2.

0 Literature review (LAB 1)

Internal forces are generated by external forces acting on members of the structure
like pole, beam, and column. Usually there are three types of internal forces which is axial,
shear and moment. Axial force is a compression or tension force while shear force is a force
acting perpendicular to the alignment of the member. Shear forces and bending moments are
the resultants of stresses that are distributed over the cross section, they are known as stress
resultant and in statically determinate beams can be calculated from the equations of static
equilibrium. [1]

The determination of shear force in a member in civil engineering is the basic part of
structural analysis. Shear force is defined as the pair of internal forces at any portion in a
member that are formed to resist the load being transferred at that point to maintain
equilibrium. Shear force in a member is calculated on a shear force diagram. We can use this
diagram to calculate bending moment in a section. These diagrams can be used to easily
determine the type, size, and material of a member in a structure so that a given set of loads
can be supported without structural failure. Another application of shear and moment
diagrams is that the deflection of a beam can be easily determined using the moment area
method. [2]

Failure in bending will occur when the bending moment is sufficient to induce tensile
stresses greater than the yield stress of the material throughout the entire cross-section. In
structural analysis, this bending failure is called a plastic hinge, since the full load carrying
ability of the structural element is not reached until the full cross-section is past the yield
stress. It is possible that failure of a structural element in shear may occur before failure in
bending, however the mechanics of failure in shear and in bending are different. Moments are
calculated by multiplying the external vector forces (loads or reactions) by the vector distance
at which they are applied. When analysing an entire element, it is sensible to calculate
moments at both ends of the element, at the beginning, centre and end of any uniformly
distributed loads, and directly underneath any point loads. [3]

Reference
[1] "Static Equilibrium". Physics Static Equilibrium (forces and torques). University of the
Virgin Islands. Archived from the original on October 19, 2007. Retrieved 2008-01-02.

[2] Bach, F., Nielsen, M. P., and Braestrup, M. W. ?1978?. “Rational analysis of shear in
reinforced concrete beams.” IABSE Proc., P-15/78, 1–16

[3] Beer, F.; Johnston, E.R. (1984), Vector mechanics for engineers: statics, McGraw Hill,
pp. 62–76
1.0 Introduction

1.1 General background (LAB 3)

Buckling is characterised by a sudden sideways failure of a structural member

subjected to high compressive stress, where the compressive stress at the point of failure is
less than the ultimate compressive stress that the material is capable of withstanding.
Mathematical analysis of buckling often makes use of an “artificial” axial load eccentricity
that introduces a secondary bending moment that is not a part of the primary applied forces
being studied. As an applied load is increased on a member, such as column, it will ultimately
become large enough to cause the member to become unstable and is said to have buckled.

The Euler buckling analysis is fast and simple, but also faulty due to its idealized
conditions, such as perfectly straight column, ideally axial directed load, frictionless bearings,
etc. In addition, it is only a two-dimensional, static method, which excludes dynamic effects.
There are three types of strut fixing condition which are pined-pined, pined-fixed and fixed-
fixed.

1.2 Goal and Objective

1. To determine the influence of multiple column lengths and end restraints (support
condition) under axial loading.

2. To verify the experimental outcomes against theory.

3. To identify the problem solving and finding out the appropriate solution through
application.

1.3 Laboratory scope

The theory of the behavior of columns was investigated in 1757 by mathematician Leonhard

Euler. He derived the formula, the Euler formula, that gives the maximum axial load that a
long, slender, ideal column can carry without buckling. An ideal column is one that is
perfectly straight, made of a homogeneous material, and free from initial stress. The formula
derived by Euler for long slender columns is given below ;

π ² EI
Pcr= ( kL ) ²

Specimen(struts) are set in five different length which are 320mm, 370mm, 420mm, 470mm,
and 520mm. The type of testing for this experiment is the buckling of strut and the type of
instrumentation in this test is buckling of struts machines and 5 different length of aluminium
strut.

1.4 Significance of the laboratory

1. To determine the column’s behavior and to indicate some of the design methods used.

2. We can determine, as in the engineering industries, whether the structure could fail or
not.

3. To identify which strut fixing condition that suitable for a certain structure of
building.

Reference

1. Jones, Robert M. (1 December 2007). Buckling of Bars, Plates, and Shells. CRC.
ISBN 978-1560328278.
2. Bigoni, D. (2012). Nonlinear Solid Mechanics: Bifurcation Theory and Material
Instability. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107025417.