Winning Elections

with Political Marketing

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 Winning Elections
with Political Marketing

Philip John Davies

Bruce I. Newman
Editors
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Winning elections with political marketing / Philip John Davies, Bruce I. Newman, editors.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-7890-3369-7 (hard : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-7890-3369-0 (hard : alk. paper)
ISBN-13: 978-0-7890-3370-3 (soft : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-7890-3370-4 (soft : alk. paper)
1. Political campaigns—United States. 2. Political campaigns—Great Britain. 3. Campaign
management—United States. 4. Campaign management—Great Britain. 5. Advertising, Political—
United States. 6. Advertising, Political—Great Britain. I. Davies, Philip, 1948- II. Newman, Bruce I.

JK2281.W57 2006
324.7'30973—dc22
2006002180
 CONTENTS

About the Editors ix

Contributors xi

Introduction. Political Marketing As Elections Approach

in the United States and the United Kingdom 1
Philip John Davies
Bruce I. Newman

SECTION I: MARKET CONTEXTS

AND DEVELOPING POLICY

Chapter 1. Voter Research and Market Positioning:

Triangulation and Its Implications for Policy
Development 11
Robert M. Worcester
Paul R. Baines
Introduction 11
Market Positioning: Policy and Message Dissemination 12
The Morris Concept of Triangulation 15
The Worcester Concept of Triangulation 18
Building the Model: The Political Triangle 18
Leader and Party Image 22
Managerial Implications and Further Research 27
Conclusion 28

Chapter 2. Mapping a Market Orientation: Can We Detect

Political Marketing Only Through the Lens of Hindsight? 33
Darren G. Lilleker
Ralph Negrine
Introduction 33
Methodology 35
What Is a Political Market Orientation? 36
Measuring Political Marketing 40
Identifying a Market Orientation 51
 SECTION II: POLITICAL MARKETING
FOR ELITES AND MASSES

Chapter 3. Not As Rich As You Think: Class, Rhetoric,

and Candidate Portrayal During National Elections
in the United States and the United Kingdom 59
Robert Busby
Framework 60
Margaret Thatcher 64
John Major 66
Tony Blair 67
Playing the Victim: America’s Presidential Election, 1992 68
George W. Bush: A Regular Guy? 71
The Democrats 74
Howard Dean 74
John Kerry 75
John Edwards 76
Conclusions 77

Chapter 4. Marketing Parties in a Candidate-Centered

Polity: The Republican Party and George W. Bush 81
Peter N. Ubertaccio
Presidential Party Leadership 83
George W. Bush and Republican Party Leadership 90
The Prospects for Marketing Parties in the Twenty-First
Century 99

Chapter 5. Grass Roots Lobbying: Marketing Politics

and Policy “Beyond the Beltway” 105
Conor McGrath
Introduction: Grass Roots Lobbying 105
Grass Roots Campaigns and Political Marketing 106
Grass Roots Lobbying: The Electoral Connection 111
Quantity and Quality 115
Techniques in Grass Roots Lobbying 119
Grass Tops Campaigns 121
Conclusion 123
Chapter 6. Political Consulting and the Market:
Who Lobbies for the Poor? 131
Gary Wasserman
Mobilizing Skills for Nontraditional Clients 133
Going Beyond the Client Base to Use the Media 136
Incentives for Going Beyond the Well-Paying Client 138
Foundations Ought to Be Interested, but They’re Not 139
Obstacles to Public Service Consulting Outside and Inside
the Profession 140
Lessons Learned, All Too Slowly 143

SECTION III: POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS

AND THE CONTEXTS FOR MARKETING

Chapter 7. Political Parties, Their E-Newsletters

and Subscribers: “One-Night Stand” or a “Marriage
Made in Heaven”? 149
Nigel Jackson
The Use of E-Mail and E-Newsletters in Political
Campaigning 150
Relationship Marketing 153
Methodology 157
Fieldwork 158
Conclusion 169

Chapter 8. First Hurdles: The Evolution

of the Pre-Primary and Primary Stages of American
Presidential Elections 177
Dennis W. Johnson
Running for President 177
The Candidates 183
Pre-Primary Stage 187
The Primaries 192
Conclusion 201
Appendix: Official Candidates for Presidency—
Republican, Democratic, and Principal Third Party 203
Chapter 9. Running Clean in the American States:
Experience with Public Funding of Elections 211
Carl W. Stenberg
Basic Features of Public Financing Systems 211
The Case for—and Against—Public Financing 215
State Experiences with “Running Clean” 218
Looking Ahead 224

Index 227
 ABOUT THE EDITORS

Philip John Davies, PhD, is Director of the David and Mary Eccles
Center for American Studies at the British Library in London, Eng-
land; Associate Fellow of the Institute for the Study of the Americas
at the University of London; and Professor of American Studies at De
Montfort University in Leicester, England. He has been a member of
a number of editorial boards for international journals and was found-
ing general editor of the British Association for American Studies
paperbacks series. Dr. Davies most recent publications include A His-
tory Atlas of North America, New Challenges for the American Presi-
dency, American Film and Politics from Reagan to Bush Jr., U.S.
Elections Today, and Political Parties and the Collapse of the Old
Orders.
Bruce I. Newman, PhD, is Professor of Marketing at DePaul Uni-
versity in Chicago, Illinois. He is a former visiting scholar at the Insti-
tute of Government at the University of California, Berkeley, and in
the Department of Political Science at Stanford, in Palo Alto, Califor-
nia. He is the author of several books on political marketing and con-
sumer psychology, including The Marketing of the President. Dr.
Newman serves on numerous editorial boards and is the founding ed-
itor-in-chief of the Journal of Political Marketing (Haworth).

© 2006 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1300/5879_a ix
 CONTRIBUTORS
Contributors

Paul R. Baines is Director of Business Development at Middlesex

University Business School. Paul directs the school’s Business De-
velopment Unit, which undertakes contract research, delivers man-
agement development programs, and provides consultancy services
for industry and the public sector. He is the author/co-author of over
thirty journal articles and conference papers on marketing in mass
consumer services environments. He has co-edited and co-authored
numerous texts on strategic marketing, market research, and public
relations, including a Chinese edition. Paul’s recent consultancy pro-
jects include marketing research and strategy development work for a
variety of large private and public sector organizations.
Robert Busby is a lecturer in politics at Liverpool Hope University
College. He acquired an MA and PhD at Manchester University and
has worked in Liverpool since 1994. His previous work has included
Reagan and the Iran-Contra Affair: The Politics of Presidential Re-
covery and Defending the American Presidency: Clinton and the
Lewinsky Scandal. His main focus of research has concentrated upon
damage limitation strategies during times of political scandal and
their effect upon public opinion. More recent work has considered
comparative aspects of spin control in the United States and United
Kingdom.
Nigel Jackson’s background was initially in the political sphere
where he worked for one of the main British parties, an MP and then
as a parliamentary lobbyist. Fed up with London, he branched out both
geographically and professionally into the public relations/communi-
cations field. He was previously head of communications of a national
charity, then headed up the public relations department of a market-
ing communications agency before managing the communications
systems of a major international training company. Returning to aca-
demia after an absence of some fifteen years he is now Senior Lec-
turer in Public Relations at Bournemouth University. Nigel’s research
interests are political communication, political marketing, and the

© 2006 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1300/5879_b xi
xii WINNING ELECTIONS WITH POLITICAL MARKETING

impact of the Internet on the political process. He is currently re-

searching a PhD on the impact of the Internet on MPs.
Dennis W. Johnson is Associate Dean of the Graduate School of Po-
litical Management, George Washington University, Washington,
DC. He is author of No Place for Amateurs: How Political Consul-
tants Are Reshaping American Democracy (Routledge, 2001) and
Congress Online: Bridging the Gap Between Citizens and Their Rep-
resentatives (Routledge, 2004).
Dr. Darren G. Lilleker is Senior Lecturer in political communica-
tion and communication and marketing research methods in the Media
School, Bournemouth University. He has previously published on
left-wing activism, political communication, and political marketing
in the United Kingdom and is co-editor of Political Marketing: A
Comparative Perspective (Manchester University Press, 2005).
Conor McGrath has been Lecturer in Political Lobbying and Public
Affairs at the University of Ulster in Northern Ireland since 1999. He
served in 2000 as the founding Chairman of the Northern Ireland
Government Affairs Group. In addition, he acts as the Head of Edu-
cation at the Public Relations Institute of Ireland. Before becoming
an academic, he worked for a conservative MP in London and a Republi-
can congressman, as Public Affairs Director at a PR company, and as
a self-employed political consultant. His research interests include
the education and training of lobbyists, the fictional representation of
lobbyists, lobbying as a form of political marketing, and the personal
characteristics and professional skills of lobbyists. His book Lobby-
ing in Washington, London, and Brussels: The Persuasive Communi-
cation of Political Issues was published in 2005 by Edwin Mellen Press.
Dr. Ralph Negrine is Senior Lecturer at the Centre for Mass Com-
munication Research, Department of Politics, University of Lei-
cester. He has written extensively on political communication and his
current research focuses on the “professionalisation thesis.”
Carl W. Stenberg is Professor of Public Administration and Govern-
ment at the School of Government, University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill. His previous academic positions were Dean and Profes-
sor, Yale Gordon College of Liberal Arts, University of Baltimore,
and Director and Distinguished Professor, Weldon Cooper Center for
Public Service, University of Virginia. As a practitioner he served as
Assistant Director, U.S. Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental
Relations, and Executive Director, Council of State Governments.
 Contributors xiii

From 2002-2004 he served as Chair, Study Commission on Public

Funding of Campaigns in Maryland. He received his BA from Alle-
gheny College and his MPA and PhD from the State University of
New York at Albany.
Peter N. Ubertaccio is an assistant professor of Political Science at
Stonehill College, in Easton, Massachusetts. His specialties are the
American Presidency, American political history, politics and law,
and political parties. He is the author of Learned in the Law and Poli-
tics: The Office of the Solicitor General and Executive Power (forth-
coming LFB Publishing). Dr. Ubertaccio received his PhD in politics
from Brandeis University in Waltham, Massachusetts, and his BA in
politics from the Catholic University of America in Washington, DC.
Gary Wasserman is presently teaching American government at
Johns Hopkins’ School of Advanced International Studies in Nan-
jing, China. He has worked as a Washington analyst and consultant
for a number of years. The twelfth edition of his Basics of American
Politics is coming out this year, as is his book of case studies in Amer-
ican politics, Politics in Action.
Professor Sir Robert Worcester is Chairman of Britain’s leading
opinion research organization, MORI. He is a Governor and Visiting
Professor of Government at the London School of Economics and at
the University of Kent. He was a key advisor on polling issues to the
Labour Party for many years and is a regular television and radio
broadcaster on political issues in Britain and America. He was knighted
in 2005 for political social and economic research and for his contri-
bution to government policy and programs.
 Introduction

PoliticalPolitical Marketing
Marketing As As Elections
Elections Approach in the U.S. and U.K.
Approach in the United States
and the United Kingdom
Philip John Davies
Bruce I. Newman

The national election cycles of the United States and the United
Kingdom appear on first glance to be fundamentally different. In the
United States there is never a time when the whole of the national
government is up for election at the same time. The authors of the
constitution, strove, in their design, to counterbalance those elements
of the new national political structure that some feared would present
too many opportunities for rapid radical change. One such balance
was to make U.S. Senators subject to rolling replacement, with only
one-third of their number being selected each two years. So the near-
est thing that the United States has to a national general election is
when the office of all of the U.S. House of Representatives, one-third
of the U.S. Senate, and the U.S. President and Vice President, appear
on the ballot simultaneously. These U.S. Election Days are time-
tabled precisely, on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November,
at four-yearly intervals. Any young politician deciding to set her
long-term ambitions on federal office up to and including the White
House can calculate to the day when the opportunities to challenge
for that position will arise, and can plan short-, medium-, and long-
term political strategies accordingly. The drive to regulate campaign
finance notwithstanding, American candidates and political parties
still raise and spend considerable amounts of money. With all this
foreknowledge, campaigns sometimes seem to go on for ever.

© 2006 by The Haworth Press, Inc. All rights reserved.

doi:10.1300/5879_01 1
2 WINNING ELECTIONS WITH POLITICAL MARKETING

In the United Kingdom no such determined political calendar ex-

ists. An administration is limited to a maximum of five years in office,
but may call an election at any time within that five year period. Gen-
erally the prerogative of initiating the call for an election lies with the
administration, although a government suffering a serious defeat, and
failure of confidence, in the House of Commons may, unusually, be
forced to present its case to the nation. Campaign spending by indi-
vidual candidates for office is strictly restricted, and while a small
amount of free radio and TV time is made available to political par-
ties, no other radio or TV time can be purchased by anyone for cam-
paign advertising. Elections in the United Kingdom are traditionally
held on a Thursday, but far from knowing the precise date years in ad-
vance, there is only about one month’s warning before any particular
Election Day arrives, and the formal campaign is concentrated tightly
into that period of time.
There are, nevertheless, transatlantic similarities. In the two de-
cades since Sidney Blumenthal claimed that claimed that American
politics was moving toward a system of “permanent campaigning”
(Blumenthal, 1982), there has been an increasing recognition of the
embedded role of policy explanation, delivery, and feedback in the
politics of modern nations. Walter Dean Burnham concluded that this
development had changed dramatically the nature of political parties
in the United States, opining that the historic structure of party coali-
tions had given way to a “divided government, permanent-campaign
regime” (Burnham, 1985). While political campaigns are generally
interpreted around the activity of the election itself, authors including
Burdett A. Loomis have recognised that elections can be strongly in-
fluenced by campaigns targeted at the electorate, but outside the tight
parameters of election dates (Loomis, 2000). Others have moved fur-
ther, discerning narratives whereby administrations campaign to gov-
ern, as well as campaigning to be elected, installing the permanent
campaign even more deeply into the political infrastructure (Kernell,
1997; Jones, 1998, 1999). The process of permanent campaigning
may have formed part of the co-operative development of U.S. and
U.K. politics in early years of Tony Blair’s prime ministerial adminis-
tration. The Clinton and Blair administrations debated together the
development of domestic policy ideas, often grouped together under
the Third Way banner (Giddens, 1998), and sometimes incorporating
 Political Marketing As Elections Approach in the U.S. and U.K. 3

conceptions of triangulation. Sidney Blumenthal was the Clinton

adviser most closely linked in these efforts to the Blair team.
A series of recent British administrations, both Labour and Con-
servative, have been widely described as employing increasingly em-
bedded marketing tactics within government. While the number of
political appointees in British government is still substantially over-
shadowed by any U.S. administration’s appointive power, the use of
consultants and advisers in assistance and publicity roles formerly
occupied by members of the civil service has increased considerably.
The accusation, easily made, and endemically difficult to disprove,
that the Blair administration is overly concerned with “spin” does not
appear to have persuaded it away from an increased concern with the
use of modern political communication and marketing. The drive in
this direction is likely to be explained at least in part as a reaction to
modern political reality, but observation of the American experience,
and the transatlantic transfer of expertise and theory, is likely also to
have fed into the process of change in the United Kingdom. As U.K.
political parties increasingly use the long run up to the anticipated an-
nouncement of an election to stake their claims to policy territory, the
campaign marketing has begun to sprawl across the calendar, though
still in pale imitation of the American model.
With elections in the offing in both the United States and the
United Kingdom, the editors of this book issued invitations to a con-
ference titled “Elections on the Horizon: Marketing Politics in the
USA and UK,” to meet in London on March 15, 2004. The confer-
ence was organised by the Eccles Centre for American Studies at the
British Library, and took place in the British Library’s Conference
Centre. The meeting brought together presentations from scholars
and practitioners from both sides of the Atlantic concerned with var-
ied aspects of the electoral context of political marketing in the
United States and the United Kingdom. An international audience of
around one hundred, including academic researchers, political con-
sultants, government officials, and political party workers, engaged
with the presenters in a lively series of debates and discussions.
Twenty-one authors delivered a total of eighteen papers at the con-
ference. The early drafts of most of these papers are available on the
Internet at http://sherpa.bl.uk/view/year/2004:html. In light of the
conference discussions, panellists who wished their work to be con-
sidered for this book took the opportunity to revise their papers be-
4 WINNING ELECTIONS WITH POLITICAL MARKETING

fore submitting updated versions in June 2004. With the help of a dis-
tinguished international panel of advisory editors, a selection of these
papers was made for the present book. The papers were double-blind
reviewed, with comments returned to the authors in later summer
2004. Papers redrafted in response to the commentaries were re-
viewed again in the autumn of 2004, and all the published papers
were accepted in their final forms by December 2004.
The opening chapters of this book address the theoretical under-
pinnings of policy development within the context of political mar-
keting. Robert Worcester and Paul Baines, in “Voter Research and
Market Positioning: Triangulation and Its Implications for Policy De-
velopment,” take up this search by using the background of two dif-
ferently derived conceptions of triangulation developed in the United
Kingdom and the United States. Darren Lilleker and Ralph Negrine,
in “Mapping a Market Orientation: Can We Detect Political Market-
ing Only Through the Lens of Hindsight?”, accept that policy devel-
opment is co-produced through some form of interaction between
politicians and electorate, aimed at the production of a policy product
that reflects the electorate’s needs and wants, and examine ways in
which this process can be identified in real time, rather than, as with
so many academic endeavours, primarily in post-hoc accounts.
Looking at the accuracies and distortions in political marketing,
Robert Busby opens the next section of this volume with an analy-
sis of the virtues commonly connected to leadership candidates in
the United States and the United Kingdom. It becomes clear from
Busby’s account not only that the rise of the common person to na-
tional leadership is not solely an “only in America” phenomenon, but
also that in both nations it might be difficult to detect the accurate
story from the received wisdom. The growth in the United Kingdom
of an interest in the background of political leaders may indicate the
importation from the United States of a more candidate-centered ap-
proach to politics. Peter Ubertaccio identifies some shift in the United
States in a different direction along that spectrum, as possible realign-
ment means that the Republican Party particularly has begun to accu-
mulate some of the characteristics ascribed to what the American
Political Science Association report of 1954 called a “responsible”
political party.
Our next two authors look at political marketing more directly
from the perspective of the broad citizenry than the officeholders and
 Political Marketing As Elections Approach in the U.S. and U.K. 5

their organisations. Marketing in these cases might mean communi-

cating both with the broad range of citizens within whom the sharing
of interests might be converted into focused political action, as in
Conor McGrath’s “Grass Roots Lobbying: Marketing Politics and
Policy ‘Beyond the Beltway.’” Gary Wasserman, in “Political Con-
sulting and the Market: Who Lobbies for the Poor?” draws on his
own experience to examine the strategies of poor people’s groups in
contemporary politics. As Republican politician Robert Dole once
commented, perhaps hyperbolically, “There aren’t any Poor PACs or
Food Stamp PACs” (Drew, 1983, p. 96). Wasserman grapples with
this imbalance, and the professional marketing response.
Politics and related marketing operate within fixed and changing
structural contexts. Campaign finance regulation is increasingly an
imperative concern for political actors on all stages. Lessons are
learned not just between nations, but also sub-national developments
are observed internationally. In “Running Clean in the American
States: Experience with Public Funding of Elections,” Carl W. Sten-
berg examines the particular lessons in campaign funding offered
within the “laboratories of democracy” offered by the states of the
United States. Dennis W. Johnson’s work, “First Hurdles: The Evolu-
tion of the Pre-Primary and Primary Stages of American Presidential
Elections,” offers insights into the changing balance, and increased
front-loading, of campaigning in the U.S. presidential election. Case-
specific though this is, generalizations can be made for any elections
in which the early definition of market position creates an advantage
for one party or candidate at the expense of opponents. Nigel Jackson
closes the volume with his work, “Political Parties, Their E-Newsletters
and Subscribers: ‘One Night Stand’ or a “Marriage Made in Heaven’?”,
examining the harnessing of technological change into the communi-
cations and marketing strategy of politics, reminding us in the pro-
cess that this is a system in which change is permanent, and stasis the
indication of losing touch with the political market
The editors would like to thank all of those whose presentations at
the original conference provided the foundation for the debates that
are continued in the following pages. Not all of the original papers
could be included, but there is little doubt that every author contrib-
uted to the intellectual interchange and challenges on which this vol-
ume is founded. The Conference Participants:
6 WINNING ELECTIONS WITH POLITICAL MARKETING

Paul R. Baines (Middlesex University)

Joseph Ben-Ur (Houston University)
Robert Busby (Liverpool Hope University College)
Kenneth M. Cosgrove (Suffolk University)
Janine Dermody (Gloucestershire University)
Stuart Hanmer-Lloyd (Gloucestershire University)
Phil Harris (Manchester Metropolitan University)
Nigel Jackson (Bournemouth University)
Dennis W. Johnson (George Washington University)
Montague Kern (Rutgers University)
Darren G. Lilleker (Bournemouth University)
Conor McGrath (University of Ulster)
Ralph Negrine (University of Leicester)
Bruce I. Newman (DePaul University)
Barry Richards (Bournemouth University)
Carl W. Stenberg (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill)
Wendy Stokes (Richmond: The American University in London)
Peter N. Ubertaccio (Stonehill College, Massachusetts)
Gary Wasserman (Johns Hopkins University)
Dominic Wring (Loughborough University)
Robert M. Worcester (MORI and London School of Economics)

The editors are especially indebted to the panel of advisory editors

who volunteered their time, and whose commentaries helped shape
the final form of this book. In particular, we would like to thank
Stephan Henneberg of the University of Bath for his exceptional ef-
forts during the reviewing process. The Advisory Editors:

Edward Ashbee (Copenhagen Business School, Denmark)

Neil Collins (University College, Ireland)
Stephan C. M. Henneberg (University of Bath, United Kingdom)
Christina Holtz-Bacha (Johannes Gutenberg-Universitat, Mainz,
Germany)
John Egan (Middelesex University Business School, London,
United Kingdom)
Dennis Kavanagh (The University of Liverpool, United Kingdom)
Vivien Lowndes (De Montfort University, Leicester, United
Kingdom)
Aron O’Cass (Newcastle Business School, Austrailia)
 Political Marketing As Elections Approach in the U.S. and U.K. 7

Nicholas O’Shaughnessy (University of Keele, United Kingdom)

Margaret Scammell (London School of Economics and Politi-
cal Science, United Kingdom)
John K. White (Catholic University of America, Washington,
DC, United States)

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Burnham, Walter Dean. “The 1984 election and the future of American politics,” in
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Crabbe Jr. New York: New American Library, 1985, pp. 204-260.
Drew, Elizabeth. Politics and Money: The New Road to Corruption. New York:
Collier Books, 1983.
Giddens, Anthony. The Third Way: The Renewal of Social Democracy. Cambridge:
Polity, 1998.
Jones, Charles O. Clinton and Congress, 1993-1996: Risk, Restoration, and Reelec-
tion. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999.
Jones, Charles O. Passages to the Presidency: From Campaigning to Governing.
Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1998.
Kernell, Samuel. Going Public: New Strategies of Presidential Leadership, Third
Edition. Washington, DC: CQ Press, 1997.
Loomis, Burdett A., “The Never Ending Story: Campaigns Without Elections,” in
The Permanent Campaign and Its Future edited by Norman Ornstein and
Thomas Mann. Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute and The Brook-
ings Institution, 2000, pp. 185-218.
 SECTION I:
MARKET CONTEXTS
AND DEVELOPING POLICY