainly used for treating process water of industries where much hot wa-
ter is needed (the solubility of CaCO3 decreases with rising temperature) or where water
is vaporized e.g. for cooling purposes. During these processes only pure water is vapor-
ized, so that salts would concentrate in the remaining water if no prior softening treat-
ment is used.
Page: 39
Softening is normally accomplished by precipitation or ion exchange.

Precipitation of calcium is carried out by adding chemicals. That leads to an oversatu-
ration in regard to CaCO3 so that lime precipitates. The lime sediments can then be re-
moved from the water by sedimentation and filtration. As precipitants lime hydrate
(Ca(OH)2), soda (Na2CO3) and caustic soda solution (NaOH) are used.
Contaminant cations such as calcium can be removed from the water by using ion ex-
change with resins. Ion exchange with synthetic resins is a water treatment processin
which a presaturant ion on the solid phase, the adsorbent (e.g. Na+ ions), is exchanged
for an unwanted ion (e.g. Ca2+ ions) in the water. In order to accomplish the exchange
reaction, a packed bed of ion-exchange resin beads (size 0,5 – 1,5 mm) is used. Source
water is continually passed through the bed, until the adsorbent is exhausted. The most
useful ion-exchange reactions are reversible. In order to regenerate the resin it is rinsed
by a concentrated solution of Na+Cl-. The high concentration leads to a reverse ion ex-
change. The water of this rinsing process contains the rest of the Na+Cl- solution and
the formerly bound Ca2+ ions.
2.5.5 Acid Neutralization
In water supply systems lime (CaCO3) and carbonic acid (H2CO3) should be balanced. If
there is an excess of acid, solid limestone (CaCO3) will be brought into solution and wa-
ter would then become aggressive and cause corrosion. If excess Ca2+ and CO32- is
present, lime can precipitate and tubes can become encrusted.
For acid neutralization, or reduction of carbonic acid, various processes can be used:
• mechanical process: unbound CO2 can be removed from the water mechanically by
aeration, by introducing air into the water. One process is coarse bubble aeration of
shallow water (Inka-process) (Fig. 2.16). The water flows over a perforated plate,
where air is pumped through the openings so that a layer of foam is formed and an
intense gas exchange takes place. The air enriched with CO2 is discharged.
Fig. 2.16: Inka-aerator for mechanical deacidification
Page: 40
• chemical process: unbound CO2 can be bound chemically by filtering the water
through marble or dolomite. The dolomite process is suitable for water up to a hard-
ness of 12° dh. The consumption per one liter of water is about 1,3 mg of filtering ma-
terial per 1 mg/L carbonic acid to be bound. Such a kind of filter is shown in Fig. 2.17.
Fig. 2.17: Dolomite process for chemical acid neutralization
2.5.6 Removal of Organic Trace Elements
Organic trace elements can be removed from water by adsorption on powdery or grainy
activated carbon. The capability of activated carbon for adsorption purpose is due to its
large specific surface of 500-1500 m2/g. This process is used for the elimination of:
• odor- and flavor-causing substances
• residual chlorine and ozone
• organic chlorine compounds (solvents)
• pesticides
• humic acids
2.5.7 Removal of Iron and Manganese
If ground water has a very low concentration of oxygen, iron and manganese in the am-
bient soil layers can be reduced to bivalent iron (Fe2+) and manganese (Mn2+). Bivalent
iron and manganese are water soluble. If this water comes into contact with oxygen
when the water is treated, iron and manganese are oxidized to Fe3+ and Mn3+.
Page: 41
This causes:
• bad taste
• rust spots on clothes after washing
• accumulation of ferrous sludge in the pipe system.
To avoid these consequences, the concentrations of iron and manganese are limited by
the Drinking Water Ordinance as follows:
• Iron ≤ 0,2 mg/L (better 0,1 mg/L)
• Manganese ≤ 0,05 mg/L (better 0,02 mg/L)
Dissolved compounds of iron may be removed from water by oxidizing Fe2+ to trivalent
hardly soluble iron by aeration followed by flocculation, sedimentation and filtration in
rapid sand filters.
The process of manganese removal is similar to iron removal but the oxidation process
is slower. Therefore filters with a catalytic surface (MnO2) are used to accelerate the
oxidation. At low concentrations, iron and manganese can be removed simultaneously
by using pressure filtration. More information on iron and manganese removal can be
found in "Water quality and Treatment" [2].
Fig. 2.18: Two step filter for iron and manganese removal with upstream oxidation
Page: 42
2.5.8 Nitrate Removal
The nitrate concentration in water has anthropogenic origin and mainly comes from ni-
trogen fertilizer and wastewater discharge. The limit value for drinking water is a maxi-
mum nitrate concentration of 50 mg/L according to EU-directive 98. Since nitrate is
found in water in the form of ions, the following processes are suitable for nitrate re-
moval:
• biological denitrification
• ion exchange
• reverse osmosis
• electrodialysis.
2.5.9 Disinfection
Disinfection is used in drinking water treatment for reducing or removing pathogens (mi-
cro organisms, protozoans, bacteria, viruses) in order to avoid the transmission of dis-
eases by drinking water.
Most water utilities worldwide rely on chlorination (chlorine gas, chlorine dioxide or so-
dium hypochloride) as their primary disinfection chemicals. Other disinfection processes
are: disinfection with ozone, ultraviolet radiation disinfection, Silver-iron steriliza-
tion, Filtration using slow sand filters and boiling (for emergencies only).
Chlorine as disinfectant has the advantage, that it can be stored easily, its application is
simple and cheap. Chlorination can protect the complete water distribution system be-
cause chlorine is active in water for a longer period of time.
A wide spread form of chlorination is the so called indirect chlorination. Thereby chlorine
gas is brought into solution in water. Chlorine gas (Cl2) responds with water to hydro-
chloric acid (HCl) and chlorine hydroxide (ClOH). Carbonates and bicarbonate in the
water neutralize the produced hydrochloric acid. After additional chemical processes the
chlorine hydroxide breaks down and releases the oxygen. This has a disinfecting effect.
An example for chlorination process is given in Fig. 2.19.
Other chlorination processes to be mentioned are the chlorine dioxide treatment and the
hypochloride treatment.
Chlorine is a strong poison. That is why construction and operation of chlorination plants
special precautions are necessary. Chlorination plants and storing facilities need to be
accessible from the outside. Since chlorine gas is heavier then air and concentrates
close to the floor, the necessary facilities have to be above ground and must have aera-
tion facilities.
Page: 43
Fig. 2.19: Facility for dosing chlorine gas [9]
Ozone is a very efficient oxidant and disinfectant. Due to its instability, ozone is pro-
duced from gas-phase electrolytic oxidation from oxygen, using either very dry air or
pure oxygen. The disadvantage of using ozone is its instability so that long-term disin-
fection of the water distribution system is impossible. Ozone is only applied in large wa-
ter treatment plants because the process is very complex.
During ultraviolet radiation treatment, shallow layers of water (1 cm) are exposed to
UV radiation for a few seconds. The advantage of this process is that no by-products
occur. A disadvantage is that no long-term disinfection is possible when using UV treat-
ment.
Page: 44
2.5.10 Multi-Stage Water Treatment
Multi-stage water treatment will be explained by the example of the water utilities Lan-
genau (Landeswasserversorgung Stuttgart, Water supply of Baden-Würtemberg).
Fig. 2.20: Multi –Stage Water Treatment in Langenau
The raw water comes from the river Danube and is used for groundwater recharge or di-
rectly as drinking water.
Treatment Processes:
1st stage: screen and grit chamber (not shown)
2nd stage: iron sulfate as flocculant and coagulation aid
3rd stage: sedimentation with lamella plate settlers and thickener
4th stage: pre-ozonation
5th stage: addition of iron sulfate as flocculant, coagulation aid, addition of lime hydrate
to adjust the pH
6th stage: coagulation
7th stage: disinfection using ozone in a contact basin
8th stage: addition of iron sulphate for micro flocculation in the water body above a
submerged-bed filter
9th stage: open double layer rapid sand filter
10th stage: activated carbon filter
Page: 45
2.6 Water Reservoirs
2.6.1 Purpose of Water Reservoirs
Drinking water withdrawal and treatment in general takes place continuously. Consump-
tion of drinking water, however, varies according to season, time of the day etc. (see
chapter 2.4). Peak consumption can occur during certain occasions such as the half-
time break of a soccer game.
Distribution reservoirs therefore are used for storage or emergency purposes and for
equalizing or operating purposes. Reserve or emergency storage may be used for fire
purposes or as a result of interruptions in power supply, breakdown of pumps, failure of
a main supply conduit, temporary flood conditions or other reasons. Equalizing or oper-
ating storage is used for adjusting a relatively constant rate of supply to a variable rate
of consumption.
2.6.2 Type and Position of Water Reservoirs
Water distribution reservoirs may be classified according to their position in the supply
system and to their elevation in regard to water level the water level.
Depending on their position in the water supply system flow-through reservoirs and
counter reservoirs can be distinguished.
flow-through
water reservoir
withdrawal
area of supply
Fig. 2.21: Flow-through reservoir
A flow-through reservoir is situated between the water withdrawal point and the area
of supply (Fig. 2.21). This layout has the advantage that quantity and pressure varia-
tions during water withdrawal do not effect the area of water supply and that a constant
water exchange takes place in the reservoir. A disadvantage for this layout is that water
supply fails completely, if a main supply line breaks.
For counter reservoirs the area of water supply is situated between the water with-
drawal point and the water reservoir (Fig. 2.22). Counter reservoirs in contrast to flow-
through reservoirs have the advantage that water is supplied to the consumers from
both sides. This leads to a higher supply guarantee. A disadvantage is, however, the
slow rate of water exchange in the reservoir. Also problems in the water supply system
can occur due to pressure fluctuations caused by pump operation.
Page: 46
water water reservoir

withdrawal
area of supply
Fig. 2.22: Counter reservoir
Additionally water distribution reservoirs can be classified according to their elevation in

regard to the water level as low reservoirs or elevated reservoirs.
The water level in elevated reservoirs is above the water level in the area of supply,
therefore no or only little pumping action is necessary to maintain supply pressure in the
water supply area. If possible elevated reservoirs are situated on a natural elevation
close to the area of water supply. If no suitable elevations exist, standpipes or elevated
tanks are used.
Low water reservoirs are situated on the surface or underground. The water level of
low reservoirs is below or at the same level as the water level of the supply area, there-
fore adequate pressure in the supply area can only be maintained by a pumping station.
In order to prevent a water supply failure, special technical precautions for operation
must be taken (emergency power supply, redundant pumps).
2.6.3 Dimensioning of Reservoirs
The volume of a distribution reservoir consists of (Fig. 2.23):

• the equalizing volume for fluctuating water quantities
• emergency volume for operational failures
• reserve storage for fire protection.
Page: 47
max. water level
over
overflow
vollume/
storage capacity
reservoir volume
available volume
equalizing vo
inflow
min. water level
with
withdrawal
emergency fire re
reserve
volume
Fig. 2.23: Storage capacity of a water reservoir [7]
Equalizing volume, also called storage capacity, is operated through a cycle of with-
drawal and replenishment. The theoretical capacity depends on pumping rate and on
the rate of consumption. For elevated reservoirs, in general, a capacity is required to
equalize the demand on the maximum day. The necessary equalizing capacity is calcu-
lated using a simple volume balance for water:
dV
= Q (t) − Q (t)
dt in out
with:
V(t) = momentary volume of stored water [m³]
Qin(t) = inflow water quantity (replenishment) at the time t [m³/h]
Qout(t) = outflow quantity (consumption) at the time t [m³/h]
With this equation and the daily data on water supply and water demand the required
storage capacity can be calculated. Calculation is done on the condition that the short-
fall quantity equals the surplus quantity.
Page: 48
A shortfall quantity develops, if consumption is higher than supply. A surplus quantity ex-
ists if supply is higher than consumption. The sum of shortfall quantity (Σ Qshortfall) and
surplus quantity (Σ Qsurplus) equals equalizing volume (required storage capacity), if only
a singe alternation between shortfall and surplus quantity occurs in the equalizing pe-
riod:
Vequalizing = Σ Qshortfall + Σ Qsurplus
For several alternations between shortfall and surplus quantity, the required volume is
reduced due to meantime replenishment. It is then better to determine the difference be-
tween withdrawal and replenishment for each time period and add up these differences
to a total water level. The sum of the largest positive and the larges negative value then
determines the equalizing volume which corresponds to the required storage capacity.
The determination of the storage capacity can be done arithmetically as well as graphi-
cally. The mass curves of demand and supply can be given as absolute values or as
relative values (% of daily demand).
The emergency volume can be determined by the expression:
3 Q d [m 3 /d]
Vemergency [m ] = ⋅ duration of failure [d]
number of inflows
The amount of fire reserve should be sufficient so that the required fire demand maybe main-
tained for a period of 2h. The following values are recommended for determining fire reserve:
Small communities: 100 – 200 m3
Large cities and industrial areas: 200 – 400 m3
In areas of water supply with a maximum daily demand of > 2.000 m3/d, no additional
fire reserve is necessary.
Examples for Calculating Storage capacity:

The curve of demand of a small community is given as relative demand (% of daily de-
mand).
The required storage capacity is to be calculated for:
• continuous pumping operation (24 h)
• reduced pumping operation (night time between 8.00 pm – 6.00 am (10 h)).
Page: 49
14
stündlicher Wasserverbrauch [% des Tagesverbrauchs]
hourly water demand [% daily water demand]
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
time of Uhrzeit
the day
Fig. 2.24: Demand curve
Page: 50
Table. 2.8: Calculation of storage capacity

a) Arithmetic determination:
time
Zeit consumption
Verbrauch pumping duration
Pumpzeit 24 h 24 h pumping duration
Pumpzeit 10 h- (20-6h)
10 h (20 6 h)
level
Überschuss
Überschuss
level
Fehlbetrag
Fehlbetrag
short fall
short fall
surplus
Wasser-
Wasser-
surplus
Summe
spiegel
spiegel
Zulauf
Zulauf
inflow
inflow
total
Qh
Qh
%
%
water
water
0-1 0,5 0,5 4,167 3,7 3,7 10,0 9,5 9,5
1-2 0,5 1,0 4,167 3,7 7,3 10,0 9,5 19,0
2-3 0,5 1,5 4,167 3,7 11,0 10,0 9,5 28,5
3-4 0,0 1,5 4,167 4,2 15,2 10,0 10,0 38,5
4-5 0,0 1,5 4,167 4,2 19,3 10,0 10,0 48,5
5-6 6,5 8,0 4,167 -2,3 17,0 10,0 3,5 52,0
6-7 12,5 20,5 4,167 -8,3 8,7 -12,5 39,5
7-8 8,5 29,0 4,167 -4,3 4,3 -8,5 31,0
8-9 3,5 32,5 4,167 0,7 5,0 -3,5 27,5
9-10 3,0 35,5 4,167 1,2 6,2 -3,0 24,5
10-11 3,0 38,5 4,167 1,2 7,3 -3,0 21,5
11-12 4,5 43,0 4,167 -0,3 7,0 -4,5 17,0
12-13 11,0 54,0 4,167 -6,8 0,2 -11,0 6,0
13-14 10,0 64,0 4,167 -5,8 -5,7 -10,0 -4,0
14-15 1,0 65,0 4,167 3,2 -2,5 -1,0 -5,0
15-16 1,5 66,5 4,167 2,7 0,2 -1,5 -6,5
16-17 1,5 68,0 4,167 2,7 2,8 -1,5 -8,0
17-18 2,0 70,0 4,167 2,2 5,0 -2,0 -10,0
18-19 3,0 73,0 4,167 1,2 6,2 -3,0 -13,0
19-20 5,5 78,5 4,167 -1,3 4,8 -5,5 -18,5
20-21 9,0 87,5 4,167 -4,8 0,0 10,0 0,0 1,0 -17,5
21-22 8,5 96,0 4,167 -4,3 -4,3 10,0 0,0 1,5 -16,0
22-23 3,0 99,0 4,167 1,2 -3,2 10,0 0,0 7,0 -9,0
23-24 1,0 100,0 4,167 3,2 0,0 10,0 0,0 9,0 0,0
100,0 100,0 -38,5 38,5 100,0 -70,5 70,5
water level difference

Wasserspiegeldifferenz 19,3 52,0
- -5,7 - -18,5
required storage
erforderliches capacity
Speichervolumen in [%] 25,0 70,5
Page: 51
b) Graphical determination:
Calculation of storage capacity with mass curves is done by adding up replenishment
and withdrawal. Storage capacity is then determined by the addition of the highest sur-
plus quantity and the highest shortfall quantity.
Vrequired = Vx,1 + Vx,2
100
95
Abfluß
withdrawal
90
Zulauf 24 h Pumpbetrieb
replenishment 24h pumping operation
85
Zulauf 10 h Pumpbetrieb
replenishment ( 20 - 6 Uhr)
10h pumping operation (20-6h)
80
75
relative Summenlinie [%]
70 V24,2
V10,2
65
60
55
relative mass curve [%]
50
45
40 V10,1
35
30
25
20
15
10
5 V24,1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
timeUhrzeit
of day
Fig. 2.25: Graphical determination of storage capacity
2.7 Water Withdrawal and Water Distribution
2.7.1 Pumps
In water supply, pumps are mainly used for

• lifting water from a lake, reservoir, river or groundwater to the treatment plant
• lifting water from treatment plants or deep containers to the water supply system or to
elevated reservoirs
• keeping pressure and velocity in pipes at desirable heights (e.g. covering of peak
consumption)
• increasing pressure in order to supply elevated areas
• the transport of liquid or gaseous auxiliary substances, sludges and wastewaters in
the water treatment process
Page: 52
Centrifugal pumps are used for most pumping applications in water supply systems. A
centrifugal pump is any device that raises a liquid by centrifugal force created by a
wheel, called an impeller, revolving in a tight casing. In operation, the water enters the
pump at the center of the impeller, called the "eye". It is thrown to the periphery by the
unbalanced centrifugal force and issues from the discharge pipe under pressure. The
pressure head in the discharge pipe has been created from the velocity head imparted
to the water by the revolution of the impeller (Fig. 2.26).
spiral case
bearing case
bearings
shaft
stuffing box
radial impeller with

curved vanes
Fig. 2.26: Volute type centrifugal pump with radial impeller [according to 8]
Page: 53
Impellers of centrifugal pumps may be of the radial or mixed-flow type (1), they may be
open or closed or semi-closed (2). Impellers are also classified by their shape(3) and
their number of suction inlets (4) (Fig. 2.27):
(1) radial or mixed-flow type impeller [10]
(2) semi-open or enclosed impeller [11]
Page: 54
(3) impeller shapes [11]
(4) suction inlets [11]
Fig. 2.27: Types of impellers
Page: 55
The efficiency of a pump is characterized by the flow through the pump and the spe-
cific head. This basic head-flow relationship is called the head-flow curve. The rate of
flow Q is the quantity of liquid pumped though discharge pipe during a certain time. The
pressure head (HP) is an energy parameter and corresponds to the total energy differ-
ence between the suction inlet and the discharge pipe according to the Bernoulli princi-
ple:
P −P v2 − v2
H =z −z + D S + D S
P D S ρ⋅g 2⋅g
with:
HP = head [m]
zD - zS = geod. difference in height between the measuring points at the suction inlet
and the discharge pipe [m]
PD, PS = static pressure in the suction inlet or the discharge pipe [N/m² = kg/(m⋅s²)]
ρ = density of the pumped liquid [kg/m³]
g = acceleration of gravity [m/s²]
vD, vS = velocity at the suction inlet or he discharge pipe [m/s]
Pump manufacturers normally present technical information on pumps in their catalogs
as pump characteristic curves. These curves show:
• the capacity of a pump by the head-flow or head-capacity curve. This is important
since the pressure or head that is developed by any pump depends on the flow
though the pump.
• the net positive suction head (required) by the NPSHR-curve. This determines the
minimum allowable pressure at the inlet to the pump, in order to prevent cavitation.
Cavitation is the result of the changing of a part of the water stream from a liquid to
gas. The specific gravity of the gas (steam) is much less than that of the liquid water,
so the result is a hammering, as the dense water and then "light" steam hit the inter-
nal parts of a water system. Cavitation can damage many parts of a water system;
the damage usually occurs first at the pump since the suction of a pump is often the
point of lowest pressure in a water system.
• the efficiency of a pump ηpump. The efficiency of a pump describes which part of
mechanical energy at the pump shaft is imparted to the water.
• the power required to operate the pump (also called pump brake horsepower, PP).
Typical pump characteristic curves of a centrifugal pump are shown in Fig. 2.28.
The energy required by a pump (P1) depends on the energy required to operate the
pump and the motor efficiency ηmotor:
ρ ⋅ g ⋅ Q P ⋅ HP ρ ⋅ Q P ⋅ HP
P = = [kW]
1 η pump ⋅ ηmotor 367 ⋅ η pump ⋅ ηmotor
with:
Page: 56
QP = flow of the pumped liquid [m³/h]

HP = head [m]
ρ = density of the pumped liquid [kg/dm³]
ηpump = pump efficiency
ηmotor = motor efficiency
head
at n = 1800 min-1
efficiency
power
required
Fig. 2.28: Pump characteristic curves of a centrifugal pump [5]
Nowadays pumps can be operated at an infinite number of speeds in order to vary flow
quantity. This is achieved by using frequency converters. Fig. 2.29 shows head-flow
Page: 57
curves of a centrifugal pump and the achievable efficiency η at different speeds.
nn =
=Drehzahl/min
revolu
revolutions/min
Förderhöhe
head
flow
Förderstrom
Fig. 2.29: Characteristics of a centrifugal pump at different speeds (head-flow curves)
The operating point of a pump lies at the intersection of the pump head capacity
curve and the system head capacity curve (Fig. 2.30). The pump head capacity curve
describes the manomatric differences (head loss) in a system with known length,
diameter and smoothness (including all friction, fitting and valve losses).
In any pump-force main system, the head developed by the pump must equal the total
dynamic head loss in the system, and, of course, the discharge in pump and pipe are
equal. This relationship determines the "pump operating point". At the operating point,
energy input into the system (head of the pump) equals energy demand of the system
(head loss). If possible, the operating point should lie at the optimum efficiency. [10]
Page: 58
pump head capacity curve

pump operating
point
system head capacity curve
efficiency
qquanti
quantified
Fig. 2.30: Determination of the operating point
In pumping stations where several pumps are installed, two or more pumps are usually
operated in parallel. Occasionally pumps are operated in series. When two or more
pumps are discharging into the same header or main, this is called parallel operation.
The total flow of these pumps is found by adding the individual flows at a given head. A
correction must be made, however, because the higher flow causes higher head losses
that slightly reduce the flow either pump would discharge if operated alone (MP1 and
MP2). The QH-curves of both pumps are depicted in an operating diagram (Fig. 2.31).
The QH-curve of the smaller pump (p1) can be combined with the QH-curve of the lar-
ger pump (p2), by adding the flows of the smaller pump to the QH-curve of the larger
pump at a defined head. Taking into account the head losses, the operating point e is at
the intersection of the combined modified pump curve (MP1 II MP2) with the system
curve. Each one of the pumps operates at its own QH-curve in the operating point k (for
p1) and point j (for p2) (see also [10]).
Page: 59
Fig. 2.31: Operation of two pumps in parallel [10]
Pumps are operated in series, as shown in Fig. 2.32, when the head requirement is
greater than can be obtained by one single pump. The combined head capacity curve,
pump 1 + pump 2, is found by adding ordinates – that is, the heads developed at the
same discharge. The operating point a is at the intersection of the combine QH-curve
and the system curve. Each one of the pumps operates at its own QH-curve at point b
and point c.
Fig. 2.32: Operation of two pumps in series [10]
Page: 60
2.7.2 Basics of Pipe Hydraulics
Pipe hydraulics are necessary for dimensioning water supply pipes and for guarantee-
ing sufficient pressure in the pipe system. The water pressure can be measured in me-
ter water column (mWC). 10 mWC equal 1 bar or ca. 105 Pa. The equation is:
P
H=
ρ⋅g
with
H = pressure head [mWC]
P = hydrostatic pressure [Pa = kg/(m⋅s²)]
ρ = density of water [kg/m³]
The hydraulic dimensioning is done mainly using the Colebrook equation. The Cole-
brook equation was developed from the Darcy-Weisbach equation for calculating friction
head loss hf for circular pipes.
L v2
hf = λ ⋅ ⋅ (1)
D 2g
with
hf = friction head loss [m]
λ = coefficient of friction [-]
L = length of pipe [m]
D = inside pipe diameter [m]
v = mean flow velocity [m/s]
Colebrook defined the following relation for the coefficient of friction λ, generally called
the Colebrook equation:
1  2,51 k 
= - 2lg  +  (2)
λ  Re λ 3,71 ⋅ D 
with
Re = Reynolds number = v⋅d/ν [-]
v = velocity
ν = kinematic viscosity [m²/s]
k = absolute roughness [mm]
D = inside diameter [m]
Page: 61
By inserting JE for hf/L in (1) and by solving (1) for λ and by inserting this value in (2) ve-
locity v can be calculated for circular pipe diameters:
  2,51 k  
v =  - 2lg  + ⋅ 2gJ E D (3)
  D 2gJ D 3,71 ⋅ D  
  E 
with
JE = Energy grade line [-]
Using the continuity equation for mass Q = v ⋅ A, the flowrate or discharge can be
calculated.
In general, calculation of friction loss is nowadays done numerically. Alternatively for
head loss can be determined by using pipe tables or friction loss tables. (see Fig. 2.33
und 2.34). Friction loss tables are based on a roughness coefficient ki (i = control vari-
able), which considers hydraulics of the complete system taking into account friction
loss caused by pipes, fittings and valves as well as by incrustations. Standard values for
roughness coefficients are:
Supply pipes ki = 0,1 mm
Mains ki = 0,4 mm
To determine head loss of individual transitions (bends, contractions) or appurtenances
(valves, meters etc.) the head loss is expressed in terms of the velocity head, usually
immediately upstream of the transition or appurtenance. The equation for these losses
is
v2
hv = ζ ⋅
2g
in which ζ is a head loss coefficient. Recommended coefficients are given in Pumping

Station Design [10] Appendix B.
Page: 62
table Ia roughness coefficient ki = 0,1 mm

enlarged section of table I
v (m/s)
Ø = nominal size (mm)
head loss J · m/km
flow Q · l/s
flow Q · l/s
head loss J · m/km
Fig. 2.33: Friction loss table for ki = 0,1 mm [adapted from11]
Page: 63
table IIa: roughness coefficient ki = 0,4 mm

enlarged section of table II
v (m/s)
Ø = nominal size (mm)
head loss J · m/km
flow Q · l/s
flow Q · l/s
head loss J · m/km
Fig. 2.34: Friction loss table for ki = 0,4 mm [adapted from 11]
Page: 64
2.7.3 Design of Water Distribution Systems
The pipes of a water distribution system are classified according to their main task in the
system:
• Primary feeders/ arterial water mains carry large quantities of water – without any
withdrawal points along the line – to the water distribution system, the water distribu-
tion reservoir, the water treatment plant etc.
• Secondary mains only exist in larger systems. They are small distribution mains with
no service pipes connected to them.
• Small distribution mains form a grid over the area to be served and supply water to
fire hydrants and service pipes of the residences and other buildings.
• Service connector/pipes are the pipes extending from the main to the customer's
meter.
• Supply pipes connect the individual points of consumption inside the buildings (taps
etc.)
In regard to hydraulics, gravity mains and pressure mains can be distinguished. Grav-
ity mains are only used to connect the water withdrawal point to the water treatment
plant or the water reservoir.
No two water distribution systems are alike, but most of them may be classified accord-
ing to arrangement as circle systems and branching systems. Historical older water sys-
tems are normally grown branching systems (Fig. 2.35). These have the disadvantage
that they lead to high head losses and water hammer. If a main breaks in this type of
distribution system, water supply in large areas will be interrupted completely. Flow rate
in the outside pipes of the branch is often insufficient.
Nowadays mostly circle or loop systems are constructed. Large mains surrounding a
large distribution area serve smaller cross pipes connected to the main circle at each
end and to each other at the intersections (Fig. 2.35). This gives excellent service since
it permits water to be delivered at each end of the cross pipe at relatively high pressure
due to a small head loss. Almost uninterrupted service is guaranteed since a broken
main can be shut off between two valves and will then only affect a small area.
Fig. 2.35: Branching system and circle system
The topography of a supply area may require pressure zoning. Most of the area may
have normal pressures for all purposes, but a low area (differences larger than approx.
Page: 65
40 - 50 m), if directly connected my have pressures that are too high with danger of pipe
leaks and breakage. Also elevated zones may have insufficient pressure. Supply of the
individual pressure zones may take place using
• separate elevated tanks (especially for large pressure zones),
• automatic pressure regulation valves or pressure reducing valves from high pressure
zones,
• or pressure boosters from low pressure zones (especially if individual small pressure
zones are elevated too much)
The size of the pressure zones and the necessary measures for separating zones from
each other depend on topography (Fig. 2.36).
elevated tank
withdrawal zone
high zone
high zone
low zone
Fig. 2.36: Example for separating a supply area into three pressure zones [4]
2.7.4 Hydraulic Calculation of Water Distribution Systems
2.7.4.1 Fundamentals
The objective of pipe network calculation is to determine the optimum pipe diameter
for the flow Q and to calculate flow and pressure in a pipe network at given supply and
demand quantities. It must be possible to supply every point in the pipe network with
sufficient water quantities at adequate pressure. The following pressures are given as
standard values:
• maximum static pressure: 8 bar, (recommended 5 - 6 bar in the center of gravity CG)
• minimum pressure at the water meter:
2 bar plus 0,5 bar for each additional story (max. 4 stories) for calculating new net-
works;
2 bar plus 0,35 bar for each additional story (max. 4 stories) for existing networks
• low pressure in the pipe network must be prevented.
Page: 66
Maximum flow in the individual pipe systems (pipe capacity) consists of the following:
• Household demand covers all private households as well as public buildings and
small commercial establishments;
• Special demand covers industrial and commercial demand, hospitals, schools, foun-
tains, hotels etc. For small consumer this special demand can be distributed over the
pipe network. For large consumers, such as papermills or public pools or when water
is pumped through another pressure zone, special demand must be calculated sepa-
rately and must be considered as a separate water withdrawal point.
• Required fire flow depends on the type and density of buildings and their fire sus-
ceptibility and must be determined in cooperation with the local fire department.
In the following, adequate flow velocities for pipes are shown:
DN ≤ 200 v = 0,80 - 0,90 m/s
DN 250 - 400 v = 0,95 - 1,10 m/s
DN 500 - 800 v = 1,20 - 1,55 m/s
DN 900 - 1000 v = 1,65 - 1,75 m/s
with DN = diameter in [mm]
In order to prevent overly high dynamic pressures, flow velocity in mains should not ex-
ceed 2 m/s. In order to prevent deposits in mains, a minimum flow velocity vmin 0,3 m/s
should be maintained.
2.7.4.2 Dimensioning of a branching system

Dimensioning of a branching water distribution system is done using a flow-per-meter-
value (Metermengenwerte) m (discharged water quantity L/s for each meter of pipe).
This value distributes the total water demand of one area over the complete pipe net-
work. It is calculated using the following expression:
Q
m= [L/(s⋅m)]
Σl
with:
m = flow-per-meter-value [L/s⋅m]
Q = flow [L/s]
l = length of pipe [m]
The flow-per-meter-value is only valid for household demand. Large consumers must be
considered separately. The calculation is done against the direction of flow, starting at
the outmost point. At each intersection, the values for separate pipes branches are
summed up. Continuing this process throughout the whole supply area up to the begin-
ning of the supply area, this results in the determined demand for the complete area
and makes it possible to countercheck the calculations.
Page: 67
Example:
Calculate the branching system shown in Fig. 2.37.
district A
elevated reservoir
beginning of industry
supply area
Fig. 2.37: Branch system, values in brackets are ground elevations, length in km
Given are:
population density PDi = 200 I/ha
total area Ai = 40 ha
specific consumption wd = 150 L/(I⋅d)
hourly peak factor fh = 2,5 (see chapter 2.3.3)
roughness supply area kiV = 0,4 mm
roughness supply pipes kiT = 0,1 mm
To be calculated:
• flow-per-meter-value m
• min. water level in the elevated tank, if supply pressure may not be under HP,min
= 30 m
• height of pressure gradient
Page: 68
Solution:
1 Determination of the flow-per-meter-value:
Qd = PDi ⋅ Ai ⋅ qd = 200 ⋅ 40 ⋅ 150 = 1.200.000 L/d = 1.200 m³/d
Max Qh = Qd ⋅fh/24 h/d = 1.200 ⋅ 2,5 / 24 = 125 m³/h = 34,72 L/s
Σ l = l1 + l2 + l3 = 2200 + 800 + 1300 = 4300 m
Q h 34,72 L/s
m= = = 0,00807 L/(s ⋅ m)
∑l 4300 m
2 Spreadsheets
The spreadsheets for computing branching nets are given in table 2.9. It must be taken
into account, that water supply for district A and for industrial consumers are not consid-
ered in the flow-per-meter-value.
Calculation of pressure loss is done according to Colebrook using friction loss tables
(Fig. 2.33 and 2.34).
The required minimum water level in the elevated tank (column 15) correspond to the
maximum value of the sum of the minimum supply pressure (column 14) and the head
loss (column 13). The chosen minimum water level (Pchosen) less the respective head
loss (column 13) yields the actual pressure gradient in the system (column 16).
Page: 69
Table. 2.9: Spreadsheet for branching systems
Strang
branch Länge
length Meter-
flow per Stang-
single zusätzlicher Durchfluss
flow for Gesamt-
total Verlusthöhe
head loss Summe
total min.
min.Versor-
supply Hochbehälter
elevated tank Höhe der
pressure
von - bis
between mengenwert
meter branch additional
belastung Verbrauch füroutgoing
unterhalb Strang-
branch head loss
Verlusthöhe pressure
gungsdruck ==Versorgungs-
supply pres- gradient
Drucklinie
nodes
Knoten value load
einzeln*) consumption liegenden
branchesStrang load
belastung sure ++
druck
l m Q Qz Qu Qg ki DN v J ht = J * l Σ ht GOK + HP,min Σ ht
- m L/(s*m) L/s L/s L/s L/s mm mm m/s o/oo m m m ü. NN m ü. NN m ü. NN
1 2 3 4=2*3 5 6 = Σ 4 +Σ 5 7 = 4+5+6 8 9 10 11 12=11*2/1000 13 = Σ 12 14 15 = 13 + 14 16=Pgew-13
6-4 1300 0,00807 10,5 20 30,50 0,4 200 0,95 5,8 7,54 25,5 130 155,5 130,0
5-4 700 0,00807 5,6 15 20,60 0,4 200 0,65 2,7 1,89 19,9 130 149,9 135,6
4-2 500 0,00807 4,0 51,1 55,10 0,4 250 1,15 6,0 3,00 18,0 131 149,0 137,5
3-2 800 0,00807 6,5 6,50 0,4 100 0,83 10,5 8,40 23,4 130 153,4 132,1
2-1 1000 0,00807 8,1 61,6 69,70 0,4 300 1,00 3,8 3,80 15,0 132 147,0 140,5
1-HB 4000 - 69,7 69,70 0,1 300 1,00 2,8 11,20 11,2 133 144,2 144,3
HB gewählt (Pgew):
P assumed: 155,5
*) Water consumption is deducted at each branch Kn - Kn+1 evenly distributed over the branch. Thus a higher water quantity flows
through each branch at its beginning than at its end. Here, assumed flow equals the flow at the beginning of each branch. Flow at the
end of the branch will be lower. Calculation therefore leads to a somewhat higher head loss. This small error can be neglected in re-
gard to the above described example. A more exact calculation can be obtained by multiplying flow (column 4) with factor 0,6.
Page: 70
2.7.4.3 Dimensioning of a circle or loop system

In a circle or loop system, every point can be supplied with water from two sides. Direc-
tion of flow is therefore initially unknown. Two methods exist for the calculation of circle
systems:
1. Conversion in a branching system
Beginning at the main inflow or the main loop, one assumes the probable flow path of
the water, thus determining water sheds in the net. The following assumptions are valid
for water sheds:
• v=0
• Q = 0 bzw. = outflow at the node
• change of flow direction
• head hleft = hright
After determining the watersheds, the net is separated at the watersheds. Thus flows
and flow directions are determined. Calculation is now done, as explained above for
branching systems, by determining pressure gradients. After all calculations are com-
pleted, it must be verified whether hleft = hright at the watersheds. If larger deviations
(± 10 %) occur, the position of the watersheds must be corrected and the calculations
must be repeated.
2. Hardy Cross Method of analysis of flow in a pipe network
This iterative method, which was developed by Prof. Hardy Cross, consists of assuming
a distribution of flow in the network and balancing the resulting head losses. The Darcy -
Weisbach equation for calculating friction loss is used for this method. For a pipe net-
work with
• n branches and
• k nodes
• m = n - k + 1 loops
one obtains a non-linear system of equations with 2*n unknowns (for hv and Q). Since
only n equations are available, n unknowns must be defined. Pipe diameters must be ei-
ther assumed for a new network or are given when re-calculating an existing network.
The following conditions are given for the solution:
• At each node, total inflow must equal total outflow
ΣQin - ΣQout = 0 for each node
• Within each closed loop formed by n branches, the algebraic sum of head loss must
equal zero
Σhv,i = 0 for each loop, keep in mind direction of flow !
Two alternatives exist for the iteration method:
a) Iterative adjustment of head loss
Starting at the point of inflow (known flow volume), flow direction and flows in the
branches are estimated and
Page: 71
• total withdrawal from one branch is assigned to the final node of the branch and addi-
tional nodes are assumed for separate withdrawal points
• head loss in the branches and head at the nodes is calculated and
• pipe flow is improved by iteratively adjusting head for each loop. Correction term for
∆Q:
Σhv,i
∆Q = − for each loop, i = 1 ... m
2 ⋅ Σ(h v,i / Qi )
Iteration is continued until for each loop ∑ h v,i ≅ 0

i
b) Iterative adjustment of pipe flow
Beginning with given heads,
• head loss in the branches is estimated,
• inflow and outflow quantities at the nodes are calculated and
• head losses are improved by iteratively adjusting inflow and outflow. Correction term
for ∆h :
2 ⋅ ΣQ i
∆h = for each node, i = 1 ... k
Σ(Qi / h v,i )
Iteration is continued until for each node ΣQi ≅ 0

Example:
Calculate the circle system presented in Fig. 2.38.
15 L/s
inflow K1 K2 K3
100 L/s 20 m HASL 19 m HASL 18 m HASL
10 L/s roughness kiV =

0,4 mm
l1 = 200 m min. supply pressure =
30 mWC
K6 l3= 400 m K4
K5 l2 = 300 m
19 m HASL 18 m HASL 19 m HASL
20 L/s 30 L/s
25 L/s
Fig. 2.38: Circle System
Page: 72
Solution:
1. Separate the system in loops (loop A and loop B)
2. Define signs for the flows (clockwise direction of flow has a positive sign; table 2.10,
column 2)
3. Assume flows in all branches (column 6)
4. Choose pipe diameter (column 3)
5. Determine head loss (column 8)
6. When ∆ Q ≠ 0, calculate correction term
7. Define Qnew using the correction term
8. Compute new calculation using Qnew
9. Repeat until ∆ Q ≅ 0
10. Calculation of pressure gradients by adding head losses of the individual branches
in table 2.11.
Solution:
15 L/s
inflow 20 m HASL
2 19 m HASL 5 18 m HASL
100 l/s
10 L/s
l1 = 200 m ++ ++
1 AA 3 BB 6
19 m HASL 18 m HASL 19 m HASL

4 7
20 L/s 30 L/s
l2 = 300 m 25 L/s l3= 400 m
Page: 73
Table. 2.10: Calculation of circle systems using iterative adjustment of headloss
calculation loop
Berechnung für A
Masche A
Strang Strömungs-
flow d l ki Qo Jo h v =J o*l − ∑h v Q Q
branch h v /Q ∆Q =
Nr. direction
richtung 2 ⋅ ∑ h v /Q loop
Ring B
B new
neu
- - mm m mm m³/s m/km m s/m² m³/s m³/s m³/s

[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12]
1 -1 250 200 0,4 0,0450 4,0 -0,80 17,78 -0,0472
2 1 250 300 0,4 0,0550 5,9 1,77 32,18 0,0528
3 1 200 200 0,4 0,0250 4,0 0,80 32,00 -0,0002 0,0226
4 -1 200 300 0,4 0,0250 4,0 -1,20 48,00 -0,0272
Σ= 0,57 129,96 -0,0022
1 -0,0472 4,4 -0,88 18,64 -0,0472

2 0,0528 5,4 1,62 30,68 0,0528
3 0,0226 3,3 0,66 29,20 0,0002 0,0228
4 -0,0272 4,7 -1,41 51,84 -0,0272
Σ= -0,01 130,37 0,0000
1 -0,0472 4,4 -0,88 18,64 -0,0472

2 0,0528 5,4 1,62 30,68 0,0528
3 0,0228 3,3 0,66 28,95 0,0000 0,0228
4 -0,0272 4,7 -1,41 51,84 -0,0272
Σ= -0,01 130,11 0,0000
calculation loop
Berechnung B
für Masche B
branch flow
Strang Strömungs- d l ki Qo Jo h v =J o*l − ∑h v Q Q
h v /Q ∆Q =
Nr. direction
richtung 2 ⋅ ∑ h v /Q loop A
Ring new
neu
- - mm m mm m³/s m/km m s/m² m³/s m³/s m³/s
5 1 200 400 0,4 0,0200 2,6 1,04 52,00 0,0202

6 1 100 200 0,4 0,0050 6,2 1,24 248,00 0,0052
7 -1 200 400 0,4 0,0250 4,0 -1,60 64,00 -0,0248
3 -1 200 200 0,4 0,0250 4,0 -0,80 32,00 0,0022 -0,0226
Σ= -0,12 396,00 0,0002
5 0,0202 2,6 1,04 51,49 0,0200

6 0,0052 6,8 1,36 261,54 0,0050
7 -0,0248 3,9 -1,56 62,90 -0,0250
3 -0,0226 3,3 -0,66 29,20 0,0000 -0,0228
Σ= 0,18 405,13 -0,0002
5 0,0200 2,6 1,04 52,00 0,0200

6 0,0050 6,1 1,22 244,00 0,0050
7 -0,0250 4,0 -1,60 64,00 -0,0250
3 -0,0228 3,3 -0,66 28,95 0,0000 -0,0228
Σ= 0,00 388,95 0,0000
Page: 74
Table. 2.11: Determination of the pressure level
Knoten
node abgehender
outflow gehört
belongszu
to Gelände-
ground min.
min.Versor-
supply Summe
total Druckhöhe
headEinspeisung
inflow Höhe
height
branch
Strang loop
Masche surface
oberkante pressure
gungsdruck head loss
Verlusthöhe = supply pressure
= Versorgungsdruck pressure
der gradi-
Drucklinie
gs gs ++HH ent
hv GOK GOK p,min
P,min =Σhv +Σhv
- - - m mmü.
HASL
NN mmü.
HASL
NN m mmü.
HASL
NN mmü.HASL
NN
K1 1 A 0,88 20 50,00 0 50,00 56,78

2 A 1,62
K2 3 A,B 0,66 19 49,00 1,62 50,62 55,16

5 B 1,04
K3 6 B 1,22 18 48,00 2,66 50,66 54,12
K5 4 A 1,41 19 49,00 0,88 49,88 55,90
K6 7 B 1,6 18 48,00 2,29 50,29 54,49
K4 19 49,00 3,89 52,89 52,89
gewählt:
assumed: 52,89
Page: 75
2.7.5 Pipe Materials, Joints and Fittings
Water supply pipelines consist of various parts. Besides the pipes themselves, pipe
joints (for connecting pipes) and pipe fittings such as bends or elbows, reducers, reduc-
ing tees, or reducing crosses are needed for a pipe network. Necessary are also various
appurtenances such as valves, gate valves and fire protection equipment. Pipes and fit-
tings are described by their diameter D (in mm) and their nominal pressure NP (in bar).
Fig. 2.39: Ductile or gray iron flanged fittings [10]
Various pipe materials are used for water supply pipes. Considering their low costs,
mostly ductile iron pipes (DIP) are used in water supply networks. Due to their great
reserves of strength, stiffness, ductility, and resistance to water hammer, ductile iron
pipes have replaced formerly used gray cast iron pipes.
Steel pipes can have a price advantage to gray cast iron pipes, when used for high
pressures. Another advantage is the availability of endless pipes by welding.
Page: 76
Asbestos-cement pipes (ACP) were widely installed in former times. Due to the haz-
ards of asbestos to the environment and the carcinogenic effects of asbestos fibers,
ACP were banned for further manufacturing and installation in 1995. Repair and main-
tenance work on ACP can only be completed considering special work protection regu-
lations.
Pre-stressed concrete pipes are only suitable for large diameters (over DN 800).
Pressure is normally not above NP 16.
Plastic pipes made from polyethylene (PE) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) are corrosion
resistant and almost perfectly smooth. PE-pipes are used for smaller diameters mainly
for service pipes or as endless pipes for siphon pipes.
Fiberglass reinforced plastic pipes (FRP) have been in use in Sweden, Netherlands
and Austria for many years. In Germany they have not been legally approved yet.
Page: 77
2.8 References Chapter 2
[1] DVGW-Regelwerk W 410: Wasserbedarfszahlen (1995).

[2] Mutschmann, J.; Stimmelmayr, F.: Taschenbuch der Wasserversorgung, 13., voll-
ständig überarbeitete Auflage, Braunschweig, Wiesbaden, Vieweg Verlag 2002.
[3] DVGW-Regelwerk W 405: Bereitstellung von Löschwasser durch die öffentliche
Trinkwasserversorgung (1978).
[4] DVGW-Regelwerk W 403: Planungsregeln für Wasserleitungen und Rohrnetze
(1988).
[5] Guyer, W. Siedlungswasserwirtschaft, Springer Verlag, Berlin 1999.
[6] Grombach,P., Haberer, K., Merkl, G., Trüeb,E.U.: Handbuch der Wasserversor-
gungstechnik, R. Oldenbourg Verlag, München 1993.
[7] DVGW-Regelwerk W 311: Planung und Bau von Wasserbehältern, Grundlagen
und Ausführungsbeispiele (1988).[8]
[8] American Water Works Association, Ed. R.D. Letterman: Water Quality and Treat-
ment – A handbook of community water supplies, McGraw-Hill, New York 1999
[9] http://www.who.int/docstore/water_sanitation_health/)
[10] Pumping Station Design, Ed. R. L. Sanks, Butterworth Publishers, Boston, 1989
[11] James B. Rishel, Water Pumps and Pumping Systems, McGraw-Hill, New York
2002
Page: 78
3 Wastewater Collection
3.1 Introduction
It is the objective of wastewater discharge, to completely drain off hygienically danger-

ous waste water from households, trades and industry. This objective must be achieved
without odor nuisances and without harming the environment and mankind. Also surface
water from precipitation which cannot seep in the ground must be collected and dis-
charged. Together with wastewater treatment, waste water collection is responsible for
the protection of ground and surface waters and for the protection of mankind by pre-
venting health risks and aesthetic and odor nuisances.
In Germany, wastewater discharge is done by a sewer system using water as a means
of transport. Pollutants and wastes are carried away by water. Based on the historical
development of the wastewater discharge, this technology became generally accepted
in most industrial countries.
Already in ancient times in large human settlement areas sewer systems were used. In
the settlement centers of advanced cultures (Indians, Sumerians, Egyptians, ancient
Greeks, Romans) large brick sewers for urban wastewater collection as well as clay and
copper sheet pipes for the collection of wastewaters within buildings were found. At pre-
sent the oldest well-known sewer dates around 4.000 B.C. (Mohenjo Daro at the Indus).
The most famous sewer system might be the CLOACA MAXIMA (W min x Hmin = 2 x 3 m;
W max x Hmax = 3 x 4 m), one of seven mains of the antique Rome.
In the Middle Ages, hygiene consciousness of the antique cultures was lost. Excrement,
urine, dung and wastes were disposed on dirt roads. Costal Buildings and buildings
near rivers were equipped with an oriel where excrements fell directly into the river. To-
ward the end of the Middle Ages, below-ground privy vaults and, later, cesspools were
developed. When these containers became full, sanitation workers removed the deposit
at the owner's expense. The wastes were used as fertilizer at nearby farms or were
dumped into watercourses or onto vacant land.
The massive immigration of the rural population into the cities, starting with the industri-
alization in England, showed the limitations of decentralized, separate excrement collec-
tion and disposal as well as increasing problems of drinking water supply. In this time
frequently epidemics broke out such as plague, typhoid fever and Cholera, which limited
the growth of the population in the cities again and again. The London cholera epidemic
1830 gave the impulse for a new, modern wastewater collection. The correlation be-
tween hygiene and mortality became obvious. On this account many cities installed a
wastewater collection and discharge system using water as a means of transport. In
1842 Hamburg was the first metropolis in Germany to start the construction of a sewer
system. Immediately after the first sewer systems were constructed, the number of
deaths caused by epidemics, in particular typhoid fever decreased. In Berlin, the num-
ber of typhus deaths decreased from 10 per 10.000 inhabitants (in the year 1859, be-
fore the sewer system was constructed) to 0,4 per 10.000 inhabitants after the construc-
tion of the sewer system in 1902.
Today wastewater collection consists of various elements. Main elements are presented
in Fig. 3.1:
Page: 79
atmospheric
water
rain water infiltration

pressure drainage
combined sewerage
system
stormwater
overflow
wastewater
treatment plant
rain water sewer stormwater

overflow tank
receiving
water
Fig. 3.1: Elements of Sanitary Engineering (adapted from [10])
If soil conditions permit, storm water of a settlement (if it is not contaminated) is infil-
trated on site. Otherwise it is discharged into the receiving water body using a stormwa-
ter sewer or is fed to the combined sewer system. The polluted wastewater is dis-
charged to the wastewater treatment plant. Due to the fact that the wastewater treat-
ment plant capacity is not sufficient for heavy stormwater flow, excess stormwater is col-
lected in a stormwater overflow tank and is discharged into the receiving water body af-
ter preliminary treatment. Some suburbs, which cannot be connected to the wastewater
treatment plant by a gravity system, are connected to the sewer system by pressure
mains.
3.2 Wastewater Quantity and Dry Weather Flow
The wastewater collected in sewer systems consists of

• domestic wastewater,
• industrial wastewater,
• infiltration/inflow and
• stormwater.
Depending on the type of sewer system (separated or combined system) wastewater
and stormwater sewers or combined sewers have to be calculated.
Page: 80
The wastewater quantity (dry weather flow) can usually be determined using guideline
values. A reliable determination of infiltration water and stormwater quantity is obviously
much more difficult.
Except for the water used for irrigation, all consumed drinking water is discharged into
the sewer system. Even water withdrawn from private wells (especially for industrial
uses) is discharged into the sewer system. Additionally so-called infiltration water enters
the collection system through leaking joints, cracks and breaks. Also inflow, stormwater
that enters the collection system from storm drain connections, roof leaders or through
access port (manhole) covers, must be considered.
3.2.1 Domestic Wastewater
Per capita water consumption in dependency on population density determines domes-

tic wastewater flow.
Fig. 3.2. shows typical daily wastewater flowrates of cities and communities of various
size. Fig. 3.3 gives an example for typical hourly variations in flow and settleable solids
content of domestic wastewater.
wastewater flowrate of a village wastewater flowrate of a

small town
wastewater flowrate of a medium wastewater flowrate of a metropolis

sized town
Fig. 3.2: Typical hourly variations in domestic wastewater flowrates for various town
sizes [1]
Page: 81
600 14
12
500
wastewater flowrate [m³/h]
Tagesspitze
peak value day
[cm³ /l]
Wassermengen [m³ / h]
10
[cm³/L]
400
meanTagesmittel
Stoffe
value day 8
solids
300
mean value night 24 h24average

h Mittel
absetzbare
6
Nachtmittel
settleable
200
4
100 flowrate
Wassermenge 2
settleable solids
absetzbare Stoffe
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 h
24 Uhr
Fig. 3.3: Typical hourly variations in flow and settleable solids content of domestic
wastewater for 50.000 inhabitants (adapted from [19]
Seasonal variations in wastewater flow are not as pronounced as variations in water

consumption, because during hot summer days (peak water consumption) water, used
for irrigation, does not enter the sewer system.
Depending on size and type of settlement, quantity and quality of wastewater flow is
evened out more and more. With the size of the city, water consumption rises and con-
sequently wastewater quantity rises as well. Standard population density is between
approx. 20 people per hectare (rural areas) and 300 people per hectare (city centre).
The average daily water consumption (not regarding large industries) lies between 80
and 200 L/(capita*d).
When dimensioning new sewer systems or when improving existing sewer systems, ex-
pected wastewater flowrates will be determined from existing records or direct field
measurements, from an analysis of population data and estimates of per capita waste-
water flowrates from similar communities. Often estimated consumption rates of local
water utilities are used. Since sewer systems are planned for a long period of time (≥ 50
years), water consumption estimates can have only limited accuracy. Therefore the as-
sumed wastewater flowrate must always lie above 150 L/(capita*d).
For the dimensioning of sewers the specific peak flow is used. The specific peak flow
is obtained by multiplying the daily wastewater flow with an hourly peak factor.
3.2.2 Commercial and Industrial Wastewater
Depending on the function and activity, unit flowrates for commercial or industrial facili-
ties can vary widely. Wastewater flowrates for existing industrial estates can be deter-
mined by a survey, by existing flowrate records or direct field measurements. This is
also possible for hotels, recreation or nursing homes, barracks, camp sites etc.
Wastewater discharges for planned industrial estates are very difficult to predict, espe-
Page: 82
cially if type and size of future manufacturing facilities are unknown. If industrial estates
are included in the land utilization plan, estimates based on typical wastewater flowrates
from commercial sources must be used.
If no flowrate records or direct field measurements exist, the following commercial and
industrial wastewater flowrates can be assumed according to ATV-Standard A 118 [2].
• industrial facilities with low water demand
qInd = 0,2 - 0,5 L/(s⋅ha)
• industrial facilities with medium or high water demand
qInd = 0,5 - 1,0 L/(s⋅ha)
3.2.3 Infiltration / Inflow
Besides wastewater flowrates, extraneous flows in the collection system, described as

infiltration and inflow, must be considered, when dimensioning wastewater discharge
systems. Infiltration and inflow cover amongst others of the following types:
• groundwater that enters the collection system (leaking joints, cracks and breaks or
porous walls)
• unauthorized connections of wastewater drainage and rainwater pipes;
• unintended inflow of stormwater into separate wastewater sewers (e.g. through man-
hole covers)
Extraneous flowrates can be defined by a local specific infiltration quantity qInf. For new
sewer systems an infiltration quantity 0,05 – 0,15 L/(sּha) should be assumed.
While infiltration and inflow quantities are negligible for combined sewer systems and
stormwater collectors, for dimensioning separate wastewater collectors an additional
specific stormwater runoff quantity qR,t (e.g. entering through manhole covers) must be
taken into account besides dry weather infiltration flowrates. Additional unintended
stormwater runoff should be assumed at 0,2 – 0,7 L/(sּha), higher quantities can be jus-
tified for special cases.
If no specific data exist on the expected infiltration and inflow quantities, extraneous
flowrates in wastewater collectors can also be calculated as a multiple m of the waste-
water flowrate.
m = 0,1 – 1,0 (in special cases also >1)
3.2.4 Calculation of Dry Weather Flow
Dry weather flow consists of the following components:

• domestic wastewater flow QD;
• commercial and industrial wastewater flow QInd;
• extraneous water flow (infiltration and inflow) QInf;
QDW = QD + QInd + QInf [L/s]
Page: 83
The domestic wastewater flow QD is calculated on the basis of the specific wastewa-
ter quantity qD [L/(s⋅1000 I)], the population density [I/ha] and the assumed drainage
area AC1 [ha] of the relevant sewer section using the following equation:
qD ⋅ D ⋅ A C1
QD = [L/s]
1000
The specific wastewater quantity qD consists of daily dry weather flow QDW multiplied
with the hourly peak factor.
If no exact data exist, the commercial and industrial wastewater flow QInd is deter-
mined using the above mentioned industrial wastewater quantity qInd [L/(s⋅ha)] and the
drainage area AC2 [ha] of the industrial facility:
Q Ind = qInd ⋅ A C2 [L/s]
Extraneous flow QInf [L/s] in wastewater collectors is determined as a multiple m of

domestic, commercial and industrial wastewater quantities (100 % extraneous flow:
m = 1), if no specific local extraneous flow quantities were determined:
Q Inf = m ⋅ (Q D + QInd ) [L/s]
If specific local extraneous flow quantities were determined, then extraneous flowrates
are a product of extraneous flow quantities qInf [L/(s⋅ha)] and the drainage area AE [ha]
of the branch:
Q Inf = qInf ⋅ A C [L/s]
3.3 Stormwater Flowrate
During a strong rainfall event, the stormwater flowrate will by far exceed all other
flowrates and is therefore the critical factor for determining the collection system capac-
ity. The stormwater flow process can be divided into the following phases
• rainfall,
• surface run-off (run-off formation, run-off concentration) and
• sewer system flow.
Rainfall on a given drainage area is characterized by the spatiotemporal distribution of
the rain intensity.
Run-off formation means those physical processes which convert precipitation into
surface run-off. They include depression storage and detention, evaporation and infiltra-
tion.
Run-off concentration is the flow process of the effective rainfall to the openings of the
collection system (gutters, manholes).
Page: 84
Sewer system flow covers the discharge and collection of wastewater in the individual
elements of the sewer system (discharge channels, rain catchment basins, etc.).
3.3.1 Precipitation
The measurement of precipitation is the basis for determining the rainfall intensity r
[L/(sּha)] which is used to calculate stormwater runoff. Determination of precipitation
quantities is done using the water depth, obtained by the even distribution of rainfall on
a defined area. Rainfall quantity is typically expressed as rainfall depth N [mm].
1 mm rainfall depth = 1 l rainwater per m² = 10 m³ per ha
Fig. 3.4 shows a pluviograph /rain gauge for recording precipitation intensities. The col-
lected rain quantities are recorded directly for example by a pen attached to a float. The
pen automatically marks a chart on a revolving drum. As soon as the water level in the
collecting device has reached 10 cm (equals 10 mm rainfall depth), the collected water
is discharged, the pen drops back to the bottom of the chart and the collection process
begins anew.
11
1 orifice 200 cm²
2 float
3 siphon
7 4 collection chamber
2
2 5 funnel
8 33 6 discharge drain
7 recording chart
8 housing with door
5
4
6
Fig. 3.4: Pluviograph with recording chart (adapted from [1])
Fig. 3.5 gives an example of a recording chart of a pluviograph. The chart shows a
curve of a precipitation event. This curve is divided into fixed time periods T = 5, 10, 20,
30, 45, 60, 120, 180, 240 starting in the middle of the curve where the highest rain in-
tensities are. For interpretation, the values are then recorded in table 3.1
Page: 85
Fig. 3.5: Pluviographic chart [8]
Table 3.1: Interpretation of the pluviograph recording chart in Fig. 3.5 [8]
line section T N I = N/T in r
in min in mm mm/min in l/(s ⋅ ha)
1 a1 to b1 5 4.5 0.90 150.0
2 a2 to b2 10 7,0 0.70 116.7
3 a3 to b3 20 10.0 0.50 83.4
4 a4 to b4 30 11.3 0.38 63.3
5 a5 to b5 45 14.7 0.33 55.0
6 a6 to b6 60 16.0 0.27 45.0
7 a7 to b7 120 27.0 0.23 38.3
8 a8 to b8 180 34.0 0.19 31.7
9 a9 to b9 240 36.0 0.15 25.0
Section a1 to b1 for example lasts 5 minutes and it rains 4,5 mm. This leads to a rainfall
quantity of 0,90 mm/min and rainfall intensity of 150 [L/(sּha)]. If, for a certain region
and for a long period of time , the rainfall events of equal duration and intensity are re-
corded, one obtains a table such as table 3.2, which covers a period of 20 years. It can
be seen that for example on the average every year 42,6 rainfall events with a rainfall
intensity of 30 [L/(sּha)] and a duration between 0 and 5 min occur.
Page: 86
Table 3.2: Interpretation of pluviographic recordings over 20 years [8]

number of rainfall events in one year with r >_… in l/(s⋅ha)
T
in min 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 125 150 175 200
0
5 42.6 27.3 18.7 14.0 10.8 80.2 6.6 4.9 3.4 2.3 1.4 0.6
10 22.7 14.0 9.4 7.0 5.4 4.2 3.1 1.9 1.2 0.5 0.3
15 11.1 6.8 4.6 3.5 2.8 1.9 1.3 0.8 0.3 0.2
20 5.8 3.6 2.3 1.7 1.2 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.1
25 3.9 2.2 1.3 1.0 0.6 0.4 0.1 0.05
30 2.7 1.3 0.9 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.05
40 2.3 1.1 0.7 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.05 0.05
If only peak mean intensities of time periods of 5, 10, 15, 20 or 25 minutes are used,
one obtains a rainfall intensity duration curve (Fig. 3.6), which has nothing to do with
the actual course of the precipitation event, but describes the mean precipitation inten-
sity of events of varying duration.
Rainfall intensity duration curve

Regenspendelinie
Rainfall intensity [L/(s*ha)]
100
Regenspende [l/ (s*ha)]
80
60
40
20
0
0 15 30 45 60
RainRegendauer [min]
duration [min]
Fig. 3.6: Rainfall Intensity Duration Curve
The problem with pluviographic recordings is that a relatively small measuring area is
used (generally 200 cm²). One cannot simply transfer these results to an area of several
hundred hectares. Even measuring points that are relatively close to each other, may
show strongly varying rain intensities. Therefore nowadays precipitation radars are used
which can determine the rain drop size distribution.
During the 30ies, pluviographic recordings of all existing rain gage locations in Germany
were compared with each other. The following correlations between rainfall intensity r
[L/(s⋅ha)], rainfall frequency n [1/a] and rainfall duration train [min] could be observed:
Page: 87
• With increasing rainfall duration train and equal rainfall frequency n, rainfall intensity r
decreases: ‘heavy’ rains normally have a shorter duration than ‘slight’ rains
• with increasing frequency n at equal duration train, rainfall intensity r decreases:
‘slight’ rains are more frequent than ‘heavy’ rains
It was also determined that not only rain series of one rain gage location are similar to
each other, but all rain series of all locations. Absolute values of rain gage locations de-
pended on varying climatic conditions.
As an example for a rain gage location, Fig. 3.7 shows a rain series for the frequency
n = 1/a (to be reached or exceeded once a year) and one for the frequency n = 0,2/a
(every 5 years). The curve n = 1 clearly shows that for example a precipitation event
with an average intensity of 100 L/(s⋅ha) and a duration of 15 min is just as probable
(reached or exceeded once a year) as a precipitation event of 30 min duration with an
average intensity of 60 L/(s⋅ha).
rainfall intensity - duration curve of one

[L/(s*ha)]
[ l/(s*ha)] [L/(s*ha)]
rain gage location with

r r15(n=1) = 100 L/(seiner
Regenspendelinie
15,(n=1) ⋅ha)Station mit r 15 (n=1) =100 l/s*ha
160
quantity
Rainfall intensity
140 r15
q R15(n=0,2)
(n=0,2)
120 r15
q R15 (n=1)
(n=1)
100
Regenspende
80 r15 (n=1)
Stormwater
60
40
20
0
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120
Regendauer [min]
duration [min]
Fig. 3.7: Rainfall intensity-duration curve of one rain gage location with
r15,(n=1) = 100 L/(s⋅ha)
A characteristic value for each rain gage location is the stormwater quantity or rainfall in-
tensity which is reached or exceeded for a duration of 15 minutes once a year (r15,(n=1) ).
This values lies between 85 and 130 L/(s⋅ha) in Germany.
Fig. 3.8 shows stormwater quantities r15,(n=1) – exceeded or reached once a year
train = 15 min – for selected measuring locations [12].
In comparison to the data found by Reinhold [12], an increase in the characteristic val-
ues r15,(n=1) could be observed during the last years [4].
Page: 88
Rainfall intensity r15,(n=1) (L/s ha) in

Germany and neighbouring countries,
reached or exceeded once a year
T rain= 15 min
Fig. 3.8: Chart for rainfall intensities r15,(n=1) (L/s ha) in Germany and neighbouring
countries (exceeded once a year train = 15 min) according to Reinhold [12]
For larger drainage areas, it is also necessary to consider unequal distribution and un-
equal intensity of rains. Then, further investigations are necessary besides the above
mentioned rain evaluations.
Page: 89
Table 3.3: Geographical Coordinates from GEO-Rio rain stations network (City of Rio
de Janeiro) (From: Sistema Alerta Rio (http://www2.rio.rj.gov.br/georio/site/
alerta/alerta.htm)
Page: 90
Table 3.4: 2006 Pluviometric Monthly Rain Data (mm) (City of Rio de Janeiro) (From:
Sistema Alerta Rio (http://www2.rio.rj.gov.br/georio/site/alerta/alerta.htm)
For the dimensioning of sewer systems it is therefore not sufficient to regard only rain
intensities for a duration of 15 minutes. Shorter or longer precipitation events with ac-
cordingly higher or lower rainfall intensities must also be considered.
The chronological progression of the rainfall intensity-duration curve can be expressed
by the time coefficient which is the ratio of an arbitrary rainfall intensity rt(n) to the rain-
fall intensity r15,(n=1) (duration train = 15 min, reached or exceeded once a year).
Page: 91
This is expressed by the following equation:
rt(n) 38  1 
ϕ= = ⋅  4 − 0,369 
r15(n =1) t rain + 9  n  [-]
For a rain frequency n = 1 the equation can be simplified to
24
ϕ= [-]
t rain + 9
Additionally a known rainfall intensity ri,n=y can be used to calculate any other rainfall in-
tensity rx,n=y:
ϕ x, n = y
rx, n = y = ⋅r
ϕ i, n = k i, n = k
The assumed relevant standard rain duration train gives the range of the constant rain
intensity. An assumed relevant rain with the shortest duration of train = 15 min and a
rainfall intensity r15 may only be used for plains with a small percentage of impervious
areas. Since rain drains faster from covered surface than from pervious surface, short
heavy rains will often lead to overloading of the first sewer section. According to ATV-
standard A 118 [2] the assumed rain duration shown in table 3.1 should be used in de-
pendency on mean magnitude of ground slope and percentage of covered surface in
order to prevent backwater damage in short first sections of sewers
Table 3.5: Relevant shortest rain duration in dependency on mean magnitude of

ground slope and percentage of covered soil [2]
mean magnitude of ground percentage of cov- relevant shortest rain

slope ered soil duration
< 1% ≤ 50 % 15 min
> 50 % 10 min
1 % bis 4 % 10 min
>4% ≤ 50 % 10 min
> 50 % 5 min
When calculating the stormwater run-off, the expected rainfall frequency n of the rain-
fall intensity-duration curve is of special significance.
Page: 92
Recommended highest rainfall frequency n should be determined considering the fol-

lowing aspects:
• economic considerations;
• guaranteeing road safety;
• guaranteeing flood safety (see jurisdiction Federal Supreme Court, BGH III ZR 66/88
dated 05.10.1989);
• ground slope;
• pipe sole gradient.
For the calculation of stormwater sewers or combined sewer systems, the European
Norm EN 752-2 (1996) or the DWA (ATV)-Standard A 118 [2] recommend certain fre-
quencies of recurrence of the relevant assumed standard rains and accordingly guaran-
teed flood protection. The application of these values is obligatory, unless the regulatory
agency specifies other requirements due to special circumstances.
Table 3.6: Recommended frequencies of rainfall recurrence for sewer design according
to EN 752
2)
Recommended frequency of Type of area Flooding frequency
1)
rainfall recurrence (once in „n“ years)
(once in „n“ years)
1 in 1 rural areas 1 in 10
1 in 2 residential areas 1 in 20
city centres, industrial and commercial
districts :
1 in 2 with flooding test 1 in 30
1 in 5 without flooding test -
1 in 10 underground traffic systems, under- 1 in 50
ground crossings
1)
no overloading may occur for relevant assumed standard rains
2)
Flooding: State where wastewater and/or stormwater is discharged from the sewer system or cannot
enter the sewer system. The water either remains on the surface or enters buildings. (EN 752-1, 1996)
3.3.2 Stormwater Run-Off
Only part of the fallen rain enters the sewer system. The rest forms a layer of moisture
on paved surfaces, is stored in depressions, evaporates or percolates.
The percentage of rain which actually enters the sewer system, the stormwater run-off,
depends on the following factors:
• percentage of paved surface,
• type of soil coverage,
• ground slope,
• rain intensity and duration
• type of soil and vegetation.
Page: 93
The ratio between stormwater run-off and rainfall intensity is called run-off coefficient
ψ. It cannot be larger than 1.
One distinguishes between the mean run-off coefficient ψmean and the peak run-off
coefficient ψpeak.
The mean run-off coefficient ψmeant describes the ratio between total stormwater run-
off and total rainfall intensity.
total stormwater run - off

∫0 Q t d t
ψ mean = =
total rainfall intensity r ⋅ A catch ⋅ t
The value ψmean is used for dimensioning stormwater retention tanks, or for determining
lifting costs for pumping stations.
The peak run-off coefficient ψpeak is defined as the ratio of maximum stormwater run-
off to maximum rainfall intensity during one precipitation event.
max. stormwater run - off max. Q max. q

ψ peak = = =
max. rainfall intensity max. r ⋅ A catch max. r
The peak run-off coefficient ψpeak is relevant for standard dimensioning of sewer
systems. It largely depends on the percentage of paved, impervious areas, such as
roofs, streets, courtyards, parking lots etc. The percentage of the paved surfaces must
be determined using typical example areas (sufficient in size and number) of the drain-
age area. A constant rainfall intensity r is assumed for the calculation of ψpeak.
Table 3.7 from the DWA (ATV)-Standard A 118 [4] shows peak run-off coefficients in de-
pendency on the percentage of paved surfaces, the ground slope and the rainfall inten-
sity.
Page: 94
Table 3.7: Peak run-off coefficients for rainfall per second per area of about 100 to 130
l/(s ⋅ ha) with a rainfall duration of 15 min r15 in dependency of ground slope
Jg and percentage of paved surface[15]
When using these coefficients according to DWA (ATV)-Standard A 118, the following
restrictions apply:
• The relatively high peak run-off coefficients for uncovered or hardly paved drainage
areas are only valid for sections with a depth between 40 and 70 m. For larger outer
areas the peak run-off coefficients must be reduced to 0,10 – 0,20 according to
ground slope.
• For building covered areas, a peak run-off coefficient no smaller than 0,35 should be
assumed independent from the percentage of the covered area.
3.3.3 Allocation and Delimitation of Drainage Areas
In sewerage technology, the wastewater amount (sewage and stormwater) is deter-

mined in regard to drainage areas. First the course of the sewers must be included in
the site plan, then drainage areas are allocated to each collector section.
Fig. 3.9: Allocation of drainage areas AC for level ground
Page: 95
Drainage areas must be delimited according to contour lines and other barriers which
will influence the direction of flow. Also one must bear in mind to allocate areas of the
same size (in regard to housing structure) to each sewer section.
To determine the drainage area in level ground and for homogeneous housing struc-
tures, the angle of the blocks is bisected and the points of the intersection of the bisec-
tors are joined (see Fig. 3.9). The thus determined drainage areas must then be plani-
metered.
On sloping ground or for inhomogeneous areas, conditions will vary strongly and must
be taken into consideration, when delimiting drainage areas.
3.4 Wastewater Flow
In order to explain the flow process, a single sewer pipe, which drains a square drain-
age area 1-2-3-4, will be examined. The area slopes towards the collector pipe A-B,
situated on the centerline.
Furthermore it is assumed that the mean flow velocity v of the drained stormwater re-
mains constant and that the stormwater can drain to all sides (open channel). When ob-
serving the flow process, the initial run-off delay must be taken into consideration. At the
beginning of the rainfall, stormwater run-off QR is not flowing in the sewer, as the rain-
drops need some time before reaching the sewer. Also after the rain has stopped, QR
will still be traveling in the sewer.
theoretical
recorded curve
Fig. 3.10: Diagram of storm water run-off and theoretical and measured stormwater
flow curve [1]
Page: 96
Fig. 3.10 describes run-off at point B. In the beginning of the rain, water from the sur-
roundings of B will enter the channel and flow through cross section B. At constant flow,
the flow volume in the channel will slowly form a triangle which increases with time (time
period t0 to t2). Run-off quantity grows continuously, while the flow area (point C) gradu-
ally moves upstream in the channel. When the rain stops after the time t, the flow area
stops extending and adopts the shape, observed at the time t4. While the flow area trav-
els to the upper end of the drainage area (point A), flow quantity remains constant.
As soon as the tip of the flow area has reached point A (point t5), the flow area de-
creases, as demonstrated for t6 to t8, until all water of the drainage area AC has passed
cross section B.
Fig. 3.10 also shows a theoretical run-off hydrograph at point B of the above described
process. This idealized curve is contrasted with an actual recorded curve. The actual
run-off curve results from the stormwater losses (interception, depression storage, infil-
tration, evaporation) and a run-off delay on the drainage area and in the sewer system.
3.5 Calculation of Stormwater-Run-off
Owing to the complexity of the question, nowadays normally computer models are used
to simulate the complete system, including stormwater run-off, dry weather flow, hydrau-
lic routing through piping systems etc. For a better understanding nevertheless it is nec-
essary to understand how the calculations are done and therefore various methods will
be introduced in the following.
Various methods have been developed for the dimensioning of combined sewer sys-
tems or stormwater sewers. All methods simplify the process of stormwater run-off in
order to be able to determine input parameters.
Methods for the dimensioning of a sewer system can be divided into simple calculation
procedures and complex simulation methods. Two general methods for the calculation
of stormwater can be distinguished:
• hydrological routing
• hydraulic routing
For hydrological routing, the run-off process is described using simple empirical func-
tions and is based on a standard assumed rainfall event occurring over a given duration
and distributed uniformly in time and space over the drainage area. Often stormwater
run-off is only considered without regarding the delay coefficient. This method is also
called time-of-concentration-model, since the calculation of stormwater run-off volume is
based on the time of concentration, which is defined as the longest travel time that it
takes a particle of water to reach the discharge point of a sewer section.
Hydraulic routing is based directly on physical-hydraulic laws. It is described mathe-
matically by the Saint-Venant equations. These equations are valid for all flow condi-
tions and all system conditions due to the permanent connection of flowrate, and water
level. Pressure drainage and backwater as well as reverse flow can be described realis-
tically.
For planning new systems only hydrological routing can be used, since pipe geometry
must be given for hydraulic models. After dimensioning new systems with hydrological
routing, hydraulic models can be used for optimizing new sewer nets.
Page: 97
3.6 Hydrological Dimensioning of Sewers
In the following a graphical method the hydrograph superposition and the most com-
monly used calculation model, the time-coefficient model, are presented.
3.6.1 Flood Plan Method
For larger drainage areas, a run-off delay must be considered. The flow time of the
stormwater in the sewer is often longer than the actual duration of the rainfall event. Af-
ter it has stopped raining, stormwater run-off still flows through the sewers. From the
start of the rainfall until the last drop of rain leaves the relevant sewer section, a certain
amount of time passes, which is determined by the rain duration and the flow time of the
last drop of rain, until it reaches the final point of the relevant sewer section.
In order to be able to dimension the sewers, one must know the highest flow volume in
the pipe. The rainfall intensity, the run-off coefficient and the size of the drainage area
determine peak run-off, but the time distribution must be determined separately.
Time distribution of the run-off quantity is determined graphically for a constant rain du-
ration train = T1 = T2 = T3 = 10 min and various flow times in the sewer t1 = 6 min, t2 = 10
min und t3 = 25 min. Stormwater run-off Qr10 is calculated with the equation
Qr10 = r10 · ψpeak · AC [L/s]
If the times t and T are plotted on the ordinate and the stormwater run-off Q is plotted on
the abscissa of a coordinate system, then flood lines are obtained for the lowest point of
the sewer section. The dotted lines represent the function of the run-off Q = f (t). Without
altering the values of Q, these lines can be completed to form a parallelogram and so
called “flood areas” can be obtained. The values for Q are the vertical distances be-
tween the sides of the parallelogram (Fig. 3.11).
Fig. 3.11: Flood areas for various flow times t [8]
Page: 98
It can be seen that in the third picture where t3 > T3, the maximum flow in the sewer at
the final point is smaller than the stormwater run-off quantity. Instead of 800 l/s, only 533
l/s flow through the sewer. If, at constant rain duration and various flow times, flow time
is longer than rainfall duration, than maximum flow volume in the sewer is smaller than
the calculated stormwater run-off.
While the above discussed considerations are valid for rainfall events of equal duration
and intensity but various flow time (that is for drainage areas with varying extensions),
flood areas can also be calculated for identical flow times but varying rain duration.
Fig. 3.12: Flood areas for varying rainfall duration [8]
Stormwater quantities given for n = 1

t4 = 20 min T4 = 10 min r4 = 121 [L/(s⋅ha)]
t5 = 20 min T5 = 20 min r5 = 78 [L/(s⋅ha)]
t6 = 20 min T6 = 30 min r6 = 59 [L/(s⋅ha)]
A = 20 ha
ψ = 0,6 =>
Q4 = 0,6 · 121 · 20 = 1450 l/s
Q5 = 0,6 · 78 · 20 = 940 l/s
Q6 = 0,6 · 59 · 20 = 710 l/s
For T4 < t4 the calculated stormwater run-off is Q4 = 1450 l/s, but the flood line shows
that only 725 l/s pass through the sewer between the 10th and 20th minute.
For constant flow time and varying rain duration, the rainfall event where duration
equals flow time will result in the highest flow volume in the sewer (t = T here t5 =
T5).
Page: 99
3.6.2 Hydrograph Superposition
If such flood areas are drawn for each sewer section of a complete sewer network and if
all flood areas are added in the order of the sewer sections and regarding sewer conflu-
ences, then one obtains a flood plan which shows relevant stormwater run-off for a se-
lected rain intensity. If these areas are added up, one obtains a cumulative hydrograph,
which shows the relevant stormwater quantity QR for the final point 1.
Given:
AC = 30 ha
r15, n=1 = 90 [L/(s⋅ha)]
ψA, B, C, D, E = 0,6
ψF, G = 0,4
v = 1,0 m/s
Calculate QR for the drainage area of each sewer section with equation
Qr15 = r15 · ψpeak · AC [L/s]
The individual flood areas must be plotted according to the chronological development
of the drainage flow. Maximum Q is determined by the largest ordinate value of the
sides of the parallelograms or by the cumulative hydrograph which is determined by
plotting the sum of the ordinate values starting at the point 0 (see Fig. 3.13).
max. Q for point 1
E
F
D
A
C G
B
Fig. 3.13: Flood plan with flood areas and cumulative hydrograph for point 1 (adapted
from [8]
Thus maximum Q is defined for one rainfall event of a defined duration and intensity.
Now one must determine that rainfall event from a series of rainfall events, which
Page: 100
causes the highest stormwater flowrate in the sewer. This can either be done by con-
structing various flood plans for various rain events or by using the stormwater run-off
diagram by Hauff-Vicari (see Fig. 3.14). This diagram considers the varying rainfall in-
tensity with increasing rain duration at constant rain frequency. This is represented by a
scale distortion of the ordinate for flow times, which are larger than the duration of the
assumed standard rain. The values for the rainfall intensity lines are calculated by the
equation:
ϕ assumed standard rain

Q⋅
ϕ time ordinate value
The time coefficient ϕ is calculated by the equation (see section 3.3.1):
rt(n) 38  1 
ϕ= = ⋅  − 0,369 
r15(n =1) t+9 4 n 
For example:
Q = 500 l/s, r15, n=1 for ordinate value 30 min:
1
500 = 500 ⋅ 1,625 = 812,5 l / s
0,615
Fig. 3.14: Stormwater run-off diagram according to Hauff-Vicari [8]
This diagram is plotted on transparent paper. In order to determine the highest stormwa-
Page: 101
ter run-off volume, the transparent stormwater run-off diagram is placed over the flood
plan of the relevant sewer sections. Holding ordinate and abscissa of both diagrams
parallel, the 0- point of the stormwater run-off diagram is moved along the cumulative
hydrograph. The highest stormwater run-off is determined by that line of the stormwater
run-off diagram which is tangent to the cumulative curve. The relevant duration is de-
termined by value of the abscissa at the boundary point. This value can be in the undis-
torted or in the distorted section of the stormwater run-off diagram.
If a considerably different value for the flow time in the relevant sewer section is found,,
the cumulative curve must be calculated anew and corrected.
Since the cumulative curves are constructed with the inflow lines of the flood areas, dif-
ferences in the topography of the drainage area can be considered realistically. Hydro-
graph superposition is therefore especially suitable for non-uniform drainage areas.
3.6.3 Time Coefficient Model
The time-coefficient model according to Imhoff [19] determines the highest possible
stormwater run-off under the assumption that time of concentration in the sewer net is
equal to relevant rain duration (tc = train). This model corresponds to the “rational for-
mula”.
Independent from rainfall duration, the peak run-off coefficient ψpeak is assumed
to be constant.
Relevant stormwater run-off at a certain point in the sewer system is calculated with the
following equation:
QR = ϕ ⋅ Qr15 = ϕ ⋅ r15 ⋅ ψpeak ⋅ AC [L/s]
with r15 rainfall intensity for a duration of train = 15 min [L/(s⋅ha)]

ϕ time coefficient [-]
ψpeak peak run-off coefficient [-]
AC drainage area [ha]
Rain intensity r15 is taken from local meteorological data or from rain evaluation data
collected by Reinhold [12].
For the first sewer sections, the relevant standard rains with the shortest duration ac-
cording to table 3.5 are to be used. For times of concentration which are shorter than
the selected rain duration, the time coefficient or the rain intensity respectively must re-
main constant (no further increase in rain intensity according to shorter rain duration).
Calculation of a drainage system is normally done using a spreadsheet. Following this
chapter a calculation example for the time coefficient model is given.
Dry weather flow QDW is calculated with the equations given in chapter 3.2.
In order to determine relevant stormwater run-off QR, partial run-off for Q15(i) [L/s] is de-
termined for each sewer section on the basis of the rain quantity r15, peak run-off coeffi-
Page: 102
cient ψpeak and the drainage area AC of that sewer section. This is then used to deter-
mine total flow quantity Σ Q15 [L/s].
Flow time or time of concentration tc must first be estimated for each sewer section. If
an initial flow velocity of 1,0 m/s is assumed, the absolute value for flow time can be
equated with the length of the sewer section.
l [m]
tc = [s]
v [m/s]
Flow time tc will be smaller than the assumed standard rain duration for the first sewer
sections. Relevant total flow time Σ tc for the assumed standard rain, is obtained by add-
ing flow times in front of the calculatory sewer section and in the relevant sewer section.
For the total time of concentration Σ tc , the time coefficient ϕ can be calculated in de-
pendency on the selected assumed standard rain duration using the following equation
(compare section 3.3):
rt(n) 38  1 
ϕ= = ⋅  4 − 0,369 
r15(n =1) t+9  n 
Relevant stormwater run-off QR is obtained by multiplying the time-coefficient ϕ with the

determined flow quantity Σ Q15 for the calculatory sewer section.
One gets the combined discharge flow by adding both flows.
QComb = QDW + QR
After selecting a suitable profile diameter, discharge volume Qfull and flow velocity vfull for
complete pipe filling can be determined using calculation tables for a defined roughness
koperation and a given pipe sole gradient JS (see section 3.7). The calculation tables for
partial filling can be used to determine the flow velocity vDW for dry weather flow, for wet
weather flow vWW and the filling height h.
If the total flow time of the stormwater run-off QR multiplied with the time coefficient is
considerably changed, the calculation must be repeated accordingly. If index 1 denomi-
nates the sewer section with the shorter and index 2 denominates the sewer section
with longer flow time, then the complete discharge volume QR1 + QR2 for a confluence
of the 2 sewers may be determined using the longer flow time t2 if
t C2
Q R2 ≥ ⋅ Q R1
9
If this is not the case, then stormwater run-off is determined according to the shorter
flow time. Then flow behavior can be described better with the following equation [4]:
Page: 103
 t 
Q R =  Q R1 + Q R2 ⋅ C1  ⋅ ϕ1
 t C2 
For
• extremely non-uniform drainage area shapes,
• non-uniform topography or
• highly varying percentage of paved areas
the highest stormwater run-off does not always occur for the condition that flow time/
time of concentration equals rain duration.
Fig. 3.15: Non-uniform drainage area shapes
In an area with a high percentage of paved surface between points B and C (Fig. 3.15
left) the highest discharge occurs, if only the area between these points is considered.
Although the complete drainage area is smaller, a higher stormwater run-off will be cal-
culated, since the time coefficient will hardly influence the discharge volume due to high
time of concentration.
In an area as shown in Fig. 3.15 right, stormwater discharge volume would schemati-
cally decrease with increasing flow time due to the time coefficient. This contradicts real-
ity.
According to above mentioned explanation, the time coefficient model is only suitable
for homogenous drainage areas.
Satisfying results can be obtained using the time coefficient model in connected and
homogenous areas.
If drainage areas are not connected and inhomogenous, relevant discharge volumes
should be determined using a graphical method, such as hydrograph superposition.
3.6.4 Example Calculation for the Time Coefficient Model
Part of a new sewer system must be designed for a city in northern Germany (see site
plan Fig. 3.16). The city uses a combined sewer system. External inflow takes place at
two points (no foreign water in these suburban districts). Stormwater run-off quantities
and wastewater quantities are given in the site plan, as well as times of concentration in
the sewer net.
Page: 104
QDW = 20 L/s
QR= 200 L/s
tC= 900 s
8.5
mH
ASL
QDW= 10 L/s
QR = 150 L/s
tC = 500 S
8.0
m
HAS
L
To the wastewater
treatment plant
Fig. 3.16: Site plan of a drainage area
Page: 105
given:
population density: PD = 200 I/ha
daily water consumption/wastewater discharge qd = 150 L/(pּd)
peak wastewater discharge qD = 0,005 L/(sּE)
extraneous wastewater flow qInf = 0,15 L/(sּha)
percentage of paved surface AP = 70 %
sought:
dimensioning of sewer pipes
delineation of sewers in the site plan and in the longitudinal section
Solution:
1. Definition of manhole locations in the site plan (manholes are required at all
changes of direction, gradient and diameter)
2. Construction of sewer sections by connecting the manholes
3. Definition of manhole cover height by interpolating contour lines
4. Selection of pipe sole depths at the manholes, thus determining gradients of the
sewers
5. Determination of drainage areas for each sewer section according to section
3.1.3
The result of steps 1 – 5 is shown in the site plan Fig. 3.17.
6. Determination of specific rain intensities r15,1 from Fig. 3.8: rain intensity r15,1 for
Kiel = 76 L/(sּha)
7. Determination of mean ground slope on the basis of the contour lines: mean
ground slope < 1 %.
8. Determination of the relevant shortest rain duration according to table 3.5: A
mean ground slope of < 1 % and a mean percentage of paved ground of 70 %
leads to a relevant shortest rain duration of 10 min.
9. Frequency of rainfall recurrences according to table 3.6. For residential areas =
once in 2 years => n = 0.5.
10. Determination of peak run-off coefficient ψpeak according to table 3.7: For a per-
centage of paved surface of 70 % and a ground slope of < 1 % one obtains a
peak run-off coefficient of 0,6 (extrapolated)
11. Determination of roughness according to table 3.9.
12. Spreadsheet calculation according to table 3.8
Page: 106
Steps for spreadsheet calculation:

[1-9] Initial values for the spreadsheet calculation are determined by the site plan, the terms of ref-
erence and prior calculations, fill out fields according to the direction of flow
[10] domestic wastewater QD = qD · PD [8] · Asection [4]
[11] total domestic wastewater Σ QD = domestic wastewater of the calculatory sewer section and
preceeding sewer sections
[12] Commercial and industrial wastewater QInd = qInd · PD [8] · Asection [4]
[13] total commercial and industrial wastewater Σ QInd = commercial and industrial wastewater of
the calculatory sewer section and preceeding sewer sections
[14] infiltration/inflow QInf = qInf · PD [8] · Asection [4]
[15] total infiltration/inflow Σ QInf = inflow/infiltration of the calculatory sewer section and preceed-
ing sewer sections
[16] total dry weather flow Σ QDW = Σ QD [11] + Σ QInd [13] + Σ QInf [15]
[17] estimated time of concentration tc according to section 3.6.2
[18] determine total time of concentration Σ tc of the calculatory sewer section and preceding
sewer sections, for the confluence of several sewers see section 3.6.2
[19] convert total time of concentration Σ tc to minutes
[20] calculate the time coefficient Σ according to section 3.6.2 in dependency on n, train and min
train
[21] stormwater run-off QR15 = r15 · Σ [7] · Asection [4]
[22] total stormwater run-off Σ QR15 = stormwater run-off of the calculatory sewer section and pre-
ceeding sewer sections = sum of [21] and other inflows
[23] maximum stormwater run-off max QR = Σ [20] · Σ QR15 [22]
[24] maximum combined flow Qcomb = Σ QDW [16] + max QR [23]
[25] pipe sole gradient Js, see site plan
[26] choose pipe profile, mostly circular profile
[27] select pipe diameter considering Qcomb / Qfull ≤ 0,9 (see minimum diameters according to sec-
tion 3.9.1
[28] determine flow quantity for complete filling Qfull using the equation or the nomogram in section
3.7.1
[29] determine velocity of complete filling vfull using the equation or the nomogram in section 3.7.1
[30] Verify whether the existing flow time for complete filling equals the estimated flow time tC = l
[2] / [29]
If existing flow time and estimated flow time do not agree, insert existing flow time [30] into
estimated flow time [17] and repeat steps. Actually the estimated flow time would have to
agree to the flow time for wet weather flow. For simplification a comparison with the flow time
for complete filling is used.
[31] The relation QDW /Qfull is obtained by [16] / [28]
[32] determine the relation vDW /vfull according to section 3.7.2 using the equation or the diagram
[33] Velocity vDW = vDW /vfull [32] · vfull [29]
[34] The relation Qcomb/Qfull is obtained by [23] / [28]; if the calculated value is > 0,9 => choose
next bigger diameter
[35] determine the relation vcomb/vfull according to section 3.7.2 using the equation or the diagram
[36] Velocity vcomb = vcomb/vfull [35] · vfull [29]
Page: 107
QDW = 20 L/s
QR= 200 L/s
tC= 900 s
9.0
9.5
10.5
HAS
HAS
HAS
8.5
L
H
ASL
QDW = 10 L/s
QR= 150 L/s
tC= 500 s
8,0
HAS
L
To the
wastewater
treatment plant
Legend
sewer section
sewer section no.
sewer section area

Sewer section
area
Sewer section number

sewer section number
manhole cover
manhole cover level
Pipe sole level
level
pipe sole level
Fig. 3.17: Construction of sewer sections
Page: 108
Table 3.8: Spreadsheet calculation according to the time-coefficient model
Page: 109
manhole
location
sewer section
length sewer sect. m
contour height mm
pipe sole gradient 0/00
mean install. depth m
value k operational mm
Q complete filling m3/s
v complete filling m/s
manhole cover level mHASL
max. water level mHASL
pipe sole level mHASL
Fig. 3.18: Contour Lines
Page: 110
3.7 Hydraulic Calculation of Sewer Pipeline Cross-Sections
3.7.1 Calculation for complete filling
The dimensioning of new sewers is done under the simplified assumptions of

steady-state, uniform discharge (normal discharge) and an operational rough-
ness (koperation), which takes into consideration continuous and local losses as an in-
creased roughness coefficient (generalized approach).
Additionally it is assumed that the flow happens at complete filling and without back-
water, which means without pressure. Capacity of a pipe at complete filling should
not be fully utilized. If the dimensioning discharge reaches 90 % of the discharge ca-
pacity Qfull, it is recommended to select the next largest cross-section. This gives
global consideration to the following:
• undercutting of nominal dimensions within the permissible framework in accor-
dance with DIN 4263,
• reduction of cross-sections due to unavoidable deposits of up to 3 % of the total
cross-sectional area even if sewers and drains are maintained regularly,
• equation of the actual sewer length l with its projection
energ
water y grad
surfac ient energy
e gradie
n t
fall hf
hydra
ulic gra
dient
Velocity head
pipe c
energy for cir r own v2/ 2g = const.
cular
head profile
s
pipe s water level

o le
initial horizon
Fig. 3.19: Normal discharge with completely filled sewers (unpressurizied)[5]
Under the assumption of a unpressurized steady-state uniform discharge (see Fig.

3.19) one gets:
• a constant mean velocity over whole section
v = const.
• a constant energy gradient (due to hfull(v)=const.)
JE = const.
Page: 111
• energy gradient JE = hydraulic gradient Jp

= water surface gradient JW = pipe sole gradient JS
JE = Jp = JW = JS
Considering above mentioned assumptions and using the Colebrook equation (com-
pare section 2.7.2) one obtains the general discharge formula
  2,51⋅ ν 1 k operation  
Q = A ⋅ − 2,0 ⋅ log + ⋅  ⋅ 4rhy ⋅ JS ⋅ 2g 
  4rhy ⋅ JS ⋅ 2g 3,71 4rhy  
 
with
koperation = operational roughness
JS = pipe sole gradient
and for circular profiles
with 4rhy = d
π ⋅ d2   2,51⋅ ν 1 k operation  
Q= ⋅ − 2,0 ⋅ log + ⋅  ⋅ d ⋅ J S ⋅ 2g 
4   d ⋅ JS ⋅ 2g 3,71 d  
For interpreting the equation for various koperation -values in dependency on Q and JS
and the nominal profiles according to DIN 4263, nomograms and tables exist (see
Fig. 3.20, compare chapter 2). If the flowrate Q and the pipe sole gradient JS are
known, then the required cross-section and the flow velocity for full flow can be de-
termined. Alternatively the required cross-section can be calculated iteratively on the
basis of the discharge formula, if koperation , JS and Q are given.
Page: 112
Flow rate (l/s)
gradient
Fig. 3.20: Calculation table of circular profiles koperation=1,5mm)
Page: 113
3.7.2 Calculation for partial filling
Simplified assumptions (steady-state, uniform discharge) can be made for the calcu-
lation of discharge processes with partial filling. According to [5] the following equa-
tion applies:
for the calculation of flow velocities:
0,625
v partial  rhy,partial 
= 
v full  r 
 hy,full 
with:
vpartial = flow velocities for partial filling
rhy,partial = hydraulic radius for partial filling
for the calculation of flow rates :

0,625
Qpartial A partial  rhy,partial 
= ⋅ 
Q full A full  rhy,full 
with:
Qpartial = flow quantity for partial filling
Afull = flow cross section for partial filling
If the water surface in the pipe is close to complete filling, the problem of air entrain-
ment combined with the resultant risk of the surcharging of pipelines exists. There-
fore steady-state uniform discharges are not possible anymore for partial fillings of
Qpartial/Qfull ≥ 1 at hpartial/d = 0,827 to 1,00 for circular profiles and hpartial/H = 0,867 to
1,00 for other closed profiles. For simplifying these cases, equations for complete fill-
ing are used.
Fig. 3.21 shows partial filling curves for circular profiles, calculated using equations
for partial filling.
Page: 114
Cicular profile B : d = 2 : 2
hpartial/d
Qpartial/Qfull
vpartial/vfull
hpartial
Qpartial/Qfull
vpartial/vfull
Fig. 3.21: Partial filling curves for circular profiles [5]
3.7.3 Roughness Values koperation for Generalized Approaches
According to ATV-Standard A 110 [5] the following values for operational roughness
koperation can be used for various types of sewers and manholes:
Table 3.9: Generalized values for operational roughness koperation in mm, [5]
Type of Sewer Manhole design
Inspection shaped man- special man-
manhole hole hole
Transport sewers 0,50 0,50 0,75
Main sewers ≤ DN 1000 0,75 0,75 1,50
main sewers > DN 1000 - 0,75 1,50
brickwork sewers, on-site concrete sewers, sewers 1,50 1,50 1,50
made from non-standard pipes without special verifi-
cation of roughness
throttle sections, pressure sewers, inverted siphons, (no manholes!) 0,25
relining sections without manholes
Page: 115
The generalized approach for the koperation – value normally takes into consideration
the influence of
• pipe roughness,
• positional inaccuracies and modifications,
• pipe joints,
• inlet fittings and
• manholes.
3.7.4 Flow Velocities
It is recommended to choose minimum gradient and thus minimum flow velocity high
enough to guarantee deposit-free operation. Table 3.10 presents minimum flow ve-
locities for deposit-free operation.
When using table 3.10 it must be considered that
• given velocities correspond to a discharge flow for half filled sewers (hpartial/H) =
0,5,
• the given values can be used for partial filling (hpartial/H) ≥ 0,3,
• the values for vcrit must be increased by approx. 10 % for partial fillings
0,1 ≥ (hpartial/H) < 0,3
Critical velocities vcrit are not to be seen as minimum velocities (velocities can fall be-
low vcrit). If flow velocities fall below critical flow velocity, then increased operational
expenses must be expected (e.g. for intermittent flushing).
Minimum flow velocities can be determined by the empirical formula:
v min = D [m/s] with D = diameter in [m]
Maximum allowable flow velocities depend on the pipe material. Vitrified clay pipes
can tolerate flow velocities up to 10 m/s.
Page: 116
Table 3.10: Limiting values for deposit-free operation [5]

diameter critical velocity critical gradient
DN vcrit Jcrit
[mm] [m / s] [‰]
150 0,48 2,72

200 0,50 2,04
250 0,52 1,63
300 0,56 1,51
350 0,62 1,48
400 0,67 1,45
450 0,72 1,42
500 0,76 1,40
600 0,84 1,37
700 0,91 1,33
800 0,98 1,31
900 1,05 1,29
1000 1,12 1,26
1100 1,18 1,25
1200 1,24 1,24
1300 1,28 1,22
1400 1,34 1,20
1500 1,39 1,19
1600 1,44 1,18
1800 1,54 1,16
2000 1,62 1,14
2200 1,72 1,12
2400 1,79 1,10
2600 1,87 1,10
2800 1,96 1,09
3000 2,03 1,08
Page: 117
3.7.5 Example Calculation for Dimensioning of a Pipe Diameter
Given from the design of a combined sewer system

dry weather flow QDW 38 [L/s]
combined wastewater flow Qcomb 1.500 [L/s]
o
pipe sole gradient JS 2,5 [ /oo]
operational roughness koperational 1,5 [mm]
selected profile circular profile
Calculation using a nomogram (Fig. 3.20)
discharge flow QDW +Qcomb 1538 [L/s]
selected diameter DN 1200 [mm]
discharge capacity DN 1200 Qfull 1900 [L/s]
flow velocity vfull 1,7 [m/s]
Qactual QDW + Qcomb 1538 0,81 < 0,827 [-]
examination = =
Qfull Qfull 1900
critical flow velocity (table 3.10) Vcrit 1,24 [m/s]

Verification of dry weather flow
relation QDW to Qfull QDW 38 0,02 [-]
= =
Q full 1900
partial filling according hpartial/d 0,1 [-]
Fig. 3.21:
vcrit increased by 10 %, (see section v =1,24 * 1,1 1,33 [m/s]
3.7.4)
.
hpartial = 0,1 * 1,20 = 0,12 [m]
relation vpartial to vfull v partial 0,4 [-]
=
according Fig. 3.21 v full
vpartial = 0,4 * 1,68= 0,67 < vcrit [m/s]
Verification of combined wastewater flow
Qcomb 1500 0,79 [-]
= =
Qfull 1900
hpartial/d 0,65 < 0,8 [-]
hpartial = 0,65* 1,20 = 0,78 [m]
v partial 1,1 [-]
v full
vpartial =1,1 * 1,68 = 1,85> vcrit [m/s]
Page: 118
3.8 Drainage Methods
3.8.1 Criteria for the Choice of a Drainage System
In the last years the objectives of sanitary drainage systems have changed dramati-
cally. In former times the predominant goal was to drain all stormwater from housing
areas as quickly and as completely as possible, today the idea is, to let unpolluted
stormwater percolate into the ground or to drain it directly into a receiving body of wa-
ter. Polluted stormwater or sewage on the other hand must be collected and fed into
the wastewater treatment plant.
The decision as to whether combined or separate sewers are to be constructed must
be faced at the very beginning of the project. Generally, both systems as described
below, have advantages and disadvantage and both must be considered equally ef-
fective from the standpoint of water quality management. The most important deci-
sion parameters are described in the following [6]:
• Type, condition and hydraulic efficiency of the existing drainage system
• Location, capacity, flood water level and quality of the receiving water bodies,
• Type and density of housing;
• Topography, ground water level;
• Infiltration capability, soil pollution;
• Type and efficiency of existing wastewater treatment plants;
• Water protection areas, flood plains;
• Space for stormwater discharge basin, flood retention basin, stormwater settling
tank and percolation systems.
In separate and combined sewerage systems the effluents commonly are conveyed
by gravity. If ground slope is small, these systems need repeated pumping action and
very deep ditches for pipes. For these cases, vacuum and pressure drainage sys-
tems can be used. A large advantage of these systems is that construction is quick
and easy. Pipes can be laid in shallow depth (but frost free) along the terrain gradi-
ent. Vacuum and pressure systems must be constructed as separate sewerage sys-
tems.
If soil conditions are adequate, the percolation of unpolluted stormwater is an alterna-
tive to draining stormwater via separate stormwater sewers.
The above mentioned drainage systems will be described more closely in the follow-
ing.
3.8.2 Combined Sewer Systems
A combined sewer system collects and removes all wastewaters in one line (domes-
tic sewage, industrial wastes, stormwater, infiltration/inflow). In order to minimize pipe
cross-sections in main collectors, stormwater overflow structures and stormwater re-
tention tanks are necessary within the drainage system. Unpolluted water such as
Page: 119
drainage water, spring water or well water must be prevented from entering the com-
bined sewer system.
Combined sewer systems are advantageous if:
• receiving water bodies are very far away,
• ground slope is steep,
• space for construction is limited,
• a large percentage of stormwater is polluted and wastewater ponds are used for
stormwater treatment.
In comparison to separate sewer systems, combined sewer systems have the advan-
tage that misconnections and incorrect inflows are not possible.
A special type of the combined system is the modified combined system. Only
sewage and polluted stormwater are drained into the sewer system, unpolluted
stormwater is drained directly into the receiving water body or percolates into the
ground.
3.8.3 Separate Sewer Systems
A separate sewer system separately collects and removes wastewater in a wastewa-

ter collector and stormwater in a stormwater collector. The wastewater is carried to
the wastewater treatment plant, where it is treated, while the stormwater is dis-
charged to the nearest receiving water body. If stormwater is polluted, a stormwater
treatment may be necessary. Unpolluted water such as spring water may increase
costs for necessary stormwater treatment.
Separate sewer systems are advantageous if:
• receiving water bodies are close by,
• ground slope is gentle and groundwater level is high,
• only a small percentage of stormwater is polluted and needs treatment,
• small wastewater treatment plants or constructed wetlands are used,
• a sewer system is constructed in several stages.
A modified separate sewer system exists just like the modified combined sewer
system. Wastewater is drained in the wastewater collector, while unpolluted stormwa-
ter is either drained into the receiving water body or percolates into the ground. Pol-
luted stormwater is fed to a stormwater treatment plant.
3.8.4 Vacuum Drainage Systems
Vacuum drainage systems were already used in the 19th century (e.g. Paris, Berlin).
The system used today is equivalent to the dewatering principle used in shipbuilding
(compare DIN 86281 for ship drainage systems). In a central vacuum station, a vac-
uum between 0,6 and 0,7 bar is generated within the pipe system. The wastewater is
collected in a tank in the house. After passing a valve, the wastewater is sucked to a
Page: 120
vacuum collector tank in front of the vacuum station. The collectors have a nominal
diameter of minimum DN 65. Fig. 3.22, 3.23 and 3.24 illustrate such a system and
show the corresponding house connection and a vacuum station.
connected house
with service pipe and
valve unit
main
collector
vacuum
station
secondary
sewer wastewater
treatment
plant
receiving
water body
Fig. 3.22: Vacuum drainage system [7]
control unit
valve
collector tank
collector pipe
Fig. 3.23: Vacuum drainage, house connection (schematic) [7]
Page: 121
vacuum pump
non-return valve
control gate
collector
gate
non-return
valve
wastewater
outlet wastewater pump
Fig. 3.24: Vacuum station in a vacuum drainage system [7]
3.8.5 Pressure Drainage Systems
Pressure drainage was used for the first time in Hamburg in the late 60ies. In a pres-
sure drainage system, wastewater flows from each house into a collection well,
equipped with a pump sump. The building is connected to the pressure system via a
submerged pump (wastewater pump) equipped with a non-return valve. Pressure
head in the drainage system is up to 3 bar. The drainage system is equipped with a
flushing station. Fig. 3.25 und 3.26 show a pressure drainage system and the corre-
sponding house connection.
collection well
with pump
sump
flushing
station
house
wastewater
connection with
treatment plant
pressure pipe
receiving
gravity pipe water body
pressure sewer
flushing
station
Fig. 3.25: Pressure drainage system (schematic) [7]
Page: 122
ventilation via
the roof
control
unit
gate valve
pressure
connection with
sewer
pressure pipe
gravity
pipe
Fig. 3.26: Pressure drainage, house connection [7]
Page: 123
3.8.6 Percolation
Infiltration devices are part of modified separate and combined sewer systems with
the objective of minimizing stormwater run-off volume thus minimizing high water
problems in receiving water bodies. Additionally unpolluted stormwater percolates
without flooding the sewer system. Also stormwater percolation leads to direct
groundwater recharge.
Various types of percolation exist:
• infiltration bed
• infiltration ditch
• open or covered subsurface infiltration trenches
• infiltration chamber
In infiltration beds (Fig. 3.27) stormwater percolates either directly through a porous
surface (e.g. pervious pavement) or through a porous soil area next to a paved sur-
face. Since no retention capacity exists, infiltration rate must be higher than rainfall
intensity. Generally infiltration beds most often are covered with pervious pavement
and are used for recreational facilities, parking areas, footpaths in parks, sports
fields.
Fig. 3.27: Infiltration bed with pervious pavement [14]
Infiltration ditches (Fig. 3.28) haven a certain temporary retention capability. The
infiltration rate may be lower than rainfall intensity. In comparison to infiltration beds
less space is necessary. Infiltration ditches may be used for the dewatering of paved
areas next to unused greens, for small streets with little traffic, on the side of parking
lots.
Page: 124
ditch separation
due to steep slopes
paved area depth of ditch

< 0,5mm
Fig. 3.28: Infiltration ditch (8)
Open or covered subsurface inflitration trenches let the stormwater infiltrate ei-
ther on the surface via a gravel filled trench (open infiltration trench) or via a covered
gravel filled trench containing a perforated pipe for distribution and overflow (covered
subsurface infiltration trench) (Fig. 3.29).
curbstone with alternative:

openings open trench
paved area possible

additional outlet
covered trench
perforated pipe
frost free for the distribution of
possible punctiform
inflows (e.g. gutters)
Fig. 3.29: Infiltration ditch, combined with an open and a subsurface infiltration
trench [8]
Another possibility is to collect the stormwater in an infiltration chamber (Fig. 3.30)

with a porous bottom. A delayed infiltration takes place through the pervious bottom
of the chamber. Infiltration chambers are used especially for collecting the stormwa-
ter run-off from smaller paved areas.
Page: 125
cover
stone gravel bed
frost proof
sand
sand geotextile fabric

filter layer
max. groundwater level
Fig. 3.30: Infiltration chamber [20]
3.9 Parts of the Sewer System
3.9.1 Sewer Pipes
Mainly vitrified clay pipes, concrete and reinforced concrete pipes and plastic pipes
are used for sewer systems. Furthermore ductile iron pipes and steel pipes are used.
Vitrified clay pipes are glazed pipes made from clay, fired at a temperature of
1150 °C and glazed. Vitrified clay has proven to be especially suitable for sewer con-
struction, since it is resistant to almost all aggressive substances in wastewater and
soil except for hydroflouric acid. Its resistance to chemical corrosion comes not from
the glazing, but from the clay itself. The glazing reduces roughness and improves
flow. The material is very abrasion-resistant, therefore flow velocities of 10 m/s are
unproblematic. Vitrified clay pipes are mainly used for the construction of wastewater
sewers.
Concrete pipes have been in use for sewer systems for more than 100 years. Con-
crete pipes are very economical and are often used for stormwater sewers or com-
bined sewers. If corrosion due to aggressive soil, wastewater or gas is to be ex-
pected, concrete with high chemical resistance must be used.
Plastic pipes made from polyethylene (PE) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and fiber-
glass reinforced plastic pipes (FRP) are also used for sewers. Their applicability
must be examined for each individual case, depending on their resistance to biologi-
cal and chemical stress, their resistance to corrosion and temperature changes, their
Page: 126
resistance to pressure (soil weight and traffic) and their resistance to aging.
According to [4], minimum diameters in general should be at least
wastewater sewers DN 250
stormwater sewers DN 300
independent from actual calculated total flows.
3.9.2 Inspection Manholes
The principle purpose of manholes is to permit inspection and cleaning of the sew-
ers and removal of obstructions. Inspection manholes are composed of the lower
part, the workspace, the upper part and the manhole cover. Location and spacing of
manholes depends on available inspection and cleaning devices. In former times mir-
rors were used for the inspection of inaccessible sewers. The sewer was illuminated
from one manhole, while from another manhole the interior of the pipe was inspected
using a mirror mounted on a flexible rod. Maximum distance between manholes was
therefore limited to approx. 50 m. Nowadays closed circuit television enables video
inspection of the sewer and therefore distances between manholes in inaccessible
sewers can be 100 m and more. The spacing of manholes in accessible sewers de-
pends on sufficient ventilation and on regulations of the responsible accident insurer.
Page: 127
Section C-C
Section D-D
Section B-B Variant section A-A
List of Materials
1 water stop insulation player B5 DIN 1045
2 concrete bottom plate B25 DIN 1045
3 shaped channel B5 DIN 1045
4 tread
5 fitting
6 walls (concrete, brickwork)
7 outside coating with protective
layer
8 reduction ring B 25 DIN 4034
9 support ring
10 precast stacked concrete rings SR-M DIN 4034
11 manhole cone SH-M DIN 4034
12 manhole ring AR-V DIN 4034
13 climbing iron
Section A-A 14 manhole cover equivalent to DIN
1229
15 dirt trap equivalent to DIN
1229
Fig. 3.31: Typical inspection manhole up to size DN 500 with rectangular lower part
and precast concrete rings [18]
Page: 128
3.9.3 Drop Manholes
A manhole is constructed as a drop manhole, if considerable height differences be-

tween the upper and the lower pipe have to be overcome in a short distance. This will
be necessary in very steep courses to order to guarantee that maximum tolerable
gradient is not exceeded. Fig. 3.32 presents a drop manhole with vertical pipe.
Fig. 3.32: Drop manhole with vertical pipe [18]
3.9.4 Inverted Siphon
An inverted siphon (dip pipe) is used to pass below an obstacle such as water
courses, railroads, subways, canals etc. (Fig. 3.33). The cross section of the inverted
siphon must be adapted to run-off volume fluctuations and should be divided into
several tubes in order to guarantee sufficient flow velocity thus preventing accumula-
tion of debris. Details for the dimensioning of inverted siphons are given in ATV-
Standard A 112 [9].
Page: 129
profile
river
inflow
siphon inlet
siphon outlet chamber
chamber
inverted siphon; pressure pipe
blowoff
ground plan emergency outlet
river
section
river
Tube 1: dry weather flow and slight rainfall

Tube 2: medium rainfall
Tube 3: strong rainfall
Fig. 3.33: Inverted siphon
3.9.5 Stormwater Overflows
In combined sewer systems, stormwater-run-off volume exceeds dry-weather flow

considerably. Since the wastewater treatment plant cannot handle the complete
stormwater run-off volume (in general it is dimensioned for double dry-weather flow),
part of the stormwater run-off is separated in a stormwater overflow and goes directly
to the receiving water body. A stormwater overflow consists of an overflow basin and
a discharge channel to the receiving water body (Fig. 3.34). Dimensioning of a
stormwater overflow is done according to ATV-Standard A 111 [3].
To the treatment
plant
Receiving water
body
Fig. 3.34: Stormwater overflow [4]
Page: 130
3.9.6 Stormwater Retention Tanks
Stormwater retention tanks store part of the stormwater run-off during heavy rainfall
and discharge it slowly via a throttle valve to the sewer net. A stormwater retention
tank has no discharge channel to the receiving water body and can only discharge
into the sewer system. By temporarily storing the wastewater, peak flows are re-
duced. Dimensioning of a stormwater retention tanks is done according to ATV-
Standard A 117 [11].
3.9.7 Stormwater Regulation Tanks
Stromwater regulation tanks are structures serving to store water that exceeds the
discharge capacity of the sewers that follow it. In contrast to stormwater retention
tanks, water that overflows from the tank is discharged directly into the receiving wa-
ter body. For short, heavy showers, where the discharge is smaller than the storage
capacity of the tank, there is no overflow. During heavier rainfall, at least the first pol-
luted flow caused by the flushing of the sewers should be retained and, after some
delay, carried to the treatment plant, while only the peak flows are discharged into the
receiving water. Stormwater regulation tanks are also called stormwater tanks retain-
ing the first flush of stormwater (STRFF). Stormwater regulation tanks are divided
into:
• collecting tanks,
• flow-through tanks,
• combined tanks (CT).
Stormwater regulation tanks can also be distinguished according to their position in
regard to the following sewer. Collecting tanks, flow-through tanks and combined
tanks can be situated in the main line to the wastewater treatment plant or in bypass.
When situated in bypass, then the discharge to the wastewater treatment plant
passes by the tank, when situated in the main line then the discharge passes through
the tank. It depends on topography and local conditions whether a stormwater tank is
constructed in bypass or in the main line.
Collecting tanks (ct) (Fig. 3.35) are recommendable, if sudden flushing incidents
occur, flow time is tf < 15 - 20 min and no other stormwater overflow structures exist
in the drainage area. Peak stormwater run-off quantities, which exceed the storage
capacity of the tank, will be directed to the receiving water body via an overflow facil-
ity (of).
Fig. 3.35: Collecting tanks in the main line / collecting tanks in bypass (STREFF =
stormwater tank retaining the first flush) [4]
Page: 131
Flow-through tanks (ftt) (Fig. 3.36) are used, if no sudden flushing incidents occur,
flow time is tf > 15 - 20 min and the drainage area already has other stormwater over-
flow structures. Peak stormwater run-off quantities will pass a mechanical pretreat-
ment before being discharged into the receiving water body (sewage overflow= so).
Fig. 3.36: Flow-through tanks in the main line and in bypass (STOSC = stormwater
tank with overflow for settled combined wastewater) [4]
Combined tanks are a combination of collecting and flow-through tanks and consist
of a retention (RP) and a treatment section (TP). Combined tanks are used, if sudden
flushing incidents as well as continuous polluted flows are to be treated.
Fig. 3.37: Combined tanks in the main line (OSSC= overflow sewer with storage ca-
pacity, RP = retention part, TP = treatment part) [4]
Fig. 3.38: Combined tank in bypass [4]
Page: 132
3.9.8 Sewers with Storage Capacity
Sewers with storage capacity (OSSC) work like a flow-through tank without over-
flow. The difference lies in the set-up of the overflow. Sewers with storage capacity
and top overflow (OSSCtop) work like collecting tanks in the main line (Fig. 3.39).
Sewers with storage capacity and bottom overflow (OSSCbottom) work like flow-
through tanks without overflow in the main line (Fig. 3.40).
Fig. 3.39: Sewer with storage capacity and top overflow (ossctop) [4]
Fig. 3.40: Sewer with storage capacity and bottom overflow (osscbottom) [4]
Sewers with storage capacity and bottom overflow must have a larger storage vol-
ume due to the possible flushing of the storage space. The advantages of sewers
Page: 133
with storage capacity are that they have little construction expenses, little demand for
(surface) space and that they can be emptied using natural gravity.
Dimensioning of sewers with storage capacity is done according to [3,10].
3.9.9 Stormwater Sedimentation Tank
Stormwater sedimentation tanks are used to mechanically pre-treat stormwater (by

settling of pollutants), before it is discharged into the receiving water body. They are
normally used, if the stormwater contains high pollutant concentrations (industrial ar-
eas, main roads) and if the receiving water body needs special protection.
3.9.10 Pumping Stations
Pumping stations are necessary to minimize necessary sewer depth and thereby in-
curring costs, if topography is unfavourable (no natural slope, unfavourable founda-
tion conditions, high groundwater level). Pumping stations must be dimensioned for
an undisturbed, reliable, plug-free operation. They must be dimensioned for a mini-
mum passageway of 100 mm. The receiving pressure sewer must then also have a
minimum diameter of 100 mm. If power failures are to be expected, the installation of
emergency power supply is necessary. Centrifugal pumps and spiral/screw pumps
are most commonly used. Advantages and disadvantages of both pump types are
presented in the following:
Centrifugal pumps Screw pumps
Advantages
• little space requirement • nonclog device
• powered by high speed motors • high pump efficiency
• runs smoothly, little vibrations • easy maintenance, trouble free opera-
• low maintenance expenses tion
• little spare parts stocking • little wear and tear
• easy installation
• flexible adjustment
Disadvantages
• normally not self-priming • maximum lift approx. 10 m geod.
• no back-flow prevention if pump is • high space requirement for the pumping
stopped station
• increased wear and tear at high revo- • only limited possibilities for increasing
lution speed volume flow or pressure head at a later
• clogging problems for small impeller point of time
diameters • free unrestrained discharge is neces-
sary
The mode of operation of centrifugal pumps is described in detail in chapter 2.
Page: 134
Impeller shapes used for wastewater pumping are presented in Fig. 3.41:
a) single vane b) free flow c) spiral
Fig. 3.41: Impeller shapes for wastewater pumping [17]
Besides circular pumps, screw or spiral pumps are also used for large flow volumes
and small lifts. Screw pumps are positive displacement pumps. The discharge flow
volume is linearly dependent on the volume between the flights of the screw and the
revolution number:
Qscrew = q . n . D³ [m³/s]
with
Qn = discharge flow volume [m³/s]
q = discharge factor dependent on d/D und ß
d = torque tube diameter [m]
D = outer screw diameter[m]
β = angle of inclination [°]
-1
n = revolution min
The conveying screw is defined according to the number of flights (Fig. 3.42).
1- single flight 2- double flight 3- triple flight
Fig. 3.42: Number of flights of conveying screws [1]
Details of a screw pump are shown in Fig. 3.43.
Page: 135
D = outer diameter
S = screw pitch
d = torque tube diameter
β = angle of inclination [°] (standard 22° to 38°)
with:
F= Fill point
water level, where the screw works under full load
T = Touch point
The lowest point in the screw pump trough where the first flights make
contact with the liquid being pumped. For water levels between the
touch and the fill point, the screw efficiency equals inflow.
S1= Maximum pumping point
max. possible water level
S2 = Chute Point
The upper level of the bottom of the screw pump trough. This chute
prevents the water from flowing backwards into the trough if the screw
pump is off.
H1 = Static Lift
Maximum pumping point minus filling point
Head = Chute point minus touch point
Fig. 3.43: Conveyer Screw [16]
The limiting speed of screw pumps ranges between 20 rev/min and 90 rev/min.
Maximum overall system efficiency lies between 60 and 75 %. The following figure
shows the head-capacity curve and the efficiency curve of a screw pump in compari-
son to those of a centrifugal pump.
Page: 136
Head capacity
centrifugal pump
head capacity curve screw pump
Efficiency
curve screw
pump
Efficiency curve
centrifugal pump
Fig. 3.44: Comparison of pump characteristic curves for a screw pump and a
centrifugal pump [1]
Detailed information on the dimensioning of pumping stations can be found in [13].

When planning pressure pipes situated behind the pumps, one must prevent long
retention times of the wastewater. Otherwise the digestion process will start and will
cause serious odor nuisances.
Page: 137
[1] ATV-Handbuch Planung der Kanalisation, 4. Auflage, Verlag Wilhelm Ernst und
Sohn (1994).
[2] ATV-Standard A 118 E: Hydraulic Dimensioning and Verification of Drainage
Systems (1999).
[3] ATV-Regelwerk A 111: Richtlinien für die hydraulische Dimensionierung und den
Leistungsnachweis von Regenwasserentlastungsanlagen in Abwasserkanälen
und –leitungen (1994).
[4] ATV-Standard A 128 E: Standards for the Dimensioning and Design of Stormwa-
ter Overflows in Combined Wastewater Sewers (1992)
[5] ATV-Standard A 110E: Hydraulic Dimensioning and Performance Verification of
Sewers and Drains (1988).
[6] ATV-Regelwerk A 105: Wahl des Entwässerungssystems (1997).
[7] ATV-Regelwerk A 116: Besondere Entwässerungsverfahren:
Unterdruckentwässerung – Druckentwässerung (1992).
[8] Hosang, W.; Bischof, W.; Abwassertechnik, B.G. Teubner Verlag, Stuttgart 1998
[9] ATV-Regelwerk A 112: Richtlinien für die hydraulische Dimensionierung und den
Leistungsnachweis von Sonderbauwerken in Abwasserkanälen und Leitungen
(1998).
[10] Gujer, W.: Siedlungswasserwirtschaft, Springer Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1999
[11] ATV-Regelwerk A 117: Richtlinien für die Bemessung, die Gestaltung und den
Betrieb von Regenrückhaltebecken (1977).
[12] Reinhold, F.: Regenspenden in Deutschland (Grundwerte für die
Entwässerungstechnik, Archiv für Wasserwirtschaft Nr. 56, Berlin, 1940
[13] ATV-Regelwerk A 134: Planung und Bau von Abwasserpumpanlagen (Entwurf)
(1998).
[14] http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/ultraurb/3fs15.htm
[15] Waste Water Technology – Origin, Collection, Treatment and Analysis of Waste
Water, Eds. Institut Fresenius GmbH, Forschungsinstitut für Wassertechnologie
an der RWTH Aachen, GTZ GmbH, Springer Verlag Berlin, 1989
[16] /www.epicintl.com/spcapac.htm
[17] Pumping Station Design, Ed. R. L. Sanks, Butterworth Publishers, Boston, 1989
[18] ATV-Handbuch Bau und Betrieb der Kanalisation, 4. Auflage, Verlag Wilhelm
Ernst und Sohn (1994).
[19] Imhoff, Karl und Klaus, Taschenbuch der Stadtentwässerung, 29. Auflage Ol-
denbourg Verlag, 1999
[20] ATV-Regelwerk A 138: Bau und Betrieb von Anlagen zur Versickerung von
Niederschlagswasser (2005)
Page: 138
4 Wastewater Treatment
4.1 Objectives of Wastewater Treatment
Every wastewater be it municipal or industrial is discharged into the receiving water

body via a sewer system. If wastewater is not treated sufficiently, it will cause serious
problems in the receiving water body, such as odor nuisances, eutrophication or fish
kills. Pathogens contained in the wastewater pose a health hazard for humans due to
contamination of potable water, swimming areas or foods. Thus, illnesses such as
cholera, typhus and dysentery are spread. The ultimate goal of wastewater treatment
is therefore the protection of the public health by keeping the above mentioned prob-
lems and their consequences away from the receiving water bodies, as much as
possible. One must keep in mind that the objectives of wastewater treatment are
strongly influenced by environmental, social, economical and political concerns.
Treatment methods with a high technical standard and high expenses as they are
used in some western industrialized countries are often not suitable for developing
countries. This is due to the fact that often a public awareness for the necessity of
wastewater treatment does not or only insufficiently exist and/or investment and op-
erating costs for such a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) cannot be covered by
the public.
Table 4.1: Water supply and wastewater treatment: comparison between Brazil and
other Latin American and Caribbean countries (From: “Water Supply and
Sanitation Sector Monitoring Report, Sector status as of 31 December
1994”, World Health Organization/ United States Children´s Fund Joint
Monitoring Programme, WHO/EOS/96.15, WHO, Geneva, 1996).
Country Pop. 1994 (x Reference Water Supply Wastewater Treatment

3
10 ) Year (% served population) (% served population)
Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total
Belize 210 1994 96 82 89 23 87 57
Bolivia 6.893 1992 78 22 55 58 16 41
Brazil 146.825 1991 85 31 72 55 3 44
Chile 13.600 1992 94 37 85 82 NA NA
Colombia 33.685 1993 88 48 76 76 33 63
Costa Rica 3.192 1992 85 99 92 85 99 92
Cuba 10.960 1994 96 85 93 71 51 66
Dominican Rep. 7.543 1993 74 67 71 76 83 78
Ecuador 10.980 1993 82 55 70 87 34 64
El Salvador 5.517 1993 78 37 55 78 59 68
Guiana 808 1992 90 45 61 82 80 81
Haiti 7.035 1994 37 23 28 42 16 24
Honduras 5.493 1994 81 53 65 81 53 65
Mexico 90.027 1993 91 62 83 81 26 66
Nicaragua 4.255 1994 81 27 61 34 27 31
Panama 2.941 1992 NA NA 83 NA NA 86
Peru 22.886 1993 74 24 60 62 10 44
Venezuela 19.502 1990 80 75 79 64 30 58
Page: 139
Table 4.2: Water supply and wastewater treatment: Latin American and Caribbean –
1990-1994 data (From: “Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Monitoring
Report, Sector status as of 31 December 1994”, World Health Organiza-
tion/ United States Children´s Fund Joint Monitoring Programme,
WHO/EOS/96.15, WHO, Geneva, 1996)
1990 (population in millions) 1994 (population in millions)

Sector Total served % served Total served % served
Urban 314 282 90 348 306 88
Water Rural 126 64 51 125 70 56
Total 440 346 79 473 376 79
Urban 314 262 83 348 254 73
Wastewater
Rural 126 42 33 125 42 34
treatment
Total 440 304 69 473 296 63
4.2 Wastewater Constituents
Physical, chemical or biological methods exist for the examination of wastewater.

Tests are conducted, in order to determine the composition of wastewater at the in-
fluent of a (future) WWTP, in order to determine the efficiency of the receiving water
body for the wastewater discharge and in order to monitor operating facilities.
Wastewater in general is a mixture of many individual substances. For the charac-
terization of chemical or microbiological processes, part of these individual sub-
stances must be quantified.
It is often neither reasonable nor possible to determine every substance individually.
Therefore so-called sum parameters are used for jointly analyzing a group of vari-
ous substances. The analysis then describes certain characteristics of one group of
substances.
According to its production, municipal wastewater contains organic compounds
(protein compounds, carbohydrates, fats, urea) from food, feces etc. and mineral
(inorganic) compounds (salts, lyes, acids, surfactants, metals etc.) from cleaning
and washing agents, cosmetics, household chemicals and solids (dust, wear debris)
etc. The average daily pollutant load per inhabitant comes to 190 g /(I · d) [1] in Ger-
many and Central Europe.
Pollutants exist in dissolved and undissolved form. Dissolved solids are defined as
those substances, which can pass through a membrane filter with a nominal pore
size of 0,45 µm. Undissolved, particular or suspended solids are those solids, which
will be held back in the membrane during filtration.
Part of the suspended solids are settleable, the rest is not settleable.
The average percentage of the above described wastewater constituents is shown in
Fig. 4.1.
Page: 140
Fig. 4.1: Wastewater Constituents [1]
For the determination of undissolved solids, a sample of wastewater will be filtrated

using a filter with a specified pore size of 0,45 µm and will be measured after being
dried at a specified temperature (105°C) for two hours. The unit of these undissolved
solids is mg/L. Total retained, undissolved solids are called dry solids DS.
Settleable solids will be determined in special glass jars so-called Imhoff-cones with
a height of 40 cm after a specified settling period (two hours). The result of the
measurement will be stated in mL/L.
Fig. 4.2: Imhoff Cone
Page: 141
Organic carbon compounds in the wastewater can be characterized with the sum
parameters BOD5 (biochemical oxygen demand over a five day period), COD
(chemical oxygen demand) or TOC (total organic carbon).
For determining biochemical oxygen demand BOD5, a sample of wastewater will
be diluted with oxygen-rich, clean water. Bacteria will be added and the oxygen con-
tent of the sample will be measured. The diluted wastewater sample will be stored at
a temperature of 20 °C without air and light for a period of five days. During this time,
the bacteria in the sample use the organic pollutants of the wastewater for their me-
tabolism and consume the oxygen for respiration. After five days the content of oxy-
gen in the sample will re-measured. The quantity of oxygen consumed by the bacte-
ria for the metabolic processes will be determined by the difference in oxygen con-
tents. The BOD5 is the oldest, but still the most common analysis for the determina-
tion of biological degradation of organic matter in wastewater. As Fig. 4.3 shows, not
all carbon is oxidized and not all oxygen is consumed during this period of five days.
Complete degradation takes about 20 days, total BOD is then about 50 % higher than
the BOD5. The figure also shows, that continuous measurement of oxygen respira-
tion, does not necessarily always lead to the same curve of the BOD5-degradation,
since degradation depends on the fact whether the bacteria are adapted to the
wastewater.
Fig. 4.3: Results of BOD Measurements (20°C) [8]
The chemical oxygen demand COD determines oxygen demand for the chemical
oxidation of the organic carbon compounds. COD also covers those organic carbon
compounds, which are not degradable by aerobic bacteria. The wastewater sample,
acidified with sulfuric acid, will be boiled with the strong oxidizing agent potassium di-
chromate (K2Cr2O7) at a temperature of 148 °C for a period of two hours. Determina-
tion of the oxygen demand takes place by determining the demand of the oxidizing
Page: 142
agent. The COD and BOD are measured as mg O2/L.

Total organic carbon TOC is the measure for the sum of all organic compounds.
TOC can be determined with different measuring methods, which are all conducted
with automatic measuring devices. Oxidation of dissolved and particular organic car-
bon compounds to CO2 takes place either thermally or wet chemically. Elementary
carbon will be determined by using the CO2-mass produced. TOC is measured in mg
TOC/L.
Dissolved organic carbon DOC will be determined in the same way as TOC, but
from filtrated samples.
Nitrogen compounds exist in wastewater as dissolved or undissolved organic com-
pounds (feces, urine) as well as dissolved inorganic compounds (for example ammo-
nium). For wastewater analysis, normally ammonium (as NH4-N in mg N/L); nitrite
(as NO2-N in mg N/L) and nitrate (as NO3-N in mg N/L) will be determined.
Another value for the determination of nitrogen content is the total Kjehldahl nitro-
gen TKN. The TKN is the sum of ammonium and organic nitrogen. Concentrations
will be determined as nitrogen (-N), which means that when measuring masses from
molar concentrations only the atomic weight of nitrogen will be taken into considera-
tion.
Phosphorus is a nutrient like nitrogen. Phosphorus often limits the production of al-
gae in inland waters. In wastewater phosphorus exists as dissolved orthophosphate
(salts of the phosphoric acid; H3PO4, H2PO4-, H2PO42-, PO43-) and as organic phos-
phorus. Phosphorus is measured in mg P/L (calculated as elementary phosphorus).
4.3 Composition of the Raw Wastewater
Pollution of industrial wastewater is generally described by population equivalents

PE. A population equivalent is a standard value, always with reference to a certain
parameter (e.g. BOD5), which describes the daily average amount of pollutants in
wastewater produced by one inhabitant. It is a fictitious measuring unit used to relate
industrial wastewater loading to a number of inhabitants necessary to produce such a
wastewater load. In Germany, a population equivalent for BOD5 for example comes
to 60 g/(I • d).
daily industrial BOD5 − load (g/d)

population equivalent (PE) =
60 g BOD5 /(P ⋅ d)
An industrial BOD5 load of 6.000 kg BOD5 per day would then equal 100.000 popula-
tion equivalents. Although today a careful differentiation of wastewater is necessary,
due to increased purification requirements, population equivalents are still in use. The
reason is, that many 'non-experts' can visualize a WWTP for 100.000 inhabitants (or
100.000 PE), but cannot visualize a WWTP, which eliminates a maximum organic
load of 6.000 kg BOD5 per day.
Table 4.3 shows standard population equivalents, which are used for the design and
dimensioning of wastewater treatment plants in Germany, if no actual measuring data
Page: 143
exist [2]. A daily wastewater production of 150 L per capita is assumed.

Table 4.3: Pollutant load per inhabitant (population equivalent) and resulting
concentrations [2]
load concentration (150 L/I d wastewater

(ATV A 131) produced)
[g / I d] [mg/L]
BOD5 60 400
COD 120 800
Dry solids (DS) 70 467
nitrogen (TKN) 11 73
phosphorus (total P) 1,8 12
As explained in chapter Table 4.2 the BOD5 is a sum parameter for the degradability
of organic carbon compounds in wastewater. BOD5 describes only the concentration
of pollutants, but not the pollutant load the wastewater. This can be illustrated by an
analysis of the most popular kinds of beer in Brunswik (see Table 4.4). As the com-
parison with the pollutant load per inhabitant shows,
BOD5(1L Beer) > BOD5 (population equivalent)
Table 4.4: Analysis of various kinds of beer
TKN NH4-N NO3-N NO2-N total P COD BOD5

Kind of beer
[mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L]
Feldschlößchen 693 25,60 25,7 0,026 236 123.150 62.750
Jever 810 29,40 24,8 0,024 260 117.500 63.700
Wolters 636 21,00 28,3 0,025 265 119.050 62.700
Einbecker 762 25,20 26,4 0,023 252 120.850 66.400
Warsteiner 744 18,00 26,5 0,018 265 115.350 61.200
König Pilsener 771 20,00 22,5 0,027 233 116.150 65.200
Paulaner Hefeweizen 1053 25,40 25,6 0,128 316 138.150 71.350
milk 3,5 % 57 4,20 2,43 0,040 979 202.150 108.200
4.4 Wastewater Quantity
Besides influent load, influent quantity is the most important parameter for dimension-
ing the individual parts of the WWTP.
When upgrading existing WWTPs, often substantial amounts of data material from
the self-monitoring and governmental surveillance of wastewater treatment plants ex-
ist. The resultant wastewater flow should be determined on the basis of these data if
possible. If no such data exist, the wastewater influent must be determined by meas-
urements. Only if neither data nor measurements are available, dimensioning can be
done by using standardized average values.
Page: 144
According to chapter 3.2 and 3.3, a differentiation into wastewater (Qww) (consisting
of domestic (QD) and commercial/industrial (QInd) wastewater), infiltration water (QInf)
and rainwater (QR) is necessary for dimensioning of a WWTP.
The dry weather flow then can be calculated as follows:
QDW = QD + QInd + QInf = Qww + QInf

In general, the influent of a WWTP will be limited to a storm water flowrate of
QR = 2 Qww + QInf or QR = 2 QDW
4.5 Effluent Standards for Sewage Treatment Plants
In Germany, purified wastewater can only be discharged into a body of water (receiv-
ing water), if the purification capacity of the WWTP complies with minimum legal re-
quirements. Minimum requirements are regulated in the Ordinance on Requirements
for the Discharge of Waste Water into Waters (Waste Water Ordinance - Ab-
wasserverordnung - AbwV). According to that, following legal limits in dependency on
the dimension of the WWTP (see Table 4.5) must be adhered to:
Table 4.5: Minimum requirements according to the Waste Water Ordinance – AbwV
for municipal WWTP
limits complied with in a random sample or

population equivalent a 2-h composite sample
size
(1 PE=60 g BOD5/(P ּ d)) COD BOD5 NH4-N1) inorg. N1) total P
[mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L] [mg/L]
I < 1 000 150 40 - - -
II 1 000 - 5 000 110 25 - - -
2)
III 5 000 -20 000 90 20 10 18 -
2)
IV 20 000 - 100 000 90 20 10 18 2
2)
V > 100 000 75 15 10 18 1
1)
these requirements are valid for a wastewater temperature of 12 °C and higher, measured in the
effluent of the biological reactor of the WWTP. Instead of the temperature of 12 °C a period of valid-
st st
ity can be set between the 1 May to the 31 October
2)
25 mg/L, if daily load of total N is reduced to ≥ 70 %
European harmonization lead to a European Water Framework Directive, which ex-
ists besides the German law and has to be transferred into national law. Legal limits
for BOD5 and COD according to the European Water Framework Directive are shown
in Table 4.6. These legal limits must be complied with and are valid for WWTPs with
more than 15.000 PE starting 31st of December 2000 and for plants with 2.000 to
15.000 PE starting 31st of December 2005.
Page: 145
Table 4.6: Legal limits of the EU
percentage
limits complied with in a concentration
decrease
24-h composite sample
[ mg/L ] [%]
BOD5 25 70 - 90
COD 125 75
Within the EU-guideline additional requirements exist for so-called sensitive areas
(since 31st of December 1998). The corresponding requirements are shown in Table
4.7. Declaration of sensitive areas is done by every state of the EU itself. The Federal
Republic of Germany is predominantly considered a sensitive area, while many other
countries consider their territory mainly as not sensitive.
Table 4.7: Additional EU limits for sensitive areas
percentage
concentration
decrease
[ mg/L ] [%]
10 000 - 100 000 EW 2 -
total P
> 100 000 EW 1 80
10 000 - 100 000 EW 15 -
inorg. N
> 100 000 EW 10 70 - 80
4.6 Municipal Wastewater Treatment Processes
The objective of municipal wastewater treatment is, to eliminate various kinds of pol-
lutants from the wastewater or to minimize pollutant concentration. A flow sheet of a
WWTP shows the processes of wastewater treatment in Fig. 4.4.
Fig. 4.4: Flow sheet of a WWTP
• If local conditions do not permit gravity flow through the WWTP to the receiving
water body, a pumping station has to be installed for lifting the wastewater in
front of the WWTP.
Page: 146
• The influent flow will first pass screens, where coarse pollutants with a size be-
tween 5 and 20 mm will be separated.
• In the following grit chamber, mineral material will be removed (for example sand
with a grain size > 0,2 mm), in order to protect the subsequent pipes, buildings and
mechanical facilities from clogging and abrasion.
• In the primary settling tank readily settleable solids sink to the bottom, are con-
veyed to collection hoppers and removed for further thickening. The settled sludge
is called primary sludge and is fed to sludge treatment.
• The mechanically pre-treated wastewater flows into the aeration tank of the bio-
logical treatment process. Here organic pollutants and nutrients will be degraded
by the bacteria contained in the so-called 'activated sludge'.
• In the following secondary clarifier activated sludge settles and will be returned
the aeration tank. Part of the sludge will be fed into sludge treatment as waste ac-
tivated sludge. The treated wastewater is then discharged into the receiving wa-
ter body.
4.6.1 Mechanical treatment
4.6.1.1 Screens
Screens are as a rule the first cleaning step of the wastewater treatment plant. They
are used for the removal of coarse material (plastics, textile fibers, etc.), which could
result in clogging or damage of pumps and pipelines. Screens can be classified ac-
cording to their characteristics or functions, for example
according to clear spacing between bars [3] "e" into
coarse screens e= 100 – 40 mm
fine screens e = 30 – 10 mm
mesh screen e = 6 – 1 mm
or according to their raking principle into frontraked screens or backraked screens
(see Fig. 4.5).
Page: 147
Fig. 4.5: Frontraked screen [1] Backraked screen [1]
At WWTPs in Germany normally mechanically cleaned screens are used. Clear

spacing between bars decreased more and more in the last years, so that mainly fine
screens are used today. Coarse screens are used only at large combined collection
systems for the protection of fine screens. Screening plants are realized redundantly
or with a bypass arrangement. In dependency on the clear bar spacing of the screen,
the following quantities of collected screenings can be calculated:
Table 4.8: Quantity of collected screenings in dependency on clear bar spacing
Quantity of screenings
Type of screen
[ L/(E⋅a) ]
Coarse screen 2 – 10
Fine screen 5 – 20
Mesh screen 15 – 35
The screenings will normally be disposed off together with the domestic waste.
Screening volume will be reduced by about 50 % using a screening press.
The dimensioning of screening plants especially for fine screens is often done, us-
ing empirically determined data sheets of the individual manufacturers. These data
sheets contain information on the necessary size of the screening chamber, ap-
proach velocity to the screen and hydraulic headloss.
For estimating the screening chamber width one assumes that the free opening of
the screen has the same width as the normal, not widened channel. The width of the
screening chamber can be calculated with the following term [3]:
w 
WSC =  channel − 1 ⋅ (Wbar + sp clear ) + sp clear
 sp clear 
with:
W SC = width of the screening chamber [mm]
wchannel = channel width [mm]
Page: 148
spclear = clear spacing of bars [mm]

wbar = cross sectional width of bars [mm]
Although head loss through clean bar screens is relatively small, its calculation is
very helpful for design. The head loss through a clean bar screen is determined by
Kirschmer's equation [3]:
4
 w  v2
3
h L = β ⋅  bar  ⋅ ⋅ sin δ
 sp clear  2g
with:
hL = head loss [m]
wbar = maximum cross-sectional width of bars facing upstream [m]
spclear = minimum clear spacing of bars [m]
v = approach velocity [m/s]
δ = inclination angle of bar screen against the horizontal
β = bar shape factor
g = acceleration due to gravity
Bar shape factors are shown in Fig. 4.6.
Fig. 4.6: Bar shape factors (Kirschmer's values of β) [3]
4.6.1.2 Grit Chamber and Grease Trap

Grit chambers are normally located after the bar screens and before the primary set-
tling tanks. Grit chambers are designed to remove grit, in order to minimize opera-
tional problems such as grit accumulation in aeration tanks, grit deposition in pipe-
lines and channels and to prevent unnecessary abrasion and wear of mechanical
equipment. Grit materials include sand, gravel, cinders and heavy inorganic solids.
Page: 149
Velocity in the grit chamber must be reduced sufficiently, so that heavier grit particles,
such as sand with a diameter of d = 0,1 to 0,2 mm, are allowed to settle in the grit
collection tank. A complete separation of inorganic and organic material is not possi-
ble, since large organic matter has a larger diameter and thus also a higher settling
rate than fine sands.
Grit quantities will vary depending on local conditions (topography, types of indus-
trial water, population density and type of collection system) and fluctuate between
2 L/(I⋅a) for densely populated and 5 L/(I⋅a) for sparsely populated areas [1].
Solids, which have a higher specific gravity than water, will settle. A settling particle
achieves the velocity vS, where gravity and frictional resistance of the flowing liquid
are in equilibrium. Table 4.9 shows settling velocities of selected solids at 10 °C.
Table 4.9: Settling velocities (vs) of solids in municipal wastewater [3]
diameter [mm]
material specific gravity
1,0 0,5 0,2 0,1 0,05 0,01 0,005
silica sand 2,65 kg/L 502 258 82 24 6,1 0,3 0,06 m/h
carbon 1,50 kg/L 152 76 26 7,6 1,5 0,08 0,015 m/h
suspended particles
1,20 kg/L 122 61 18 3 0,8 0,03 0,008 m/h
in wastewater
Grit chambers are operated as continuous flow systems. Assuming that a laminar
flow exists in a rectangular tank and the flow velocity is equal over the total cross-
section of the basin, the settling process can be described by the following equations.
with:
L = length of the tank [m]
vh h = depth of the tank [m]
vr h
b = width of the tank [m]
vs vh = horizontal velocity of particle
= flow velocity [m/s]
vs =settling velocity of particles [m/s]
b
vr = resulting velocity of particles
L [m/s]
Fig. 4.7: Settling process in a rectangular chamber [3]
The flow velocity of the water results from the quotient of flow rate (Q) and the cross-
sectional area (b·h) to:
Q
horizontal flow velocity v h =
b ⋅h
Page: 150
The time, which a particle needs to sink from the water surface to the bottom of the
tank is:
h
settling time t S =
vS
The time the wastewater needs to pass through the tank is:
L
detention time t h =
vh
All particles will be retained, which reach the bottom before the water is discharged
from the settling tank. For these particles the following expression may be used:
h L L ⋅b ⋅h V
t s < t h oder < = =
v s vh Q Q
Solving the equation for vs, you can calculate the required surface area of the settling
tank A = L · b:
Q Q Q
vs > = = q A ⇒ A required =
L ⋅ b A required qA
The surface loading rate qA can be regarded as a velocity. Using the correlation be-
tween flow rate and surface area of the chamber, it describes how fast the water level
in chamber rises. All particles with a higher settling velocity than the surface loading
rate will settle. When looking at the equation one can see, that the settling process is
independent from the depth of the tank h and the hydraulic detention time th.
Longitudinal grit traps (see Fig. 4.8) were often used in the past. By broadening the
influent channel, the flow velocity in the grit chamber is reduced to vh ≈ 0,3 m/s. At
this velocity, most of the mineral settleable material will settle, whereas lighter organic
substances will remain suspended and will be carried out of the channel. In order to
maintain this velocity during varying inflows, several grit chambers have to be built in
parallel.
Page: 151
Drainage
Fig. 4.8: Longitudinal grit traps [3]
The crucial factor for the dimensioning of longitudinal grit traps is a sufficient surface
area. It has to be ensured that the surface of the grit trap is large enough, to guaran-
tee the settling of sand with a certain defined standard particle size. In general silica
sand with a diameter of 0,2 mm (see Tab. 4.10) will be used as a standard. For main-
tenance reasons, the grit chamber should not be longer than 30 m. Grit chambers
are normally emptied out manually, by blocking the influent of one of the grit cham-
bers. The water in the grit chamber will be discharged using a drainage pipe and the
sand can be removed afterwards.
Table 4.10: Surface loading rate qA for longitudinal grit traps in dependency on the
settling rate [1]
Settling rate [%]

Diameter
100 90 85
0,16 mm 12 16 20 m/h
0,20 mm 17 28 45 m/h
0,25 mm 27 45 58 m/h
Flow velocity in longitudinal grit traps depends on the influent flow rate. By construct-
ing aerated grit chambers, this problem can be solved. In aerated grit chambers, air
is introduced along one side of the rectangular tank to create a spiral flow pattern
perpendicular to the flow through the tank. The wastewater will move through the
tank in a spiral path with a velocity of vh ≤ 0,3 m/s. Aerated grit chambers will be di-
mensioned in such a way that the horizontal flow velocity is less than 0,2 m/s at the
maximum influent flow. Because the velocity of roll can be controlled by the air influ-
ent, a better adjustment to varying inflow quantities is possible for these kind of grit
chambers.
Page: 152
Fig. 4.9: Spiral flow pattern in an aerated grit chamber [7]
Introduction of air will often also be used for flotating grease and oil. A grease cham-
ber will thus be located next to the grit chamber, where flotating greases and oils will
be retained (see Fig. 4.10).
B
A A
A
B
Fig. 4.10: Profile of an aerated grit chamber with grease chamber
The removal of grit chamber trappings is primarily done by automatic systems using
traveling bridges equipped with blade or suction scrapers and pumps. Separation
of the grit/water-mixture takes place in sand separation tanks or in grit classifiers (see
Fig. 4.11).
Page: 153
Fig. 4.11: Grit classifier [7 and 9]
Table 4.11 shows the most important design data for aerated grit chambers [1,4].
Table 4.11: Design criteria for aerated grit chambers
Parameter Design criteria

minimum detention time at peak flowrate > 10 min
minimum detention time at dry weather flow > 20 min
0,8 at peak flowrate
width-depth-ratio w/d
0,8 – 0,9 at dry weather flow
cross-sectional area 1 m² to 7 m²
distance of diffusers from surface ddiffusers 0,7 · d (depth)
slope of tank bottom 40° - 45°
traverse roll velocity 0,6-0,75 m/s
specific air supply ca. 1 m³/(m³⋅h)
4.6.1.3 Primary Settling

Primary settling tanks remove settleable material from the wastewater in order to re-
duce suspended solids and BOD loading on downstream treatment processes, to
enhance the effectiveness of downstream treatment processes and to minimize op-
erational problems. In some plants, primary settling will additionally be used for thick-
ening waste activated sludge produced during biological treatment. Primary settling
tanks were already used at the very first WWTPs, where only mechanical/physical
processes were applied. Still today many treatment plants in the foreign countries
only consist of a mechanical treatment step.
Page: 154
The capacity of the primary settling depends on the hydraulic retention time and sur-
face loading rates. These design parameters have to be adjusted to the following pu-
rification steps. If used ahead of trickling filters and rotating biological contactors, a
stronger separation of suspended solids is necessary in order to prevent overloading
or clogging of the subsequent treatment step. If used ahead of aeration systems, only
little separation is desired, because heavy particulate solids support the thickening of
the waste activated sludge in the secondary clarifier and are necessary as carbon
source for denitrification. Design parameters in dependency on the following treat-
ment step are shown in Table 4.12.
Table 4.12: Design criteria for primary settling tanks
retention time recommended surface loading

tR [ h ] rate
qA [ m/h ]
mechanical treatment only 1,7 - 2,5 1,5 - 0,8
with chemical precipitation 0,5 - 0,8 4,0 - 2,5
with trickling filters 1,7 - 2,5 1,5 - 0,8
with aerated systems 0,5 - 1,0 4,0 - 2,5
The volume and the surface area of the primary settling tank can be calculated by the
following equations:
necessary tank volume V = Q ⋅ t R [ m³ ]
Q
necessary surface area of the tank A = [ m² ]
qA
The influent quantity Q may contain additional sludge liquor etc. besides the dry
weather flow QDW
Varying hydraulic retention times lead to reduced wastewater loadings as shown in
Table 4.13.
Table 4.13: Wastewater constituents in dependency on hydraulic retention time [2]
hydraulic retention time tR for primary set-

parameter
raw sewage tling
[ g/(P⋅⋅d) ] 0,5 - 1,0 h 1,5 – 2,0 h
BOD5 60 45 40
COD 120 90 80
DSo 70 35 25
N 11 10 10
P 1,8 1,6 1,6
Primary settling tanks will be constructed as longitudinal or circular tanks. Sludge re-
moval is accomplished with shield scrapers or with continuous scrapers (see Fig.
4.12 and Fig. 4.13).
Page: 155
Fig. 4.12: Longitudinal tanks with continuous sludge scraping system
Fig. 4.13: Longitudinal tanks with shield sludge scraping system
Design criteria for primary settling tanks are shown in Table 4.14.
Page: 156
Table 4.14: Design criteria for primary settling tanks
water depth T = 2,0 - 2,5 m
water depth – length of tank - ratio T : L ca. 1 : 15 – 1 : 20 < 60 m
width of tank – length of tank - ratio B : L ca. 1 : 6 – 1 : 8
4.6.2 Basics of the Biological and Advanced Wastewater Treatment
The objective of biological wastewater treatment is to remove those wastewater con-

stituents, which will have a negative influence on receiving water bodies, or to trans-
form them into substances, which will do no or little harm to nature. For achieving
this, microorganisms, which also live in the receiving water bodies, are used in bio-
logical wastewater treatment. During biological treatment these microorganisms are
bred, which means, living conditions are established which enable the microorgan-
isms to settle, grow and propagate. For their metabolism, microorganisms need sub-
strates, which they extract from the wastewater thus purifying it.
4.6.2.1 Aerobic Degradation of Organic Carbon

Organic carbon compounds (org. C: carbohydrate, grease, fatty acid, proteins) in the
wastewater will be degraded by heterotrophic bacteria (bacteria, which need org. C
for energy metabolism and for nutrient metabolism (microbial growth)) under aerobic
milieu conditions (presence of oxygen) to carbon dioxide and water. The degradation
of carbohydrates CH2O takes place according to the following reaction equation:
CH2O + O2 → CO2 + H2O
There is a large variety of heterotrophic microorganisms, which can degrade organic

matter and propagate very fast.
4.6.2.2 Degradation of Nitrogen

The degradation of organically bound nitrogen takes place in several steps:
org. N ⇒ ammonium ⇒ nitrite ⇒ nitrate ⇒ molecular nitrogen
Ammonification is a microbiological process, where organically bound nitrogen (for

example urine) will be hydrolyzed by heterotrophic bacteria to ammonium (NH4).
During nitrification, ammonium be will oxidized to nitrite (NO2) and then to nitrate
(NO3).
NH4+ + 1,5 O2 → NO2- + H2O + 2 H+
NO2-+ 0,5 O2 → NO3-
Page: 157
Nitrification is caused by autotrophic microorganisms. These are organisms, which

need CO2 for energy metabolism and for nutrient metabolism (microbial growth).
These bacteria, called nitrificants, propagate more slowly than the heterotrophic or-
ganisms.
Denitrification is a microbiological process for removing nitrogen from wastewater.
During this process, instead of oxygen O2, nitrate NO3 will be reduced for the oxida-
tion of organic matter. The final product is elementary nitrogen N2, which is released
into the atmosphere. The organisms realizing this process are called facultative an-
aerobes, which means they are heterotrophic bacteria, which prefer an aerobic mi-
lieu, but can also uphold their metabolism in an anoxic milieu. Anoxic conditions exist,
if no dissolved, but bound oxygen (for example in NO3) is present.
4.6.2.3 Degradation of Phosphorus

Phosphorus is needed in general for the growth of cellular substances and is conse-
quently removed from the wastewater by biomass growth. Moreover some bacteria
(for example acinetobacter) use phosphorus for the substrate-energy-transfer. Under
aerobic conditions, these bacteria absorb phosphorus in their biomass. Under an-
aerobic conditions (neither dissolved nor bound oxygen is present), when their respi-
ration metabolism is not functioning, they use the phosphate reservoir as an energy
source for the uptake of readily biodegradable organic acids and alcohols (which de-
velop during anaerobic degradation). During this process, they release part but not all
of the phosphorus absorbed during the aerobic phase. This process is shown in Fig.
4.14.
Fig. 4.14: Phosphate-concentration during the treatment process
4.6.3 Technical Realizations of Biological Wastewater Treatment
In principle, the above described biological processes take place in every body of wa-
ter. But the concentration of the organisms in the natural bodies of water is very
small. Consequently the degradation processes take place comparatively slowly and
need relatively big reaction volumes. The use of these natural processes as a techni-
Page: 158
cal treatment step requires an increase of the degradation rate in order to make the
processes happen in shorter time periods or in smaller reaction volumes. Therefore
an increase in the concentration of microorganisms (biomass), a concentrated nutri-
ent supply and sufficient mixing as well as a sufficient oxygen supply for aerobic
processes (degradation of organic carbon, nitrification) are necessary.
Two groups of treatments are distinguished in biological wastewater treatment:
• Treatment processes with suspended biomass: Here organisms float in the
wastewater. Activated-sludge-treatment belongs to this group
• Treatment processes with sessile biomass: Here organisms settle on solid matter.
Trickling filters and rotating biological contactors as well as fixed bed reactors are
treatments types of this group.
4.6.4 The Activated-Sludge Process
The activated-sludge process is the most common type of biological wastewater

treatment in industrialized countries. It was developed in England already in 1914.
This process generates sludge containing microorganisms (activated sludge), which
are capable of aerobically purifying the wastewater. The Fig. 4.15 presents a general
diagram of typical flow-through activated sludge system. Wastewater influent and bio-
logical solids (microorganisms from the return activated sludge) are combined, mixed
and aerated in the aeration tank. Aeration is necessary for supplying oxygen, for
guaranteeing the mixing of the wastewater constituents and for keeping the solids in
suspension. In the aeration tank, microorganisms absorb the pollutants thus purifying
the wastewater. The mixture of wastewater and activated sludge (mixed liquor) goes
to the settling tank (secondary clarifier) to allow gravity separation of the particulate
fraction (MLSS = mixed liquor suspended solids) from the wastewater. The effluent
from the settling tank is discharged using a weir near the water surface. This effluent
contains all those organic substances not yet taken up by microorganisms. Part of
the settled MLSS are then recycled to the aeration tank to maintain a high concentra-
tion of microorganisms in the aeration tank. These recycled MLSS are called return
activated sludge. Since microorganisms constantly propagate during this process,
part of the microorganisms must be removed from the system and fed into sludge
treatment. This flow is known as waste activated sludge.
Page: 159
Fig. 4.15: Flow scheme of the activated-sludge treatment
The dimensioning of an activated-sludge plant consists of:

• the determination of the volume and the necessary division of the tank into aero-
bic, anoxic and anaerobic zones;
• the determination of oxygen consumption and the dimensioning of the aeration
equipment;
• the determination of that amount of activated sludge, which has to be removed
from the system as waste activated sludge;
• the determination of the volume and design of the secondary clarifier.
Page: 160
Older approaches for dimensioning of aeration tanks based on the organic loading
of the sludge BDS. Organic sludge loading determines how many pollutants (BOD5)
have to be removed per mass of activated sludge (dry mass of microorganisms in the
aeration tank, DSAT) and per time unit:
daily BOD 5 − mass Q ⋅ BOD 5

B DS = =
dry mass in the aeration tank VAT ⋅ DS AT
with:
BDS = organic loading of the sludge [kg BOD / (kg DS/d)]
Q = flow rate to the aeration plant [m³/d]
BOD5 = concentration of BOD5 in the influent to the aeration plant [kg BOD5 / m³]
VAT = volume of the aeration tank [m³]
DSAT = concentration of activated sludge (dry mass in aeration tank [kg DS / m³])
AT = aeration tank
Nowadays, the concept of solids retention time tR or sludge age is used for dimen-
sioning activated sludge systems. The sludge age represents the average period of
time which the sludge has remained in the system:
DS AT V ⋅ DS AT
tR = = AT [d]
dry mass daily wast e activated sludge Q WS ⋅ DS WS
with
VAT = volume of the aeration tank [m³]
DSAT = biological solids, active biomass concentration
(dry mass in the aeration tank [kg DS / m³])
DSWS = dry solids, waste activated sludge (recycle)
QWS = waste activated sludge flow
The organic loading of the sludge or the sludge age must be selected in such a way,
that process performance is optimized and necessary purification objectives are
reached. Fig. 4.16 shows the correlation between BOD5-degradation, sludge age,
BOD sludge loading rate and specific waste activated sludge (excess sludge) pro-
duction. Operation results of various WWTP were analyzed for this diagram.
Page: 161
Fig. 4.16: BOD5-degradation and nitrification in dependency of the organic sludge

loading and the specific waste activated sludge production [1]
Table 4.15 contains standard values for sludge age and organic sludge loading for
the dimensioning of activated sludge plants. The standard values are taken from the
ATV-DVWK Standard A 131 (Dimensioning of single stage activated sludge plants)
from May 2000 [2]. The standard values for the organic sludge loading are based on
an older edition of this standard.
Table 4.15: Standard values for sludge age and organic sludge loading in depend-
ency on the purification objective
with
Purification with sludge- with without
nitrification and
objective stabilization nitrification nitrification
denitrification
Organic sludge loading
0,05 ca. 0,1 0,15 0,3
[kg BOD5/(kg DS·d])
Sludge age [d] 25 10-20 8-10 4-5
For nitrogen removal it is necessary to divide the aeration tank into aerobic (aer-
ated) and anoxic (not aerated) zones. Therefore different types of design and opera-
tion for aeration tanks were developed. The biological nitrogen-removal processes
are grouped according to whether the anoxic zone is located before, after, or within
the aerobic zone. These three possibilities are termed preanoxic, where initial contact
Page: 162
of the wastewater and return activated sludge is in an anoxic zone; postanoxic,

where the anoxic zone follows the aerobic zone; or simultaneous nitrification-
denitrification (SNdN) processes where both nitrification and denitrification occur in
the same tank. [7]
In the case of preanoxic denitrification (substrate driven), wastewater, return
sludge, and internally recycled nitrate are mixed in the (anoxic) denitrification tank
(see Fig. 4.17). The denitrification tank and the nitrification tank (aerobic) can be con-
structed as a cascade. Although ammonium in the wastewater will be oxidized to ni-
trate at first and than reduced to elementary nitrogen N2 during denitrification, the de-
nitrification tank is followed by the nitrification tank, since the microorganisms in the
denitrification tank need organic carbon as a substrate. If the denitrification tank fol-
lows the nitrification tank (postanoxic denitrification, see Fig. 4.18), the process
must be operated with an exogenous carbon source, because otherwise substrate
would be missing. In order to supply nitrate to the denitrification tank in the preanoxic
configuration, nitrate produced in the aerobic zone will be recycled internally and to-
gether with the return activated sludge.
Fig. 4.17: Preanoxic Denitrification [7]
Fig. 4.18: Postanoxic Denitrification [7]
Page: 163
During simultaneous denitrification (see Fig. 4.19), the wastewater circulates

through denitrification and nitrification zones in one tank. One could call simultaneous
denitrification a kind of preanoxic denitrification with high internal recirculation. The
dissolved oxygen concentration will be the highest at the points of aeration and will
subsequently decrease because of oxygen uptake by the biomass as the mixed liq-
uor moves around the looped reactor. After sufficient travel time, anoxic zones will
form upstream from the aeration devices.
Fig. 4.19: Simultaneous denitrification
Other tank configurations as well as the integration of a biological phosphorus re-

moval process can be found in the references at the end of this chapter.
The secondary settling tank (secondary clarifier) and the aeration tank form a func-
tional unity. The main task of the secondary settling tank is the separation of the
MLSS from the clarified effluent. The crucial factors for the loading capacity of an
aeration tank are its volume and the MLSS concentration of the activated sludge. The
achievable MLSS concentration in turn depends on the efficiency of the settling tank
during varying hydraulic and solids loading rates, the sludge volume index and the
type of sludge collection mechanism. Therefore the secondary settling tank must be
dimensioned and constructed in such a way, that
• the activated sludge can be separated from the clarified effluent by gravity;
• the activated sludge is thickened, collected and returned to the aeration tank
• the secondary settling tank can act as an equalizing tank, if activated sludge as a
result from high influent flows (for example wet weather flow) is displaced from the
aeration tank.
The recycle ratio or return sludge flowrate is used to determine the suspended sol-
ids concentration in the aeration tank (MLSS), which results from the mixture of influ-
ent (MLSSInfluent · QInfluent) with the return sludge (MLSSRS · QRS). On the condition that
MLSSInfluent = 0, the recycle ratio can be calculated as follows:
MLSS AT
return sludge flowrate α = [-]
MLSS RS − MLSS AT
The settling characteristics of the MLSS must be considered when designing the
Page: 164
secondary settling tank. A commonly used measure developed to quantify the settling
characteristics of activated sludge is the sludge volume index (SVI). The SVI is the
volume of 1 g of sludge after 30 minutes of settling. The numerical value can be cal-
culated using the following expression:
(settled volume of sludge mL/L)  mL 

SVI = =  
(suspended solids mg/L)  g 
The sludge volume index is determined by placing a mixed-liquor sample in a 1-L-

cylinder and measuring the settled volume after 30 min and the corresponding sam-
ple MLSS concentration. To avoid erroneous results and to allow for meaningful
comparison of SVI results for different sludges, the diluted SVI (DSVI) test has been
developed. There the sludge sample is diluted with process effluent until the settled
volume after 30 min is 250 mL/L or less [7].
A sludge with a sludge volume index below 100 mL/g is considered a good settling
sludge. Sludges with a sludge volume index over 200 mL/g are hardly settleable. The
ATV-DVWK Standard A 131 [2] specifies standard values for the sludge volume index
to be expected in dependency on the treatment target and the industrial wastewater
influence (see Table 4.16).
Table 4.16: Standard values for the sludge volume index [2]
SVI [L/kg]
Treatment Target Industrial wastewater influence
favorable unfavorable
without nitrification 100 – 150 120 – 180
nitrification (and denitrification) 100 – 150 120 – 180
Sludge stabilization 75 – 120 100 – 150
The dimensioning of the secondary settling tank can be done with the following
terms:
QWW ,h
required surface area of the tank A ST = [m 2 ]
qA
with the surface loading rate qA defined as the quotient of the permitted sludge vol-
ume loading rate qSV and the diluted sludge volume:
sludge volume surface loading q q SV m 

qA = = SV =
diluted sludge volume DSV MLSS ⋅ SVI  h 
The surface loading rate qA must not exceed 1,6 m/h for horizontal flow secondary
settling tanks and 2,0 m/h for vertical flow settling tanks.
To keep the MLSS in the effluent of the secondary settling tank under 20 mg/L, a
sludge volume surface loading rate (also called solids loading rate SLR) qSV of 500
Page: 165
L/(m²·h) for horizontal flow settling tanks and 650 L/(m²·h) for vertical flow settling
tanks must not be exceeded.
For vertical flow secondary settling tanks, the effective surface AST is defined as the
level halfway between influent and water surface (see Fig. 4.20).
The necessary depth of the secondary settling tank is determined by individual
partial depths of the functional zones. These functional zones are shown in Fig. 4.20
for vertical flow through tanks and in Fig. 4.21 for horizontal flow through tanks.
Fig. 4.20: Functional zones of a vertical flow through hopper tank [2]
Fig. 4.21: Functional zones of a horizontal flow through hopper tank [2]
Page: 166
The clean water zone (h1) serves as a means to balance out unavoidable influences
from wind, differences of density or uneven surface feeding. The clean water zone of-
ten lies in the area of a return flow and is a safety zone with a minimum depth of h1=
0,5 m.
Above the density flow and storage zone in the area of the inlet lies the separating
zone (h2). Here the sludge-water mixture is introduced and distributed. Flocculation
processes take place, which favor sludge settling. The separating zone must be di-
mensioned that the inflow, including the return sludge flow, referred to the free water
volume, has a calculated detention time of 0,5 h. From this results:
0,5 ⋅ q A ⋅ (1 + RS )
h2 = DSV
[m]
1 − 1000
In the density flow and storage zone (h3) the wastewater-sludge mixture sinks
down to the sludge zone due to its higher density and from there flows to the outer
edge of the tank. With increasing stormwater inflow the density flow and storage
zone expands, since there, even with the selection of a higher return sludge ratio, the
displaced sludge from the aeration tank is stored. The depth of the density flow and
storage zone thus results as:
0,45 ⋅ q SV ⋅ (1 + RS )
h3 = [m]
500
The thickening of the settled sludge takes place at the bottom of the tank in the
thickening and broaching zone. The height can be calculated as:
MLSS ⋅ q A ⋅ (1 + RS) ⋅ t Th
h4 = [m]
MLSS bottom
whereby tTh describes the time of thickening and MLSSbottom the solid matter on the
bottom of the tank. The MLSSbottom can be estimated in dependence on the sludge
volume index SVI and the time of thickening tTh as:
1000 3 g
MLSS bottom = ⋅ t Th L 
SVI  
By adding h1 to h4, the total depth htot of horizontal flow secondary settling tanks with
inclined tank bottom can be calculated. A minimum depth of 3 m at two thirds of the
flow path or radius is required.
For vertical flow settling tanks (inverse cone or hopper), the subvolumes V2 – V4 for
the separation zone, the storage zone and the thickening zone can be calculated by
multiplying the appropriate zone depth h2 to h4 with the surface area AST.
Page: 167
4.6.5 Attached-Growth Biological Processes
Trickling filters and rotating biological contactors are typical examples of at-
tached-growth processes.
In trickling filters (see Fig. 4.22) the (often primary treated or screened) wastewater
will be distributed by rotary distributors over the filter medium (rocks or plastic pack-
ing) continuously and will percolate over and around the filter medium. The surface of
the medium quickly becomes covered with a viscous, jelly-like, slimy substance con-
taining bacteria and other biota. The biota remove organics by adsorption and assimi-
lation of soluble and suspended constituents. Oxygen is supplied from natural or
forced circulation of air. The quantity of biomass is controlled by available food. The
amount of biomass on the medium surface increases as organic load and strength
increase. During filter operation, a portion of the biological slime periodically sloughs
off. This slime will be separated in the final settling tank. [6]
Dimension of rock filled trickling filters based on volumetric loading rate :
Q ⋅ BOD 5
Loading rate = [kg BOD 5 / m³ ⋅ d]
V
with
Q = Flow through the trickling filter without recirculation [m³/d]
BOD = concentration of BOD in the influent of the trickling filter [kg/m³]
V = volume of filter packing [m³]
According to [5] following volumetric loadings should not be exceeded:

for BOD-removal: Loading rate BOD ≤ 0,4 [kg/(m³ · d)]
for nitrification: Loading rate BOD ≤ 0,4 [kg/(m³ · d)]
Loading rate TKN ≤ 0,1 [kg/(m³ · d)]
Fig. 4.22: Trickling filter
Page: 168
The rotating biological contactor uses a fixed-film biomass on rotating media for
biological treatment. The microorganisms settle and grow on the surface of the rotat-
ing media. (see Fig. 4.23). The rotation of disks alternatively exposes the biofilm to
the organic material in the wastewater and atmospheric air. Thus, the biomass will be
supplied with oxygen. The biofilm tends to slough off whenever the biomass growth
on the media becomes to heavy. The sloughed biofilm is carried away in wastewater
and removed in the secondary settling tank. [6]
Fig. 4.23: Rotating biological contactor
4.6.6 Wastewater Lagoons
Wastewater lagoons are built in Germany for small communities and small industrial
firms (for example seasonal business) in form of natural or artificial basins. In the
Mediterranean region, wastewater lagoons are used even for the treatment of
wastewater from big cities. Wastewater lagoons can be classified into settling (an-
aerobic) ponds, oxidation (facultative) ponds and aerated lagoons.
Anaerobic conditions mainly prevail in settling ponds. These lagoons have a depth
of more than 2 m and are used to remove the sludge from the incoming wastewater.
The sludge will settle and undergo a digestion process on the bottom of the lagoon.
Sludge removal takes place at least once a year.
In oxidation ponds, surface layers are aerobic with an anaerobic layer near the bot-
tom. The depth of these lagoons lies between 1,0 and 1,5 m. Oxygen is supplied by
the natural diffusion of atmospheric oxygen. Aerobic degradation takes place in the
upper layer, anaerobic processes near the bottom.
Aerated lagoons are constructed with a depth of 2 – 3 m. They are provided with
mechanical aerators on floats or platforms, so that an aerobic condition is always
guaranteed. Aerated lagoons and oxidation ponds are normally used with a preced-
ing settling basin (lagoon).
4.6.7 Constructed wetlands
There are different types of constructed wetlands. Normally wastewater is treated as

it percolates through the soil covered with emergent plants such as cattails, reeds
and rushes. The microorganisms in the soil and on the plant roots are used to treat
Page: 169
the wastewater. At the same time the soil material functions as a filter and holds back
particulate solids. Fig. 4.24 shows a constructed wetland.
Fig. 4.24: Constructed wetland
4.6.8 Small Wastewater Treatment Plants
Small wastewater treatment plants should generally only be used in areas where no
central sewerage system exists or where a single house cannot be connected to the
sewerage system with reasonable costs.
Septic tank systems, normally equipped with three small chambers (see Fig. 4.25),
are widely spread. Wastewater and solids enter the larger first chamber, where part
of the solids settle. The effluent water passes through openings under the water sur-
face into the next chamber, where more solids settle until the cleared effluent is dis-
charged from the tank. The sludge is pumped from the tank regularly
In Germany, a lot of communities demand a biological treatment step in addition to
the septic tank treatment. Normally biological treatment of the septic tank effluent is
accomplished using small activated sludge plants, trickling filters or constructed wet-
lands.
Page: 170
Fig. 4.25: Layout of a septic tank
Page: 171
[1] Imhoff, K. u. K.R.: Taschenbuch der Stadtentwässerung; 29. Auflage, Mün-

chen, Wien, Oldenburg, (1999).
[2] ATV-DVWK-Standard A 131E: Dimensioning of Single-Stage Activated Sludge
Plants, GFA, Hennef (2000).
[3] ATV-Handbuch: Mechanische Abwasserreinigung, 4. Auflage, (1997).
[4] Londong, J.: Beitrag zur Bemessung belüfteter Sandfänge, Korrespondenz
Abwasser, 1/88, S. 51-56
[5] ATV-Regelwerk A 135: Grundsätze für die Bemessung von Tropfkörpern und
Rotationskörpern, Entwurf, (Dezember 1999).
[6] Vesilind, P.A. (ed.): Wastewater Treatment Plant Design, Water Environment
Federation, IWA Publishing (2003).
[7] Metcalf Eddy, Inc. Wastewater Engineering - Treatment and Reuse 4th Edition,
McGraw Hill Companies, New Companies, New York (2003)
[8] Kayser, R., 1995: 'Verfahrenstechnik der Wasser- und Abwasserbehandlung',
Umdruck zur Vorlesung; Hrsg: Rolf Kayser, unveröffentlicht
[9] Huber Technology, Hans Huber AG Deutschland http://www.huber.de/
Page: 172
5 Sewage Sludge Treatment
5.1 Sewage Sludge Production
When treating wastewater with mechanical, biological and physical methods, sewage
sludges are produced, which then must be stabilized, dewatered and disposed off.
Sewage sludge is a general term for all solids separated and produced at wastewater
treatment plants. With the exception of screenings the term sewage sludge covers all
undissolved substances, which can be separated from the wastewater.
According to a survey of the Statistischen Bundesamt (Federal Statistical Office Ger-
many) 2,51 Mio. t municipal sludges with a volume of ca. 15,0 Mio. m3 were disposed
off in Germany in 1995. Assuming that 88,6 % of the inhabitants were connected to a
wastewater treatment plant in 1995, this amounted to ca. 34,5 kg of dry solids per
capita per year, which must have been reused or disposed off.
Figure 5.1 shows sludge production during the treatment process and various steps
of sludge treatment.
Fig. 5.1: Types of sludge and residuals produced at various treatment processes
During mechanical primary treatment steps primary sludge (PS) is produced, while
the biological treatment processes produce so-called secondary, waste activated
sludge (WAS) or excess sludge (ES).
Primary sludge has a coarse structure and consists mainly of non-bacterial organic
Page: 173
compounds. Due to its organic structure it is easily biodegradable and has good de-
watering characteristics. Waste activated sludge on the contrary consists mainly of
bacteria, particles and cell tissues of dead bacteria. WAS mainly consists of intracel-
lular organic compounds, which makes degradation during aerobic and anaerobic
stabilization less efficient than for primary sludge. Dewatering of waste activated
sludge is difficult, since a lot of water is bound by adhesive forces to the particles [1].
The mixture of sludges produced during mechanical and biological treatment is called
raw sludge (RS).
5.2 Objectives of Sludge Treatment
The objective of sludge treatment is the processing of sludge in order to prepare it for
agricultural reuse, incineration or final disposal in a landfill. The most important
treatment procedure is sludge stabilization. The primary objective of sludge stabiliza-
tion is to convert critical sludge constituents, so they will not cause hygienic or es-
thetic nuisances by producing offensive odors or by having negative influences on
the environment. Secondary effects are a reduction of the organic fraction, improve-
ment of dewaterability, removal of pathogens and production of biogas to be used as
an energy source. (Tab. 5.1). During the stabilization process high-molecular, high-
energy, unstable sludge constituents are transformed into low-molecular, low-energy
and more stable substances.
Table 5.1: Objectives and secondary effects of sludge stabilization
primary objective: conversion (transformation, degradation) of organic sludge con-

stituents in order to avoid negative environmental impacts
secondary effects: reduction of sludge (solid matter) volume
improvement of dewaterability
reduction of pathogens
production of biogas (digester gas)
Above mentioned secondary effects are indeed intended and will occur with all bio-
logical stabilization processes. Depending on the integration of the sludge stabiliza-
tion process into other treatment units, these effects are more or less important. In
the following, these secondary effects will be discussed briefly.
Reduction of the Sludge (Solid Matter) Volume
How solid matter in the sludge can be reduced by a stabilization process, is illus-
trated in Fig. 5.2 [adapted from 3]. The chosen example shows that a reduction of
solid matter down to two thirds of the original volume is possible, thus having a
Page: 174
strong positive effect on the costs for subsequent sludge treatment and disposal.
Fig. 5.2: Change in sludge volume and characteristics because of anaerobic stabi-
lization
Improvement of Dewaterability
The positive influence of stabilization on dewatering characteristics of sludge has

been well known for a long time. The reason for this lies probably in the above men-
tioned reduction of the organic fraction and in the conversion of colloidal particles.
Reduction of Pathogens
Disinfection of sludge is not a legal obligation yet. In relevant literature a reduction of

pathogens is often mentioned together with sludge digestion in the mesophilic tem-
perature range (32 –35 °C). Numerous investigation have proven, nevertheless, that
a complete disinfection of sludge can only be achieved by establishing thermophilic
anaerobic or aerobic digestion (50 – 60 °C) as a stabilization process, or by using a
separate sludge disinfection method.
Production of Biogas (Digester Gas)
Biogas production is, of course, only possible in anaerobic treatment systems. Fig. 5-
6 demonstrates the obvious dependency of the specific gas production on the type of
sludge and the digestion period.
Page: 175
Fig. 5.3: Specific biogas production in dependency on the digestion period

(adapted from Kapp /4/)
When integrating a sludge stabilization plant into a standard treatment chain with a
focus on final disposal (such as agricultural reuse or landfilling), the primary objective
is always stabilization itself. For integration in a more sophisticated treatment chain,
which includes for example thermal drying or incineration, the focus will be on the re-
duction of sludge volume, in order to minimize costs for subsequent treatment proc-
esses, or on the production of biogas.
Page: 176
5.3 Legal Regulations
Closed Substance Cycle and Waste Management Act

27.09.1994
(Law for closed loop recycling – KrW- /AbfG)
Federal Immission Control Act

26.09.2002 (BImSchG)
Technical Guidance Municipal Ordinance on Land Application 17th Ordinance to the Federal
Waste (TA Siedlungsabfall) of Sewage Sludge Immission Control Act
1997 (AbfKlärV) (17. BImSchV, 14.08.2003)
Technical Guidance for the
Ordinance Combustion of Waste and Similar
Recycling, Treatment and
Combustible Materials
Disposal of Municipal Waste
14.05.1993
Fig. 5.4: Legal Regulation for sewage sludge disposal
The Technische Anleitung (TA) Siedlungsabfall (Technical Guidance Municipal

Waste) and the Klärschlammaufbringungs-Verordnung (AbKlärV) (Ordinance on
Land Application of Sewage Sludge) determine and control the rules for agricultural
reuse and for landfilling of sewage sludge. From the year 2005 on, the TA Siedlung-
sabfall demands an almost complete degradation of organic sludge compounds (VSS
max. 5 %), in order to minimize environmental risks caused by landfilling.
Although the TA Siedlungsabfall primarily focuses on recycling and demands an agri-
cultural reuse of the produced sludge, the strict limitations for disposal of organic
compounds make landfilling of conventionally treated sludges practically impossible.
The regulations of the TA Siedlungsabfall (only exception is the transition period) do
not consider the fact that at the moment about 50 % of all sludges (produced at vari-
ous treatment procedures) are landfilled. Only slag and ashes from incineration
plants might be able to comply with legal requirements for the parameter "organic
content", but only if optimal operating conditions and complete combustion are given.
In spite of the strict schedule and regulations of the TA Siedlungsabfall, which has
become effective in 2005, so far nobody really knows how sludge treatment and dis-
posal will actually be realized from 2005 on. If all legal regulations for disposal and air
pollution control are observed, the only option left at the momentary state of the art is
mono-incineration of sludge. In order to incinerate all sludges, which have been land-
filled so far in Germany, a large number of incineration plants would have to be con-
structed, but not even required approval procedures have yet been completed.
Page: 177
5.4 Process Steps of Sludge Treatment
5.4.1 Sludge Thickening
Depending on their origin, sludges show a water content between 90 % and 99,5 %.
The reason for that is the large water binding capacity of sludge, which makes a
separation of water fractions difficult [10]. The objective of sludge thickening is to
remove a portion of the liquid fraction, in order to reduce sludge volume. Separated
sludge liquor should be as clear as possible.
The most common and simple method is gravity thickening in conical or shallow
tanks (gravity thickener). During flotation thickening sludge solids, especially from
waste activated sludge, will be made to float by attaching very fine air bubbles to the
solids mass, and will then be skimmed from the tank surface. Thickening is also ac-
complished by filtration using batch operated fixed volume recessed plate filter
presses or continuously operated belt filter presses. Centrifuges (decanters) are used
to achieve separation on the basis of a mechanically induced gravity field (centrifuga-
tion). The above mentioned dewatering aggregates are introduced in Fig. 5.5 to Fig.
5.9.
Fig. 5.5: Circular gravity thickener with pickets and scraper blade [12]
Page: 178
Fig. 5.6: Flotation unit
Fig. 5.7: Belt filter press [14]
Page: 179
Fig. 5.8: Recessed plate filter press [14]
Fig. 5.9: Countercurrent solid bowl centrifuge (Westfalia Separator)
5.4.2 Sludge Stabilization
Stabilization of sludge can be achieved with biological, chemical and thermal proc-
esses. A schematic classification of these processes is presented in Tab. 5.2.
Page: 180
During biological sludge stabilization, the organic matter of the sludge is decom-
posed by microorganisms in a controlled environment until a sufficient degree of sta-
bilization is reached. Basically one must differentiate between aerobic processes (in
the presence of oxygen) and anaerobic processes (in the absence of oxygen). If bio-
logical treatment processes occur under anaerobic conditions, they are called diges-
tion processes. Anaerobically stabilized sludge, which is produced during this diges-
tion process is called digested sludge. Well digested sludge is extensively homoge-
nized and nearly inert.
During chemical stabilization, quicklime or hydrated lime is added to the sludge
prior to (lime pre-treatment) or after (lime post-treatment) dewatering, in order to raise
the pH to 12 or higher. The pH creates an environment that is not conducive to the
survival of microorganisms. Consequently, the sludge will not putrefy, create odors or
pose a health hazard, as long as the pH is maintained at this level. Lime stabilization
increases the amount of sludge to be disposed of.
Page: 181
Table 5.2: Schematic classification of stabilization processes
stabilization
biological stabilization chemical stabilization thermal stabilization
aerobic processes anaerobic processes oxidation aerobic anaerobic oxidation

processes processes processes processes
operational temperature psychro- meso- thermo psychro- meso- thermo- self- heating high temperatures
phlic philic -philic phlic philic philic
together with simultane- combined

wastewater ously in the in Imhoff-
treatment aeration tank tanks
structural
design
separate tanks with- heat-insulated open or closed heated special re- mixing special re- special
from waste- out heat- tanks closed digestion tanks actors aggregates action combustion
water treat- insulation tanks furnaces
ment
* no stabilization in the actual sense, effects are caused by environmental changes
Page: 182
Table 5.3: Agriculture productivity raise (ton/ha/year) due to the use of municipal sew-
age sludge (Shende, G.B., “Status of Wastewater Treatment and Agricultural
Reuse with Special Reference to Indian Experience and Research and De-
velopment Needs”, in: M.B. Pescod and A. Arar, Eds., Proceedings of the
FAO Seminar on the Treatment and Use of Sweage Effluents for Irrigation,
Nicosia, Cyprus, 7-9 October, Butterworths, London, 1985).
Irrigation done by Wheat Beans Rice Potato Cotton

8 years 5 years 7 years 4 years 3 years
Raw sewage 3,34 0,90 2,97 23,11 2,56
Primary effluent 3,45 0,87 2,94 20,78 2,30
Stabilization pond effluent 3,45 0,78 2,98 22,31 2,41
Water + NPK 2,70 0,72 2,03 17,16 1,70
Composting is an aerobic process, where organic material undergoes biological deg-

radation until a stable end product is reached. Usually composting takes place in a
composting pile with natural or artificial aeration or in an enclosed container with per-
manent mechanical turning (retention time up to approx. 14 days at approx. 60°C).
Amendments such as sawdust, paper or domestic waste can be added to the compost.
An absolute necessity for composting is the porosity of the mixture for effective aeration,
a pH-value of 7 and a water content of < 50%. Composting only makes sense, if a mar-
ket for the produced compost exists, so that the sale of the final product can partially
offset the cost of composting.
Heat treatment processes for thermal stabilization of sludge are incineration (absolute
mineralization of organic sludge constituents), production of building materials (inertiza-
tion of sludge solids by integrating them into various building materials) as well as gasi-
fication and pyrolysis (fractionation of organic constituents to gaseous or liquid compo-
nents for further energy extraction).
In the following sections only the biological processes for sludge stabilization will be dis-
cussed in detail.
5.4.2.1 Aerobic Sludge Stabilization

The field of biological sludge stabilization basically covers (as shown in Tab. 5.2) aero-
bic and anaerobic sludge stabilization. These two processes are fundamentally different
concerning necessary environmental conditions and participating micro-organisms. Also
the stabilization result is not comparable [2].
Simultaneously aerobically stabilized dewatered sludge for example, which is stored in
summer, will change from an aerobic to anaerobic environment, and will be available for
further degradation relatively easily due to this transformation (offensive odors!). Di-
gested sludge on the contrary, dewatered and stored, will cool off and remain in its envi-
ronment, thus largely preventing further degradation.
Aerobic sludge stabilization is a process similar to the activated sludge process in
wastewater treatment. The only difference is that the available substrate concentration
must be that low, that the sludge begins to consume its own protoplasm, meaning that
the depletion rate becomes higher than the biomass increase and mineralization pro-
Page: 183
gresses. Standard stabilization parameters for aerobic stabilization are among others
• BOD5/COD-ratio
• respiration intensity in relation to VSS
• potential for gas production in separate digestion tests
• acid forming capacity after anaerobic storage
• degree of degradation
Simultaneous aerobic sludge stabilization – as the name already suggests - takes
place simultaneously with biological wastewater treatment. Then as a rule no pre-
sedimentation is incorporated in the operational treatment process in order to be able to
treat the complete sludge quantity produced at the wastewater treatment plant. Fig. 5.10
shows the flow diagram for simultaneous sludge stabilization.
Fig. 5.10: Flow diagram for simultaneous sludge stabilization
This type of treatment must be rated extremely positive regarding the objectives of
wastewater treatment, since its large volume and its consequent biomass storage, pos-
sess a very good balancing capacity. Because this stands for high operational safety,
this process technique is used preferably for small and very small treatment plants.
Dimensioning is done according to ATV standard A 131 [5] for a sludge age of ≥ 25
days, assuming standard loads such as 60 g BOD5/p·d; DS = 4 g/l and BDS = 0,05
kg/kg·d, which lead to a necessary specific tank volume of 300 l/p for advanced waste-
water treatment and sludge stabilization. Oxygen transfer is calculated at approx. 2,5 kg
O2/kg BOD5. Since wastewater treatment plant loadings are very low during the night,
oxidation ditches with mammoth rotors and have proven to be a very suitable tank de-
sign. This separation of aeration and mixing makes the application of jet aerators espe-
cially efficient.
It must be taken into consideration that for this process the stabilization result (meas-
ured as reduction of the organic fraction) is highly dependent on temperature. Tests [6]
have shown, that the degree of degradation of organic substances rapidly decreases
below 10 °C and the objective of sludge stabilization is then only realized insufficiently.
When storing aerobically stabilized sludges, often a high nitrogen content and high COD
values can be observed [7], which indicates that large amounts of degradable organic
Page: 184
substance are left in the sludge.
During separate aerobic sludge stabilzation generally the same mechanisms take
place as during simultaneous aerobic sludge stabilization. Depending on the individual
optimal temperature of the involved micro organisms, on distinguishes between psy-
chrophilic separate aerobic stabilization and aerobic thermophilic sludge stabilization.
The following Fig. 5.11 shows a tank arrangement which can be used for both proc-
esses.
Fig. 5.11: Standard set-up for "cold" and aerobic thermophilic sludge stabilization
Table 5.4: Concentration of faecal coliforms in facultative ponds, time of detention 25

days (Reboucas, C.; Braga, B.; Tundisi, J. G.:Aguas Doces no Brasil, Es-
crituras Editora e Distribuidora de Livros Ltda., Sao Paulo, 2002
System of ponds Number of ponds Effluent faecal coliforms (MPN/100 mL)

Melbourne, Australia 8-11 100
Extrabes, Brazil 5 30
Cogolin, France 3 100
Amman, Jordan 9 30
Lima, Peru 5 100
Tunis, Tunisia 4 200
Separate psychrophilic stabilization is realized by adding the waste activated sludge

produced during wastewater treatment (sometimes mixed with primary sludges) to a
separate stabilization tank, after a preliminary gravity thickening process. The sludges
are then aerated for at least 25 days. In former times this treatment process was very
common, but, since it does not show significant advantages in comparison to other op-
tions, it has almost been forgotten. Lately new interest in this treatment option has
Page: 185
arisen, especially for its use in rural areas. Basically a similar stabilization result can be
expected as for simultaneous aerobic sludge stabilization, but a direct comparison is
only possible if waste activated sludge alone is stabilized. That means that no primary
settling tanks can be used. If primary sludges are also stabilized, strong odor emissions
cannot be prevented and technical measures for odor minimization will be inevitable.
Aerobic thermophilic sludge stabilization is normally realized in a temperature range
between 50 and 65° C. This temperature can be achieved by using the heat released
during microbial oxidation of organic matter and by installing insulated reactors [8]. Addi-
tional facilities for aeration and re-circulation are required. Most commonly used aera-
tion devices are spiral aerators and jet aerators.
Reactors are normally dimensioned for a mean retention time of 5 to 7 days.
Due to the long retention time of the sludge in the thermophilic temperature range and
due to an increase in the ph-value, aerobic thermophilic sludge stabilization can also be
used as simultaneous sludge disinfection, if an appropriate process management is ap-
plied (Fig. 5.12).
Even though, according to the Klärschlammaufbringungsverordnung (Ordinance on
Land Application of Sewage Sludge) the disinfection of applied sludges is not obligatory
at the moment, it is often considered to be a marketing advantage for their disposal on
agricultural areas.
Page: 186
Fig. 5.12: Requirements for the elimination of pathogens during aerobic thermophilic
stabilization
5.4.2.2 Anaerobic Sludge Stabilization (Digestion)

Anaerobic sludge stabilization (digestion) is the most commonly used sludge stabiliza-
tion process in Germany at medium sized and large wastewater treatment plants. On
the one hand this is due to the better degradation of organic substance in comparison to
the aerobic stabilization and on the other hand it is due to the energetically usable
methane production. In addition, dewaterability can be improved by digestion, if the raw
sludge contains a large amount of primary sludge. Disadvantages of anaerobic sludge
stabilization are the high investment for buildings and equipment, an increased con-
taminated return flow (COD, TKN/NH4-N, PO4-P) to the wastewater treatment plant be-
cause of dewatering and digester foaming problems.
In contrast to aerobic bacteria, which can convert a wide spectrum of substrates to the
final products CO2 and water, various groups of organisms are needed in an anaerobic
environment, in order to convert high-molecular substances, such as carbohydrates,
proteins and fats, into the end products CH4, CO2 and water.
Page: 187
Fig. 5.13: Reaction diagram for the methanogenic conversion [6]
The anaerobic degradation of polymer substances to methane occurs in four steps (Fig.
5.13). The first step is a hydrolysis of organic polymers by exoenzymes to basic struc-
tural building blocks. It is followed by fermentative degradation processes in the so
called acidification phase ("acidogenesis"), where fatty acids as a main product and
CO2 and hydrogen are formed (hydrolytic fermentative microorganisms). The newly
formed monomers (acetate, CO2, H2) are either converted directly by methanogenic
bacteria or are converted by syntrophic acetogenic bacteria to acetate in a process
called acetogenesis. In anaerobic wastewater or sludge treatment this produced acetate
is then decomposed mainly by acetotrophic methanogenic microorganisms to carbon
dioxide and methane (60-70% of all carbohydrates).
In order to evaluate the "efficiency" of the anaerobic process, the following criteria can
be used [according to 4]:
• the degradation rate of the organic sludge compounds ηVSS as a measure for the de-
crease in sludge mass;
• production of biogas;
• biogas composition, since the methane is produced in the last phase;
Page: 188
• amount of organic acids (z. B. acetic acid equivalent) as a measure for the level of in-
termediate products in the anaerobic process
• pH-value, especially since methane formers require a pH-value > ca. 6,5 and < ca.
8,0.
A degradation rate between 30 and 40 % is known for waste activated sludges from
wastewater treatment plants with low loading rates, while the organic substances in
primary sludges can be degraded up to 55 und 60 %. Normally mixed sludges are
treated, which inevitably leads to degradation rates in between the above mentioned
values.
For standard sludges, the amount of biogas produced during the process can be as-
sumed at 450 l biogas for each kg of organic substance, which leads to approx. 900 l
biogas for each kg degraded organic substance. Fig. 5.14 presents various digester de-
signs.
a = Anglo-American b = conventional European
c = egg-shape d= European with a flat bottom
Fig. 5.14: Digester designs
The low, cylindrical design (Fig. 5.14, left side) is mainly used overseas due to its simple
construction technique. Although the construction of these digesters is very cost-
efficient, they allow less effective sludge mixing and cause enormous operational prob-
lems due to sludge deposits and formation of scum layers. As a consequence these di-
gesters, which are commonly used in the United States, must be opened, emptied and
cleaned periodically. Due to high disposal costs and strict disposal regulations this
would be impossible in Germany.
Page: 189
Table 5.5: Stabilization Ponds Efficacy in Northeast Brazil (average temperature 26oC)
(Reboucas, C.; Braga, B.; Tundisi, J. G.:Aguas Doces no Brasil, Escrituras
Editora e Distribuidora de Livros Ltda., Sao Paulo, 2002)
Sample collected Detention time BOD5 (mg/L) Suspended Faecal coliforms helminths
from (days) solids (mg/L) (MPN/100ml) eggs
(eggs/L)
7
Raw Sewage - 240 305 4,6 x 10 804
Effluent from:
6
Anaerobic pond 6,8 63 56 2,9 x 10 29
5
Facultative pond 5,5 45 74 3,2 x 10 1
4
Stabilization pond 5,5 25 61 2,4 x 10 0
Stabilization pond 2 5,5 19 43 450 0
Stabilization pond 3 5,8 17 45 30 0
5.4.3 Sludge Dewatering and Conditioning
Dewatering means the separation of water from the sludge particles using gravitational
or centrifugal forces, pressure or vacuum. The objective of dewatering is to achieve the
highest possible dried solids content, reduce sludge volume and improve stability of the
sludge. Dewaterability of a sludge is improved by chemical or physical sludge condition-
ing prior to dewatering. Sludge conditioning changes sludge characteristics, in order
to improve sludge dewaterability. This is accomplished by adding substances (such as
FeCl3 and lime or org. polymers), which possess a surface charge contrary to the sur-
face charge of the sludge particles. This leads to a neutralization of the surface charge
of sludge particles, which causes an electrostatic attraction, thus forming sludge flocs.
Sludge dewatering is accomplished with the same aggregates as sludge thickening (see
5.4.1). Detailed descriptions of dewatering aggregates can be found in [10]. The degree
of dewatering that can be achieved with the various aggregates is presented in the fol-
lowing Tab. 5.6.
Table 5.6: Comparison of dewatering parameters of various dewatering aggregates
achievable solids spec. energy con-

dewatering aggregate conditioning
content sumption
Ca(OH)2 FeCL3 Polymer (*) (**)
3 3 3
[kg/m ] [kg/m ] [g /kg DS [%] [kWh/m ]
fixed-volume recessed ~ 15 ~ 5 – 7,5 - ~ 28 - 40 ~ 1,5
plate filter press
diaphragm Press ~3–4 ~ 1 – 1,5 ~ 3,5 – 5,0 ~ 35 - 45 ~ 1,2
(variable-volume recessed
plate filter press)
belt filter press - - ~ 2,5 – 5,0 ~ 20 - 32 ~ 0,3 – 0,5
high performance belt filter - - ~ 2,5 – 5,0 ~ 30 - 40 ~ 0,5
press
decanter / centrifuge - - ~ 3,0 – 8,0 ~ 20 - 32 ~ 1,8 – 2,0
high performance centri- - - ~ 4,0 – 8,0 ~ 28 - 40 ~ 1,8 – 2,2
fuge
3
(*) = depending on the dewaterability of the sludge (**) = depending on capacity (m /h)
Page: 190
5.4.4 Heat Drying
Heat drying becomes more and more important, since it leads to a further volume
reduction, accompanied by a higher solids content (DS = 35 weight-%) which can only
be accomplished by this kind of treatment. Complete sludge drying (dry solids > 90 %)
produces a almost completely dry, well storable and transportable product that can be
reused in agriculture or disposed off in landfills very cost-efficiently. When storing com-
pletely dried sludge its increased explosiveness and flammability must be taken into
consideration. Incineration of the dried sludge is also possible, but is normally done with
partially dried sludge (dry solids content 50 % to 60 %).
Heat drying is a complex procedure which requires not only a drying aggregate but also
further aggregates for the pre- and post-treatment of the sludge and for the treatment of
the off-gases and exhaust vapors.
The classification of dryers (direct and indirect) is based on the method of transferring
heat to wet solids. The following types are common:
• convection (direct) drying systems
• conduction (indirect) drying systems
In convection drying systems (flash dryer, rotary dryer and fluidized-bed dryer, hori-
zontal belt dryer), the wet sludge directly contacts the heat-transfer mechanism, usually
hot gases. Exhaust vapors and hot gases are mixed and discharged.
In conduction drying systems (vertical or horizontal indirect dryers with paddles, hol-
low flights or disks mounted on one or more rotating shafts), a solid retaining wall sepa-
rates the wet sludge from the heat transfer medium, usually steam, oil or another hot
fluid, which is circulated through the jacketed shell of the dryer and the hollow core of
the rotating assembly.
5.4.5 Sludge Incineration
In the future, landfilling of sewage sludge will probably not be possible anymore (see
chapter 5.3), since the very strict regulations for organic contents cannot be observed
with standard sludge treatment methods. Therefore, thermal and further treatment
methods will be indispensable in order to guarantee a safe disposal of sludge.
Sludge incineration has been widely spread especially in metropolitan areas in the last
decades. Various types of incinerators (multiple-hearth incinerator, fluidized bed incin-
erator) have proven to work well and efficiently. Because of the very strict regulations of
the above mentioned TA-Siedlungsabfall, incineration of sludge becomes of growing
importance. It must also be taken into consideration that legal regulations for the emis-
sion of exhaust fumes (17. BImSch-V, Bundes Immissions- Schutz-Verordnung, Ordi-
nance to the Federal Immission Control Act), caused by fuels that are not standard fu-
els, are very strict as well. Therefore many existing sludge incineration plants in Ger-
many are either shut down or must be equipped with expensive treatment systems for
off-gases. If one takes into consideration not only the costs but also the time-consuming
Page: 191
approval procedures for the construction of new sludge incineration plants, it can easily
be understood, that there is a tendency for coincineration of sludge in existing, large-
capacity coal-fired power stations. Incineration and coincineration both require a very
dry sludge, which makes it necessary to integrate a sludge drying system (whether cen-
tral or decentral) into the treatment concept.
As a basic principle, it must be mentioned that sludge incineration is no disposal option,
but only a treatment method which transforms the sludge structure fundamentally.
Page: 192
[1] Nellenschulte, T.: Modell zur Charakterisierung des Entwässerungsverhaltens von

Klärschlämmen; Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Siedlungswasserwirtschaft der
TU Braunschweig, Heft 59, 1996
[2] ATV Stabilisierungskennwerte für biologische Stabilisierungs-verfahren, ATV Ar-
beitsbericht des FA 3.1, AG 3.1.1, Korrespondenz Abwasser, 41. Jahrgang, Heft 3,
1994
[3] Möller, U.: Biologische Vollstabilisierung, Korrespondenz Abwasser,
41. Jahrgang Heft 8, Seite 1290 - 1300, 1994
[4] Kapp, H.: Aerobe und anaerobe Klärschlammstabilisierung im Vergleich. Vortrag
zum Seminar G/3 "Klärschlammentsorgung - neue Anforderungen, neue Proble-
me, Kosten- und Finanzierungsmodelle", Fulda 11. - 13. März 1993
[5] ATV-DVWK-Standard A 131E: Dimensioning of Single-Stage Activated Sludge
Plants, GFA, Hennef (2000).
[6] Koers, D. A., Mavinic, D. S.: Aerobic digestion of waste activated sludge at low
temperatures, JWPCF 49 (1977), 460 - 468
[7] Kapp, H.: Aerobe und anaerobe Klärschlammstabilisierung im Vergleich. ATV-
Fortbildungskurs G/3 "Klärschlammentsorgung", Fulda, Magdeburg 1992
[8] Riegler, G.: Wärmeschutzmaßnahmen im Bereich der abwassertechnischen Klär-
schlammstabilisierung. Schriftenreihe SIWAWI der Ruhr-Universität Bochum, Band
3, Bochum 1984
[9] Mudrack, K.; Kunst, S.: Biologie der Abwasserreinigung, 3. Auflage, Gustav Fi-
scher Verlag, Stuttgart, 1991
[10] ATV/BDE/VKS.: Maschinelle Entwässerung, ATV Arbeitsbericht des FA 3.2, Kor-
respondenz Abwasser, 42. Jahrgang, Heft 2, 1995
[11] Engelhart, M., Dichtl, N.: Enhanced Anaerobic Degradation of Mechanically Disin-
tegrated Sewage Sludge, Environmental European Forum of Young Researchers,
27.-31.08.1998, Strasbourg, France
[12] WEF: Operation of Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants, Manual of Practice
No. 11, 5th ed., Water Environment Federation, Alexandria, VA, 1996
[13] Vesilind, P.A. (ed.): Wastewater Treatment Plant Design, Water Environment Fed-
eration, IWA Publishing (2003).
[14] Metcalf Eddy, Inc. Wastewater Engineering - Treatment and Reuse 4th Edition,
McGraw Hill Companies, New Companies, New ork (2003)
Page: 193
6 Symbols
α return sludge flowrate

β [°] angle of inclination
ζ [-] head loss coefficient
ηmotor motor efficiency
ηpump pump efficiency
λ [-] coefficient of friction
ν [m²/s] kinematic viscosity
ρ [kg/m³] density
ϕ time coefficient
ψ run-off coefficient
ψmean mean run-off coefficient
ψpeak peak run-off coefficient
AC ha drainage area
AP paved surface
Apartial flow cross section for partial filling
AT aeration tank
BOD5 mg O2/L biochemical oxygen demand over a five day
period
COD mg O2/L chemical oxygen demand
d day
D diameter
DOC Dissolved organic carbon
DS dry solids
DSAT concentration of activated sludge (dry mass
in the aeration tank [kg DS / m³])
fd diurnal peak factor
fh hourly peak factor
g [m/s²] acceleration of gravity
gs ground surface
H [mWC] pressure head
[meter water column 10 mWC = 1 bar]
hf [m] friction head loss
Page: 194
hL [m] head loss

HP [m] pressure head
Hp,min min. supply pressure
I inhabitant
J gradient
JE energy gradient
Jg ground slope
Jp hydraulic gradient
Js pipe sole gradient
JW water surface gradient
k [mm] roughness coefficient
koperation operational roughness
m [L/s⋅m] flow-per-meter-value
n [1/a] rainfall frequency
P [Pa = kg/(m⋅s²)] hydrostatic pressure
p (mm) precipitation/rainfall depth
PD [I/ha] population density
PE population equivalent
Q [L/s] flow, flowrate
Qa annual consumption
qA surface loading rate, surface overflow rate
Qaddition [L/s] additional consumption
QComb L/s combined wastewater flow
QD [L/s] domestic wastewater flow
qD [L/(s⋅1000 I)] specific domestic wastewater quantity
qd L/(I*d) inhabitant specific daily water consump-
tion/wastewater discharge
Qd,max [m3/d] maximum diurnal consumption
qd,mean L/(I*d) diurnal average value of water consumption
Qd,mean [m3/d] average diurnal consumption
QDW L/s dry weather flow
Qh,max [m3/h] maximum hourly consumption
Qin(t) [m3/h] inflow water quantity (replenishment)
QInd [L/s] commercial and industrial wastewater flow
qInd [L/(s⋅ha)] specific industrial wastewater quantity
QInf [L/s] extraneous water flow (infiltration and in-
flow)
Page: 195
Qmax L/s max. wastewater flow

Qout(t) [m3/h] outflow quantity (consumption)
Qoutgoing flow for outgoing branches
Qpartial flow at partial filling
Qpump [m³/h] pump flow
qR [L/(sּha)] area specific stormwater runoff rate
QR L/s rainfall, stormwater flow
qSV L/(m2*h) sludge volume surface loading rate
Qtotal total branch load or flow
Qww wastewater flow
r [L/(sּha)] rainfall intensity
Re = v⋅D/ν Reynolds number
rhy,partial hydraulic radius for partial filling
RS return activated sludge
SLR kg/(m2*h) solids loading rate (DWA: sludge volume
surface loading rate)
SVI sludge volume index
T temperature
t time
tc time of concentration
th hydraulic flow time
tR retention time
train min rainfall duration
ts settling time
tTh thickening time
TKN total Kjehldahl nitrogen
TOC mg TOC/L Total organic carbon
V [m3] volume
VAT volume of the aeration tank [m³]
Vemergency [m3] emergency volume
Vequalizing equalizing volume
Vrequired required storage capacity
v [m/s] flow velocity
vcrit [m/s] critical velocity
vdischarge [m/s] velocity at the discharge pipe
vh [m/s] horizontal velocity of particle = flow velocity
vmin minimum flow velocity
Page: 196
vpartial flow velocities for partial filling

vr [m/s] resulting velocity of particles
vs [m/h] settling velocity of particles
vsuction velocity at the suction inlet
W [m] width
WS waste activated sludge
Page: 197

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Sanitary Engineering 2010

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Curso de Mestrado Profissional „Engenharia Urbana e Ambiental”:

Sanitary Engineering / Engenharia Sanitária

Realizado com apoio do/Supported by:

1 Processes in Bodies of Water ................................................................................ 7

Sanitary and Environmental Engineering is a branch of water management. It deals with

1 Processes in Bodies of Water

1.1 General Introduction

1.2 Hazards to Standing Water Bodies

Fig. 1.1: Temperature profile of a lake [according to Kayser]

1.3 Hazards to Flowing Water Bodies (Rivers, Creeks)

source lower reaches

Fig. 1.2: Longitudinal gradients of important environmental parameters in a river dur-

1.4 Hazards to Ground Water

1.5 Hazards to Oceans

1.6 Wastewater Treatment Procedures for Water Pollution Control

1.7 Characterization of Water Quality

1.7.1 Flowing Water Bodies

Classification of flowing water bodies includes seven zones:

hardly polluted hardly polluted

moderately polluted moderately polluted

critically polluted critically polluted

heavily polluted heavily polluted

very heavily polluted very heavily polluted

excessively polluted excessively polluted

1.7.2 Lakes and Reservoirs

Parameters oligotrophic mesotrophic eutrophic hypereutrophic

1.8 References for Chapter 1

2 Drinking Water Supply

2.1 General Information

2.2 Elements of Water Supply

2.3 Water Demand and Water Consumption

2.3.1 Development of Water Consumption

total water supply water utilities [L/i*d]

2.3.2 Annual Variations in Water Consumption

water supply Qd (1000 m³/d)

max. water consumption

13 work day with max. diurnal

2.3.3 Diurnal Variations in Water Consumption

Diurnal consumption of a medium size town Diurnal consumption of a big town

2.3.4 Prognosis of Water Demand

2.4 Water Supply

2.4.2 Collection of Spring Water

Fig. 2.6: Example for spring water collection [5]

2.4.3 Water Withdrawal from Flowing Water Bodies

Fig. 2.7: Tower for water withdrawal from a river [6]

2.4.4 Water Withdrawal from Lakes and Impoundments

2.4.5 Withdrawal of ground water

• sealing against the drill hole wall

Fig. 2.9: Scheme of a vertical well

Fig. 2.10: Scheme of a horizontal well

2.4.6 Artificial Groundwater Recharge and Bank Filtration

Fig. 2.11: Bank Filtration

2.4.7 Protection of Water Catchment Areas

Water protection areas for impoundments:

2.5 Water Treatment

2.5.1 Requirements for the Quality of Drinking Water

Chemical parameters (toxic and carcinogenic substances)

• Heavy metals (lead, cadmium, etc.)

Table. 2.1: Microbiological Parameters

Escherichia coli - 0/100 mL 0/100 mL

Fecal streptococci 0/100 mL 0/100 mL -

Sulfite reducing clostrides 0/20 mL - -

Table. 2.2: Chemical Parameters