Lan Standards and architecture:

lan architecture and standards.ppt

Medium Access Control Sublayer (MAC

sublayer)
Computer NetworkComputer EngineeringMCA

The medium access control (MAC) is a sublayer of the data link layer of the open
system interconnections (OSI) reference model for data transmission. It is responsible
for flow control and multiplexing for transmission medium. It controls the transmission of
data packets via remotely shared channels. It sends data over the network interface
card.

MAC Layer in the OSI Model

The Open System Interconnections (OSI) model is a layered networking framework that
conceptualizes how communications should be done between heterogeneous systems.
The data link layer is the second lowest layer. It is divided into two sublayers −
 The logical link control (LLC) sublayer
 The medium access control (MAC) sublayer

The following diagram depicts the position of the MAC layer −

Functions of MAC Layer

  It provides an abstraction of the physical layer to the LLC and upper layers of the OSI
network.
 It is responsible for encapsulating frames so that they are suitable for transmission via the
physical medium.
 It resolves the addressing of source station as well as the destination station, or groups of
destination stations.
 It performs multiple access resolutions when more than one data frame is to be transmitted.
It determines the channel access methods for transmission.
 It also performs collision resolution and initiating retransmission in case of collisions.
 It generates the frame check sequences and thus contributes to protection against
transmission errors.

MAC Addresses
MAC address or media access control address is a unique identifier allotted to a
network interface controller (NIC) of a device. It is used as a network address for data
transmission within a network segment like Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth.
MAC address is assigned to a network adapter at the time of manufacturing. It is
hardwired or hard-coded in the network interface card (NIC). A MAC address comprises
of six groups of two hexadecimal digits, separated by hyphens, colons, or no
separators. An example of a MAC address is 00:0A:89:5B:F0:11.

CSMA with Collision Detection

(CSMA/CD)
CSMAAlgorithmsComputer Network

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) is a network

protocol for carrier transmission that operates in the Medium Access Control (MAC)
layer. It senses or listens whether the shared channel for transmission is busy or not,
and defers transmissions until the channel is free. The collision detection technology
detects collisions by sensing transmissions from other stations. On detection of a
collision, the station stops transmitting, sends a jam signal, and then waits for a random
time interval before retransmission.

Algorithms
The algorithm of CSMA/CD is:
 When a frame is ready, the transmitting station checks whether the channel is idle or busy.
 If the channel is busy, the station waits until the channel becomes idle.
 If the channel is idle, the station starts transmitting and continually monitors the channel to
detect collision.
 If a collision is detected, the station starts the collision resolution algorithm.
  The station resets the retransmission counters and completes frame transmission.

The algorithm of Collision Resolution is:

 The station continues transmission of the current frame for a specified time along with a jam
signal, to ensure that all the other stations detect collision.
 The station increments the retransmission counter.
 If the maximum number of retransmission attempts is reached, then the station aborts
transmission.
 Otherwise, the station waits for a backoff period which is generally a function of the number
of collisions and restart main algorithm.

The following flowchart summarizes the algorithms:

 Though this algorithm detects collisions, it does not reduce the number of collisions.
  It is not appropriate for large networks performance degrades exponentially when more
stations are added.

Collision Detection in CSMA/CD

CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Detection) is a media-access
control method widely used in Ethernet technology/LANs.
Consider a scenario where there are ‘n’ stations on a link and all are waiting to transfer
data through that channel. In this case all ‘n’ stations would want to access the
link/channel to transfer their own data.Problem arises when more than one station
transmits the data at the moment. In this case, there will be collisions in the data from
different stations.
CSMA/CD is one such technique where different stations that follow this protocol agree
on some terms and collision detection measures for effective transmission. This
protocol decides which station will transmit when so that data reaches the destination
without corruption.
How CSMA/CD works?

 Step 1: Check if the sender is ready for transmitting data packets.

 Step 2: Check if the transmission link is idle?
Sender has to keep on checking if the transmission link/medium is idle. For this it
continously senses transmissions from other nodes. Sender sends dummy data on
the link.If it does not receive any collision signal, this means the link is idle at the
moment.If it senses that the carrier is free and there are no collisions, it sends the
data. Otherwise it refrains from sending data.
 Step 3: Transmit the data & check for collisions.
Sender transmits its data on the link. CSMA/CD does not use ‘acknowledgement’
system. It checks for the successful and unsuccessful transmissions through
collision signals. During transmission, if collision signal is received by the node,
transmission is stopped. The station then transmits a jam signal onto the link and
waits for random time interval before it resends the frame. After some random
time, it again attempts to transfer the data and repeats above process.
 Step 4: If no collision was detected in propagation, the sender completes its
frame transmission and resets the counters.
How a station knows if its data collides?
Consider the above situation. Two stations, A & B.
Propagation Time: Tp = 1 hr ( Signal takes 1 hr to go from A to B)
At time t=0, A transmits its data.
t= 30 mins : Collision occurs.
After collision occurs, a collision signal is generated and sent to both A & B to inform the
stations about collision. Since the collision happened midway, the collision signal also
takes 30 minutes to reach A & B.
Therefore, t=1 hr: A & B receive collision signals.
This collision signal is received by all the stations on that link. Then,
How to ensure that its our station’s data that collided?
For this, Transmission time (Tt) > Propagation Time (Tp) [Rough bound]
This is because, we want that before we transmit the last bit of our data from our
station, we should atleast be sure that some of the bits have already reached to the
destination. This ensures that the link is not busy and collisions will not occur.
But, above is a loose bound. We have not taken the time taken by collision signal to
travel back to us. For this consider the worst case scenario.
Consider the above system again.
At time t=0, A transmits its data.
t= 59:59 mins : Collision occurs
This collision occurs just before the data reaches B. Now the collision signal takes 59:59
minutes again to reach A. Hence, A receives the collision information approximately
after 2 hours, that is, after 2 * Tp.
Hence, to ensure tighter bound, to detect the collision completely,
Tt > >= 2 * Tp
This is the maximum collision time that a system can take to detect if the collision was
of its own data.
What should be the minimum length of packet to be transmitted?
Transmission Time = Tt = Length of the packet/ Bandwidth of the link
[Number of bits transmitted by sender per second]
Substituting above, we get,
Length of the packet/ Bandwidth of the link>= 2 * Tp
Length of the packet >= 2 * Tp * Bandwidth of the link
Padding helps in the cases where we do not have such long packets. We can pad extra
characters to the end of our data to satisfy the above condition.

Token Bus and Token Ring

Computer NetworkComputer EngineeringMCA

Token Ring
Token ring (IEEE 802.5) is a communication protocol in a local area network (LAN)
where all stations are connected in a ring topology and pass one or more tokens for
channel acquisition. A token is a special frame of 3 bytes that circulates along the ring
of stations. A station can send data frames only if it holds a token. The tokens are
released on successful receipt of the data frame.
Token Passing Mechanism in Token Ring
If a station has a frame to transmit when it receives a token, it sends the frame and then
passes the token to the next station; otherwise it simply passes the token to the next
station. Passing the token means receiving the token from the preceding station and
transmitting to the successor station. The data flow is unidirectional in the direction of
the token passing. In order that tokens are not circulated infinitely, they are removed
from the network once their purpose is completed. This is shown in the following
diagram −

Token Bus
Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) is a standard for implementing token ring over virtual ring in
LANs. The physical media has a bus or a tree topology and uses coaxial cables. A
virtual ring is created with the nodes/stations and the token is passed from one node to
the next in a sequence along this virtual ring. Each node knows the address of its
preceding station and its succeeding station. A station can only transmit data when it
has the token. The working principle of token bus is similar to Token Ring.
Token Passing Mechanism in Token Bus
A token is a small message that circulates among the stations of a computer network
providing permission to the stations for transmission. If a station has data to transmit
when it receives a token, it sends the data and then passes the token to the next
station; otherwise, it simply passes the token to the next station. This is depicted in the
following diagram −
Differences between Token Ring and Token Bus
Token Ring Token Bus

The token is passed over the physical ring formed The token is passed along the virtual ring of
by the stations and the coaxial cable network. stations connected to a LAN.

The stations are connected by ring topology, or The underlying topology that connects the stations
sometimes star topology. is either bus or tree topology.

It is defined by IEEE 802.5 standard. It is defined by IEEE 802.4 standard.

The maximum time for a token to reach a station It is not feasible to calculate the time for token
can be calculated here. transfer.

Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) Network

Computer NetworkComputer EngineeringMCA

Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) is a standard for implementing token ring over the virtual ring in
LANs. The physical media has a bus or a tree topology and uses coaxial cables. A
virtual ring is created with the nodes/stations and the token is passed from one node to
the next in a sequence along this virtual ring. Each node knows the address of its
preceding station and its succeeding station. A station can only transmit data when it
has the token. The working principle of the token bus is similar to Token Ring.

Token Passing Mechanism in Token Bus

A token is a small message that circulates among the stations of a computer network
providing permission to the stations for transmission. If a station has data to transmit
when it receives a token, it sends the data and then passes the token to the next
station; otherwise, it simply passes the token to the next station. This is depicted in the
following diagram −

Frame Format of Token Bus

The frame format is given by the following diagram −
The fields of a token bus frame are −
 Preamble: 1 byte for synchronization.
 Start Delimiter: 1 byte that marks the beginning of the frame.
 Frame Control: 1 byte that specifies whether this is a data frame or control frame.
 Destination Address: 2-6 bytes that specifies address of destination station.
 Source Address: 2-6 bytes that specifies address of source station.
 Payload: A variable length field that carries the data from the network layer.
 Checksum: 4 bytes frame check sequence for error detection.
 End Delimiter: 1 byte that marks the end of the frame.

IEEE 802.3 and Ethernet

Computer NetworkComputer EngineeringMCA

Ethernet is a set of technologies and protocols that are used primarily in LANs. It was
first standardized in 1980s by IEEE 802.3 standard. IEEE 802.3 defines the physical
layer and the medium access control (MAC) sub-layer of the data link layer for wired
Ethernet networks. Ethernet is classified into two categories: classic Ethernet and
switched Ethernet.
Classic Ethernet is the original form of Ethernet that provides data rates between 3 to
10 Mbps. The varieties are commonly referred as 10BASE-X. Here, 10 is the maximum
throughput, i.e. 10 Mbps, BASE denoted use of baseband transmission, and X is the
type of medium used. Most varieties of classic Ethernet have become obsolete in
present communication scenario.
A switched Ethernet uses switches to connect to the stations in the LAN. It replaces the
repeaters used in classic Ethernet and allows full bandwidth utilization.
IEEE 802.3 Popular Versions
There are a number of versions of IEEE 802.3 protocol. The most popular ones are -
 IEEE 802.3: This was the original standard given for 10BASE-5. It used a thick single coaxial
cable into which a connection can be tapped by drilling into the cable to the core. Here, 10 is
the maximum throughput, i.e. 10 Mbps, BASE denoted use of baseband transmission, and 5
refers to the maximum segment length of 500m.
 IEEE 802.3a: This gave the standard for thin coax (10BASE-2), which is a thinner variety
where the segments of coaxial cables are connected by BNC connectors. The 2 refers to the
maximum segment length of about 200m (185m to be precise).
 IEEE 802.3i: This gave the standard for twisted pair (10BASE-T) that uses unshielded
twisted pair (UTP) copper wires as physical layer medium. The further variations were given
by IEEE 802.3u for 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-T4 and 100BASE-FX.
 IEEE 802.3i: This gave the standard for Ethernet over Fiber (10BASE-F) that uses fiber optic
cables as medium of transmission.

Frame Format of Classic Ethernet and IEEE 802.3

The main fields of a frame of classic Ethernet are -
 Preamble: It is the starting field that provides alert and timing pulse for transmission. In case
of classic Ethernet it is an 8 byte field and in case of IEEE 802.3 it is of 7 bytes.
 Start of Frame Delimiter: It is a 1 byte field in a IEEE 802.3 frame that contains an
alternating pattern of ones and zeros ending with two ones.
 Destination Address: It is a 6 byte field containing physical address of destination stations.
 Source Address: It is a 6 byte field containing the physical address of the sending station.
 Length: It a 7 bytes field that stores the number of bytes in the data field.
 Data: This is a variable sized field carries the data from the upper layers. The maximum size
of data field is 1500 bytes.
 Padding: This is added to the data to bring its length to the minimum requirement of 46
bytes.
  CRC: CRC stands for cyclic redundancy check. It contains the error detection information.

Introduction to Wireless LAN

Wireless LAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. It is also called LAWN (Local Area
Wireless Network). WLAN is one in which a mobile user can connect to a Local Area
Network (LAN) through a wireless connection.

The IEEE 802.11 group of standards defines the technologies for wireless LANs. For path
sharing, 802.11 standard uses the Ethernet protocol and CSMA/CA (carrier sense multiple
access with collision avoidance). It also uses an encryption method i.e. wired equivalent
privacy algorithm.
Wireless LANs provide high speed data communication in small areas such as building or an
office. WLANs allow users to move around in a confined area while they are still connected
to the network.

In some instance wireless LAN technology is used to save costs and avoid laying cable,
while in other cases, it is the only option for providing high-speed internet access to the
public. Whatever the reason, wireless solutions are popping up everywhere.

Examples of WLANs that are available today are NCR's waveLAN and Motorola's ALTAIR.

Advantages of WLANs
o Flexibility: Within radio coverage, nodes can communicate without further
restriction. Radio waves can penetrate walls, senders and receivers can be placed
anywhere (also non-visible, e.g., within devices, in walls etc.).
o Planning: Only wireless ad-hoc networks allow for communication without previous
planning, any wired network needs wiring plans.
o Design: Wireless networks allow for the design of independent, small devices which
can for example be put into a pocket. Cables not only restrict users but also
designers of small notepads, PDAs, etc.
o Robustness: Wireless networks can handle disasters, e.g., earthquakes, flood etc.
whereas, networks requiring a wired infrastructure will usually break down
completely in disasters.
o Cost: The cost of installing and maintaining a wireless LAN is on average lower than
the cost of installing and maintaining a traditional wired LAN, for two reasons. First,
after providing wireless access to the wireless network via an access point for the
first user, adding additional users to a network will not increase the cost. And
second, wireless LAN eliminates the direct costs of cabling and the labor associated
with installing and repairing it.
o Ease of Use: Wireless LAN is easy to use and the users need very little new
information to take advantage of WLANs.

Disadvantages of WLANs
o Quality of Services: Quality of wireless LAN is typically lower than wired networks.
The main reason for this is the lower bandwidth due to limitations is radio
transmission, higher error rates due to interference and higher delay/delay variation
due to extensive error correction and detection mechanisms.
o Proprietary Solutions: Due to slow standardization procedures, many companies
have come up with proprietary solutions offering standardization functionality plus
 many enhanced features. Most components today adhere to the basic standards IEEE
802.11a or 802.11b.
o Restrictions: Several govt. and non-govt. institutions world-wide regulate the
operation and restrict frequencies to minimize interference.
o Global operation: Wireless LAN products are sold in all countries so, national and
international frequency regulations have to be considered.
o Low Power: Devices communicating via a wireless LAN are typically power
consuming, also wireless devices running on battery power. Whereas the LAN design
should take this into account and implement special power saving modes and power
management functions.
o License free operation: LAN operators don't want to apply for a special license to
be able to use the product. The equipment must operate in a license free band, such
as the 2.4 GHz ISM band.
o Robust transmission technology: If wireless LAN uses radio transmission, many
other electrical devices can interfere with them (such as vacuum cleaner, train
engines, hair dryers, etc.).Wireless LAN transceivers cannot be adjusted for perfect
transmission is a standard office or production environment.

Fundamentals of WLANs
1. HiperLAN
o HiperLAN stands for High performance LAN. While all of the previous technologies
have been designed specifically for an adhoc environment, HiperLAN is derived from
traditional LAN environments and can support multimedia data and asynchronous
data effectively at high rates (23.5 Mbps).
o A LAN extension via access points can be implemented using standard features of
the HiperLAN/1 specification. However, HiperLAN does not necessarily require any
type of access point infrastructure for its operation.
o HiperLAN was started in 1992, and standards were published in 1995. It employs the
5.15GHz and 17.1 GHz frequency bands and has a data rate of 23.5 Mbps with
coverage of 50m and mobility< 10 m/s.
o It supports a packet-oriented structure, which can be used for networks with or
without a central control (BS-MS and ad-hoc). It supports 25 audio connections at
32kbps with a maximum latency of 10 ms, one video connection of 2 Mbps with 100
ms latency, and a data rate of 13.4 Mbps.
o HiperLAN/1 is specifically designed to support adhoc computing for multimedia
systems, where there is no requirement to deploy a centralized infrastructure. It
 effectively supports MPEG or other state of the art real time digital audio and video
standards.
o The HiperLAN/1 MAC is compatible with the standard MAC service interface, enabling
support for existing applications to remain unchanged.
o HiperLAN 2 has been specifically developed to have a wired infrastructure, providing
short-range wireless access to wired networks such as IP and ATM.

The two main differences between HiperLAN types 1

and 2 are as follows:
o Type 1 has a distributed MAC with QoS provisions, whereas type 2 has a centralized
schedule MAC.
o Type 1 is based on Gaussian minimum shift keying (GMSK), whereas type 2 is based
on OFDM.
o HiperLAN/2 automatically performs handoff to the nearest access point. The access
point is basically a radio BS that covers an area of about 30 to 150 meters,
depending on the environment. MANETs can also be created easily.

The goals of HiperLAN are as follows:

o QoS (to build multiservice network)
o Strong security
o Handoff when moving between local area and wide areas
o Increased throughput
o Ease of use, deployment, and maintenance
o Affordability
o Scalability

One of the primary features of HiperLAN/2 is its high speed transmission rates (up to 54
Mbps). It uses a modulation method called OFDM to transmit analog signals. It is connection
oriented, and traffic is transmitted on bidirectional links for unicast traffic and unidirectional
links toward the MSs for multicast and broadcast traff

This connection oriented approach makes support for QoS easy, which in turn depends on
how the HiperLAN/2 network incorporates with the fixed network using Ethernet, ATM, or
IP.

The HiperLAN/2 architecture shown in the figure allows for interoperation with virtually any
type of fixed network, making the technology both network and application independent.
HiperLAN/2 networks can be deployed at "hot spot" areas such as airports and hotels, as an
easy way of offering remote access and internet services.

2. Home RF Technology
o A typical home needs a network inside the house for access to a public network
telephone and internet, entertainment networks (cable television, digital audio and
video with the IEEE 1394), transfer and sharing of data and resources (printer,
internet connection), and home control and automation.
o The device should be able to self-configure and maintain connectivity with the
network. The devices need to be plug and play enabled so that they are available to
all other clients on the network as soon as they are switched on, which requires
automatic device discovery and identification in the system.
o Home networking technology should also be able to accommodate any and all lookup
services, such as Jini. Home RF products allow you to simultaneously share a single
internet connection with all of your computers - without the hassle of new wires,
cables or jacks.
o Home RF visualizes a home network as shown in the figure:

o A network consists of resource providers, which are gateways to different resources

like phone lines, cable modem, satellite dish, and so on, and the devices connected
to them such as cordless phone, printers and fileservers, and TV.
o The goal of Home RF is to integrate all of these into a single network suitable for all
applications and to remove all wires and utilize RF links in the network suitable for all
applications.
o This includes sharing PC, printer, fileserver, phone, internet connection, and so on,
enabling multiplayer gaming using different PCs and consoles inside the home, and
providing complete control on all devices from a single mobile controller.
o With Home RF, a cordless phone can connect to PSTN but also connect through a PC
for enhanced services. Home RF makes an assumption that simultaneous support for
both voice and data is needed.

Advantages of Home RF
o In Home RF all devices can share the same connection, for voice or data at the same
time.
 o Home RF provides the foundation for a broad range of interoperable consumer
devices for wireless digital communication between PCs and consumer electronic
devices anywhere in and around the home.
o The working group includes Compaq computer corp. Ericson enterprise network, IBM
Intel corp., Motorola corp. and other.
o A specification for wireless communication in the home called the shared wireless
access protocol (SWAP) has been developed.

3. IEEE 802.11 Standard

IEEE 802.11 is a set of standards for the wireless area network (WLAN), which was
implemented in 1997 and was used in the industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band.
IEEE 802.11 was quickly implemented throughout a wide region, but under its standards the
network occasionally receives interference from devices such as cordless phones and
microwave ovens. The aim of IEEE 802.11 is to provide wireless network connection for
fixed, portable, and moving stations within ten to hundreds of meters with one medium
access control (MAC) and several physical layer specifications. This was later called
802.11a. The major protocols include IEEE 802.11n; their most significant differences lie in
the specification of the PHY layer.

4. Bluetooth
Bluetooth is one of the major wireless technologies developed to achieve WPAN (wireless
personal area network). It is used to connect devices of different functions such as
telephones, computers (laptop or desktop), notebooks, cameras, printers, and so on.

Architecture of Bluetooth
o Bluetooth devices can interact with other Bluetooth devices in several ways in the
figure. In the simplest scheme, one of the devices acts as the master and (up to)
seven other slaves.
o A network with a master and one or more slaves associated with it is known as a
piconet. A single channel (and bandwidth) is shared among all devices in the piconet.

o Each of the active slaves has an assigned 3-bit active member address. many other
slaves can remain synchronized to the master though remaining inactive slaves,
referred to as parked nodes.
o The master regulates channel access for all active nodes and parked nodes. Of two
piconets are close to each other, they have overlapping coverage areas.
 o This scenario, in which nodes of two piconets intermingle, is called a scatternet.
Slaves in one piconet can participate in another piconet as either a master or slave
through time division multiplexing.
o In a scatternet, the two (or more) piconets are not synchronized in either time or
frequency. Each of the piconets operates in its own frequency hopping channel, and
any devices in multiple piconets participate at the appropriate time via time division
multiplexing.
o The Bluetooth baseband technology supports two link types. Synchronous connection
oriented (SCO) types, used primarily for voice, and asynchronous connectionless
(ACL) type, essentially for packet data.

What is Wi-Fi ?
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WiFi stands for Wireless Fidelity. WiFiIt is based on the IEEE 802.11 family of

standards and is primarily a local area networking (LAN) technology designed to
provide in-building broadband coverage.
Current WiFi systems support a peak physical-layer data rate of 54 Mbps and typically
provide indoor coverage over a distance of 100 feet.
WiFi has become the de facto standard for last mile broadband connectivity in homes,
offices, and public hotspot locations. Systems can typically provide a coverage range
of only about 1,000 feet from the access point.
WiFi offers remarkably higher peak data rates than do 3G systems, primarily since it
operates over a larger 20 MHz bandwidth, but WiFiWiFi systems are not designed to
support high-speed mobility.
One significant advantage of WiFi over WiMAX and 3G is its wide availability of
terminal devices. A vast majority of laptops shipped today have a built-in WiFi
interface. WiFi interfaces are now also being built into a variety of devices, including
personal data assistants (PDAs), cordless phones, cellular phones, cameras, and
media players.

WiFi is Half Duplex

All WiFi networks are contention-based TDD systems, where the access point and the
mobile stations all vie for use of the same channel. Because of the shared media
operation, all WiFi networks are half duplex.
There are equipment vendors who market WiFi mesh configurations, but those
implementations incorporate technologies that are not defined in the standards.

Channel Bandwidth
The WiFi standards define a fixed channel bandwidth of 25 MHz for 802.11b and 20
MHz for either 802.11a or g networks.

Wi-Fi - Working Concepts

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Radio Signals
Radio Signals are the keys, which make WiFi networking possible. These radio signals
transmitted from WiFi antennas are picked up by WiFi receivers, such as computers
and cell phones that are equipped with WiFi cards. Whenever, a computer receives
any of the signals within the range of a WiFi network, which is usually 300 — 500 feet
for antennas, the WiFi card reads the signals and thus creates an internet connection
between the user and the network without the use of a cord.

Access points, consisting of antennas and routers, are the main source that transmit
and receive radio waves. Antennas work stronger and have a longer radio transmission
with a radius of 300-500 feet, which are used in public areas while the weaker yet
effective router is more suitable for homes with a radio transmission of 100-150 feet.

WiFi Cards
You can think of WiFi cards as being invisible cords that connect your computer to the
antenna for a direct connection to the internet.
WiFi cards can be external or internal. If a WiFi card is not installed in your computer,
then you may purchase a USB antenna attachment and have it externally connect to
your USB port, or have an antenna-equipped expansion card installed directly to the
computer (as shown in the figure given above). For laptops, this card will be a PCMCIA
card which you insert to the PCMCIA slot on the laptop.

WiFi Hotspots
A WiFi hotspot is created by installing an access point to an internet connection. The
access point transmits a wireless signal over a short distance. It typically covers
around 300 feet. When a WiFi enabled device such as a Pocket PC encounters a
hotspot, the device can then connect to that network wirelessly.
Most hotspots are located in places that are readily accessible to the public such as
airports, coffee shops, hotels, book stores, and campus environments. 802.11b is the
most common specification for hotspots worldwide. The 802.11g standard is
backwards compatible with .11b but .11a uses a different frequency range and requires
separate hardware such as an a, a/g, or a/b/g adapter. The largest public WiFi
networks are provided by private internet service providers (ISPs); they charge a fee to
the users who want to access the internet.
Hotspots are increasingly developing around the world. In fact, T-Mobile USA controls
more than 4,100 hotspots located in public locations such as Starbucks, Borders,
Kinko's, and the airline clubs of Delta, United, and US Airways. Even select
McDonald's restaurants now feature WiFi hotspot access.
Any notebook computer with integrated wireless, a wireless adapter attached to the
motherboard by the manufacturer, or a wireless adapter such as a PCMCIA card can
access a wireless network. Furthermore, all Pocket PCs or Palm units with Compact
Flash, SD I/O support, or built-in WiFi, can access hotspots.
Some Hotspots require WEP key to connect, which is considered as private and
secure. As for open connections, anyone with a WiFi card can have access to that
hotspot. So in order to have internet access under WEP, the user must input the WEP
key code.

WiMAX - Wireless Introduction

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Wireless means transmitting signals using radio waves as the medium instead of wires.
Wireless technologies are used for tasks as simple as switching off the television or as
complex as supplying the sales force with information from an automated enterprise
application while in the field. Now cordless keyboards and mice, PDAs, pagers and
digital and cellular phones have become part of our daily life.

Some of the inherent characteristics of wireless communications systems which make

it attractive for users, are given below −
 Mobility − A wireless communications system allows users to access information beyond
their desk and conduct business from anywhere without having a wire connectivity.
 Reachability − Wireless communication systems enable people to be stay connected and
be reachable, regardless of the location they are operating from.
 Simplicity − Wireless communication system are easy and fast to deploy in comparison of
cabled network. Initial setup cost could be a bit high but other advantages overcome that
high cost.
 Maintainability − In a wireless system, you do not have to spend too much cost and time to
maintain the network setup.
 Roaming Services − Using a wireless network system, you can provide service any where
any time including train, buses, aeroplanes etc.
 New Services − Wireless communication systems provide various smart services like SMS
and MMS.
Wireless Network Topologies
There are basically three ways to set up a wireless network −
Point-to-point bridge
As you know, a bridge is used to connect two networks. A point-to-point
bridge interconnects two buildings having different networks. For example, a wireless
LAN bridge can interface with an Ethernet network directly to a particular access point
(as shown in the following image).

Point-to-multipoint bridge
This topology is used to connect three or more LANs that may be located on different
floors in a building or across buildings(as shown in the following image).
Mesh or ad hoc network
This network is an independent local area network that is not connected to a wired
infrastructure and in which all stations are connected directly to one another(as shown
in the following image).

Wireless Technologies
Wireless technologies can be classified in different ways depending on their range.
Each wireless technology is designed to serve a specific usage segment. The
requirements for each usage segment are based on a variety of variables, including
Bandwidth needs, Distance needs and Power.
Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN)
This network enables you to access the Internet via a wireless wide area network
(WWAN) access card and a PDA or laptop.
These networks provide a very fast data speed compared with the data rates of mobile
telecommunications technology, and their range is also extensive. Cellular and mobile
networks based on CDMA and GSM are good examples of WWAN.
Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN)
These networks are very similar to WWAN except their range is very limited.
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
This network enables you to access the Internet in localized hotspots via a wireless
local area network (WLAN) access card and a PDA or laptop.
It is a type of local area network that uses high-frequency radio waves rather than
wires to communicate between nodes.
These networks provide a very fast data speed compared with the data rates of mobile
telecommunications technology, and their range is very limited. Wi-Fi is the most
widespread and popular example of WLAN technology.
Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN)
This network enables you to access the Internet and multimedia streaming services via
a wireless region area network (WRAN).
These networks provide a very fast data speed compared with the data rates of mobile
telecommunication technology as well as other wireless network, and their range is
also extensive.

Issues with Wireless Networks

There are following three major issues with Wireless Networks.
 Quality of Service (QoS) − One of the primary concerns about wireless data delivery is
that, unlike the Internet through wired services, QoS is inadequate. Lost packets and
atmospheric interference are recurring problems of the wireless protocols.
 Security Risk − This is another major issue with a data transfer over a wireless network.
Basic network security mechanisms like the service set identifier (SSID) and Wireless
Equivalency Privacy (WEP); these measures may be adequate for residences and small
businesses, but they are inadequate for the entities that require stronger security.
  Reachable Range − Normally, wireless network offers a range of about 100 meters or less.
Range is a function of antenna design and power. Now a days the range of wireless is
extended to tens of miles so this should not be an issue any more.

Wireless Broadband Access (WBA)

Broadband wireless is a technology that promises high-speed connection over the air.
It uses radio waves to transmit and receive data directly to and from the potential users
whenever they want it. Technologies such as 3G, Wi-Fi, WiMAX and UWB work
together to meet unique customer needs.
WBA is a point-to-multipoint system which is made up of base station and subscriber
equipment. Instead of using the physical connection between the base station and the
subscriber, the base station uses an outdoor antenna to send and receive high-speed
data and voice-to-subscriber equipment.
WBA offers an effective, complementary solution to wireline broadband, which has
become globally recognized by a high percentage of the population.

What is Wi-Fi ?
Wi-Fi stands for Wireless Fidelity. Wi-Fi is based on the IEEE 802.11 family of
standards and is primarily a local area networking (LAN) technology designed to
provide in-building broadband coverage.

WiMAX - What is WiMAX ?

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WiMAX is one of the hottest broadband wireless technologies around today. WiMAX
systems are expected to deliver broadband access services to residential and
enterprise customers in an economical way.
Loosely, WiMax is a standardized wireless version of Ethernet intended primarily as an
alternative to wire technologies (such as Cable Modems, DSL and T1/E1 links) to
provide broadband access to customer premises.
More strictly, WiMAX is an industry trade organization formed by leading
communications, component, and equipment companies to promote and certify
compatibility and interoperability of broadband wireless access equipment that
conforms to the IEEE 802.16 and ETSI HIPERMAN standards.
WiMAX would operate similar to WiFi, but at higher speeds over greater distances and
for a greater number of users. WiMAX has the ability to provide service even in areas
that are difficult for wired infrastructure to reach and the ability to overcome the
physical limitations of traditional wired infrastructure.
WiMAX was formed in April 2001, in anticipation of the publication of the original 10-66
GHz IEEE 802.16 specifications. WiMAX is to 802.16 as the WiFi Alliance is to 802.11.

WiMAX is
 Acronym for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access.
 Based on Wireless MAN technology.
 A wireless technology optimized for the delivery of IP centric services over a wide area.
 A scalable wireless platform for constructing alternative and complementary broadband
networks.
 A certification that denotes interoperability of equipment built to the IEEE 802.16 or
compatible standard. The IEEE 802.16 Working Group develops standards that address
two types of usage models −
o A fixed usage model (IEEE 802.16-2004).
o A portable usage model (IEEE 802.16e).

What is 802.16a ?
WiMAX is such an easy term that people tend to use it for the 802.16 standards and
technology themselves, although strictly it applies only to systems that meet specific
conformance criteria laid down by the WiMAX Forum.
The 802.16a standard for 2-11 GHz is a wireless metropolitan area network (MAN)
technology that will provide broadband wireless connectivity to Fixed, Portable and
Nomadic devices.
It can be used to connect 802.11 hot spots to the Internet, provide campus
connectivity, and provide a wireless alternative to cable and DSL for last mile
broadband access.

WiMax Speed and Range

WiMAX is expected to offer initially up to about 40 Mbps capacity per wireless channel
for both fixed and portable applications, depending on the particular technical
configuration chosen, enough to support hundreds of businesses with T-1 speed
connectivity and thousands of residences with DSL speed connectivity. WiMAX can
support voice and video as well as Internet data.
WiMax developed to provide wireless broadband access to buildings, either in
competition to existing wired networks or alone in currently unserved rural or thinly
populated areas. It can also be used to connect WLAN hotspots to the Internet. WiMAX
is also intended to provide broadband connectivity to mobile devices. It would not be as
fast as in these fixed applications, but expectations are for about 15 Mbps capacity in a
3 km cell coverage area.
With WiMAX, users could really cut free from today's Internet access arrangements
and be able to go online at broadband speeds, almost wherever they like from within a
MetroZone.
WiMAX could potentially be deployed in a variety of spectrum bands: 2.3GHz, 2.5GHz,
3.5GHz, and 5.8GHz

Why WiMax ?
 WiMAX can satisfy a variety of access needs. Potential applications include extending
broadband capabilities to bring them closer to subscribers, filling gaps in cable, DSL and T1
services, WiFi, and cellular backhaul, providing last-100 meter access from fibre to the curb
and giving service providers another cost-effective option for supporting broadband
services.
 WiMAX can support very high bandwidth solutions where large spectrum deployments (i.e.
>10 MHz) are desired using existing infrastructure keeping costs down while delivering the
bandwidth needed to support a full range of high-value multimedia services.
 WiMAX can help service providers meet many of the challenges they face due to increasing
customer demands without discarding their existing infrastructure investments because it
has the ability to seamlessly interoperate across various network types.
 WiMAX can provide wide area coverage and quality of service capabilities for applications
ranging from real-time delay-sensitive voice-over-IP (VoIP) to real-time streaming video and
non-real-time downloads, ensuring that subscribers obtain the performance they expect for
all types of communications.
 WiMAX, which is an IP-based wireless broadband technology, can be integrated into both
wide-area third-generation (3G) mobile and wireless and wireline networks allowing it to
become part of a seamless anytime, anywhere broadband access solution.
Ultimately, WiMAX is intended to serve as the next step in the evolution of 3G mobile
phones, via a potential combination of WiMAX and CDMA standards called 4G.

WiMAX Goals
A standard by itself is not enough to enable mass adoption. WiMAX has stepped
forward to help solve barriers to adoption, such as interoperability and cost of
deployment. WiMAX will help ignite the wireless MAN industry by defining and
conducting interoperability testing and labeling vendor systems with a "WiMAX
Certified™" label once testing has been completed successfully.

WiMAX & Wi-Fi Comparison

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WiMAX is similar to the wireless standard known as Wi-Fi, but on a much larger scale
and at faster speeds. A nomadic version would keep WiMAX-enabled devices
connected over large areas, much like today’s cell phones. We can compare it with Wi-
Fi based on the following factors.

IEEE Standards
Wi-Fi is based on IEEE 802.11 standard whereas WiMAX is based on IEEE 802.16.
However, both are IEEE standards.

Range
Wi-Fi typically provides local network access for a few hundred feet with the speed of
up to 54 Mbps, a single WiMAX antenna is expected to have a range of up to 40 miles
with the speed of 70 Mbps or more. As such, WiMAX can bring the underlying Internet
connection needed to service local Wi-Fi networks.

Scalability
Wi-Fi is intended for LAN applications, users scale from one to tens with one
subscriber for each CPE device. Fixed channel sizes (20MHz).
WiMAX is designed to efficiently support from one to hundreds of Consumer premises
equipments (CPE)s, with unlimited subscribers behind each CPE. Flexible channel
sizes from 1.5MHz to 20MHz.

Bit rate
Wi-Fi works at 2.7 bps/Hz and can peak up to 54 Mbps in 20 MHz channel.
WiMAX works at 5 bps/Hz and can peak up to 100 Mbps in a 20 MHz channel.

Quality of Service
Wi-Fi does not guarantee any QoS but WiMax will provide your several level of QoS.
As such, WiMAX can bring the underlying Internet connection needed to service local
Wi-Fi networks. Wi-Fi does not provide ubiquitous broadband while WiMAX does.

Comparison Table
Freature
WiMax Wi-Fi Wi-Fi
 (802.16a) (802.11b) (802.11a/g)

Wireless LAN Wireless LAN

Primary Broadband Wireless
Application Access

Frequency Band 2.4 GHz ISM

Licensed/Unlicensed 2.4 GHz ISM (g)
2 G to 11 GHz 5 GHz U-NII (a)

25 MHz 20 MHz
Channel Adjustable
Bandwidth 1.25 M to 20 MHz

Half/Full Duplex Full Half Half

Radio Technology
OFDM Direct Sequence OFDM
(256-channels) Spread Spectrum (64-channels)

<=5 bps/Hz <=0.44 bps/Hz <=2.7 bps/Hz

Bandwidth
Efficiency

Modulation QPSK
BPSK, QPSK, BPSK, QPSK,
16-, 64-, 256-QAM 16-, 64-QAM

FEC None Convolutional Code

Convolutional Code
Reed-Solomon

Encryption
Mandatory- 3DES Optional- RC4 Optional- RC4
Optional- AES (AES in 802.11i) (AES in 802.11i)

Mobility In development In development

Mobile WiMax
(802.16e)

Mesh Yes Vendor Proprietary

Vendor
Proprietary
 Access Protocol Request/Grant CSMA/CA CSMA/CA

WiMAX - Salient Features

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WiMAX is a wireless broadband solution that offers a rich set of features with a lot of
flexibility in terms of deployment options and potential service offerings. Some of the
more salient features that deserve highlighting are as follows −

Two Type of Services

WiMAX can provide two forms of wireless service −
 Non-line-of-sight − service is a WiFi sort of service. Here a small antenna on your
computer connects to the WiMAX tower. In this mode, WiMAX uses a lower frequency
range -- 2 GHz to 11 GHz (similar to WiFi).
 Line-of-sight − service, where a fixed dish antenna points straight at the WiMAX tower from
a rooftop or pole. The line-of-sight connection is stronger and more stable, so it's able to
send a lot of data with fewer errors. Line-of-sight transmissions use higher frequencies, with
ranges reaching a possible 66 GHz.

OFDM-based Physical Layer

The WiMAX physical layer (PHY) is based on orthogonal frequency division
multiplexing, a scheme that offers good resistance to multipath, and allows WiMAX to
operate in NLOS conditions.

Very High Peak Data Rates

WiMAX is capable of supporting very high peak data rates. In fact, the peak PHY data
rate can be as high as 74Mbps when operating using a 20MHz wide spectrum.
More typically, using a 10MHz spectrum operating using TDD scheme with a 3:1
downlink-to-uplink ratio, the peak PHY data rate is about 25Mbps and 6.7Mbps for the
downlink and the uplink, respectively.

Scalable Bandwidth and Data Rate Support

WiMAX has a scalable physical-layer architecture that allows for the data rate to scale
easily with available channel bandwidth.
For example, a WiMAX system may use 128, 512, or 1,048-bit FFTs (fast fourier
transforms) based on whether the channel bandwidth is 1.25MHz, 5MHz, or 10MHz,
respectively. This scaling may be done dynamically to support user roaming across
different networks that may have different bandwidth allocations.

Adaptive Modulation and Coding (AMC)

WiMAX supports a number of modulation and forward error correction (FEC) coding
schemes and allows the scheme to be changed as per user and per frame basis,
based on channel conditions.
AMC is an effective mechanism to maximize throughput in a time-varying channel.

Link-layer Retransmissions
WiMAX supports automatic retransmission requests (ARQ) at the link layer for
connections that require enhanced reliability. ARQ-enabled connections require each
transmitted packet to be acknowledged by the receiver; unacknowledged packets are
assumed to be lost and are retransmitted.

Support for TDD and FDD

IEEE 802.16-2004 and IEEE 802.16e-2005 supports both time division duplexing and
frequency division duplexing, as well as a half-duplex FDD, which allows for a low-cost
system implementation.

WiMAX Uses OFDM

Mobile WiMAX uses Orthogonal frequency division multiple access (OFDM) as a
multiple-access technique, whereby different users can be allocated different subsets
of the OFDM tones.

Flexible and Dynamic per User Resource Allocation

Both uplink and downlink resource allocation are controlled by a scheduler in the base
station. Capacity is shared among multiple users on a demand basis, using a burst
TDM scheme.

Support for Advanced Antenna Techniques

The WiMAX solution has a number of hooks built into the physical-layer design, which
allows for the use of multiple-antenna techniques, such as beamforming, space-time
coding, and spatial multiplexing.
Quality-of-service Support
The WiMAX MAC layer has a connection-oriented architecture that is designed to
support a variety of applications, including voice and multimedia services.
WiMAX system offers support for constant bit rate, variable bit rate, real-time, and non-
real-time traffic flows, in addition to best-effort data traffic.
WiMAX MAC is designed to support a large number of users, with multiple connections
per terminal, each with its own QoS requirement.

Robust Security
WiMAX supports strong encryption, using Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), and
has a robust privacy and key-management protocol.
The system also offers a very flexible authentication architecture based on Extensible
Authentication Protocol (EAP), which allows for a variety of user credentials,
including username/password, digital certificates, and smart cards.

Support for Mobility

The mobile WiMAX variant of the system has mechanisms to support secure seamless
handovers for delay-tolerant full-mobility applications, such as VoIP.

IP-based Architecture
The WiMAX Forum has defined a reference network architecture that is based on an
all-IP platform. All end-to-end services are delivered over an IP architecture relying on
IP-based protocols for end-to-end transport, QoS, session management, security, and
mobility.