Network Types, Media, Devices and Topology

When computers are networked, two or more industries-computing and

communication coverage, and the result is vastly more than the sum of the
parts and computing application become available for Business-to-Business
(B2B) coordination and communication, for small as well as large organization.

Connecting to the Internet

Requirements for Internet connection

The Internet is the largest data network on earth. The Internet consists of a
multitude of interconnected networks both large and small. At the edge of this
giant network is the individual consumer computer.
Connection to the Internet can be broken down into
Physical connection
Logical connection and
The application.
A physical connection is made by connecting a specialized expansion card
such as a modem or a network interface card (NIC) from a computer (PC) to a
network. The physical connection is used to transfer signals between PCs
within the local network and to remote devices on the Internet.

The logical connection uses standards called protocols. A protocol is a formal

description of a set of rules and conventions that govern how devices on a
network communicate. Connections to the Internet may use multiple protocols.
The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite is the
primary protocol used on the Internet. TCP/IP is a suite of protocols that work
together to transmit data.
The application that interprets the data and displays the information in an
understandable form is the last part of the connection. Applications work with
protocols to send and receive data across the Internet. A web browser displays

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Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) as a web page. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
is used to download files and programs from the Internet. Web browsers also
use proprietary plug-in applications to display special data types such as
movies or flash animations.

Network Type

Network can be classified in two type based on the service that provides

Based on geographical location

Based on span of control

Based on Geographical location

Network can be grouped in three major categories depending on the

geographical scope they cover. These are

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Local Area Network (LAN)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN refers to networks that have small geographical coverage usually within a
building or a campus. LANs are found in most organizations, businesses,
government offices, educational institutions, and in home computing
environment.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

It is a network that transmits data and information over citywide distance and
at a greater speed than LAN.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

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Wide area networks are networks that cover very large geographical area such
as a country or the whole world. Typical WANs are the telephone networks
operated by most long distance telephone companies. Large companies having
offices scattered around the world use WAN to connect their computers. WAN
usually use combination of several types of communication media such as
cables, satellites, microwaves, and fiber-optics.

Because a WAN has no geographical limitations, it can connect computers and

other devices in separate cities or on opposite sides of the world. A
multinational corporation with linked computers in different countries is using
a WAN. Probably the ultimate WAN is the Internet.

Network Classification According to Span of Control

Based on span of control computer networks can be classified into two major
grouped as either Centralized or Distributed Network

Centralized Network

Centralized network has one main CPU that processes all information requests
and handles communication. The main CPU in a centralized network is usually
a mainframe or minicomputer capable of handling the processing workload of
many people simultaneously. People interface with the host computer by using
terminals and other input and output devices.

A terminal is a hardware device consisting of a keyboard and monitor. There

are two types of terminals:

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 Dumb Terminals
Intelligent Terminals
Terminals that have no storage or processing capabilities are called dumb
terminals. Because dumb terminals do not have any processing capabilities,
they must be connected to a host computer that can perform any processing
functions necessary.
Intelligent terminals, on the other hand, do have limited storage and
processing capabilities.

Distributed Network

Distributed network is a collection of workstations connected to each other,

along with various shared storage and input and output devices (for example,
scanners and printers). In a distributed network each workstation can handle
some, if not all, of its own processing. Workstations in a distributed network
also maintain local information and software.

Distributed Network can be either

Client/Server, or
Peer-to-Peer

Client/Server

A Client/Server network is a distributed network in which many workstations

(called Clients) are connected to a central host computer (called the Server).
The clients are the workstations in a Client/Server network that maintain local
software and information and do as much of the processing as possible.

Client server

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Peer-to-Peer

In a peer-to-peer network, workstations are connected to each other and do not

rely on a server for global software and data, data processing tasks, or
communication within the network. Basically, a peer-to-peer network consists
of many workstations connected together that can share resources and
communicate with each other. Each workstation can serve as a client at one
time and serves as server at another time and all the computers are at the
same level.

Networking Media

Telecommunications network technologies including the telecommunications

media, processors, and software needed to provide wire-based and wireless
access support for the internet and private Internet-based networks such as
intranets and extranets.

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The vast majority of networks today are connected by some sort of wiring or
cabling that acts as a network transmission medium that carries signals
between computers. Many cable types are available to meet the varying needs
and sizes of networks, from small to large. Generally, three major groups of
cabling connect the majority of networks:

Twisted-pair cable
Coaxial cable
Fiber-optic cable
Twisted-Pair Cable

In its simplest form, twisted-pair cable consists of two insulated strands of

copper wire twisted around each other.

There are two type of twisted pair cable:

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 Unshielded twisted-pair cables (UTP cables)
Shielded twisted-pair cables (STP cables)

A number of twisted-pair wires are often grouped together and enclosed in a

protective sheath to form a cable. The total number of pairs in a cable varies.
The twisting cancels out electrical noise from adjacent pairs and from other
external sources such as motors, relays, and transformers.

Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable

UTP is the most popular type of twisted-pair cable and is fast becoming the
most popular LAN cabling. The maximum cable length segment is 100 meters.

Traditional UTP cable consists of two insulated copper wire. UTP specifications
govern how many twists are permitted per foot of cable; the number of twists
allowed depends on the purpose to which the cable will be put.

There are 7 standards categories of UTP:

Category 1: This refers to traditional UTP telephone cable that can carry
voice but not data transmissions.
Category 2: This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up
to 4 megabits per second (Mbps). It consists of four twisted pairs of
copper wire.

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 Category 3: This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up
to 16 Mbps. It consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire with three
twists per foot.
Category 4: This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up
to 20 Mbps. It consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
Category 5: This category certifies UTP cable for data transmissions up
to 100 Mbps. It consists of four twisted pairs of copper wire.
Category 5e: Improved version of cat 5 category. The bandwidth is
1000MBPS
Category 6: Similar to CAT5 wire, but contains a physical separator
between the 4 pairs to further reduce electromagnetic interference

One potential problem with all types of cabling is crosstalk. Figure below shows
crosstalk between two UTP cables. Crosstalk is defined the situation in which,
signals from one line interfering with signals from another line. UTP is
particularly susceptible to crosstalk, but the greater the number of twists per
foot of cable, the more effective the protection against crosstalk.

Crosstalk occurs when signals from one line bleed into another line

Twisted-Pair Cabling Components

While we have defined twisted-pair cabling by the number of twists and its
ability to transmit data, additional components are necessary to complete an

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installation. As it is with telephone cabling, a twisted-pair cable network
requires connectors and other hardware to ensure proper installation.

Connection hardware: Twisted-pair cabling uses RJ-45 telephone connectors

to connect to a computer. These are similar to RJ-11 telephone connectors. An
RJ-45 connector is shown in Figure below. Although RJ-11 and RJ-45
connectors look alike at first glance, there are crucial differences between
them.

The RJ-45 connector: is slightly larger and will not fit into the RJ-11
telephone jack. The RJ-45 connector houses eight cable connections, while the
RJ-11 houses only four.

RJ-45 connector and jack

Several components are available to help organize large UTP installations and
make them easier to work with.

Distribution racks and rack shelves: Distribution racks and rack shelves can
create more room for cables where there isn't much floor space. Using them is
a good way to organize a network that has a lot of connections.

Expandable patch panels: These come in various versions that support up to

96 ports and transmission speeds of up to 100 Mbps.

Jack couplers: These single or double RJ-45 jacks snap into patch panels and
wall plates and support data rates of up to 100 Mbps.

Wall plates: these support two or more couplers.

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Twisted-Pair advantages/disadvantages

UTP advantages

It has a large installed base and is a familiar technology.

It is relatively inexpensive and easy to install.
Most LAN systems are readily capable of running over UTP.
It does not require bonding and grounding.
Easy to install.

UTP disadvantages
High-quality UTP systems require specialized installation procedures.
UTP is potentially more sensitive to external electromagnetic interference,
crosstalk, and attenuation than other media.
Not recommended for LAN that requires a high level of security and you
must be absolutely sure of data integrity.
Not suitable for transmitting data over long distances at high speeds.

Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable

STP cable uses a woven/wounded copper-braid jacket that is more protective

and of a higher quality than the jacket used by UTP. Figure 1.6.5 shows a two
twisted-pair STP cable. STP also uses a foil (very thin sheet of metal) wrap

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around each of the wire pairs. This gives STP excellent shielding to protect the
transmitted data from outside interference, which in turn allows it to support
higher transmission rates over longer distances than UTP.

STP advantage

Provides better performance than UTP in environments with high noise

levels—high levels of unwanted electrical signals.

STP disadvantages

It is more labor-intensive than UTP to install.

Not all LAN systems work readily over STP.
Susceptible to ground faults through the shield.

Coaxial Cable

In its simplest form, coaxial cable consists of a core of copper wire surrounded
by insulation, a braided metal shielding, and an outer cover. The term
shielding refers to the woven or stranded metal mesh (or other material) that
surrounds some types of cabling. Shielding protects transmitted data by
absorbing stray electronic signals, called noise, so that they do not get onto the
cable and distort the data. Cable that contains one layer of foil insulation and
one layer of braided metal shielding is referred to as dual shielded. For
environments that are subject to higher interference, quad shielding is

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available. Quad shielding consists of two layers of foil insulation and two layers
of braided metal shielding.

Coaxial cable showing various layers

The core of a coaxial cable carries the electronic signals that make up the data.
This wire core can be either solid or stranded. If the core is solid, it is usually
copper.

Surrounding the core is a dielectric insulating layer that separates it from the
wire mesh. The braided wire mesh acts as a ground and protects the core from
electrical noise and crosstalk.

The conducting core and the wire mesh must always be kept separate from
each other. If they touch, the cable will experience a short, and noise or stray
signals on the mesh will flow onto the copper wire. An electrical short occurs
when any two conducting wires or a conducting wire and a ground come into
contact with each other. This contact causes a direct flow of current (or data) in
an unintended path. In the case of household electrical wiring, a short will
cause sparking and the blowing of a fuse or circuit breaker. With electronic

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devices that use low voltages, the result is not as dramatic and is often
undetectable. These low-voltage shorts generally cause the failure of a device;
and the short, in turn, destroys the data.

A non-conducting outer shield—usually made of rubber, Teflon, or plastic

surrounds the entire cable.

Coaxial cable is more resistant to interference and attenuation than twisted

pair cabling. Notice that attenuation is the loss of signal strength that begins to
occur as the signal travels farther along a copper cable.

The stranded, protective sleeve absorbs stray electronic signals so that they do
not affect data being sent over the inner copper cable. For this reason, coaxial
cabling is a good choice for longer distances and for reliably supporting higher
data rates with less sophisticated equipment.

Types of Coaxial Cable

There are two types of coaxial cable:

Thin (thinnet) cable

Thick (thicknet) cable

Which type of coaxial cable you select depends on the needs of your particular
network.

Thinnet Cable

Thinnet cable is a flexible coaxial cable about 0.64 centimeters (0.25 inches)
thick. Because this type of coaxial cable is flexible and easy to work with, it can
be used in almost any type of network installation.

Thinnet coaxial cable can carry a signal for a distance of up to approximately

185 meters (about 607 feet) before the signal starts to suffer from attenuation.

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Thicknet Cable

Thicknet cable is a relatively rigid coaxial cable about 1.27 centimeters (0.5
inches) in diameter. The following figure shows the difference between thinnet
and thicknet cable. Thicknet cable is sometimes referred to as Standard
Ethernet because it was the first type of cable used with the popular network
architecture-Ethernet. Thicknet cable's copper core is thicker than a thinnet
cable core.

Thicknet cable has a thicker core than thinnet cable

The thicker the copper core, the farther the cable can carry signals. This means
that thicknet can carry signals farther than thinnet cable. Thicknet cable can
carry a signal for 500 meters (about 1640 feet). Therefore, because of thicknet's
ability to support data transfer over longer distances, it is sometimes used as a
backbone to connect several smaller thinnet-based networks.

Thinnet vs. Thicknet: As a general rule, the thicker the cable, the more
difficult it is to work with. Thin cable is flexible, easy to install, and relatively
inexpensive. Thick cable does not bend easily and is, therefore, harder to
install. This is a consideration when an installation calls for pulling cable
through tight spaces such as conduits and troughs. Thick cable is more
expensive than thin cable, but will carry a signal farther.

Coaxial-Cable Connection Hardware

Both thinnet and thicknet cable use a connection component, known as a BNC
connector, to make the connections between the cable and the computers.

There are several important components in the BNC family, including the
following:

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The BNC cable connector: The following figure shows a BNC cable
connector. The BNC cable connector is either soldered or crimped to the
end of a cable.

BNC cable connector

The BNC T connector: The following figure shows a BNC T connector.

This connector joins the network interface card (NIC) in the computer to
the network cable.

The BNC barrel connector: The following figure shows a BNC barrel
connector. This connector is used to join two lengths of thinnet cable to
make one longer length.

BNC barrel connector

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 The BNC terminator: The following figure shows a BNC terminator. A
BNC terminator closes each end of the bus cable to absorb stray signals.
Otherwise, the signal will bounce and all network activity will stop.

BNC terminator

NOTE: The origin of the acronym "BNC" is unclear, and there have been many
names ascribed to these letters, from "British Naval Connector" to "Bayonet
Neill-Councelman."

Coaxial Cable Advantages

It is less susceptible to interference than twisted-pair cable.

Transmit data for greater distances than is possible with less expensive
cabling.
Transmit voice, video, and data
Offer a familiar technology with reasonable data security.

Coaxial Cable Disadvantages

There are many types of coaxial cables, each suited for one, or at most, a
small number of LAN systems.
Due to its high metallic content, coaxial cable is usually more expensive
than other cable types.

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Fiber-Optic Cable

Optical fiber cable contains glass (or in some cases, plastic) fibers rather than
copper wire. Signals are transmitted across these fibers in the form of light
pulses rather than electrical pulses.

Optical fiber strands are thin filaments of glass consisting of an inner core and
an outer cladding. Both the core and the cladding are glass, and each has a
different refractive index. Signals are transmitted as light pulses through the
core of the optical fiber. When these light pulses strike the cladding they are
reflected back into the core because the cladding has a lower refractive index
than the core. This keeps the transmitted signal within the core as it travels
down the fiber.

The diameter of the core varies with the type of optical fiber. Single-mode
optical fiber has a core diameter of approximately 8.5 Km while the most
commonly used type of multimode optical fiber has a core diameter of 62.5 µm.
The cladding diameter for both is 125 µm.

NOTE: • The symbol Km represents a unit of length known as a micron or

micrometer. It is equal to one-millionth of a meter (0.000001 meter).

The phrase optical fiber cable refers to the transmission medium while the
phrase optical fiber refers to the technology that makes use of optical fiber.

The potential bandwidth, or information-carrying capacity, of optical fiber is

greater than that of twisted-pair or coaxial cable. For this and other reasons,
the use of optical fiber has continued to grow in LAN implementations.

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Fiber optic cable (outdoor)

Fiber optic cable (Indoor)

Optical fiber advantages

Optical signals through glass encounter less loss than electrical signals
through copper. This translates into lower attenuation and higher

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 bandwidth than copper, allowing transmission to occur over longer
distances and/or at greater speeds.
High level of immunity to electromagnetic interference since signal is
sent as light and not as electricity.

Optical fiber disadvantage

Due to the required conversions between light and electricity, more
expensive electronics are required than with copper-based systems.
Requires specialized installation procedures.

Fiber Optic Cable Connectors

Fiber optic cables are most susceptible to signal dispersion at the connectors
and uses two types of connectors

Screw Mounted Adapters (SMA)

o SMA connector is mounted/screwed on the end
Spring-loaded Twist (ST)
o Uses a spring loaded twist to clamp to the cable
o Common than SMA

The Wireless Networking

The wireless environment is an often appropriate, and sometimes necessary,
networking option. Today, manufacturers are offering more products at
attractive prices that, in turn, will mean increased sales and demand in the
future. As demand increases, the wireless environment will grow and improve.

The phrase "wireless environment" is misleading because it implies a network

completely free of cabling. In most cases, this is not true. Most wireless
networks actually consist of wireless components communicating with a
network that uses the cabling discussed earlier in this chapter in a mixed
component network called a hybrid network.

Wireless Network Capabilities

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Wireless networks are attracting attention because wireless components can:

Provide temporary connections to an existing, cabled network.

Help provide backup to an existing network.
Provide some degree of portability.
Extend networks beyond the limits of physical connectivity.

Uses for Wireless-Network Connectivity

The inherent difficulty of setting up cable networks is a factor that will

continue to push wireless environments toward greater acceptance. Wireless
connectivity can be especially useful for networking:

Busy locations, such as lobbies and reception areas.

Users who are constantly on the move, such as doctors and nurses in
hospitals.
Isolated areas and buildings.
Departments in which the physical setting changes frequently and
unpredictably.
Structures, such as historic buildings, for which cabling presents
challenges.

Types of Wireless Networks

Wireless networks can be divided into three categories based on their
technology:

LANs
Extended LANs
Mobile computing

The primary difference between these categories lies in the transmission

facilities. Wireless LANs and extended LANs use transmitters and receivers
owned by the company in which the network operates. Mobile computing uses

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public carriers, such as long distance telephone companies, along with local
telephone companies and their public services, to transmit and receive signals.

Ethernet Cabling
Ethernet cabling is an important discussion, especially if you are. The types of
Ethernet cables available are:

Straight-through cable
Crossover cable
Rolled cable

We will look at each in the following sections.

Straight-Through Cable
The straight-through cable is used to connect

Host to switch or hub

Router to switch or hub

Four wires are used in straight-through cable to connect Ethernet devices. It is

relatively simple to create this type;

Straight-through Ethernet cable

Notice that only pins 1, 2, 3, and 6 are used. Just connect 1 to 1, 2 to 2, 3 to 3,

and 6 to 6, and you’ll be up and networking in no time. However, remember
that this would be an Ethernet-only cable and wouldn’t work with Voice, Token
Ring, ISDN, etc.

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Crossover Cable
The crossover cable can be used to connect

Switch to switch Hub to switch

Hub to hub Router direct to host
Host to host
The same four wires are used in this cable as in the straight-through cable; we
just connect different pins together. Notice that instead of connecting 1 to 1,
etc., here we connect pins 1 to 3 and 2 to 6 on each side of the cable.

Crossover Ethernet cable

Rollover Cable

Although rolled cable isn’t used to connect any Ethernet connections together,
you can use a rolled Ethernet cable to connect a host to a router console serial
communication (com) port.

If you have a Cisco router or switch, you would use this cable to connect your
PC running HyperTerminal to the Cisco hardware. Eight wires are used in this
cable to connect serial devices, although not all eight are used to send
information, just as in Ethernet networking. Figure below shows the eight wires
used in a rolled cable.

Rollover Ethernet cable

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These are probably the easiest cables to make, because you just cut the end off
on one side of a straight-through cable and reverse the end.

Networking Device

Data networks developed as a result of business applications that were written

for microcomputers. At that time microcomputers were not connected as
mainframe computer terminals were, so there was no efficient way of sharing
data among multiple microcomputers. It became apparent that sharing data
through the use of floppy disks was not an efficient or cost-effective manner in
which to operate businesses. Sneaker-net created multiple copies of the data.

Each time a file was modified it would have to be shared again with all other
people who needed that file. If two people modified the file and then tried to
share it, one of the sets of changes would be lost. Businesses needed a solution
that would successfully address the following three problems:

How to avoid duplication of equipment and resources

How to communicate efficiently

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 How to set up and manage a network

Businesses realized that networking technology could increase productivity

while saving money. Networks were added and expanded almost as rapidly as
new network technologies and products were introduced

Lists of networking device

Hub Switch Router

Repeater Bridge

Router

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The following is a list of internetworking devices

Equipment Function

Repeater A Repeater takes the incoming signal and amplifies it so that it may go
longer distances. There are two types of repeaters. Amplifiers simply take
the signal and boost it up. They are good in clean networks, but in noisy
networks will amplify the noise as well. Signal Regenerators examine the
signal and retransmit it the way it was originally sent, avoiding the noise
problem but slowing down communication slightly.

Hub A hub is a center point in a network. A network hub is the center point
where all network traffic passes through on an Ethernet network. If you
think about a star network topology, a hub is always in the middle of the
star, and all data transmitted on the network passes through that hub.

Bridge A bridge is a method of segmenting networks into two or more sections.

Data transmitted on one segment only passes through to the other segment
if the receiving computer is on that other segment. This can speed up
networks were the bandwidth is almost complete used by splitting network
traffic into useable chunks.

Router A router examines the source and destination addresses of network traffic
and decides where it should go. Rather than have the signal transmitted to
every node, the router decides which route is best by use of a Router Table.
When several routers are connected together, they can allow communication
over inter-networks (large networks made up of smaller networks) without
the bandwidth problems of having one giant network.

A brouter is a router and a bridge combined. It is used for both network

segmentation and routing purposes. Most routers are inherently brouters
now, as the two tasks are quite similar.

Equipment that connects directly to a network segment is referred to as a

device. These devices are broken up into two classifications. The first

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classification is end-user devices. End-user devices include computers,
printers, scanners, and other devices that provide services directly to the user.
The second classification is network devices. Network devices include all the
devices that connect the end-user devices together to allow them to
communicate.

End-user devices that provide users with a connection to the network are also
referred to as hosts.

These devices allow users to share, create, and obtain information. The host
devices can exist without a network, but without the network the host
capabilities are greatly reduced. Host devices are physically connected to the
network media using a network interface card (NIC). They use this connection
to perform the tasks of sending e-mails, printing reports, scanning pictures, or
accessing databases.

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A NIC is a printed circuit board that fits into the expansion slot of a bus on a
computer motherboard, or it can be a peripheral device. It is also called a
network adapter. Laptop or notebook computer NICs are usually the size of a
PCMCIA card. Each individual NIC carries a unique code, called a Media
Access Control (MAC) address. This address is used to control data
communication for the host on the network. More about the MAC address will
be covered later. As the name implies, the NIC controls host access to the
medium.

There are no standardized symbols for end-user devices in the networking

industry.

They appear similar to the real devices to allow for quick recognition. Network
devices provide transport for the data that needs to be transferred between
end-user devices.

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Network devices provide extension of cable connections, concentration of
connections, conversion of data formats, and management of data transfers.
Examples of devices that perform these functions are repeaters, hubs, bridges,
switches, and routers. A brief overview of networking devices will be provided. A
repeater is a network device used to regenerate a signal. Repeaters regenerate
analog or digital signals distorted by transmission loss due to attenuation. A
repeater does not perform intelligent routing like a bridge or router.

Hubs concentrate connections. In other words, they take a group of hosts and
allow the network to see them as a single unit. This is done passively, without
any other effect on the data transmission. Active hubs not only concentrate
hosts, but they also regenerate signals.

Bridges convert network transmission data formats as well as perform basic

data transmission management. Bridges, as the name implies, provide
connections between LANs. Not only do bridges connect LANs, but they also
perform a check on the data to determine whether it should cross the bridge or
not. This makes each part of the network more efficient.

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Workgroup switches add more intelligence to data transfer management.

Not only can they determine whether data should remain on a LAN or not, but
they can transfer the data only to the connection that needs that data. Another
difference between a bridge and switch is that a switch does not convert data
transmission formats.

Routers have all the capabilities listed above.

Routers can regenerate signals, concentrate multiple connections, convert data

transmission formats, and manage data transfers. They can also connect to a
WAN, which allows them to connect LANs that are separated by great
distances. None of the other devices can provide this type of connection.

Network Topology

Generally, there are two types of topologies: Physical and Logical. The physical
topology of a network refers to the layout of cables, computers and other
peripherals. Try to imagine yourself in a room with a small network, you can
see network cables coming out of every computer that is part of the network,
then those cables plug into a hub or switch. What you're looking at is the
physical topology of that network Logical topology is the method used to pass

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the information between the computers. In other words, looking at that same
room, if you were to try to see how the network works with all the computers
talking (think of the computers generating traffic and packets of data going
everywhere on the network) you would be looking at the logical part of the
network. The way the computers will be talking to each other and the direction
of the traffic is controlled by various protocols.

The physical topology describes the layout of the network, just like a map
shows the layout of various roads, and the logical topology describes how the
data is sent across the network or how the cars are able to travel (the direction
and speed) at every road on the map.

The most common types of standard physical topologies, which we are going to
analyze, are: Bus, Star and Ring and Mesh.

Bus Topology
Bus topology is fairly old news and you probably won't be seeing much of these
around in any modern office or home.

With the Bus topology, all workstations are connected directly to the main
backbone that carries the data. Traffic generated by any computer will travel
across the backbone and be received by all workstations. This works well in a
small network of 2-5 computers, but as the numbers of computers increases so
will the network traffic and this can greatly decrease the performance and
available bandwidth of your network.

Bus topology network

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As you can see in the above example, all computers are attached to a
continuous cable, which connects them in a straight line. The arrows clearly
indicate that the packet generated by Node 1 is transmitted to all computers on
the network, regardless the destination of this packet.

Because only one computer at a time can send data on a bus network, the
number of computers attached to the bus will affect network performance. The
more computers there are on a bus, the more computers will be waiting to put
data on the bus and, consequently, the slower the network will be.

There is no standard way to measure the impact of a given number of

computers on the speed of any given network. The effect on performance is not
related solely to the number of computers. The following is a list of factors that
in addition to the number of networked computers will affect the performance
of a network:

Hardware capabilities of computers on the network

Total number of queued commands waiting to be executed
Types of applications (client-server or file system sharing, for example)
being run on the network
Types of cable used on the network
Distances between computers on the network

Computers on a bus either transmit data to other computers on the network or

listen for data from other computers on the network. They are not responsible
for moving data from one computer to the next. Consequently, if one computer
fails, it does not affect the rest of the network.

Signal Bounce: Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the entire
network, it travels from one end of the cable to the other. If the signal is
allowed to continue uninterrupted, it will keep bouncing back and forth along
the cable and prevent other computers from sending signals. Therefore, the

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signal must be stopped after it has had a chance to reach the proper
destination address.

Terminator: To stop the signal from bouncing, a component called a

terminator is placed at each end of the cable to absorb free signals. Absorbing
the signal clears the cable so that other computers can send data.

Both ends of each cable segment on the network must be plugged into
something. For example, a cable end can be plugged into a computer or a
connector to extend the cable length. Any open cable ends not plugged into
something must be terminated to prevent signal bounce. Figure below shows a
properly terminated bus topology network.

Terminators absorb free signals

Disrupting Network Communication

A break in the cable will occur if the cable is physically separated into two
pieces or if at least one end of the cable becomes disconnected. In either case,
one or both ends of the cable will not have a terminator, the signal will bounce,
and all network activity will stop. This is one of several possible reasons why a
network will go “down”. A bus topology with a disconnected cable, will not work
because it has unterminated cables.

The computers on the network will still be able to function as stand-alone

computers; however, as long as the segment is broken, they will not be able to
communicate with each other or otherwise access shared resources. The

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computers on the down segment will attempt to establish a connection; while
they do so, workstation performance will be slower.

Network Expansion
As the physical size of the site grows, the network will need to grow as well.
Cable in the bus topology can be extended by one of the two following methods:

A component called a barrel connector can connect two pieces of cable

together to make a longer piece of cable. However, connectors weaken the
signal and should be used sparingly. One continuous cable is preferable
to connecting several smaller ones with connectors. Using too many
connectors can prevent the signal from being correctly received.
A device called a repeater can be used to connect two cables. A repeater
actually boosts the signal before it sends the signal on its way. A repeater
is better than a connector or a longer piece of cable because it allows a
signal to travel farther and still be correctly received.

Star Topology
The Star topology is one of the most common network topologies found in most
offices and home networks. It has become very popular in contrast to the bus
type, because of the cost and the ease of troubleshooting.

Simple star network

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In the star topology, cable segments from each computer are connected to a
centralized component called a hub. Figure above shows eight computers and a
hub connected in a star topology. Signals are transmitted from the sending
computer through the hub to all computers on the network. This topology
originated in the early days of computing when computers were connected to a
centralized mainframe computer.

The star network offers the advantage of centralized resources and

management. However, because each computer is connected to a central point,
this topology requires a great deal of cable in a large network installation. Also,
if the central point fails, the entire network goes down.

If one computer or the cable that connects it to the hub fails on a star network,
only the failed computer will not be able to send or receive network data. The
rest of the network continues to function normally.

Ring Topology

In the ring topology, computers are connected on a single circle of cable. Unlike
the bus topology, there are no terminated ends. The signals travel around the
loop in one direction and pass through each computer, which acts as a
repeater to boost the signal and send it to the next computer. On a larger scale,
multiple LANs can be connected to each other in a ring topology by using
Thicknet coaxial or Fiber-optic cable.

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Token Passing
One method of transmitting data around a ring is called token passing. (A
token is a special series of bits that travels around a token-ring network. Each
network has only one token.) The token is passed from computer to computer
until it gets to a computer that has data to send. The sending computer
modifies the token, puts an electronic address on the data, and sends it
around the ring.

The data passes by each computer until it finds the one with an address that
matches the address on the data. The receiving computer returns a message to
the sending computer indicating that the data has been received. After
verification, the sending computer creates a new token and releases it on the
network. The token circulates within the ring until a workstation needs it to
send data.
Mesh Topology
A mesh topology network offers superior redundancy and reliability. In a mesh
topology, each computer is connected to every other computer by separate
cabling. This configuration provides redundant paths throughout the network
so that if one cable fails, another will take over the traffic. While ease of
troubleshooting and increased reliability is definite pluses, these networks are
expensive to install because they use a lot of cabling. Often, a mesh topology
will be used in conjunction with other topologies to form a hybrid topology. In a
mesh topology, all computers are connected to each other by separate cables

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Hybrid Topology
With the hybrid topology, two or more standard topologies are combined to
form a complete network. For example, a hybrid topology could be the
combination of a star and bus topology. These are also the most common in
use.

Star-bus network
In a star-bus topology, several star topology networks are linked to a bus
connection. In this topology, if a computer fails, it will not affect the rest of the
network. However, if the central component, or hub, that attaches all
computers in a star, fails, then you have big problems since no computer will
be able to communicate.

Star-ring network

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In the Star-Ring topology, the computers are connected to a central component
as in a star network. These components, however, are wired to form a ring
network.
Like the star-bus topology, if a single computer fails, it will not affect the rest of
the network. By using token passing, each computer in a star-ring topology
has an equal chance of communicating. This allows for greater network traffic
between segments than in a star-bus topology.

Other Types of Practically Used Hybrid Topologies

Hybrid-Tree Physical Topology

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There are many factors to consider when deciding which topology best suits the
needs of an organization. The following table provides some guidelines for
selecting a topology.

Topology Advantages and Disadvantages

Topology Advantages Disadvantages

Bus
Use of cable is economical.
Network can slow down in heavy traffic.

Media is inexpensive and easy to work
Problems are difficult to isolate. If the
with. cable is damaged anywhere along its

System is simple and reliable. length or either end of the cable loses its

Bus is easy to extend. termination, the entire network fail.

Easy to connect a node to a bus/trunk
Terminators are required at both ends of
the backbone cable

Not advisable to install in a large building

Lacks central control
Ring
System provides equal access for all
Failure of one computer can impact the
computers. rest of the network, because each

Performance is even (uniform) despite computer acts as a repeater to boost the
many users. signal and send it to the next computer.

There is no reliance on a central hub.
Problems are hard to isolate.
All messages pass through all devices.
Network reconfiguration disrupts
operation.
Star
Modifying system and adding new
If the centralized point fails, the network
computers is easy. fails. Hence the network vulnerable to

Centralized monitoring and breakdown as it is essentially controlled
management are possible. by one device

Failure of one computer does not affect
the rest of the network.

Faults are easier to locate and isolate
Mesh
System provides increased redundancy
System is expensive to install because it
and reliability as well as ease of uses a lot of cabling.
troubleshooting.

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