In Data Communications, data generally are defined as information that is stored in digital form.

Data communications is the process of transferring digital information between two or more
points. Information is defined as the knowledge or intelligence. Data communications can be
summarized as the transmission, reception, and processing of digital information. For data
communications to occur, the communicating devices must be part of a communication system
made up of a combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs). The
effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental characteristics:
delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter. A data communications system has five components:

1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of

information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.

4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire,
coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.

5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an

agreement between the communicating devices.

Data Communication Circuits

The underlying purpose of a digital communications circuit is to provide a transmission path

between locations and to transfer digital information from one station (node, where computers or
other digital equipment are located) to another using electronic circuits. Data communications
circuits utilize electronic communications equipment and facilities to interconnect digital
computer equipment. Communication facilities are physical means of interconnecting stations
and are provided to data communications users through public telephone networks (PTN), public
data networks (PDN), and a multitude of private data communications systems.
The following figure shows a simple two-station data communications circuit. The main
components are: Source: - This device generates the data to be transmitted; examples are
mainframe computer, personal computer, workstation etc. The source equipment provides a
means for humans to enter data into system.

Transmitter: - A transmitter transforms and encodes the information in such a way as to

produce electromagnetic signals that can be transmitted across some sort of transmission
system. For example, a modem takes a digital bit stream from an attached device such as a
personal computer and transforms that bit stream into an analog signal that can be handled
by the telephone network.
Transmission medium: - The transmission medium carries the encoded signals from the
transmitter to the receiver. Different types of transmission media include free-space radio
transmission (i.e. all forms of wireless transmission) and physical facilities such as metallic
and optical fiber cables.
Receiver: - The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission medium and converts it
into a form that can be handled by the destination device. For example, a modem will accept an
analog signal coming from a network or transmission line and convert it into a digital bit stream.
Destination: - Takes the incoming data from the receiver and can be any kind of digital
equipment like the source.

Serial and Parallel Data Transmission

There are two methods of transmitting digital data namely parallel and serial
transmissions. In parallel data transmission, all bits of the binary data are transmitted
simultaneously. For example, to transmit an 8-bit binary number in parallel from one unit to
another, eight transmission lines are required. Each bit requires its own separate data path.
All bits of a word are transmitted at the same time. This method of transmission can move a
significant amount of data in a given period of time. Its disadvantage is the large number of
interconnecting cables between the two units. For large binary words, cabling becomes
complex and expensive. This is particularly true if the distance between the two units is
great. Long multiwire cables are not only expensive, but also require special interfacing to
minimize noise and distortion problems. Serial data transmission is the process of
transmitting binary words a bit at a time. Since the bits time-share the transmission
medium, only one interconnecting lead is required.

While serial data transmission is much simpler and less expensive because of the use
of a single interconnecting line, it is a very slow method of data transmission. Serial data
transmission is useful in systems where high speed is not a requirement. Parallel
communication is used for short-distance data communications and within a computer,
and serial transmission is used for long-distance data communications.

Transmission Modes
There are three modes of transmission for data communications circuits:
In simplex mode(SX), the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street.
Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive. Commercial
radio broadcasting is an example. Simplex lines are also called receive-only, transmit-only or
one-way-only lines.
In half-duplex(HDX) mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at
the same time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The
half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both
directions at the same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each
direction. Citizens band (CB) radio is an example where push to talk (PTT) is to be pressed or
depressed while sending and transmitting.
In full-duplex mode(FDX) (called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive
simultaneously. One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone
network. The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required
all the time. The capacity of the channel must be divided between the two directions.
Transmission channel - a path over which electrical signals can pass; "a channel is typically
what you rent from a telephone company" channel. transmission - communication by means of
transmitted signals.

The data transmission channels are needed for data transmission. These can be: Guided Channels
or Unguided Channels.

Guided Media:
Guided media use a physical connection between two devices. The waves are guided along a
physical path over the medium. A signal has to travel within the physical limits of the guided
medium. These may be:

Twisted Pair Cable: Twisted pair cable is a cable which is made by intertwining two separate
insulated wires together. A twisted pair cable consists of two conductors, which are normally
made of copper. This pair has a bandwidth to distance ratio of about 1 MHz per kilometer. These
are of two types: shielded and un-shielded. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) has a fine wire mesh
surrounding the wires which helps to protect the transmission Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
does not have that mesh. Shielded cable is used in older telephone networks, network, and data
communications to reduce outside interference.
Optical Fiber: Optical fiber cable is a cable made of optical fibers that can transmit large
amounts of information at the speed of light. It is a medium and the technology associated with
the transmission of information as light pulses along a glass or plastic strand. Optical fiber
carries much more information than conventional copper wire.
In one cable, there are many optical fibers. The glass fiber requires more protection within an
outer cable than copper. Basically, it consists of two concentric cylinders: an inner core and a
cladding used to surround the core. These are made of transparent plastic or glass material. The
density of the core and cladding must be such to be helpful to reflect the beam of light.

The core guides the beam and cladding prevents it. The signal is usually generated by a laser or
Light Emitting Diode (LED). The speed of data transfer is really high. Due to high speed and
little disturbance these are being used rapidly in telecommunications.
Advantages of Optical Fiber
• Higher Bandwidth helps data at a higher rate.

• Less signal attenuation.

• Immunity to electromagnetic interface.

• Light weight.

Limitations of Optical Fiber

• It needs experts to install it and provide maintenance.

• Being unidirectional needs two fibers for bi-directional communication.

• Cost factor is high.

Unguided Media
Unguided media transfers the signals through wireless medium. It transports electromagnetic
waves in the air which can be received by the devices to catch them. These can be:

Radio Waves: Radio waves are an invisible form of electromagnetic radiation, and it is one of
the widest ranges in the electromagnetic spectrum. A radio wave is an electromagnetic wave
propagated by an antenna. The frequency ranges from 3 Kilo-Hertz to 1 Giga-Hertz. These can
travel in any direction and easy to produce waves.
It eliminates the cost of physical medium and is very useful for long distanced communication.
These are of a very long wavelength, such as thousands of meters, tend to travel along the
surface of the earth and even penetrate into the water. These are useful for communication with
submarines and for broadcasting time signals, radio broadcast, cellular telephones, etc. Each
communication service uses a part of the spectrum that is suitable for its needs. These days
cellular radios are used to provide mobile phone networks. These operate in the VHF (Very High
Frequency) band.

These help in multi casting, which means it transmit a signal for specific group which may be
more than one. These are also used in FM radios, cordless phones, etc. A communication
between single source and destination is known as unicast and if there are many receivers to
catch the signals sent by sender at any destination, it is called broadcast.
Bluetooth: Bluetooth is used to send and receive data over short distance in mobile and related
technology. A Bluetooth connection is wireless and automatic, and it has a number of interesting
features that can simplify our daily lives.
Microwaves: Microwaves are radio frequencies, which ranges between about 1 GHz (one
gigahertz) to about 300 GHz. It may be defined as a short electromagnetic wave (longer than
infrared but shorter than radio waves) used for radar and ovens and for transmitting telephone,
facsimile video and data. These are unidirectional waves and hence have less interference by a
pair of aligned antenna to another. Uses of Microwave are radio transmission,
telecommunication carriers and TV stations.
Satellite is another form of microwave system. Repeaters present in the sky supplement it.
Satellites have a high bandwidth and can support variety of channels. It has some limitations
such as:

• High set up cost.

• The lifetime is limited.

• These waves cannot be received inside the building.

Bandwidth :
Bandwidth is defined as the potential of the data that is to be transferred in a specific period of
time. It is the data carrying capacity of the network or transmission medium. In simple words,
it is the maximum amount of data that can be transferred per second on a link. It is generally
measured in bits per second(bps), Mega bits per second(Mbps) or Giga bits per second(Gbps).
For example, if bandwidth is 100 Mbps, it means maximum 100 Mb data can be transferred per
second on that channel.

Data Rate :
Data Rate is defined as the amount of data transmitted during a specified time period over a
network. It is the speed at which data is transferred from one device to another or between a
peripheral device and the computer. It is generally measured in Mega bits per second(Mbps) or
Mega bytes per second(MBps).
For example, if bandwidth is 100 Mbps but data rate is 50 Mbps, it means maximum 100 Mb
data can be transferred but channel is transmitting only 50 Mb data per second.
Signals encoding scheme

Signals transmitted chosen to optimize use of transmission medium e.g. conserve bandwidth,
minimize errors .

Digital signaling: digital or analog data encoded into digital signal.

Analog signaling: digital or analog data transmitted by analog carrier signal using modulation.

Baseband signal is the input data signal.

Carrier signal has frequency fcarrier.

Modulated signal is output.

Data compression is a process in which the size of a file is reduced by re-encoding the file
data to use fewer bits of storage than the original file. A fundamental component of data
compression is that the original file can be transferred or stored, recreated, and then used later
(with a process called decompression).

In communication system, analog signals travel through transmission media, which tends to
deteriorate the quality of analog signal, which means that the signal at the beginning of the
medium is not the same as the signal at the end of the medium. The imperfection causes signal
impairment. Below are the causes of the impairment.

Causes of impairment –
Attenuation – It means loss of energy. The strength of signal decreases with increasing
distance which causes loss of energy in overcoming resistance of medium. This is also known
as attenuated signal. Amplifiers are used to amplify the attenuated signal which gives the
original signal back and compensate for this loss.

Distortion – It means changes in the form or shape of the signal. This is generally seen in
composite signals made up with different frequencies. Each frequency component has its own
propagation speed travelling through a medium. And that’s why it delay in arriving at the final
destination Every component arrive at different time which leads to distortion. Therefore, they
have different phases at receiver end from what they had at sender’s end.
Noise – The random or unwanted signal that mixes up with the original signal is called noise.
There are several types of noise such as induced noise, crosstalk noise, thermal noise and
impulse noise which may corrupt the signal.
Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and appliances. These devices act as
sending antenna and transmission medium act as receiving antenna. Thermal noise is
movement of electrons in wire which creates an extra signal. Crosstalk noise is when one wire
affects the other wire. Impulse noise is a signal with high energy that comes from lightning or
power lines
Layering and design issues

Some of the key design issues that occur in computer networks will come up in layer after layer.
Below, we will briefly mention the more important ones.
Reliability is the design issue of making a network that operates correctly even though it is made
up of a collection of components that are themselves unreliable. Think about the bits of a packet
traveling through the network. There is a chance that some of these bits will be received
damaged (inverted) due to
fluke electrical noise, random wireless signals, hardware flaws, software bugs and so on. How is
it possible that we find and fix these errors?
One mechanism for finding errors in received information uses codes for error detection.
Information that is incorrectly received can then be retransmitted sender is often used. This
subject is called flow control. Sometimes the problem is that the network is oversubscribed
because too many computers want to send too much traffic, and the network cannot deliver it all.
This overloading of the network is called congestion. One strategy is for each computer to
reduce its demand when it experiences congestion. It, too, can be used in all layers.
It is interesting to observe that the network has more resources to offer than simply bandwidth.
For uses such as carrying live video, the timeliness of delivery matters a great deal. Most
networks must provide service to applications that want this real-time delivery at the same time
that they provide service to applications that want high throughput. Quality of service is the
name given to mechanisms that reconcile these competing demands.
The last major design issue is to secure the network by defending it against different kinds of
threats. One of the threats we have mentioned previously is that of eavesdropping on
communications. Mechanisms that provide confidentiality defend against this threat, and they
are used in multiple layers. Mechanisms for Authentication prevent someone from
impersonating someone else. They might be used to tell fake banking Web sites from the real
one, or to let the cellular network check that a call is really coming from your phone so that you
will pay the bill. Other mechanisms for integrity prevent surreptitious changes to messages, such
as altering ‘‘debit my account $10’’ to ‘‘debit my account $1000.’’
The OSI reference model
The OSI model (minus the physical medium) is shown in Fig. below. This model is based on a
proposal developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) as a first step toward
international standardization of the protocols used in the various layers (Day and Zimmermann,
1983). It was revised in 1995 (Day, 1995). The model is called the ISO OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) Reference
Model because it deals with connecting open systems—that is, systems that are open for
communication with other systems. We will just call it the OSI model for short.
The OSI model has seven layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers
can be briefly summarized as follows:
1. A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
2. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
3. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally
standardized protocols.
4. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the interfaces.
5. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown
together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the architecture does not
become unwieldy.
The Physical Layer
The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel. The
design issues have to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit it is received by the
other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit. Typical questions here are what electrical signals should be
used to represent a 1 and a 0, how many nanoseconds a bit lasts, whether transmission may
proceed simultaneously in both directions, how the initial connection is established, how it is
torn down when both sides are finished, how many pins the network connector has, and what
each pin is used for. These design issues largely deal with mechanical, electrical, and timing
interfaces, as well as the physical transmission medium, which lies
below the physical layer.
The Data Link Layer
The main task of the data link layer is to transform a raw transmission facility into a line that
appears free of undetected transmission errors. It does so by masking the real errors so the
network layer does not see them. It accomplishes this task by having the sender break up the
input data into data frames (typically a few hundred or a few thousand bytes) and transmit the
frames sequentially. If the service is reliable, the receiver confirms correct receipt of each frame
by sending back an acknowledgement frame.
Another issue that arises in the data link layer (and most of the higher layers as well) is how to
keep a fast transmitter from drowning a slow receiver in data. Some traffic regulation mechanism
may be needed to let the transmitter know when the receiver can accept more data. Broadcast
networks have an additional issue in the data link layer: how to control access to the shared
channel. A special sublayer of the data link layer, the medium access control sublayer, deals
with this problem.
The Network Layer
The network layer controls the operation of the subnet. A key design issue is determining how
packets are routed from source to destination. Routes can be based on static tables that are
‘‘wired into’’ the network and rarely changed, or more often they can be updated automatically
to avoid failed components. They can also be determined at the start of each conversation, for
example, a terminal session, such as a login to a remote machine. Finally, they can be highly
dynamic, being determined anew for each packet to reflect the current network load.
If too many packets are present in the subnet at the same time, they will get in one another’s
way, forming bottlenecks. Handling congestion is also a responsibility of the network layer, in
conjunction with higher layers that adapt the load they place on the network. More generally, the
quality of service provided (delay, transit time, jitter, etc.) is also a network layer issue.
When a packet has to travel from one network to another to get to its destination, many problems
can arise. The addressing used by the second network may be different from that used by the first
one. The second one may not accept the packet at all because it is too large. The protocols may
differ, and so on. It is up to the network layer to overcome all these problems to allow
heterogeneous networks to be interconnected. In broadcast networks, the routing problem is
simple, so the network layer is often thin or even nonexistent.
The Transport Layer
The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from above it, split it up into smaller
units, if need be, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at
the other end. Furthermore, all this must be done efficiently and in a way that isolates the upper
layers from the inevitable changes in the hardware technology over the course of time.
The transport layer also determines what type of service to provide to the session layer, and,
ultimately, to the users of the network. The most popular type of transport connection is an error-
free point-to-point channel that delivers messages or bytes in the order in which they were sent.
However, other possible kinds of transport service exist, such as the transporting of isolated
messages with no guarantee about the order of delivery, and the broadcasting of messages to
multiple destinations. The type of service is determined when the connection is established.
(As an aside, an error-free channel is completely impossible to achieve; what people really mean
by this term is that the error rate is low enough to ignore in practice.)
The transport layer is a true end-to-end layer; it carries data all the way from the source to the
destination. In other words, a program on the source machine carries on a conversation with a
similar program on the destination machine, using the message headers and control messages. In
the lower layers, each protocol is between a machine and its immediate neighbors, and not
between the ultimate source and destination machines, which may be separated by many routers.
The Session Layer
The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them.
Sessions offer various services, including dialog control (keeping track of whose turn it is to
transmit), token management (preventing two parties from attempting the same critical
operation simultaneously), and synchronization (checkpointing long transmissions to allow
them to pick up from where they left off in the event of a crash and subsequent recovery).
The Presentation Layer
Unlike the lower layers, which are mostly concerned with moving bits around, the presentation
layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted. In order to
make it possible for computers with different internal data representations to communicate, the
data structures to be exchanged can be defined in an abstract way, along with a standard
encoding to be used ‘‘on the wire.’’ The presentation layer manages these abstract data structures
and allows higher-level data structures (e.g., banking records) to be defined and exchanged.
The Application Layer
The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by users. One
widely used application protocol is HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol), which is the basis
for the World Wide Web. When a browser wants a Web page, it sends the name of the page it
wants to the server hosting the page using HTTP. The server then sends the page back. Other
application protocols are used for file transfer, electronic mail, and network news.

Services and Standards

Network Services include IP addressing, Domain Name System (DNS), primary domain email
service, Internet access, web content filtering, security products such as firewalls, VPN
termination and intrusion prevention systems (IPS), and the necessary tools and staff to support
these services. Network Services will provide limited wireless connectivity for agencies (see the
Wireless Services description in the following sections).

IP Addressing

• Manage address blocks.

• Manage subnets, VLANs and public/private IP assignments.
DNS Service

• Manage host, MX, alias and PTR records.

• Host newly registered DNS domains and manage DNS records.
• Delegate sub-domains per agency request.
• Manage changes to DNS entries.
• Provide instructions for registering new DNS names.

Email Services
Services provided via Google.

Internet Access

• Content filtering and block inappropriate or unauthorized access.

• Customer-specific filtering is available, on request.

VPN Sessions
DTS will provide secure VPN access into the state network from the Internet; pre-authorization
is required.

Wireless Services
Effective Nov. 1, 2017, DTS will provide the following wireless services. For small office
buildings (under 30 employees), DTS will provide up to four (4) access points for wireless
coverage. For medium size buildings containing more than 30 and up to approximately 100
employees, DTS will provide up to 12 wireless access points. For large buildings containing over
100 employees, DTS will provide up to 20 wireless access points. For multi-agency buildings,
wireless access points will be assigned proportionately per number of employees each agency
has in the building.

Standards:
Standards are the set of rules for data communication that are needed for exchange of
information among devices. It is important to follow Standards which are created by various
Standard Organization like IEEE, ISO, ANSI etc.
Types of Standards:
Standards are of two types:

• De Facto Standard.
• De Jure Standard.
De Facto Standard: The meaning of the work “De Facto” is “By Fact” or “By Convention”.
These are the standards that have not been approved by any Organization, but have been
adopted as Standards because of its widespread use. Also, sometimes these standards are often
established by Manufacturers.
For example: Apple and Google are two companies which established their own rules on
their products which are different. Also, they use some same standard rules for manufacturing
for their products.
De Jure Standard: The meaning of the word “De Jure” is “By Law” or “By Regulations”.
Thus, these are the standards that have been approved by officially recognized body like ANSI,
ISO, IEEE etc. These are the standard which are important to follow if it is required or needed.
For example: All the data communication standard protocols like SMTP, TCP, IP, UDP etc.
are important to follow the same when we needed them.
The TCP/IP Reference Model
Let us now turn from the OSI reference model to the reference model used in the grandparent of all wide
area computer networks, the ARPANET, and its successor, the worldwide Internet. Although we will give
a brief history of the ARPANET later, it is useful to mention a few key aspects of it now. The ARPANET
was a research network sponsored by the DoD (U.S. Department of Defense). It eventually connected
hundreds of universities and government installations, using leased telephone lines. When satellite and
radio networks were added later, the existing protocols had trouble interworking with them, so a new
reference architecture was needed. Thus, from nearly the beginning, the ability to connect multiple
networks in a seamless way was one of the major design goals.
This architecture later became known as the TCP/IP Reference Model, after its two primary protocols. It
was first described by Cerf and Kahn (1974), and later refined and defined as a standard in the Internet
community (Braden, 1989). The design philosophy behind the model is discussed by Clark (1988).
Given the DoD’s worry that some of its precious hosts, routers, and internetwork gateways might get
blown to pieces at a moment’s notice by an attack from the Soviet Union, another major goal was that the
network be able to survive loss of subnet hardware, without existing conversations being broken off. In
other words, the DoD wanted connections to remain intact as long as the source and destination machines
were functioning, even if some of the machines or transmission lines in between were suddenly put out of
operation. Furthermore, since applications with divergent requirements were envisioned, ranging from
transferring files to real-time speech transmission, a flexible architecture was needed.
The Link Layer
All these requirements led to the choice of a packet-switching network based on a connectionless layer
that runs across different networks. The lowest layer in the model, the link layer describes what links
such as serial lines and classic Ethernet must do to meet the needs of this connectionless internet layer. It
is not really a layer at all, in the normal sense of the term, but rather an interface between hosts and
transmission links. Early material on the TCP/IP model has little to say about it.
The Internet Layer
The internet layer is the linchpin that holds the whole architecture together.
It is shown in below as corresponding roughly to the OSI network layer. Its job is to permit hosts to inject
packets into any network and have them travel independently to the destination (potentially on a different
network). They may even arrive in a completely different order than they were sent, in which case it is the
job of higher layers to rearrange them, if in-order delivery is desired. Note that ‘‘internet’’ is used here in
a generic sense, even though this layer is present in the Internet.

Fig: TCP\IP reference model

The analogy here is with the (snail) mail system. A person can drop a sequence of international letters
into a mailbox in one country, and with a little luck, most of them will be delivered to the correct address
in the destination country.
The letters will probably travel through one or more international mail gateways along the way, but this is
transparent to the users. Furthermore, that each country (i.e., each network) has its own stamps, preferred
envelope sizes, and delivery rules is hidden from the users.
The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol called IP (Internet Protocol), plus a
companion protocol called ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) that helps it function. The job of
the internet layer is to deliver IP packets where they are supposed to go. Packet routing is clearly a major
issue here, as is congestion (though IP has not proven effective at avoiding congestion).
The Transport Layer
The layer above the internet layer in the TCP/IP model is now usually called the transport layer. It is
designed to allow peer entities on the source and destination hosts to carry on a conversation, just as in the
OSI transport layer. Two end-to-end transport protocols have been defined here. The first one, TCP
(Transmission Control Protocol), is a reliable connection-oriented protocol that allows a byte stream
originating on one machine to be delivered without error on any other machine in the internet. It segments
the incoming byte stream into discrete messages and passes each one on to the internet layer. At the
destination, the receiving TCP process reassembles the received messages into the output stream. TCP
also handles flow control to make sure a fast sender cannot swamp a slow receiver with more messages
than it can handle.
The second protocol in this layer, UDP (User Datagram Protocol), is an unreliable, connectionless
protocol for applications that do not want TCP’s sequencing or flow control and wish to provide their
own. It is also widely used for one-shot, client-server-type request-reply queries and applications in which
prompt delivery is more important than accurate delivery, such as transmitting speech or video. The
relation of IP, TCP, and UDP is shown in Fig. below. Since the model was developed, IP has been
implemented on many other networks.
The Application Layer
The TCP/IP model does not have session or presentation layers. No need for them was perceived. Instead,
applications simply include any session and presentation functions that they require. Experience with the
OSI model has proven this view correct: these layers are of little use to most applications.
On top of the transport layer is the application layer. It contains all the higher-level protocols. The early
ones included virtual terminal (TELNET), file transfer (FTP), and electronic mail (SMTP). Many other
protocols have been added to these over the years. Some important ones that we will study, shown in Fig.
below, include the Domain Name System (DNS), for mapping host names onto their network addresses,
HTTP, the protocol for fetching pages on the World Wide Web, and RTP, the protocol for delivering real-
time media such as voice or movies.
Fig: TCP\IP model with some protocols.