Information technology!

The process of transferring data from one location to another is called Data
Communication. In this process, data is transmitted from one location to another
by using transmission media.
Components of Data Communication
the basics components or elements of data communication system are as follows:
Message
Sender
Receiver
Medium or Communication Channel
Encoder and Decoder
1- Message
The message is the information or data that is to be communicated. It may consist
of text, numbers, pictures, sounds, videos or any combination of these.
2- Sender
A device that is used for sending messages (or data) is called sender. It is also
called transmitter or source. The sender can be a computer, telephone, or a video
camera etc. Usually, a computer is used as sender in data communication system.
3- Receiver
A device that is used for receiving messages is called receiver. It is also known as
sink. The receiver can be a computer, telephone set, printer, or a fax machine etc.
Usually, a computer is also used as receiver in data communication system.
4- Medium
The path through which data is transmitted (or sent) from one location to another
is called transmission medium. It is also called communication channel. It may be
a wire, or fiber optic cable, or telephone line etc. If the sender and receiver are
within a building, a wire is used as the medium. If they are located at different
locations, the medium may be telephone line, fiber optics, and microwave or
satellite system.
5- Encoder and Decoder
In communication systems, computers are used for senders and receivers. A
computer works with digital signals. The communication channels usually use
analog signals. The encoder and decoder are used in communication systems to
convert signals from one from to another.
Encoder: The encoder is an electronic device. It receives data from sender in the
form of digital signals. It converts digital signals into a form that can be
transmitted through transmission medium.
Decoder: The decoder is an electronic device. It receives data from transmission
medium. It converts encoded signals (i.e. analog signals) into digital form.
Transmission Media: Transmission media is a pathway that carries the
information from sender to receiver. We use different types of cables or waves to
transmit data. Data is transmitted normally through electrical or electromagnetic
signals.
Types of Transmission Media

Transmission media is broadly classified into two groups.

1. Wired or Guided Media or Bound Transmission Media
2. Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound Transmission Media
Wired or Guided Media or Bound Transmission Media:
Bound transmission media are the cables that are tangible or have physical
existence and are limited by the physical geography. Popular bound transmission
media in use are twisted pair cable, co-axial cable and fiber optical cable. Each of
them has its own characteristics like transmission speed, effect of noise, physical
appearance, cost etc.
Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound Transmission Media:
Unbound transmission media are the ways of transmitting data without using any
cables. These media are not bounded by physical geography. This type of
transmission is called Wireless communication. Nowadays wireless communication
is becoming popular. Wireless LANs are being installed in office and college
campuses. This transmission uses Microwave, Radio wave, Infra-red are some of
popular unbound transmission media.
What are Guided and Unguided media?
Telecommunication links can broadly be classified into two categories, namely,
guided media (wired) and unguided media (wireless). Both media are used for
short distance (LANs, MANs) and long distance (WANs) communication.
As the name indicates, in guided media
Electrical/Optical signals are passed through a solid medium (different types of
cables/wires)
As the path traversed by the signals is guided by the size, shape and length of the
wire, this type of media is called guided media. Also, in guided media, the signals
are confined within the wire and do not propagate outside of the wire/media.
E.g., Copper Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP), Copper Shielded Twisted Pair (STP),
Copper Co-axial cables, Fiber Optic Cables.
Twisted Pair Copper:
It is the most widely deployed media type across the world, as the last mile
telephone link connecting every home with the local telephone exchange is made
of twisted pair copper. These telephone lines are reused as last mile DSL access
links to access the internet from home.
They are also used in Ethernet LAN cables within homes and offices.
They support low to High Data Rates (in order of Giga bits)
However, they are effective only up to a maximum distance of a few
kilometers/miles, as the signal strength is lost significantly beyond this distance.
They come in two variants, namely UTP (unshielded twisted pair) and STP
(shielded twisted pair). Within each variant, there are multiple sub-variants, based
on the thickness of the material (like UTP-3, UTP-5, and UTP-7 etc.)
E.g. DSL, 10/100/1000Mbps Ethernet cables
Copper Co-axial Cables:
Co-axial copper cables have an inner copper conductor and an outer copper
shield, separated by a di-electric insulating material, to prevent signal losses.
It is primarily used in cable TV networks and as trunk lines between
telecommunication equipments.
It serves as an internet access line from the home.

It supports medium to High Data Rates

It has much better immunity to noise and hence signal strength is retained for
longer distances than in copper twisted pair media.
Fiber Optic Cables:
Here, information is transmitted by propagation of optical signals (light) through
fiber optic cables and not through electrical/electromagnetic signals. Due to this,
fiber optics communication supports longer distances as there is no electrical
interference.
As the name indicates, fiber optic cables are made of very thin strands of glass
(silica).
As they support very high data rates, fiber optic lines are used as WAN backbone
and trunk lines between data exchange equipment.
They are also used for accessing internet from home through FTTH (Fiber-To-TheHome) lines.
Additionally, they are used even for LAN environment with different LAN
technologies like Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet etc. using optical links at the
physical layer.
OC-48, OC-192, FTTC, HFC are examples of Fiber Optical links.
Unguided Wireless Media:
Here information is transmitted by sending electromagnetic signals through free
space and hence the name unguided media, as the signals are not guided in any
specific direction or inside any specific medium.
All unguided media transmission is classified as wireless transmission.
Different forms of wireless communication used in the internet vary mainly based
on the following attributes:
Distance separating the end stations
Frequency spectrum used by the electromagnetic signals
Line encoding technique used
Based on these attributes, a wide variety of wireless PHYs and different types of
antennaes are used in wireless communication.
What is modem?
(mdem) (n.) Short for modulator-demodulator. A modem is a device or program
that enables a computer to transmit data over, for example, telephone or cable
lines. Computer information is stored digitally, whereas information transmitted
over telephone lines is transmitted in the form of analog waves. A modem
converts between these two forms.

Encoding and decoding:

The encoding of a message is the production of the message. It is a system of

coded meanings, and in order to create that, the sender needs to understand how
the world is comprehensible to the members of the audience. In the process of
encoding, the sender (i.e. encoder) uses verbal (e.g. words, signs, images, video)
and non-verbal (e.g. body language, hand gestures, face expressions) symbols for
which he or she believes the receiver (that is, the decoder) will understand. The
symbols can be words and numbers, images, face expressions, signals and/or
actions. It is very important how a message will be encoded; it partially depends
on the purpose of the message.
The decoding of a message is how an audience member is able to understand,
and interpret the message. It is a process of interpretation and translation of
coded information into a comprehensible form. The audience is trying to
reconstruct the idea by giving meanings to symbols and by interpreting the
message as a whole. Effective communication is accomplished only when the
message is received and understood in the intended way. However, it is still
possible for the message recipient to understand a message in a completely
different way from what was the encoder was trying to convey. This is when
"distortions" or "misunderstanding" arise from "lack of equivalence" between the
two sides in communicative exchange.
Communication modes:
Face-to-face communication is the most common. This includes casual
conversation between two or more people and business meetings. Face-to-face is
a very easy communication style that everyone has experienced. It requires no
extra materials, making this the cheapest option for communication. It is also
instant, and you get the benefit of visual cues from the person or people to whom
you are communicating.
Video communication is achieved by using Web cameras to connect two or more
parties. This is the next-best communication option after face-to-face, as you get
most of the same benefits. However, there is always the possibility of bad
connections or other technical issues that hinder the communication.
Audio is a voice-only form of communication, such as a conversation on a
telephone. This is a good instant communication tool if you catch the person
instead of getting an answering machine or voice mail, but it does not have the
benefit of allowing you to see the other person. It is also more difficult to include
more than two parties.
Text communication includes Internet communication, such as email, instant
messaging and forums, text messaging and printed papers. Text communication
does not have the benefits of audio and video, but it is much easier to distribute
information to a large group of people and save records of the communication.
LAN, WAN AND MAN:
LAN (local area network) is a group of computers and network devices connected
together, usually within the same building. By definition, the connections must be
high speed and relatively inexpensive (e.g., token ring or Ethernet). Most Indiana
University Bloomington departments are on LANs.

A LAN connection is a high-speed connection to a LAN. On the IUB campus, most

connections are either Ethernet (10 Mbps) or Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps), and a few
locations have Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbps) connections.
A MAN (metropolitan area network) is a larger network that usually spans several
buildings in the same city or town. The IUB network is an example of a MAN.
A WAN (wide area network), in comparison to a MAN, is not restricted to a
geographical location, although it might be confined within the bounds of a state
or country. A WAN connects several LANs, and may be limited to an enterprise (a
corporation or an organization) or accessible to the public. The technology is high
speed and relatively expensive. The Internet is an example of a worldwide public
WAN.
Difference between LAN and WAN:
LAN

WAN

Stands For

Local Area Network

Wide Area
Network

Covers

Local areas only (e.g., homes, offices,

schools)

Large
geographic
areas (e.g.,
cities, states,
nations)

Definition

LAN (Local Area Network) is a

computer network covering a small
geographic area, like a home, office,
school, or group of buildings.

WAN (Wide
Area Network)
is a computer
network that
covers a broad
area (e.g., any
network whose
communication
s links cross
metropolitan,
regional, or
national
boundaries
over a long
distance).

Speed

High speed (1000 mbps)

Less speed
(150 mbps)

LAN

WAN

Data transfer
rates

LANs have a high data transfer rate.

WANs have a
lower data
transfer rate
compared to
LANs.

Example

The network in an office building can

be a LAN

The Internet is
a good
example of a
WAN

Technology

Tend to use certain connectivity

technologies, primarily Ethernetand
Token Ring

WANs tend to
use
technologies
like MPLS, ATM,
Frame Relay
and X.25 for
connectivity
over longer
distances

Connection

One LAN can be connected to other

LANs over any distance via telephone
lines and radio waves.

Computers
connected to a
wide-area
network are
often
connected
through public
networks, such
as the
telephone
system. They
can also be
connected
through leased
lines or
satellites.

Components

Layer 2 devices like switches and

bridges. Layer 1 devices like hubs and
repeaters.

Layers 3
devices
Routers, Multilayer Switches
and Technology
specific devices
like ATM or

LAN

WAN
Frame-relay
Switches etc.

Fault
Tolerance

LANs tend to have fewer problems

associated with them, as there are
smaller number of systems to deal
with.

WANs tend to
be less fault
tolerant as
they consist of
large number
of systems.

Data
Transmission
Error

Experiences fewer data transmission

errors

Experiences
more data
transmission
errors as
compared to
LAN

Ownership

Typically owned, controlled, and

managed by a single person or
organization.

WANs (like the

Internet) are
not owned by
any one
organization
but rather exist
under
collective or
distributed
ownership and
management
over long
distances.

Set-up costs

If there is a need to set-up a couple of

extra devices on the network, it is not
very expensive to do that.

For WANs since

networks in
remote areas
have to be
connected the
set-up costs
are higher.
However WANs
using public
networks can
be setup very
cheaply using
just software
(VPN etc).

LAN

WAN

Geographical
Spread

Have a small geographical range and

do not need any leased
telecommunication lines

Have a large
geographical
range generally
spreading
across
boundaries and
need leased
telecommunica
tion lines

Maintenance
costs

Because it covers a relatively small

geographical area, LAN is easier to
maintain at relatively low costs.

Maintaining
WAN is difficult
because of its
wider
geographical
coverage and
higher
maintenance
costs.

Bandwidth

High bandwidth is available for

transmission.

Low bandwidth
is available for
transmission.

Congestion

Less congestion

More
congestion

Advantages & Disadvantages of Internet:

Advantage
There are many advantages of internet.
We can make donations online.
We can send and receive information across large matrix of computer
systems. Through email service, we can send messages for both business
and personal purposes.
Internet has opened doors for virtual online offices.
During the festive season, we dont need to visit crowed stores to buy our
stuff. We can make online purchases at a bargain price.
We can send birthday greeting cards through the internet.
Before making any purchases, we can check online for user reviews of the
products that we intend to buy.
We can use social media applications on our personal computer and mobile
devices. In this way, we can reconnect to our old school friends.
We can gather information for new job openings. We can also apply online
for jobs.

 We can earn online by doing freelancing jobs, selling online, completing

surveys, affiliate marketing, etc.
We can also sell old items that are of no use for us.
During idle time, we can listen to music or watch a video.
Disadvantages
We often tend to purchase those extra items that we rarely need. Such
purchases are a wastage of money.
The internet is not free. Sometimes, it hurts while paying bills.
There are hundreds of vendors selling products of various brands. We get
confused with too many choices.
The transaction cost levied by the payment gateway providers decreases
the margin of the online sellers.
Too much contradictory review leads us nowhere.
The physical distance among loved ones is increasing.
Somewhere the emotional connect between people are missing.
We feel helpless when the internet connection is down.
We always remain engaged with many online activities such as checking
emails, socializing, chatting, online shopping, business-deals, etc. We dont
get time to rest.
Our life is moving at the pace of internet. We seldom spare few moments of
peace for us
Types Of Signals:
Analog Signals
Before going too much further, we should talk a bit about what a signal actually is,
electronic signals specifically (as opposed to traffic signals, albums by the
ultimate power-trio, or a general means for communication). The signals were
talking about are time-varying quantities which convey some sort of
information. In electrical engineering the quantity thats time-varying is usually
voltage (if not that, then usually current). So when we talk about signals, just
think of them as a voltage thats changing over time. Signals are passed between
devices in order to send and receive information, which might be video, audio, or
some sort of encoded data. Usually the signals are transmitted through wires, but
they could also pass through the air via radio frequency (RF) waves. Audio signals,
for example might be transferred between your computers audio card and
speakers, while data signals might be passed through the air between a tablet
and a Wi-Fi router.
Digital Signal:
A digital signal is a signal that represents a sequence of discrete values.[1][2] A
logic signal is a digital signal with only two possible values,[3][4] and describes an
arbitrary bit stream. Other types of digital signals can represent three-valued logic
or higher valued logics. A digital signal is a physical quantity that is alternating
between a discrete set of waveforms.[5] Alternatively, a digital signal may be
considered to be the sequence of codes represented by such a physical quantity.
[6] The physical quantity may be the alternating current or voltage of an electrical
signal, the light intensity of an optical signal, the signal strength of a radio signal

or acoustic signal, the magnetization of a magnetic storage media, et cetera.

Digital signals are present in all digital electronics, notably computing equipment
and data transmission. A received digital signal may be impaired by noise and
distortions without necessarily affecting the digits With digital signals, system
noise, provided it is not too great, will not change the quantification whereas with
signals handled using analog processing, noise always degrades the operation to
some degree.
Transmission Techniques:
Parallel Transmission:
In parallel transmission, multiple bits (usually 8 bits or a byte/character) are sent
simultaneously on different channels (wires, frequency channels) within the same
cable, or radio path, and synchronized to a clock. Parallel devices have a wider
data bus than serial devices and can therefore transfer data in words of one or
more bytes at a time. As a result, there is a speedup in parallel transmission bit
rate over serial transmission bit rate. However, this speedup is a tradeoff versus
cost since multiple wires cost more than a single wire, and as a parallel cable gets
longer, the synchronization timing between multiple channels becomes more
sensitive to distance. The timing for parallel transmission is provided by a
constant clocking signal sent over a separate wire within the parallel cable; thus
parallel transmission is considered synchronous.
Serial Transmission:
In serial transmission, bits are sent sequentially on the same channel (wire) which
reduces costs for wire but also slows the speed of transmission. Also, for serial
transmission, some overhead time is needed since bits must be assembled and
sent as a unit and then disassembled at the receiver. Serial transmission can be
either synchronous or asynchronous. In synchronous transmission, groups of bits
are combined into frames and frames are sent continuously with or without data
to be transmitted. In asynchronous transmission, groups of bits are sent as
independent units with start/stop flags and no data link synchronization, to allow
for arbitrary size gaps between frames. However, start/stop bits maintain physical
bit level synchronization once detected.
Communication modes:
Simplex:
Simplex is one direction. A good example would be your keyboard to your CPU.
The CPU never needs to send characters to the keyboard but the keyboard always
send characters to the CPU. In many cases, Computers almost always send
characters to printers, but printers usually never send characters to computers
(there are exceptions, some printers do talk back). Simplex requires only one lane
(in the case of serial).
Half Duplex:
Half-Duplex is like the dreaded "one lane" road you may have run into at
construction sites. Only one direction will be allowed through at a time. Railroads
have to deal with this scenario more often since it's cheaper to lay a single track.
A dispatcher will hold a train up at one end of the single track until a train going
the other direction goes through. The only example I could think of for Half-Duplex
is actually a Parallel interface. Even though parallel are eight lanes, data travels
through the lanes in the same direction at the same time but never in both

directions at the same time. The IEEE-1284 allows printers to send messages to
the computer. The printer cannot send these messages while the computer is
sending characters but when the computer stops sending characters, then the
printer can send messages back. It's kind of like some roads that head into
downtown. In the morning, they're one way roads, allowing traffic to go into
downtown. In the evening their one way roads, allowing traffic to head out of
downtown. The only advantage that Half-Duplex would have is the single lane or
single track is cheaper than the double lane or double track.
Full Duplex:
Full-Duplex is like the ordinary two-lane highway. In some cases, where traffic is
heavy enough, a railroad will decide to lay a double track to allow trains to pass in
both directions. In communications, this is most common with networking. Our
fiber optic hubs have two connectors on each port, one for each lane of a two-lane
roadway. Full-Duplex fiber is two cables bundled or tied together to form the twolane roadway. In 100Base-TX, the two lanes are housed in the same jacket. RS232
was also designed to handle Full-Duplex but some of our short haul modems and
converters give the user the option to go Half-Duplex or Simplex to reduce the
number of conductors needed to connect between them.