Course Title: Wireless Communication and Mobile Computing (Code: CoSc3034)

Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1. Introduction to Wireless communication
1.1.1 Communication System and Data Communication
A Communication system can be defined as the collection of hardware and software that facilitates the
intersystem exchange of information between different devices. When we communicate, we are sharing
information. This sharing can be local (face-to-face communication) or it may be remote (communication over
distance).

Data communication is the exchange of data between two devices via some form of wired or wireless
transmission medium. It includes the transfer of data, the method of transfer and the preservation of the data
during the transfer process. To initiate data communication, the communicating devices should be a part of an
existing communications system. For data communication to be effective, the following three fundamental
characteristics should be considered:

Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct or the interned destination.

Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately (error-free).

Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner without enough time lags.

Data Communication Components: There are five basic components in a data communication system

Message: it is the information that is to be communicated.

Sender: The sender is the device that sends the message.

Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message

Medium: The transmission medium is the physical path that communicates the message from sender to receiver.

Protocol: Protocol refers to a set of rules that coordinates the exchange of information. Both the sender and
receiver should follow the same protocol to communicate data. Without the protocol, the sender and receiver
cannot communicate with each other; just as a person speaking English cannot be understood by a person who
speaks only Afaan Oromo.

Sender Receiver

Medium Message Protocol

Data Transmission Mode
Data transmission mode refers to the direction of signal flow between two linked devices. There are three types
of transmission modes: simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex.

Simplex, transmission is unidirectional. The information flows in one direction across the circuit, with no
capability to support response in the other direction. Only one of the communicating devices transmits
information, the other can only receive it. A television transmission can be considered as an example of a simplex
mode of transmission where the satellite only transmits the data to the television, vice versa is not possible.

Sender Receiver
Fig: Simplex
Half-duplex, in half-duplex mode, each communicating device can receive and transmit information, but not at
the same time. When one device is sending the other can only receive at that point of time. In half-duplex
transmission mode, the entire capacity of the transmission medium is taken over by the device, which is
transmitting at that moment. The most common example of half-duplex transmission is the wireless handsets
(generally used by military personnel) where one user talks at a time and another listens.

Sender Receiver
Fig: Half - duplex
Full-duplex: Full-duplex transmission mode, also known as the duplex mode, allows both communicating
devices to transmit and receive data simultaneously. A full-duplex mode can be compared to a two-way road with
traffic flowing in both directions. A common example of a full-duplex transmitting mode is the telephone
network, where two people communicate over a telephone line; both can talk as well as listen at the same time.

Sender Receiver
Fig: Full-duplex
Transmission Media
Transmission media refers to the physical media through which communication signals (data and information are
transmitted. Transmission media can be divided into two broad categories: guided media and unguided media.
Guided media
➢ Guided transmission media use a cabling system that guides the data signals along a specific path. The
data signals are bound by the cabling system. Cabling refers to a transmission medium that consists of
cables like Co-axial Cables, Twisted Pair Cables and Optical Fiber Links, etc. which guide the signal to
propagate from one point to another.

Unguided media
➢ Unguided transmission media is data signals that flow through the air. They are not bounded
to a fixed channel to follow. One of the common unguided media is radio frequency
propagation. Microwave and Satellite.

1.1.2 What is Wireless Communication?

➢ Wireless Communication doesn’t require any physical medium but propagates the signal through space.
Since, space only allows for signal transmission without any guidance, the medium used in Wireless
Communication is called an Unguided Medium.

➢ If there is no physical medium, then how does wireless communication transmit signals? Even though
there are no cables used in wireless communication, the transmission and reception of signals are
accomplished with Antennas.

➢ Antennas are electrical devices that transform electrical signals to radio signals in the form of
Electromagnetic (EM) Waves and vice versa. These Electromagnetic Waves propagate through space.
Hence, both transmitter and receiver consist of an antenna. Electromagnetic Waves (usually Radio Waves)
are used in wireless communication to carry the signals.
Definition: Wireless communication is a type of data communication that is performed and delivered
wirelessly. This is a broad term that incorporates all procedures and forms of connecting and communicating
between two or more devices using a wireless signal through wireless communication technologies and devices.

1.1.3 A Brief History of Wireless Communication

➢ Since the use of smoke signals, flags and flashing mirrors in the prehistoric period, Wireless
communication has been a part of human life and it is continuously evolving. Modern Wireless
Communication i.e., using electrical signals and radio waves for communication has been around us for
more than 100 years.
 ➢ In the year 1897, Guglielmo Marconi successfully demonstrated the Wireless Telegraphy by sending EM
Waves for a short distance of 100 meters. This demonstration paved way for Radio Communication and
the term Radio is derived from Radiant Energy.

➢ By early 1900’s, Trans - Atlantic radio transmission had been established, where Marconi successfully
transmitted messages in the form of Morse code. Since then, the technology related to wireless
communication and the wireless system has advanced rapidly and thus enabling transmissions over longer
distances at low cost with cheaper devices.

➢ Throughout the development of wireless communication, there are many wireless systems and methods
that flourished and many got disappeared. The best example of this is Telephone Communication and
Television Transmission. Initially, all telephone-related communication was carried out (and still is) using
a wired network, which we call it as Landline Telephone. But the rapid growth of Mobile Communication
started to replace the complex wired telephone system. In this scenario, wired technology became
outdated and got replaced by wireless communication.

➢ Another scenario where wireless communication got replaced by wired communication is Television
broadcasting. In the early days, television signals were broadcasted using wireless radio transmitters. But
this setup got replaced by cable television.

➢ These two examples point out that with the development of technology, we always have to choose what’s
best for the situation i.e., in some areas we have to use wired communication whereas in the other, going
for wireless may be a better option.

1.1.4 Why Wireless Communication?

• When wired communication can do most of the tasks that wireless communication can, why do we need
Wireless Communication? The primary and important benefit of wireless communication is mobility.

• Apart from mobility, wireless communication also offers flexibility and ease of use, which makes it
increasingly popular day by day. Wireless Communication like mobile telephony can be made anywhere
and anytime with a considerably high throughput performance.

• Another important point is infrastructure. The setup and installation of infrastructure for wired
communication systems is an expensive and time-consuming job. The infrastructure for wireless
communication can be installed easily and low cost. In emergency situations and remote locations, where
the setup of wired communication is difficult, wireless communication is a viable option.

1.1.5 Advantages of Wireless Communication

There are numerous advantages of Wireless Communication Technology, Wireless Networking and Wireless
Systems over Wired Communication like Cost, Mobility, Ease of Installation, and Reliability etc.

Cost
• The cost of installing wires, cables and other infrastructure is eliminated in wireless communication and
hence lowering the overall cost of the system compared to wired communication systems. Installing a
wired network in a building, digging up the Earth to lay the cables and running those wires across the
streets is an extremely difficult, costly and time-consuming job.

• In historical buildings, drilling holes for cables is not the best idea as it destroys the integrity and
importance of the building. Also, in older buildings with no dedicated lines for communication, wireless
communication like Wi-Fi or Wireless LAN is the only option.
Mobility
• As mentioned earlier, mobility is the main advantage of the wireless communication system. It offers the
freedom to move around while still connected to the network.
Ease of Installation
• The setup and installation of wireless communication network’s equipment and infrastructure is very easy
as we need not worry about the hassle of cables. Also, the time required to setup a wireless system like a
Wi-Fi network for example, is very less when compared to setting up a full cabled network.

Reliability
• Since there are no cables and wires involved in wireless communication, there is no chance of
communication failure due to damage of these cables, which may be caused by environmental conditions,
cable splice and natural diminution of metallic conductors.

Disaster Recovery
• In case of accidents due to fire, floods or other disasters, the loss of communication infrastructure in a
wireless communication system can be minimal.

1.1.6 Disadvantages of Wireless Communication

Even though wireless communication has a number of advantages over wired communication, there are a few
disadvantages as well. The most concerning disadvantages are Interference, Security and Health.

Interference
• Wireless Communication systems use open space as the medium for transmitting signals. As a result,
there is a huge chance that radio signals from one wireless communication system or network might
interfere with other signals.

• The best example is Bluetooth and Wi-Fi (WLAN). Both these technologies use the 2.4GHz frequency
for communication and when both of these devices are active at the same time, there is a chance of
interference.

Security
• One of the main concerns of wireless communication is the security of the data. Since the signals are
transmitted in open space, it is possible that an intruder can intercept the signals and copy sensitive
information.

Health Concerns
• Continuous exposure to any type of radiation can be hazardous. Even though the levels of RF energy that
can cause the damage are not accurately established, it is advised to avoid RF radiation to the maximum.

1.1.7 Basic Elements of a Wireless Communication System

A typical Wireless Communication System can be divided into three elements: the Transmitter, the Channel and
the Receiver. The following image shows the block diagram of the wireless communication system.

The Transmission Path

➢ A typical transmission path of a Wireless Communication System consists of Encoder, Encryption,
Modulation and Multiplexing. The signal from the source is passed through a Source Encoder, which
converts the signal in to a suitable form for applying signal processing techniques.
 ➢ The redundant information from a signal is removed in this process in order to maximize the utilization
of resources. This signal is then encrypted using an Encryption Standard so that the signal and the
information is secured and doesn’t allow any unauthorized access.
➢ Channel Encoding is a technique that is applied to the signal to reduce the impairments like noise,
interference, etc. During this process, a small amount of redundancy is introduced to the signal so that it
becomes robust against noise. Then the signal is modulated using a suitable Modulation Technique (like
PSK, FSK and QPSK etc.), so that the signal can be easily transmitted using an antenna.
➢ The modulated signal is then multiplexed with other signals using different Multiplexing Techniques like
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) or Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) to share the valuable
bandwidth.

The Channel
➢ The channel in Wireless Communication indicates the medium of transmission of the signal i.e., open
space. A wireless channel is unpredictable and also highly variable and random in nature. A channel may
be subject to interference, distortion, noise, scattering etc. and the result is that the received signal may be
filled with errors.

The Reception Path

➢ The job of the Receiver is to collect the signal from the channel and reproduce it as the source signal. The
reception path of a Wireless Communication System comprises of Demultiplexing, Demodulation,
Channel Decoding, Decryption and Source Decoding. From the components of the reception path, it is
clear that the task of the receiver is just the inverse to that of the transmitter.

➢ The signal from the channel is received by the Demultiplexer and is separated from other signals. The
individual signals are demodulated using appropriate Demodulation Techniques and the original message
signal is recovered. The redundant bits from the message are removed using the Channel Decoder.
➢ Since the message is encrypted, the Decryption of the signal removes the security and turns it into a simple
sequence of bits. Finally, this signal is given to the Source Decoder to get back the original transmitted
message or signal.

1.2 Types of Services in Wireless Communication Systems

➢ Today, people need Mobile Phones for many things like talking, the internet, multimedia etc. All these
services must be made available to the user on the go ie. while the user is mobile. With the help of these
wireless communication services, we can transfer voice, data, videos, images etc.

➢ Wireless Communication Systems also provide different services like video conferencing, cellular
telephone, paging, TV, Radio etc. Due to the need for a variety of communication services, different types
of Wireless Communication Systems are developed. Some of the important Wireless Communication
Systems available today are:

• Television and Radio Broadcasting

• Satellite Communication
• Radar
• Mobile Telephone System (Cellular Communication)
• Global Positioning System (GPS)
• Infrared Communication
• WLAN (Wi-Fi)
• Bluetooth
• Paging
• Cordless Phones
• Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)

➢ There are many other systems with each being useful for different applications. Wireless Communication
systems can be again classified as Simplex, Half Duplex and Full Duplex. Simplex communication is one-
 way communication. An example is the Radio broadcast system. Half-Duplex is two-way communication
but not a simultaneous one. An example is walkie–talkie (civilian band radio). Full Duplex is also two-
way communication and it is a simultaneous one. The best example of the full-duplex is mobile phones.

➢ The devices used for Wireless Communication may vary from one service to another and they may have
different sizes, shapes, data throughput and costs. The area covered by a Wireless Communication system
is also an important factor. The wireless networks may be limited to a building, an office campus, a city,
a small regional area (greater than a city), or might have global coverage. We will see a brief note about
some of the important Wireless Communication Systems.

Television and Radio Broadcasting

• Radio is considered to be the first wireless service to be broadcast. It is an example of a Simplex
Communication System where the information is transmitted only in one direction and all the users
receive the same data.

Satellite Communication
• Satellite Communication System is an important type of Wireless Communication. Satellite
Communication Networks provide worldwide coverage independent of population density.

• Satellite Communication Systems offer telecommunication (Satellite Phones), positioning and navigation
(GPS), broadcasting, internet, etc. Other wireless services like mobile, television broadcasting and other
radio systems are dependent on Satellite Communication Systems.

Mobile Telephone Communication System

• Perhaps, the most commonly used wireless communication system is the Mobile Phone Technology. The
development of mobile cellular devices changed the World like no other technology. Today’s mobile
phones are not limited to just making calls but are integrated with numerous other features like Bluetooth,
Wi-Fi, GPS, and FM Radio.

• The latest generation of Mobile Communication Technology is 5G (which is indeed a successor to the
widely adapted 4G). Apart from increased data transfer rates (technologists claim data rates in the order
of Gbps), 5G Networks are also aimed at Internet of Things (IoT) related applications and future
automobiles.

Global Positioning System (GPS)

• GPS is solely a subcategory of satellite communication. GPS provides different wireless services like
navigation, positioning, location, speed etc. with the help of dedicated GPS receivers and satellites.

Bluetooth
• Bluetooth is another important low-range wireless communication system. It provides data, voice and
audio transmission with a transmission range of 10 meters. Almost all mobile phones, tablets and laptops
are equipped with Bluetooth devices. They can be connected to wireless Bluetooth receivers, audio
equipment, cameras etc.

Paging
• Although it is considered an obsolete technology, paging was a major success before the widespread use
of mobile phones. Paging provides information in the form of messages and it is a simplex system ie. the
user can only receive the messages.

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

• Wireless Local Area Network or WLAN (Wi-Fi) is an internet-related wireless service. Using WLAN,
different devices like laptops and mobile phones can connect to an access point (like a Wi-Fi Router) and
access the internet.
 • Wi-Fi is one of the widely used wireless networks, usually for internet access (but sometimes for data
transfer within the Local Area Network). It is very difficult to imagine the modern world without Wi-Fi.

Infrared Communication
• Infrared Communication is another commonly used wireless communication in our daily lives. It uses the
infrared waves of the Electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. Infrared (IR) Communication is used in remote
controls of Televisions, cars, audio equipment etc.

1.3 Mobile Computing Vs Wireless Networking

• The terms "mobile" and "wireless" are often used interchangeably but in reality, they are two very
different concepts applied to modern computing and technology.
• Mobile is a word that is commonly used to describe portable devices. A mobile device is one that is made
to be taken anywhere. Therefore, it needs an internal battery for power, and must be connected to a modern
mobile network that can help it to send and receive data without attaching it to hardware infrastructure.
• Wireless, on the other hand, does not mean mobile. Traditional computers or other non-mobile devices
can access wireless networks. One very common example is the use of a localized browser product in a
local area network (LAN), where the router takes what used to be a cabled interaction and makes it
wireless. Other kinds of wireless networks called wide area networks (WAN) can even use components of
3G or 4G wireless systems made specifically for mobile devices, but that doesn‘t mean that the devices
on these networks are mobile. They may still be plugged in or require proximity to a router or network
node.
• Mobile and wireless systems really accomplish two very different things. While a wireless system
provides a fixed or portable endpoint with access to a distributed network, a mobile system offers all of
the resources of that distributed network to something that can go anywhere, barring any issues with local
reception or technical area coverage.
• For another example of the difference between mobile and wireless, think of businesses that offer Wi-Fi
hotspots. A Wi-Fi hotspot is typically a resource for someone who has a relatively fixed device, such as
a laptop computer that doesn‘t have its own internal Internet access built-in. By contrast, mobile devices
already have inherent access to the Internet or other wireless systems through those cell tower networks
that ISPs and telecom companies built specifically for them. So mobile devices don‘t need Wi-Fi - they
already have their connections.
• To some who are used to using both wireless and mobile networks, this distinction may seem very simple.
However, the difference between providing mobile and wireless is likely to be something that gets
explored more as new technologies continue to develop, and companies continue to offer more different
kinds of interfaces to consumers.
• Mobile is a subgroup of wireless. We have wireless systems that are not mobile and we have technologies
that are wireless but not mobile in sense of technologies deployed in mobile operator’s networks. We have
fixed wireless (e.g., fixed WiMAX) and e.g., TETRA which is not technology deployed in mobile
(operators) networks.
• In communication engineering, wireless communication (both static and dynamic) is communication
between Nodes/systems without the use of direct physical connection rather it is through a non-conducting
or dielectric media. Whereas in mobile communication, communicating nodes move within a specified
area and the method of communication is wireless communication suitably. e.g.-Mobile Ad-hoc networks
(MANETs).
• Wireless Communication in itself is a very broad concept that is achieved using various inter-related
technologies. Mobile Communication utilizes some of the technologies that are made available/possible
by Wireless Communication. Some of the popular wireless technologies employed in Mobile
Communication include GPRS (General Packet Radio Service), LTE (Long Term Evolution), HSPA
(High-Speed Packet Access), GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication), EDGE (Enhanced Data
GSM Environment), CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) and its variants, etc.
 • Wireless refers to the method of transferring information between a computing device, such as a personal
data assistant (PDA), and a data source, such as an agency database server, without a physical connection.
However, not all wireless communications technologies are created equally, offer the same uses or are
even mobile.
• Mobile computing refers to computing devices that are not restricted to a desktop. A mobile device may
be a PDA, a smart phone or a web phone, a laptop computer, or any one of numerous other devices that
allow the user to complete tasks without being tethered, or connected, to a network. Mobile computing
does not necessarily require wireless communication. In fact, it may not require communication between
devices at all.
• Wireless communication is simply data communication without the use of a landline. This may involve a
cellular telephone, a two-way radio, a fixed wireless connection, a laser, or satellite communications. Here
the computing device is continuously connected to the base network.
• Mobile computing essentially refers to a device that is not always connected to a central network. This
group of devices includes laptops, newly created smartphones and also PDA's. These products may
communicate with a base location, with or without, a wireless connection.
1.4 Applications of Wireless Communication

1. Vehicles

Many wireless communication systems and mobility aware applications are used for the following purposes:

• Transmission of music, news, road conditions, weather reports, and other broadcast information is
received via digital audio broadcasting (DAB) with 1.5Mbit/s.
• For personal communication, a universal mobile telecommunications system (UMTS) phone might be
available offering voice and data connectivity with 384kbit/s.
• For remote areas, satellite communication can be used, while the current position of the car is determined
via the GPS (Global Positioning System).
• A local ad-hoc network for the fast exchange of information (information such as distance between two
vehicles, traffic information, road conditions) in emergency situations or to help each other keep a safe
distance. Local ad-hoc network with vehicles closes by to prevent guidance systems, accidents, and
redundancy.
• Vehicle data from buses, trucks, trains and high-speed train can be transmitted in advance
for maintenance.
• In ad-hoc network, car can comprise personal digital assistants (PDA), laptops, or mobile phones
connected with each other using the Bluetooth technology.
2. Emergency: The following services can be provided during emergencies:

• Video communication: Responders often need to share vital information. The transmission of real-time
situations of videos could be necessary. A typical scenario includes the transmission of live video footage
from a disaster area to the nearest fire department, to the police station, or to the near NGOs, etc.
• Push To Talk (PTT): PTT is a technology that allows half-duplex communication between two users
where switching from voice reception mode to the transmit mode takes place with the use of a dedicated
momentary button. It is similar to a walkie-talkie.
• Audio/Voice Communication: This communication service provides full-duplex audio channels, unlike
PTT. Public safety communication requires novel full-duplex speech transmission services for emergency
response.
• Real-Time Text Messaging (RTT): Text messaging (RTT) is an effective and quick solution for sending
alerts in case of emergencies. Types of text messaging can be email, SMS and instant message.

3. Business

Travelling Salesman
• Directly access to customer files stored in a central location.
• Consistent databases for all agents
• Mobile office
• To enable the company to keep track of all the activities of their traveling employees.

In-Office

• Wi-Fi wireless technology saves businesses or companies a considerable amount of money on installation
costs.
• There is no need to physically set up wires throughout an office building, warehouse or store.
• Bluetooth is also a wireless technology especially used for short-range that acts as a complement to Wi-
Fi. It is used to transfer data between computers or cell phones.

4. Transportation Industries
• In transportation industries, GPS technology is used to find efficient routes and track vehicles.

5. Replacement of Wired Network

• Wireless networks can also be used to replace wired networks. Due to economic reasons, it is often
impossible to wire remote sensors for weather forecasts, earthquake detection, or to provide
environmental information, wireless connections via satellite, can help in this situation.
• Tradeshows need a highly dynamic infrastructure since cabling takes a long time and frequently proves
to be too inflexible. Many computer fairs use WLANs as a replacement for cabling.
• Other cases for wireless networks are computers, sensors, or information displays in historical buildings,
where excess cabling may destroy valuable walls or floors.
6. Location dependent service

It is important for an application to know something about the location because the user might need location
information for further activities. Several services that might depend on the actual location can be described
below:
• Follow-on Services:
• Location-aware services: To know about what services (e.g., fax, printer, server, phone, printer etc.)
exist in the local environment.
• Privacy: We can set the privacy like who should get knowledge about the location.
• Information Services: We can know about the special offers in the supermarket. Nearest hotel, rooms,
cabs etc.

7. Infotainment: (Entertainment and Education)

• Wireless networks can provide information at any appropriate location.

• Outdoor internet access.
• You may choose a seat for movie, pay via electronic cash, and send this information to a service provider.
• Ad-hoc network is used for multiuser games and entertainment.

1.5 Mobile and Wireless devices

Even though many mobile and wireless devices are available, there will be many more devices in the future.
There is no precise classification of such devices, by size, shape, weight, or computing power. The following list
of given examples of mobile and wireless devices graded by increasing performance (CPU, memory, display,
input devices, etc.)

• Sensor: Wireless device is represented by a sensor transmitting state information. 1 example could be a
switch, sensing the office door. If the door is closed, the switch transmits this information to the mobile
phone inside the office which will not accept incoming calls without user interaction; the semantics of a
closed-door is applied to phone calls.

• Embedded Controller: Many applications already contain a simple or sometimes more complex
controller. Keyboards, mouse, headsets, washing machines, coffee machines, hair dryers and TV sets are
just some examples.

• Pager: As a very simple receiver, a pager can only display short text messages, has a tiny display, and
cannot send any messages.

• Personal Digital Assistant: PDAs typically accompany a user and offer simplified versions of office
software (calendar, notepad, mail). The typically input device is a pen, with built-in character recognition
translating handwriting into characters. Web browsers and many other packages are available for these
devices.

• Pocket computer: The next steps toward full computers are pocket computers offering tiny keyboards,
colour displays, and simple versions of programs found on desktop computers (text processing,
spreadsheets etc.)

• Notebook/laptop: Laptops offer more or less the same performance as standard desktop computers; they
use the same software - the only technical difference being size, weight, and the ability to run on a battery.
If operated mainly via a sensitive display (touch-sensitive or electromagnetic), the device is also known
as notepads or tablet PCs.
 Chapter 2: Mobile Computing
2.1. Fundamentals of Mobile computing
Mobile Computing is a technology that allows the transmission of data, voice and video via a computer or any
other wireless-enabled device without having to be connected to a fixed physical link. The main concept involves

• Mobile communication
• Mobile hardware
• Mobile software

Mobile communication

The mobile communication in this case, refers to the infrastructure

put in place to ensure that seamless and reliable communication
goes on. These would include devices such as protocols, services,
bandwidth, and portals necessary to facilitate and support the stated
services. The data format is also defined at this stage. This ensures
that there is no collision with other existing systems which offer the
same service.
Since the media is unguided/unbounded, the overlaying
infrastructure is basically radio wave-oriented. That is, the signals
are carried over the air to intended devices that are capable of
receiving and sending similar kinds of signals.

Mobile Hardware

Mobile hardware includes mobile devices or device components

that receive or access the service of mobility. They would range
from portable laptops, smartphones, tablet Pc's, Personal Digital
Assistants.
These devices will have a receptor medium that is capable of
sending and receiving signals. These devices are configured to
operate in full-duplex, whereby they are capable of sending and
receiving signals at the same time. They don't have to wait until
one device has finished communicating for the other device to
initiate communications.
Above mentioned devices use an existing and established
network to operate on. In most cases, it would be a wireless
network.

Mobile software

Mobile software is the actual program that runs on mobile

hardware. It deals with the characteristics and requirements of
mobile applications. This is the engine of the mobile device. In
other terms, it is the operating system of the appliance. It's the
essential component that operates the mobile device.

Since portability is the main factor, this type of computing

ensures that users are not tied or pinned to a single physical
location, but are able to operate from anywhere. It incorporates all aspects of wireless communications.
2.2. Mobile devices and Mobile OS
In today's computing world, different technologies have emerged. These have grown to support the existing
computer networks all over the world. With mobile computing, we find that the need to be confined within one
physical location has been eradicated. We hear of terms such as telecommuting, which is being able to work
from home or the field but at the same time accessing resources as if one is in the office.
The advent of portable computers and laptops, Personal Digital Assistants (PDA), PC tablets and smartphones,
has in turn made mobile computing very convenient. The portability of these devices ensures and enables the
users to access all services as if they were in the internal network of their company. For example, the use of
Tablet PC and iPads. This new technology enables the users to update documents, surf the internet, send and
receive an e-mail, stream live video files, take photographs and also support video and voice conferencing.
The constant and ever-increasing demand for superior and robust smart devices has been a catalyst for market
share. Each manufacturer is trying to carve a niche for himself in the market. These devices are invented and
innovated to provide state-of-the-art applications and services. For instance, different manufacturers of cellular
phones have come up with unique smartphones that are capable of performing the same task as computers and
at the same processing speed. The market share for different competitors is constantly being fought for. For
example, the manufacturers of Apple's iPhone OS, Google's Android OS Microsoft Windows Mobile, and
Research In Motion's Blackberry OS, are constantly competing to offer better products with each release.

The need for better, portable, affordable, and robust technology has made these vendors constantly be innovative.
Market figures and statistics show an ever-growing need to purchase and use such devices for either professional
or personal use. It is in this light that services to suit long-term implementation are developed or innovated. It
has also pushed other industry vendors to adopt services that will provide better services. For example, cellular
service providers are forced to improve and be innovative to capture more subscribers. This can be in terms of
superior services such as high-speed internet and data access, voice and video service, etc. Hence the adoption
of different generations of networks like 2G, 2.5G, 3G, and 4G network services.
The essence of mobile computing is to be able to work from any location. The use of iPads, tablets, smartphones,
and notebooks, have pushed the demand for these devices. Modern-day workers have such devices that enable
them to carry out their work from the confines of their own location. These devices are configured to access and
store large amounts of vital data. Executive and top management can take decisions based on ready information
without going to the office. For example, sales reports and market forecasts can be accessed through these
devices or a meeting can take place via video or audio conferencing through these devices. With such features
being high in demand, manufacturers are constantly coming up with applications geared to support different
services in terms of mobile computing.
Mobile computing is not only limited to mobile phones, but there are various gadgets available in the market
that are built on a platform to support mobile computing. They are usually classified in the following categories.
Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)

The main purpose of this device is to act as an electronic organizer or day

planner that is portable, easy to use and capable of sharing information with
your computer systems.
PDA is an extension of the PC, not a replacement. These systems are
capable of sharing information with a computer system through a process
or service known as synchronization. Both devices will access each other to
check for changes or updates in the individual devices. The use of infrared
and Bluetooth connections enables these devices to always be
synchronized.
With PDA devices, a user can browse the internet, listen to audio clips, watch video clips, edit and modify office
documents, and many more services. The device has a stylus and a touch-sensitive screen for input and output
purposes.

Smartphones

This kind of phone combines the features of a PDA

with that of a mobile phone or camera phone. It has a
superior edge over other kinds of mobile phones.
Smartphones have the capability to run multiple
programs concurrently. These phones include high-
resolution touch screens, web browsers that can
access and properly display standard web pages rather
than just mobile-optimized sites, and high-speed data
access via Wi-Fi and high-speed cellular broadband.
The most common mobile Operating Systems (OS)
used by modern smartphones include Google's
Android, Apple's iOS, Nokia's Symbian, RIM's BlackBerry OS, Samsung's Bada, Microsoft's Windows Phone,
and embedded Linux distributions such as Maemo and MeeGo. Such operating systems can be installed on
different phone models, and typically each device can receive multiple OS software updates over its lifetime.

Tablet PC and iPads

This mobile device is larger than a mobile phone or a PDA and integrates into a touch screen and is operated
using touch-sensitive motions on the screen. They are often controlled by a pen or by the touch of a finger. They
are usually in slate form and are light in weight. Examples would include ipads, Galaxy Tabs, Blackberry
Playbooks etc.

They offer the same functionality as portable computers. They support mobile computing in a far superior way
and have enormous processing horsepower. Users can edit and modify document files, access high speed
internet, stream video and audio data, receive and send e-mails, attend/give lectures and presentations among its
very many other functions. They have excellent screen resolution and clarity.
2.3 Mobile Computing: Major Advantages
Mobile computing has changed the complete landscape of our day-to-day life. Following are the major
advantages of Mobile Computing.

Location Flexibility
This has enabled users to work from anywhere as long as there is a connection established. A user can work
without being in a fixed position. Their mobility ensures that they are able to carry out numerous tasks at the
same time and perform their stated jobs.

Saves Time
The time consumed or wasted while travelling from different locations or to the office and back, has been
slashed. One can now access all the important documents and files over a secure channel or portal and work as
if they were on their computer. It has enhanced telecommuting in many companies. It has also reduced
unnecessary incurred expenses.

Enhanced Productivity
Users can work efficiently and effectively from whichever location they find comfortable. This in turn enhances
their productivity level.

Ease of Research
Research has been made easier, since users earlier were required to go to the field and search for facts and feed
them back into the system. It has also made it easier for field officers and researchers to collect and feed data
from wherever they are without making unnecessary trips to and from the office to the field.

Entertainment
Video and audio recordings can now be streamed on the go using mobile computing. It's easy to access a wide
variety of movies, educational and informative material. With the improvement and availability of high-speed
data connections at considerable cost, one is able to get all the entertainment they want as they browse the
internet for streamed data. One is able to watch news, movies, and documentaries among other entertainment
offers over the internet. This was not possible before mobile computing dawned on the computing world.

Streamlining of Business Processes

Business processes are now easily available through secured connections. Looking into security issues, adequate
measures have been put in place to ensure authentication and authorization of the user accessing the services.
Some business functions can be run over secure links and sharing of information between business partners can
also take place.
Meetings, seminars and other information services can be conducted using video and voice conferencing. Travel
time and expenditure are also considerably reduced.

2.4 Disadvantages of Mobile Computing Technology

Along with these advantages, there are some disadvantages also of mobile computing technology. Following is
the list of biggest disadvantages:

Poor Quality of Connectivity

This is one of the biggest disadvantages because if you are not near any of these connection providers, your access
to the internet may be minimal.

Security Issues

Mobile VPNs are not very safe to connect and there is always a chance of security concerns.
High Power Consumption

These devices run on batteries that do not tend to be long-lasting. So, if in a situation where there is no source of
power for charging, then that will be a failure.

Besides the above, there are also some disadvantages such as low data transmission rates, High data losses,
Frequent network issues etc.

2.5 Mobile Computing: Security Issues and Challenges

Mobile computing has its fair share of security concerns as any other technology. Due to its roaming nature, it's
not easy to monitor the proper usage. Users might have different intentions on how to utilize this privilege.
Improper and unethical practices such as hacking, industrial espionage, reproducing, online fraud and malicious
destruction are some but a few of the problems experienced by mobile computing.
Another big problem plaguing mobile computing is credential verification.
As other users share usernames and passwords, it poses as a major threat to
security. This being a very sensitive issue, most companies are very
reluctant to implement
mobile computing to the dangers of misrepresentation.
The problem of identity theft is very difficult to contain or eradicate. Issues
with unauthorized access to data and information by hackers are also an
enormous problem. Outsiders gain access to steal vital data from
companies, which is a major hindrance in rolling out mobile computing
services.
No company wants to lay open its secrets to hackers and other intruders, who will in turn sell the valuable
information to their competitors. It's also important to take the necessary precautions to minimize these threats
from taking place. Some of those measures include the followings.

• Hiring qualified personnel.

• Installing security hardware and software
• Educating the users on proper mobile computing ethics
• Auditing and developing sound, effective policies to govern mobile computing
• Enforcing proper access rights and permissions
These are just but a few ways to help deter possible threats
to any company planning to offer mobile computing.
Since information is vital, all possible measures should be
evaluated and implemented for safeguard purposes.
In the absence of such measures, it's possible for exploits
and other unknown threats to infiltrate and cause
irrefutable harm. These may be in terms of reputation or
financial penalties. In such cases, it's very easy to be
misused in different unethical practices.
If these factors aren’t properly worked on, it might be an
avenue for constant threat. Various threats still exist in
implementing this kind of technology.

2.6 Mobile Computing Technologies

This chapter lists down the current mobile technologies starting from 3G technologies which is the hottest mobile
technology available in the market.
3G (Third Generation)

3G or third generation mobile telecommunications is a generation of standards for mobile phones and mobile
telecommunication services fulfilling the International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000)
specifications by the International Telecommunication Union. Application services include wide-area wireless
voice telephone, mobile Internet access, video calls and mobile TV, all in a mobile environment.

Global Positioning System (GPS)

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based satellite navigation system that provides location and
time information in all weather, anywhere on or near the Earth, where there is an unobstructed line of sight to
four or more GPS satellites. The GPS program provides critical capabilities to military, civil and commercial
users around the world. In addition, GPS is the backbone for modernizing the global air traffic system, weather,
and location services.

Long Term Evolution (LTE)

LTE is a standard for wireless communication of high-speed data for mobile phones and data terminals. It is
based on the GSM/EDGE and UMTS/HSPA network technologies, increasing the capacity and speed using new
modulation techniques. It is related to the implementation of fourth-generation (4G) technology.

WiMAX

WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a wireless communications standard designed
to provide 30 to 40 megabit-per-second data rates, with the latest update providing up to 1 Gbit/s for fixed
stations. It is a part of a fourth-generation or 4G wireless-communication technology. WiMAX far surpasses the
30-meter wireless range of a conventional Wi-Fi Local Area Network (LAN), offering a metropolitan area
network with a signal radius of about 50 km. WiMAX offers data transfer rates that can be superior to
conventional cable-modem and DSL connections, however, the bandwidth must be shared among multiple users
and thus yields lower speed in practice.

Near Field Communication

Near Field Communication (NFC) is a set of standards for smartphones and similar devices to establish radio
communication with each other by touching them together or bringing them into close proximity, usually no
more than a few centimeters. Present and anticipated applications include contactless transactions, data
exchange, and a simplified setup of more complex communications such as Wi-Fi. Communication is also
possible between an NFC device and an unpowered NFC chip, called a "tag".
2.7 Applications of Mobile Computing
• Web or Internet access: Mobile Internet refers to Internet access and mainly usage of the Internet using
a cellular telephone service provider or mobile wireless network. It is wireless Internet access and usage
that can easily change to the next wireless Internet (radio) tower while a mobile user with his/her device
is moving across the service area.
• Global Position System (GPS): The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based radio-navigation
system consisting of a constellation of satellites broadcasting navigation signals and a network of ground
stations and satellite control stations used for monitoring and control.
• Emergency services: Many emergency applications are available on mobile devices to alert the natural
disaster, Road accident alerts, Traffic management, etc.
• Entertainment services: There are countless entertainment mobile applications available today.
YouTube, Facebook, and Twitter are some examples of entertainment with movies, videos, and music.
• Educational services: Different educational mobile applications like google classroom, Zoom Meeting,
Video conferencing are used to enable ICT based teaching and learning environment.
 Chapter 3: Wireless Network Principles
3.1. Wireless Network Basics
3.1.1 What is a wireless network?
A wireless network is nothing but a wireless media connecting via Radio waves. A wireless local-area network
(LAN) uses radio waves to connect devices such as laptops to the Internet and to the business network and its
applications. the Internet and to business networks and its applications. When one connects a laptop to a WiFi
hotspot at a cafe, hotel, airport lounge, or other public places, a wired network connects devices to the Internet or
other network using cables. In the past, some believed wired networks were faster and more secure than wireless
networks. But continual enhancements to wireless networking standards and technologies have eroded those
speed and security differences.
Wireless technologies employ radio waves and/or microwaves to maintain communication channels between
computers. Knowing the basics can be very helpful when configuring a network and troubleshooting problems.
Wireless networks are computer networks that are not connected by cables of any kind. The use of a wireless
network enables enterprises to avoid the costly process of introducing cables into buildings or as a connection
between different equipment locations. The bases of wireless systems are radio waves, an implementation that
takes place at the physical level of network structure.
3.1.2 Main Types of Wireless Network
1. Wireless Local Area Network (LAN): LAN links two or more devices using a wireless medium, providing a
connection through access points to the wider Internet. Wireless personal area networks (WPANs) interconnect
devices within a relatively small area, which is generally within a person's reach. For example, both Bluetooth
radio and invisible infrared light provides a WPAN for interconnecting a headset to a laptop.
2. Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN): It connects several wireless LANs that make a larger wireless
network called MAN. WiMAX is a type of Wireless MAN and is described by the IEEE 802.16 standard.
3. Wireless Wide Area Network (WAN): It covers large areas such as neighboring towns and cities. Wireless
wide area networks are wireless networks that typically cover large areas, such as between neighboring towns
and cities, or cities and suburbs. These networks can be used to connect branch offices of business or as a public
internet access system. The wireless connections between access points are usually point-to-point microwave
links using parabolic dishes on the 2.4 GHz band, rather than omnidirectional antennas (being in or involving
all directions especially: receiving or sending radio waves equally well in all directions) used with smaller
networks.
4. Wireless Personal Area Network (PAN): PAN interconnects devices in a short span, generally within a
person’s reach. Apart from these types of Global area networks, Cellular networks and space networks are the
types of wireless networking.
3.1.3. Wireless Network Elements
Wireless NEs are products and devices used by a wireless carrier to provide support for the backhaul
network as well as a Mobile Switching Center (MSC). The telecommunications network at the physical layer also
consists of many interconnected wire lines Network Elements (NEs). These NEs can be stand-alone systems or
products that are either supplied by a single manufacturer, or are assembled by the service provider (user) or
system integrator with parts from several different manufacturers. The important NEs are the NEs that are located
on the cell tower to the Base Station (BS) cabinet. The attachment hardware and the positioning of the antenna
and associated closures/cables are required for adequate strength, robustness, corrosion resistance, and rain/solar
resistance for expected wind, storm, ice, and other weather conditions. Components, such as hardware, cables,
connectors, and closures, shall take into consideration the structure to which they are attached are the NEs.
3.1.4 Difficulties While Setting Up a Wireless Network
Interference: Interference is the main problem faced in the wireless network. Electromagnetic interference
occurs in this network. This can be caused by other networks or other types of equipment that generate radio
waves that are within, or close, to the radio bands used for communication. Interference can degrade the signal
or cause the system to fail. This is the basic problem faced.
Absorption and Reflection: Absorption of electromagnetic waves due to some material which prevent it from
reaching the receiver, Reflection can cause dead zones where no reception is available particularly with metallic
or conductive materials.
Multipath Fading: In multipath fading the signal takes two or more routes or paths, Reflections can cause the
signal to cancel out at certain locations and to be stronger in other places which is called up fade.
Hidden Node Problem: In some types of networks the hidden node problem comes when a node is visible from
a wireless access point (AP), but not from other nodes communicating with that AP. This leads to difficulties in
media access control.
3.1.5 Different Wireless Network Links
• Terrestrial microwave: It uses an earth-based transmitter and receiver which resembles dishes that work on
satellite communication. Terrestrial microwaves work in the low-gigahertz range, which limits all
communications to line-of-sight. Relay stations are spaced approximately 48 km (30 mi) apart.
• Radio and spread spectrum technologies: Wireless local area network uses a high-frequency radio
technology that is similar to digital cellular and low-frequency radio technology.
• Communications satellites: Satellites communicate via microwave radio waves, which are not deflected by
the Earth's atmosphere. The satellites are stationed in space, typically in geostationary orbit which is 35,400 km
(22,000 mi) above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data,
and TV signals.
• Free-space optical communication: It uses visible or invisible light for communication purpose. In most cases,
line-of-sight propagation is used, which limits the physical positioning of communicating devices.
3.2. Frequency Allocation and Regulation
3.2.1 What is frequency allocation in wireless communication?

The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) defines frequency allocation as being of "a given frequency
band for the purpose of its use by one or more terrestrial or space radiocommunication services or the
radio astronomy service under specified conditions”. This ensures that there is little competition when using
a specific frequency band, which can cause interference if the same frequency band is used for different and
unregulated purposes. This regulation is controlled by various governmental and international organizations.
Although wireless communication is often associated with the 2.4 GHz frequency range, many devices and
technologies use radio frequencies below 1 GHz (1000 MHz).

3.2.2. Spectrum Regulations

Spectrum regulations are the process of regulating the use of the electromagnetic spectrum and dividing it among
various and sometimes competing organizations and interests. This ensures that there is little competition when
using a specific frequency band, which can cause interference if the same frequency band is used for different
and unregulated purposes. This regulation is controlled by various governmental and international organizations.
Spectrum regulations are also known as frequency allocation.

Effective spectrum management is needed to: protect frequencies used by critical services by preventing
harmful interference and identifying opportunities to maximize efficiency.
3.3. Antennas
3.3.1 What is an Antenna?
An antenna is a metallic structure that captures and/or transmits radio electromagnetic waves. Antennas
come in all shapes and sizes from little ones that can be found on your roof to watch TV to really big ones that
capture signals from satellites millions of miles away.
The antenna acts as a radiator and transmits waves through the air, just like radio and TV stations. Antennas
also receive the waves from the air and transport them to the receiver, which is a radio, TV, or in the case of
wireless networking, a router, or an access point.

3.3.2 Importance of antennas in wireless communication system and their types?

In a wireless communication system, the transmitting antenna converts an electrical signal into radio waves
and sends it to the receiver and the receiving antenna receives the radio waves and generates an equivalent
electrical signal. This electrical signal is then provided to the transmission line.
Types of Antennas
There are three main antenna categories available for wireless LANs: Omnidirectional, Semi directional,
and Highly directional.
• Omnidirectional - Omnidirectional antennas are designed to radiate a signal in all directions. Although
it is impossible under the basic laws of physics for an antenna to perfectly radiate a signal in all directions
at equal strength, an antenna of this type is an attempt to provide general coverage in all directions. This
is the most common type found for client adapters and access points, as in these situations, good coverage
in a general spherical area around the antenna is desirable.
• Semi directional - Semi directional antennas are designed to provide specific, directed signal coverage
over large areas. An example of a semi-directional antenna is a Yagi antenna.
• Highly directional - Highly directional antennas are used for point-to-point links; for example, between
two buildings. They radiate a very narrow beam over a long distance and are often used for dedicated
links.
3.4. Signal Propagation
Signal Propagation is the movement of radio waves from a transmitter to a receiver. When the waves travel
(propagate) from one point to another, they are, like light waves, affected by different phenomena such as light
reflection, absorption, or scattering.
In wireless media, signals propagate using three principles, which are reflection, scattering, and diffraction.
Reflections, diffraction, and scattering create multiple propagation paths between the transmitter and the receiver,
each with a different delay. The net result is that wireless propagation leads to a loss of received signal power as
well as the presence of multipath, which creates frequency selectivity in the channel.
Types of Signal Propagation
In Radio communication systems, we use wireless electromagnetic waves as the channel. The antennas of
different specifications can be used for these purposes. The mode of propagation of electromagnetic waves in the
atmosphere and in free space may be divided into the following three categories:

• The line of sight (LOS) propagation

• Ground wave propagation
• Skywave propagation
In ELF (Extremely low frequency) and VLF (Very low frequency) frequency bands, the Earth, and the ionosphere
act as a wave-guide for electromagnetic wave propagation. In these frequency ranges, communication signals
practically propagate around the world. The channel bandwidths are small. Therefore, the information is
transmitted through these channels has slow speed and confined to digital transmission.
The line of Sight (LOS) Propagation
Among the modes of propagation, this line-of-sight propagation is the one, which we would have commonly
noticed. In the line-of-sight communication, as the name implies, the wave travels a minimum distance of sight.
Which means it travels to the distance up to which a naked eye can see. Then we need to employ an amplifier
cum transmitter here to amplify the signal and transmit again.

The line-of-sight propagation will not be smooth if there occurs any obstacle in its transmission path. As the
signal can travel only to lesser distances in this mode, this transmission is used for infrared or microwave
transmissions.
Ground Wave Propagation
Ground wave propagation of the wave follows the contour of the earth. Such a wave is called a direct wave. The
wave sometimes bends due to the Earth’s magnetic field and gets reflected the receiver. Such a wave can be
termed as a reflected wave. The following figure depicts ground wave propagation.

The wave then propagates through the Earth’s atmosphere is known as a ground wave. The direct wave and
reflected wave together contribute the signal at the receiver station. When the wave finally reaches the receiver,
the lags are cancelled out. In addition, the signal is filtered to avoid distortion and amplified for clear output.
Sky Wave Propagation
Skywave propagation is preferred when the wave has to travel a longer distance. Here the wave is projected onto
the sky and it is again reflected back to the earth.
The sky wave propagation is well depicted in the above picture. Here the waves are shown to be transmitted from
one place and where it is received by many receivers. Hence, it is an example of broadcasting.
The waves, which are transmitted from the transmitter antenna, are reflected from the ionosphere. It consists of
several layers of charged particles ranging in altitude from 30-250 miles above the surface of the earth. Such
travel of the wave from the transmitter to the ionosphere and from there to the receiver on Earth is known as Sky
Wave Propagation. The ionosphere is the ionized layer around the Earth’s atmosphere, which is suitable for
skywave propagation.

3.5. Multiplexing
3.5.1 What is multiplexing and how it is useful?
Multiplexing is the technology that is able to combine multiple communication signals together in order for them
to traverse an otherwise single signal communication medium simultaneously. Multiplexing can be applied to
both analog and digital signals. A benefit of using multiplexing, or muxing, is reducing the physical hardware
cost for expensive dedicated network communication segments, such as copper or fiber cables.
Multiplexing is a technique used in the area of electronics and signal processing. In mobile computing,
telecommunications and computer networks, Multiplexing is a method that can be used to combine multiple
analog or digital signals into one signal over a shared medium. The main aim of using this method is to share a
scarce resource.
Example: You can see a real-life example of Multiplexing in the telecommunication field where several telephone
calls may be carried using one wire. Multiplexing is also called as muxing.
3.5.2 History and key points of Multiplexing
The concept of Multiplexing was originated in telegraphy in the 1870s. Nowadays, it is widely used in
communications.
George Owen Squier is called the father of Multiplexing in telephony. He was credited for the development of
telephone carrier multiplexing in 1910.
• Multiplexing is a technique that allows multiple simultaneous analog or digital signal transmission across
a single data link.
• The main motive behind the development of Multiplexing is to provide simple and easy communication,
proper resource sharing and its utilization. This is the best way to utilize and share a limited resource
equally among multiple devices.
3.5.3 Classifications of Multiplexing
The multiplexing can be classified into the following four types based on their usage and applications.
1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
Frequency division multiplexing or FDM is inherently an analog technology. As the name specifies, in Frequency
Division Multiplexing, the frequency dimension spectrum is split into smaller frequency bands. It combines
several smaller distinct frequency ranges signals into one medium and sends them over a single medium. In FDM,
the signals are electrical signals.
FDM's most common applications are a traditional radio or television broadcasting, mobile or satellite stations,
or cable television.
For example: In cable TV, you can see that only one cable is reached to the customer's locality, but the service
provider can send multiple television channels or signals simultaneously over that cable to all customers without
any interference. The customers have to tune to the appropriate frequency (channel) to access the required signal.
In FDM, several frequency bands can work simultaneously without any time constraint.
Advantages of FDM
• The concept of frequency division multiplexing (FDM) applies to both analog signals and digital signals.
• It facilitates you to send multiple signals simultaneously within a single connection.
Disadvantages of FDM
• It is less flexible.
• In FDM, the bandwidth wastage may be high.
Usage: It is used in Radio and television broadcasting stations, Cable TV etc.
2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
The Time Division Multiplexing or (TDM) is a digital or analog technology (in rare cases) that uses time, instead
of space or frequency, to separate the different data streams. It is used for a specific amount of time in which the
whole spectrum is used. The Time frames of the same intervals are divided so that you can access the entire
frequency spectrum at that time frame.
Advantages of TDM
• It facilitates a single user at a time.
• It is less complicated and has a more flexible architecture.
Disadvantages of TDM: It isn't easy to implement.
Usage: It is mainly used in telephonic services.
3. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM)
The Code Division Multiplexing or (CDM) allots a unique code to every channel so that each of these channels
can use the same spectrum simultaneously at the same time.
Advantages of CDM
• It is highly efficient.
• It faces fewer Inferences.
Disadvantages of CDM
• The data transmission rate is low.
• It is complex.
Usage
• It is mainly used in Cell Phone Spectrum Technology (2G, 3G etc.).
4. Space Division Multiplexing (SDM)
The Space Division Multiplexing or (SDM) is called a combination of Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
and Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).
It passes messages or data-parallel with the use of specific frequency at a specific. It means a particular channel
will be used against a specific frequency band for some amount of time.
Advantages of SDM
• In SDM, the data transmission rate is high.
• It uses Time and Frequency bands at its maximum potential.
Disadvantages of SDM
• An inference may occur.
• It faces high inference losses.
Usage
• It is used in GSM (Global Service for Mobile) Technology.
3.6. Modulation
3.6.1 what is a modulation?
Modulation is a process of mixing signals with a sinusoid to produce a new form of signals. The newly produced
signal has certain benefits over an un-modulated signal. Mixing of low-frequency signal with a high-frequency
carrier signal is called Modulation.
In other words, you can say that "Modulation is the process of converting one form of signals into another
form of signals." For example, Analog signals to Digital signals or Digital signals to Analog signals. Modulation
is also called signal modulation.
Example: Let's understand the concept of signal modulation by a simple example. Suppose an Analog
transmission medium is available to transmit signals, but you have a digital signal that needs to be transmitted
through this Analog medium. So, to complete this task, you have to convert the digital signal into an analog
signal. This process of conversion of signals from one form to another form is called Modulation.
3.6.2 Need for Modulation/ Why Use Modulation?
The baseband or low-frequency signals are not such strong and compatible signals that can be used for direct
transmission. To make these signals travel longer distances, we have to increase their strength by modulating
them with a high-frequency carrier wave. This process doesn't affect the parameters of the modulating signal.
Modulation is used to make the message carrying signal strong to be transmitted over a long distance and establish
a reliable communication. A high-frequency signal can travel up to a longer distance without getting affected by
external disturbances. In Modulation, these high-frequency signals are used as a carrier signal to transmit the
message signal. This process is called Modulation. In Modulation, the carrier signals' parameters are changed
according to the instantaneous values of the modulating signal.
Another reason to modulate a signal is to allow a smaller antenna as we know that a low-frequency signal would
need a huge antenna. An antenna needs to be about 1/10th the length of the wavelength of the signal to be efficient.
Modulation converts the low-frequency signal into a much higher frequency signal, which has much smaller
wavelengths and allows a smaller antenna.
3.6.3 Advantages of Modulation
Following is the list of some advantages of implementing Modulation in the communication systems:
• By implementing Modulation, the antenna size gets reduced. Before modulation technology, the antenna
used for transmission had to be very large. The range of communication gets limited as the wave cannot
travel to a distance without getting modulated.
• The range of communication has increased.
• The reception quality is immensely improved.
• Receivers are allowed to adjust to the bandwidth.
• Multiplexing of signals occurs and no signal mixing occurs.
3.6.4 Types of Modulation
Primarily Modulation can be classified into two types: 1. Digital Modulation. 2. Analog Modulation
1. Digital Modulation
Digital Modulation is a technique in which digital signals/data can be converted into analog signals. For example,
Base band signals.
Digital Modulation can further be classified into four types:
• Amplitude Shift Key (ASK) Modulation: As the name suggests, in Amplitude Shift Key or ASKS
Modulation, the amplitude is represented by "1," and if the amplitude does not exist, it is represented by
"0". Using Amplitude Shift Key Modulation is very simple, and it requires a very low bandwidth.
Amplitude Shift Key Modulation is vulnerable to inference or deduction.
• Minimum Shift Key (MSK) Modulation: The Minimum Shift Key or MSK Modulation is the most
effective technique of Modulation and can be implemented for almost every stream of bits. It is easy and
 effective than Amplitude Shift Key, Frequency Shift Key and Phase Shift Key. MSK is mostly used
because of its ability and flexibility to handle "One (1)" and "Zero (0)" transition of binary bits.
• Frequency Shift Key (FSK) Modulation: In Frequency Shift Key or FSK Modulation, different
notations f1 and f2 are used for different frequencies. Here, f1 is used to represent bit "1," and f2 represents
bit "0". It is also a simple modulation technique but uses different frequencies for different bits; bandwidth
requirement becomes high.
• Phase Shift Key (PSK) Modulation: In Phase Shift Key or PSK Modulation, the phase difference is used
to differentiate between the "1" and "0" bits. If the bit is "1", a simple wave is drawn, and if the bit becomes
"0", the phase of the wave is shifted by "180 or π". PSK Modulation is more complicated than ASK and
FSK Modulation, but it is robust too.
2. Analog Modulation
Analog modulation is a process of transferring analog low-frequency baseband signal such as an audio or
TV signal over a higher frequency carrier signal such as a radio frequency band. Baseband signals are
always analog to this modulation. In other words, you can say that "Analog Modulation is a technique
which is used in analog data signals transmission into digital signals."
An example of Analog Modulation is Broadband Signals. There are three properties of a carrier signal in
analog modulation i.e., amplitude, frequency and phase. So, the analog modulation can further be
classified as:
• Amplitude Modulation (AM): Amplitude modulation or AM is a modulation technique that is used in
electronic communication. It is most commonly used for transmitting messages with a radio carrier wave.
It varies the instantaneous amplitude of the carrier signal or waves according to the message signal's
instantaneous amplitude.
• Frequency Modulation (FM): Frequency Modulation or FM is the process of encoding the information
in a carrier wave by varying the instantaneous frequency of the wave. It varies the instantaneous frequency
of the carrier signal according to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.
• Phase Modulation (PM): Phase modulation or PM is the technique of varying the carrier signal's
instantaneous phase according to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal. It encodes the
message signal as changes occurred in the instantaneous phase of a carrier signal.
3.7. Media Access Control (MAC)
The medium access control (MAC) is a sublayer of the data link layer of the open system interconnections (OSI)
reference model for data transmission. It is responsible for flow control and multiplexing for transmission
medium. It controls the transmission of data packets via remotely shared channels. It sends data over the network
interface card.
3.7.1 MAC Layer in the OSI Model
The Open System Interconnections (OSI) model is a layered networking framework that conceptualizes how
communications should be done between heterogeneous systems. The data link layer is the second lowest layer.
It is divided into two sublayers as follows:
• The logical link control (LLC) sublayer
• The medium access control (MAC) sublayer. The following diagram depicts the position of MAC layer.
3.7.2 Functions of MAC Layer
• It provides an abstraction of the physical layer to the LLC and upper layers of the OSI network.
• It is responsible for encapsulating frames so that they are suitable for transmission via the physical
medium.
• It resolves the addressing of source station as well as the destination station, or groups of destination
stations.
• It performs multiple access resolutions when more than one data frame is to be transmitted. It
determines the channel access methods for transmission.
• It also performs collision resolution and initiating retransmission in case of collisions.
• It generates the frame check sequences and thus contributes to protection against transmission errors.
3.7.3 MAC Addresses
MAC address or media access control address is a unique identifier allotted to a network interface controller
(NIC) of a device. It is used as a network address for data transmission within a network segment like Ethernet,
Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth.
MAC address is assigned to a network adapter at the time of manufacturing. It is hardwired or hard-coded in the
network interface card (NIC). A MAC address comprises of six groups of two hexadecimal digits, separated by
hyphens, colons, or no separators. An example of a MAC address is 00:0A: 89:5B: F0:11.
3.8. Classifications of Wireless Networks
There are four types of wireless networks: wireless local area networks, wireless metropolitan area networks,
wireless personal area networks and wireless wide area networks
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN): A network that connects two or more devices using a wireless
distribution method and provides access to the public Internet. Most WLANs are based on Institute of Electrical
and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) 802.11 standards, otherwise known as Wi-Fi. WLANs use high-frequency radio
waves and often include an access point to the Internet. A WLAN allows users to move around the coverage area,
often a home or small office, while maintaining a network connection.
Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN): It is a form of wireless networking that has an intended
coverage area and a range of approximately the size of a city. A WMAN spans a larger area than a wireless local
area network (WLAN) but smaller than a wireless wide area network (WWAN).
Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN): It is a personal area network and a network for interconnecting
devices centred around an individual person's workspace, in which the connections are wireless. Typically, a
wireless personal area network uses some technology that permits communication within about 10 meters - in
other words, a very short range. One such technology is Bluetooth, which was used as the basis for a new standard,
IEEE 802.15.
Wireless Wide Area Network (WWAN): is a form of wireless network. The larger size of a wide area
network compared to a local area network requires differences in technology. Wireless networks of different sizes
deliver data in the form of telephone calls, web pages, and video streaming.
A WWAN often differs from wireless local area network (WLAN) by using mobile telecommunication cellular
network technologies such as 2G, 3G, 4G LTE, and 5G to transfer data. It is sometimes referred as Mobile
Broadband. These technologies are offered regionally, nationwide, or even globally and are provided by
a wireless service provider. WWAN connectivity allows a user with a laptop and a WWAN card to surf the web,
check email, or connect to a virtual private network (VPN) from anywhere within the regional boundaries of
cellular service. Various computers can have integrated WWAN capabilities.

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