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WINSEM2018-19 - MEE6004 - ETH - GDN128 - VL2018195001506 - Reference Material I - Cathodic Cleaning PDF
WINSEM2018-19 - MEE6004 - ETH - GDN128 - VL2018195001506 - Reference Material I - Cathodic Cleaning PDF
WELDING RESEARCH
cladding of aluminum alloys when Among the process parameters, the du-
ture discussing the feasibility of methods
GTAW arc is used for melting alu- ration of the DCEP polarity (the DCEP
for real-time oxide cleaning during alu-
minum in an open atmosphere. How- duty cycle) has the most significant ef-
minum melting other than cathodic clean-
ever, in order to understand the fect on the size of the cleaned zone and
ing. Jarvis and Ahmed (Ref. 8) showed
mechanism of cathodic cleaning, di- its rate of growth.
that the oxides can be thermally removed
rect observation is needed. In this
by a direct current electrode negative
work, in order to visualize the physical Introduction (DCEN) arc under helium shielding gas.
processes underlying cathodic clean-
Ryazantsev et al. (Ref. 9) showed that the
ing, a machine-vision system is devel- In-process removal of surface oxides is oxides can be partially removed by the
oped, and the interaction of the a very important element of the welding forces induced by the fluid flow in the
variable-polarity arc with the alu- procedure when high-quality welds or de- molten pool. However, the success and
minum surface is captured in real time posits of aluminum alloys are to be popularity of these methods are far less
by a high-speed camera. Surface stud- achieved by gas tungsten arc welding than oxide cleaning by using the DCEP
ies are also performed to assist with (GTAW) in an open atmosphere. The polarity of the arc.
the understanding of the oxide clean- melting temperature of aluminum oxide Background information on the physics
ing process. Real-time images and sur- (2050°C) is much higher than that of alu- of atmospheric arcs is needed to study the
face topography suggest that the minum alloys. The high melting tempera- mechanism of cathodic cleaning. There-
cathode spots are responsible for re- ture of aluminum oxide and its tenacious fore, before discussing the possible mech-
moving oxides from the cathode sur- behavior in the weld pool can cause weld anisms of cathodic cleaning, some basic
face during direct current electrode defects. The presence of the oxide layer on information on arc physics is presented in
positive (DCEP) polarity. The cathod- the molten pool can cause fusion defects the next few sections.
ically cleaned zone expands over time. (Refs. 1, 2), inclusions, and porosities
However, after the diameter of the (Refs. 1, 3). Arc Cathode Physics
cleaned zone reaches a specific value, To remove the oxides during melting of
the rate of its expansion decreases and aluminum alloys by GTAW, alternative The typical distribution of voltage
stops. Unlike cathode spots of vacuum current can be used. During the direct cur- across the arc plasma is shown in Fig. 1.
arc, the cathode spots of atmospheric rent electrode positive (DCEP) polarity of There is a sharp gradient of voltage in the
welding arc form on the surface with the arc, the cathodic cleaning of oxides oc- vicinity of both electrodes (cathode and
original oxides, as well as on the sur- curs. Because of the oxide cleaning func- anode). The potential gradient in the
face already scanned by cathode spots tion of the variable-polarity arc during vicinity of the cathode is called cathode
(possibly because of the re-formation DCEP polarity, variable-polarity plasma fall voltage, which is in the range of 10 to
of a thin layer of oxides on the sur- arc welding (VP PAW) and variable-po- 20 V for the welding arc (Ref. 10), and is
face). Two phases of cathode spot be-
greater than the voltage gradient near the
havior were observed during each
anode. The cathode fall zone acts as a
pulse of DCEP polarity. In the first
KEYWORDS transition zone between the metallic and
phase, small spots scan the surface
plasma states and is necessary for sustain-
Cathodic Cleaning ing the arc on the cathode.
Oxides As schematically shown in Fig. 2, the
R. SARRAFI (rsarrafi@smu.edu), PhD Arc Physics cathode fall zone has an internal structure
candidate, and R. KOVACEVIC and consists of two distinct zones (Ref.
Variable Polarity
(kovacevi@lyle.smu.edu), professor, are with the 11): the cathode sheath (or cathode space
Research Center for Advanced Manufacturing, Aluminum Welding
charge zone), and presheath (or ionization
Southern Methodist University, Dallas, Tex.
Fig. 1 — Typical distribution of arc voltage (modified from Ref. 13). Fig. 2 — General configuration of cathode region of an arc, not true to scale
(adapted from Ref. 11).
A
WELDING RESEARCH
B
Fig. 3 — Schematic drawing of the cross section of a cathode spot (not true
to scale, redrawn from Ref. 16). 1 — Metal cathode under spot (solid), 2
— molten metal layer (0.2–0.5 µm), 3 — cathode sheath (less than 0.01
µm), 4 — presheath (0.1–0.5 µm), 5 — dense plasma over cathode spot, 6
— plasma expansion region, 7 — ejection of molten droplets.
A B C
D E F
Fig. 6 — FIB-cut cross section of the sample surface showing the initial con-
dition of surface oxide.
A
G H I
Fig. 8 — The arc and the affected zone during a few subsequent DCEN and DCEP
pulses at the initial current cycles after the arc ignition. A, E, and F — DCEN po-
larity; B–D and G–I — consecutive images during two DCEP pulses. The interval
between images is 3.3 ms, except the interval between E and F, which is 20 ms.
WELDING RESEARCH
emission) and over- ionizing the evaporated atoms together
come the energy bar- provide a high density of positive ions on
rier that is the surface of the cathode spot, which in
significantly reduced turn generates the high e-field required
under the effect of a for thermofield emission (Refs. 11, 14). A
high temperature. schematic cross section of a cathode spot
The strong electric is shown in Fig. 3 (Ref. 16). The extensive
field (e-field) and evaporation can push the liquid material
high thermal energy out of the cathode spot, and a crater may
B concentration needed be left as a result — Fig. 3. The ejection
for the thermofield of droplets out of the cathode spots may
emission can only be also occur — Fig. 3, item 7.
met locally in cathode The region of arc attachments to the
spots on the non- nonthermionic cathode can consist of a
thermionic cathodes. number of spots. For example, Coulombe
In fact, the current is (Ref. 11) shows that the arc is attached to
localized at a number the copper cathode through a number of
of tiny spots (a few mobile macrospots (much bigger than a
µm) in order to pro- single cathode spot); each of which con-
vide the high temper- sists of several microspots. The lifetime of
ature and e-field a macrospot is much higher than that of
necessary for a sus- small cathode spots (ms compared to μs)
tainable production of (Ref. 11).
arc current by a rela- The cathode spots, which are the at-
tively cold surface of a tachment points of arc to nonthermionic
nonthermionic cath- cathodes, are highly mobile unlike the at-
Fig. 7 — Variable-polarity arc in DCEN and DCEP polarities. A — DCEN ode. Therefore, the tachment point of the arc to the
polarity; B — DCEP polarity.
generation of cathode thermionic cathode. The attachment point
spots is necessary for of the arc to the thermionic cathode is a
cathodes can provide very high electron supplying the arc cur- relatively large, fixed area (Refs. 11, 15).
emission rates (high currents) by the rent from a nonthermionic cathode. The cathode spots usually do not stay in
thermo-field emission mechanism (Ref. 11). Very high rates of material evapora- their place more than a few microseconds.
In the thermofield emission mechanism, the tion have been reported at the cathode They repeatedly extinguish and reignite on
synergic effect of high temperatures and a spots (Refs. 11, 14) because of the high the neighboring surface of nonthermionic
strong electric field creates a high electron energy density (1010 to 1011 A.m–2 current cathodes. In contrast, in thermionic cath-
current. The thermofield emission is basi- density (Refs. 11, 15)). The intensive odes, the arc attachment covers a large
cally a temperature-assisted field emission evaporation accompanying the formation area and is fixed. The reason for the mo-
mechanism. In this mechanism, the elec- of cathode spots is shown to be necessary bility of the cathode spots is not well un-
trons escape the surface under the influence for the electron generation by cold cath- derstood. However, studies of the cathode
of a strong electric field through the quan- odes (Ref. 14). The high evaporation rate spots in vacuum arcs show that a certain
tum mechanical effect of tunneling (field and the high level of energy available for degree of randomness exists in the motion
A B
Fig. 9 — A — SEM image of a surface that is cathodically cleaned by variable-polarity arc, top view; B — SEM image of a surface that is cathodically cleaned
by variable-polarity arc, tilted view.
WELDING RESEARCH
cathode
spots
B C
A
D E F
WELDING RESEARCH
G H I
J K L
M N O
Fig. 11 — The evolution and mobility of cathode spots during a single DCEP polarity of the arc after 1 s from arc ignition; current = 180 A, DCEP duty cycle
= 0.4, frequency = 30 Hz.
300–800 eV are used for sputtering (Ref. layer by positive ions was the first mecha- models and development of accurate sim-
23). nism hypothesized for the cathodic cleaning ulation programs that could predict the
The sputtering of the aluminum oxide (Refs. 3, 18). Herbst (Ref. 18) qualitatively sputtering yields accurately, Pang et al.
describes the cathodic cleaning as a minia- (Refs. 19, 24) calculated the sputtering yield
ture sandblast. The most important evi- of aluminum oxide by the welding arc
Table 1 — Process Parameters Tested in the dence to form this hypothesis is the plasma using TRIM software. The sputter-
Experiments observation of the higher rate of cleaning ing yield obtained by bombarding ions of
when argon shielding gas is used compared the welding arc was too low to be responsi-
Test Parameter Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 to the case of helium gas. Later, Pattee et al. ble for the cathodic cleaning of oxides. Ac-
(Ref. 3) performed a statistical and thermal cording to the computations of Pang (Ref.
Current level (A) 90 120 180 analysis of the arc and suggested that sput- 19, 24), ions with at least 45 eV of kinetic
DCEP duty cycle 0.1 0.2 0.3 tering can qualitatively be responsible for energy are needed to obtain a considerable
Frequency (Hz) 30 60 90 cathodic cleaning. rate of oxide removal. For the welding arc,
After the advancement of sputtering they assumed a maximum of 2 eV from
Fig. 14 — The effect of current on the growth of the cleaned zone. Constant Fig. 15 — The trend of growth of the cleaned zone vs. time in a 3-s time frame.
parameters: frequency = 30 Hz, DCEP duty cycle = 0.4. Parameters: current = 180 A, DCEP duty cycle = 0.4, frequency = 60 Hz.
WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 16 — The effect of DCEP duty cycle on the diameter of the cleaned zone Fig. 17 — The effect of frequency on the diameter of the cleaned zone and its
and its rate of growth. Parameters: current = 180 A, frequency = 60 Hz. rate of growth. Parameters: current = 180 A, DCEP duty cycle = 0.4.
vision system. The integrated machine- principle was used to measure surface through the DCEP arc easier than through
vision system was capable of recognizing roughness as needed. the DCEN arc. The observed difference in
the oxide fragments on the top of the arc brightness agrees with the conclusion
molten pool. They also showed that in Results and Discussion of Pang et al. (Ref. 24) and Qingdong et
order to have an oxide-free molten pool al. (Ref. 30) that the temperature of the
during welding, the oxides should be Original Condition of Surface Oxide arc column is lower in the DCEP polarity
cleaned from the solid surface in front of than in the DCEN polarity.
the molten pool by the cathodic cleaning Figure 6 shows a cross section of the
action of the arc. The selection of process base metal surface cut by a focused ion General Observations during Cathodic
parameters to meet this requirement was beam to measure the thickness of the Cleaning
also discussed in their research without a oxide layer existing on the base metal sur-
detailed explanation of the physical mech- face. As shown in the picture, the surface Figure 8 shows the arc and condition of
anism of cathodic cleaning. of Al 6061 samples was covered by a fairly the affected surface during the initial cur-
Cathodically cleaned surfaces were ex- uniform oxide layer with the thickness be- rent cycles after the arc is ignited. Figure 8
amined by optical and scanning electron tween 450 and 500 nm before any treat- A was taken during the DCEN polarity.
microscopy. Optical microscopy was used ment by the arc. Figure 8B–D are consecutive images of
to give an overview of the area affected by the arc and the affected area on the sur-
the arc. Scanning electron microscopy, Appearance of Arc in DCEN and DCEP face. These images were taken during one
which can provide a larger depth of focus, Polarities DCEP polarity pulse, which was subse-
was used to observe the surface topogra- quent to the DCEN pulse of Fig. 8A. Fig-
phy of the area affected by the arc. A fo- Figure 7A and B shows the arc during ure 8E and F shows the status of the arc
cused ion beam was used to locally cut DCEN and DCEP polarities. The arc in and affected area on the surface during
through different locations of the affected DCEN polarity is much brighter than the the next DCEN pulse, where Fig. 8E
surface in order to measure the average arc in DCEP polarity as shown in Fig. 7A shows the beginning of the DCEN period
thickness of the surface oxide. An optical and B. The low intensity of arc emission and 8F shows the end of it. Figure 8G–I
profiler based on the chromatic aberration during DCEP polarity makes the viewing shows the arc and its effect on the surface
during the DCEP period subsequent to small size when they cannot gather in big cleaned area has a matte appearance (area
image 8F. The time interval between the clusters and produce significantly bright C in Fig. 13) and is roughened by cathode
images is equal (3.3 ms) except for the in- local plasma and cannot leave a wide spots similar to the surface of Fig. 9B. This
terval between the images shown in Fig. enough trace. The behavior of the visible area appears dark in the real-time images.
8E and F, which is 20 ms. A darker ap- cathode spots is the basis for discussing the The arithmetic mean deviation of the
pearance distinguishes the area affected real-time images in this research. roughness profile, Ra, is about 1.8 μm in
by the arc from the surface not affected by The visibility of cathode spots increases this area. The cleaned area adjacent to the
the arc as seen in Fig. 8. The size and sur- with time. During the initial pulses of molten pool (marked as B in Fig. 13) is,
face conditions of the affected area do not DCEP, the cathode spot clusters are small however, shiny and smooth. This area ap-
change during DCEN polarity (Fig. 8E, and weak. However, as more pulses of pears shinier than area C in real-time im-
F), but expands during the DCEP polarity DCEP hit the surface, the spots become ages. The arithmetic mean deviation of the
(Fig. 8B–D, G–I). larger and cause more surface melting. roughness profile, Ra, is about 0.7 μm in
Subsequent surface studies showed the Figure 11A–N shows the consecutive real- area B. Scanning electron microscopy
area appearing dark in the real-time im- time images of the affected area during showed the sign of extensive surface melt-
ages is cleaned from oxides. Figure 9A and DCEP polarity after one second of arc ig- ing, such as hot cracks, on this area. The
B shows the typical SEM images of the nition. The spots seen in Fig. 11 are more real-time images suggest that the smooth-
surface appearing dark in the real-time intense than those seen in Fig. 8. They ness of this area is related to the frequent
images. The porous structure of the sur- leave wider traces while scanning the sur- scanning of this area by the cathode spots,
face is probably the cause for the dark ap- face and causing more melting. When the which leads to extensive surface melting.
pearance of this area. Figure 10A shows a cathode spots cause too much surface The real-time images suggest that the den-
typical focused ion beam (FIB) section of melting, they can make the surface sity of the cathode spots is lower at areas
the surface of Fig. 9B. The white layer cov- smoother, as discussed in the following located farther from the arc axis compared
ering the surface in Fig. 10A is the plat- sections. to areas located closer to it. Therefore, in
inum layer that protects the surface during Based on the real-time observations areas located farther from the arc center,
FIB milling. Figure 10B shows a higher and surface topography of the cleaned such as area C, the cathode spot marks are
magnification of the section shown in Fig. area, it can be concluded that the cathode usually individual. Whereas, on areas
WELDING RESEARCH
10A. Base aluminum, a thin oxide layer, spots are responsible for the cathodic closer to the arc center, such as area B, the
and the protective layer are seen in this cleaning of oxides. Real-time high-speed frequent scanning of the surface by cath-
figure. As shown in Fig. 10B, the surface movies clearly show that the cleaned area ode spots and a higher heat input during
oxide layer on the arc-treated area is very forms and expands by mobile cathode DCEN polarity cause a uniform surface
thin (40–50 nm) on the arc-treated area. spots. In fact, the cathode spots sweep the melting that makes the surface smooth.
This thin oxide layer cannot be the original surface and consume the oxides by vapor- The area marked as D in Fig. 13 is not af-
oxide layer remaining on the surface but izing a thin layer of the surface. The to- fected by the arc.
was probably formed after the surface pography of the cathodically cleaned
cleaning action of the arc (secondary surfaces (surfaces of Fig. 9A, B) agree well The Behavior of Cathode Spots during
oxide). Therefore, the dark area in the with the typical surfaces affected by cath- Cathodic Cleaning of Oxides
real-time images is considered cathodi- ode spots as reported in literature (Ref.
cally cleaned from oxides. 31). The cleaned surface consists of an As already stated in the literature of
The images taken during DCEP polar- array of micrometer-sized depressions em- plasma physics, the behavior of cathode
ity show the evolution of some bright spots braced with thin ridges. The depressions spots of nonthermionic cathodes is highly
on the oxidized aluminum surface and seem to be the sites of cathode spots, and sensitive to local surface conditions (sur-
their movement across the surface (Fig. the ridges are formed because the pres- face layers, surface dirt and oil, oxide con-
8B–D and G–I). The surface images dur- sure of evaporation pushes the liquid out dition, roughness, and surface defects),
ing DCEP polarity also suggest the role of of the cathodes spot (as shown schemati- electrode material, shielding gas composi-
observed mobile bright spots on the re- cally in Fig. 3). Based on the observations, tion, and its impurity (Refs. 11, 15). The
moval of surface oxide. The cleaned area it is hypothesized that the mechanism of absolute numerical values related to the
grows in synchronization with the move- cathodic cleaning is similar to the cathode spots behavior, therefore, may
ment of bright spots across the surface. schematic drawing shown in Fig. 12. It is easily vary by a small change in the exper-
What we see as bright spots in these im- worth noting that this hypothesized mech- imental conditions. Thus, in this paper, the
ages are the major clusters of cathode anism is very general in nature, and the de- focus is not on the absolute values in de-
spots whose local plasma have intense tails of the mechanism should evidently be scribing the cathode spots behavior, but
enough emission. We also see the shiny studied in the future. This schematic pres- the trends in their behavior.
trace they leave after scanning the surface. entation is similar to the mechanism Based on the pictures taken by high-
The movement of cathode spots is linked shown in the work of Arai et al. (Ref. 31) speed camera, the cathode spots occur
to their decay at one surface spot and the on the cleaning of a metal surface by vac- everywhere on the surface covered by the
re-ignition at the neighboring surface uum arcs. atmospheric arc of welding; they can form
(Refs. 11, 14). on the surface with the original oxide, as
It is worth noting that many cathode Surface Condition after Cathodic Cleaning well as on the surface already scanned by
spots of different sizes and lengths of du- cathode spots. Literature (Refs. 26, 28, 31,
ration evolve on the surface of a non- Different areas are formed on the sur- 32) reports an opposite behavior of cath-
thermionic cathode. What we see in these face of the aluminum specimen after ex- ode spots in the case of a vacuum arc. It is
images are the most energetic clusters of posing it to a variable-polarity arc as reported that when an area is scanned by
cathode spots that produce bright local shown in Fig. 13. A quarter of a weld cathode spots of a vacuum arc and cleaned
plasmas as well as the traces they leave crater (marked as area A in Fig. 13) is seen from the surface impurities, the cathode
after scanning the surface. Not all of the at the right upper-corner of the picture. spots seldom come back to that area (Refs.
cathode spots can be seen in the pictures The cathodically cleaned area on the solid 26, 28, 31, 32). Therefore, the cathode
because their visibility can be limited by surface contains two different zones spots of the vacuum arc preferentially at-
their short lifetime as well as their very marked as B and C in Fig. 13. Most of the tack the surfaces that are not yet scanned
by cathode spots, which is referred to as cleaned zone over time nearly stopped ior were observed during each DCEP po-
the “intelligent” behavior of the vacuum when the size of the cleaned zone reached larity period. At the very beginning of a
arc during cleaning (Ref. 31). The surface about 15.5 mm, as shown in Fig. 15. DCEP pulse (first 0.5 ms), the cathode
oxide layers are supposed to facilitate the Increasing the current level enlarges spots randomly form on different locations
thermo-field emission because of the gen- the cleaned zone, but the difference is not on the surface (the first phase). Then, a
eration of a high electric field (Ref. 11) as significant, as shown in Fig. 14. Images number of stronger cathode spots form at
well as their lower work function com- show that when the current level increases, the surface close to the arc center and
pared to metals (Refs. 10, 32). The vac- the cathode spots become stronger with a grow outward (the second phase). The ex-
uum arc needs a voltage increase at the higher level of energy, especially during pansion of the cleaned zone occurs during
completion of oxide cleaning in order to the second phase of the cathode spots be- both phases.
be sustained (Ref. 33), or it may be extin- havior (the phase during which the out- 5) With a stationary arc, the cleaned
guished at this stage (Ref. 10). The surface ward movement of spots occurs). zone expands nonlinearly with the elapsed
oxide layers feed the cathode spots of the Figure 16 shows the significant effect of arcing time. During the initial pulses of
arc during DCEP polarity and help sustain the DCEP duty cycle on the size of the DCEP, the rate of expansion is very fast.
the DCEP arc. In the welding arc, the re- cleaned zone and its rate of growth. In- Later on, this rate decreases, and subse-
formation of cathode spots on the surface creasing the DCEP duty cycle enlarges the quently, after reaching a certain diameter,
already scanned by cathode spots could be cleaned zone and quickens its rate of the cleaned zone stops expanding.
related to the re-oxidation of previously- growth. Images show that increasing the 6) Increasing the current level, fre-
treated areas (the quick formation of very DCEP duty cycle provides more time for quency, and DCEP duty cycle in the tested
thin layers of oxide on the surface already the cathode spots to move around on the range enlarged the cleaned zone. The
scanned by cathode spots). Further exper- surface and expand the cleaned zone. DCEP duty cycle has the most significant
imental confirmation is needed to verify As typically shown in Fig. 17, varying role on the size of the cleaned zone.
this hypothesis. Based on the frequent oc- the frequency does not cause a significant
currence of the welding arc cathode spots change in the diameter of the cleaned Acknowledgments
on the surfaces that are already scanned, zone at the beginning of arc ignition, but
it can be said that the vacuum arc acts causes significant variation in the growth This work was financially supported by
WELDING RESEARCH
“more intelligently” and more efficiently rate of the cleaned zone in the longer run. NSF’s Grant EEC-0541952. The work of
in cleaning oxides compared to the atmos- The change in the rate of growth is espe- Andrew Socha, research engineer at the
pheric arc of welding. However, the clean- cially significant when the frequency in- Research Center for Advanced Manufac-
ing efficiency of a variable-polarity creases from 30 to 60 Hz. A higher turing, in the design and integration of the
atmospheric arc is practically sufficient for frequency provides a higher number of machine-vision system is highly appreci-
welding purposes. DCEP pulses with a shorter length com- ated. The authors would like to thank
Real-time pictures show two distinct pared to a lower frequency. Images sug- David N. Ruzic, professor at the Univer-
phases in the behavior of cathode spots gest that increasing the frequency causes sity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, for
during each single pulse of DCEP. At the a faster growth of the cleaned area by pro- his valuable guidance.
beginning of the DCEP pulse (the first 0.5 viding a higher number of random hits of
ms of each DCEP polarity period), cath- the cathode spots (phase 1 of the DCEP References
ode spots are formed randomly on the sur- polarity period).
face. We may call the first phase as the 1. Mathers, G. 2002. The Welding of Alu-
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observed until the end of the DCEP po- ing of oxides from aluminum surface vari- minium alloys. ASM Handbook, vol. 6, pp. 722–
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As already stated, the high-speed cam- ing conclusions can be drawn based on the 4. Sarrafi, R., Lin, D. C., Levert, E., and Ko-
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