Mpfaggregates

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Mineral Planning Factsheet
Construction aggregates
This factsheet Aggregates are the most commonly used Manufactured aggregates — aggregates of
provides an construction minerals in the UK. They are mineral origin resulting from an industrial
overview of widely distributed with a range of potential process involving thermal or other modification
aggregates supply sources and, while a low cost product, are used e.g. slag.
in the UK. It forms in very large quantities. They are essential for
part of a series constructing and maintaining what is literally Recycled aggregates — aggregates resulting
on economically the physical framework of the buildings and from the processing of inorganic materials
important minerals infrastructure on which our society depends. previously used in construction e.g.
that are extracted construction and demolition waste.
in Britain and is Aggregates are normally defined as being
primarily intended hard, granular1 materials which are suitable In Britain, however, it is common practice
to inform the for use either on their own or with the addition to distinguish between primary aggregates
land-use planning of cement, lime or a bituminous binder in and alternative sources, such as secondary
process. It is not construction. Important applications include aggregates and recycled aggregates.
a statement of concrete, mortar, roadstone, asphalt, railway
planning policy ballast, drainage courses and bulk fill. European Primary aggregates are produced from naturally
or guidance; nor Standard (BS EN12620) defines aggregates occurring mineral deposits, extracted specifically
does it imply as ‘granular material used in construction. for use as aggregates and used for the first time.
Government Aggregates may be natural, manufactured or Most construction aggregates are produced
approval of recycled.’ These are further defined as: from hard, strong rock formations by crushing
any existing or to produce crushed rock aggregates or from
potential planning Natural aggregates — aggregates from mineral naturally occurring particulate deposits such as
application in the sources which have been subject to nothing sand and gravel. The most important sources of
UK administration. more than physical processing (crushing and crushed rock in Britain are limestone (including
sizing). dolomite), igneous rock and sandstone. Sand
June 2019 and gravel can be either land-won or marine
dredged. Primary aggregates fall within the
1However, a proportion of aggregates sales are for European definition of natural aggregates. The
constructional fill or other uses where soft and non- term aggregate mineral is also used for any
Gravel aggregate. granular material may be acceptable or even specified. naturally occurring material that is suitable
for aggregates use. Some rock types, notably
limestone/dolomite, are suitable for both
aggregates and non-aggregates applications.
Secondary aggregates are usually defined as

(a) aggregates obtained as a by-product of
other quarrying and mining operations, such as
china clay waste, slate waste and colliery spoil
(minestone), or (b) aggregates obtained as a
by-product of other industrial processes, such
as blast furnace/steel slag, coal-fired power
station ash, incinerator ash, and spent foundry
sand. In European specifications, mineral waste
sold as aggregates is classified as natural
aggregates, and by-product aggregates derived
from industrial processes are classed as
manufactured aggregates.
Recycled aggregates are an important source

of aggregates in Britain. They arise from
various sources including demolition or
construction of buildings and structures, or
1 Aggregates
from civil engineering works. Other forms of use of recycled aggregates, it is likely that the
recycled aggregates are asphalt planings from major proportion of future aggregates demand
resurfacing roads, and railway track ballast. will be supplied from primary sources because
‘Recycling’ involves the removal of deleterious there are limitations on the availability of
materials, such as fines, wood, plastic or metal material to be recycled into aggregates.
and processing by crushing and screening as
required so that it can be reused, often for less Aggregates have a wide range of uses in
Aggregates
demanding applications. Once a material is construction. Table 1 shows sales of primary
processed into a saleable product it becomes a aggregates by major end-use in 2014. Data
resource rather than a ‘waste’. for more recent years are not available. Most
aggregates are used in the production of
Demand concrete for buildings and civil engineering
structures, or as roadstone in road building,
Aggregates are used in construction and they repair and maintenance. Aggregates are also
are the largest tonnage of material used by used in mortars and finishes in construction, as
this sector. Demand is driven by activity in railway track ballast and as constructional fill.
the construction industry and the economy
as a whole. The relationship is not simple and The main use of sand and gravel is for concrete
demand forecasting has proved to be difficult. (63% of the total sand and gravel sold). Other
Past forecasts have proved to be too high or uses for sand include mortar and for gravel
too low. It is difficult to forecast far ahead with include drainage layers or construction fill.
any reliability and, therefore, it is important that The main use for crushed rock is as roadstone
estimates are regularly reviewed and revised. in road construction (40% of the total crushed
rock sold), where it is either coated with
Efficient and effective transportation, affordable bitumen in asphalt or used uncoated. A further
housing and investment in essential assets, such 15% of crushed rock is used in concrete.
as new and improved roads, rail links, airport
facilities, homes, flood defences and water Concrete is made from a mixture of water, air,
and sewage facilities, all consume aggregates. cement, coarse aggregates (natural gravel,
Thus there will be a continuing demand for crushed limestone or other hard rock) and fine
aggregates. Despite a substantial increase in the aggregates (generally quartz sand, but limestone
Principal uses Thousand tonnes

Sand & gravel* Crushed rock Total %
Concrete aggregates 35 381 14 279 49 660 32.1
Other screened, graded aggregates 6 555 19 572 26 127 16.9
and surface dressings
Roadstone, coated 181 17 597 17 778 11.5
Roadstone, uncoated – 22 179 22 179 14.4
Building/asphalting sand 6 960 – 6 960 4.5
Railway ballast – 2 990 2 990 1.9
Armourstone/gabion – 976 976 0.6
Constructional fill 7 052 20 831 27 883 18.0
Total sales 56 129 98 423 154 552 100
Table 1 Great Britain: Sales of primary aggregates by major end-use, 2014.

Source: Annual Minerals Raised Inquiry, Office for National Statistics (ONS)
*including marine dredged
Aggregates 2
sand and other crushed rock fines are also the railway track, and provides a free draining
used). The water and cement form the paste base. Fine aggregates (generally fine-grained
binder, whilst the aggregates form an inert filler. sand) are used in mortar, to bond masonry or
Fine and coarse aggregates are added either as a surface plastering and rendering material.
separately or as combined ‘all-in’ aggregates.
The properties of the aggregates used influence Some rocks suitable for use as aggregates,
the mix proportions and the performance of notably limestone/dolomite, have a wide
Aggregates
the concrete. Particle size, form and shape range of industrial applications, such as in the
are important. For example, finer sand sizes manufacture of chemicals, as a flux in iron and
require more cement, which has additional steelmaking and in the reduction of sulphur
cost implications because cement is the most dioxide emissions from coal-fired power
expensive component of concrete. (See also the stations. Quarries supplying limestone and
Factsheet on Cement Raw Materials.) dolomite for industrial and agricultural uses
invariably also supply crushed rock aggregates
Modern flexible road pavements consist from material that is unsuitable for high
of discrete layers. The sub-base provides quality industrial use. (See also Factsheets on
strength and a solid platform, the binder Industrial Limestone and Industrial Dolomite.)
course is the main load-bearing layer and Many crushed rock aggregates quarries also
the surface course protects the lower layers produce small amounts of building stone and
from the weather and provides an even, conversely some building stone quarries supply
skid resistant running surface. Aggregates modest quantities of aggregates as by-product
used in road pavement construction may be of quarrying and processing building stone.
unbound or bound by a bituminous (asphalt) (See also Factsheet on Building Stone.)
or cementitious binder. Unbound layers
are usually used for the sub-base but may Specifications
occasionally be used for the whole structure in
minor roads. Over 95% of Britain’s roads are The suitability of aggregates for a particular
asphalt roads. A wide range of crushed rock purpose depends principally on their physical
types, as well as natural gravel and sand and and mechanical properties, although for
certain secondary and recycled aggregates, some applications mineralogical or chemical
are used as roadstone. Well-cemented properties are also important. For general
limestones and sandstones are generally of purpose applications, aggregates of high
sufficiently high strength, as are most igneous strength and durability with low porosity are
rocks. Road surfacing aggregates are required required. There is a reasonable correlation
to be hard wearing (abrasion resistant) and between aggregates quality and porosity.
skid resistant; sandstone or igneous rock The assessment of aggregates properties is
aggregates are generally preferred for this carried out, by using a range of standard test
purpose. These materials are the premium methods (e.g. BS EN 1097), to determine the
products of the quarrying industry. aggregates’ likely in-service performance.
Different considerations apply according to
There are numerous other applications for the end use proposed, with the most stringent
aggregates: large volumes are used for specifications being for structural concrete and
constructional fill (which might need to be road pavement construction. Specifications for
permeable as in free draining rock fill or which less demanding uses will vary considerably
could use impermeable material to raise or providing the opportunity to use a range of
level the height of a construction site); as weaker aggregates.
hard core used for hard standings and tracks;
and for drainage materials in pipe bedding Road pavement
and drains. Substantial amounts of coarse The performance of aggregates in a road
aggregates (generally igneous rock) are used pavement depends on the mineralogical,
as railway track ballast, where the ballast physical and mechanical properties of the
layer supports and maintains alignment of rock, particle shape and grading (particle-size
3 Aggregates
distribution). Aggregates that are used in the attack by alkaline cement pore fluids (the alkali-
load-bearing layers should be resistant to silica reaction).
crushing and impact loads, as well as chemical
and physical weathering. Good pavement Mortars
drainage is also essential, a characteristic Specifications for mortar sands indicate that
which is affected by the grading, by the pore sands should be hard, durable, clean and free
size distribution within the aggregates, and from clay, either in pellet form or as adherent
Aggregates
also the method of laying the pavement. coatings. However, minor quantities of clay
Aggregates used in pavement surfacing are and silt are normally present in dry screened
required to be sound, strong and durable. They mortar sand and can impart useful properties.
must also be resistant to polishing (for skid Most specifications emphasize particle size
resistance) and show resistance to stripping distribution (BS EN 13139 and National
(the aggregates must maintain adhesion with Guidance PD 6682-3). Colour, both consistency
the binder). Specifications for materials used and particular colour, is an important
in road making in Britain are given in the consideration for mortar sand.
design manual Specifications for Highway
Works and in the product standards BS EN Railway ballast
13043, Aggregates for bituminous mixtures For aggregates for railway ballast, the product
and surface treatments and BS EN 13242, standard is BS EN 13450 with supporting
Aggregates for unbound and hydraulically National Guidance given in PD 6682-8. Track
bound materials. Supporting National ballast is required to be strong, clean and
Guidance is given in PD 6682-2 and PD 6682-6. angular with a high resistance to abrasion. In
common with many aggregates specifications,
Concreting aggregates the selection of suitable materials for railway
For concrete some of the most important ballast is often based on experience and
parameters are particle-size distribution, judgement as well as on experimental test data.
resistance to impact, volume stability/
frost susceptibility, relative density and Construction fill
water absorption, as well as the absence of Large quantities of construction fill are used
deleterious constituents, such as mudstone or in engineering structures, such as highway
chalk. The product standard is BS EN 12620 with embankments, embankment dams and
the supporting National Guidance given in PD foundations for buildings. A wide range of rock
6682-1. The properties of the aggregates used fills with differing properties may be used,
affect concrete characteristics such as density, including clay/shale. An important element
strength, durability, thermal conductivity and of their use is the way they are laid to ensure
shrinkage. The shape and surface texture of adequate compaction.
the aggregates particles and their grading are
important factors influencing the workability Supply
and strength of concrete. The aggregates must
be strong enough not to reduce the bulk shear A wide range of aggregates types contributes
strength of the concrete, and they should have to overall supply. There is a significant
a low porosity. Particles with a high porosity variation in aggregate mineral resource types
(>1%) have a high surface area and therefore an across the UK and local resources may have
excessively high water requirement in concrete. particular properties that affect use.
However, provided that is recognised in the mix
characteristics, high strength concrete can be Crushed rock, and sand and gravel are the
produced from porous aggregates. Concrete most important sources of aggregates.
aggregates should also be clean (with limits Substantial quantities of alternative materials
on clay, silt and dust content) and not contain are also used, notably recycled aggregates, but
impurities (e.g. mudstone, pyrite, coal, mica) also materials from secondary sources. Of the
that would affect the strength or durability of the estimated total supply of aggregates in Great
concrete. In addition, they should be resistant to Britain in 2017, very broadly 64% is obtained
Aggregates 4
Primary (natural) aggregates Thousand % from natural deposits on land (sand and gravel,
tonnes crushed rock), 6% from marine sources and
Sand & gravel 61 811 25 30% from recycled and secondary sources.
Land-won sand & gravel 47 537
The supply of aggregates in Great Britain is
Marine-dredged sand & gravel (1) 14 274
summarised in Table 2 and Figure 1. This
Crushed rock (2) 114 469 45 table does not include imported or exported
Total primary aggregates 176 280 70 aggregates.
Primary aggregates supply by region and

Recycled and secondary aggregates (3) 75 500 30 country is summarised in Table 3. Sales of
primary aggregates in Great Britain peaked
GRAND TOTAL 251 780 100 at 300 million tonnes in 1989 but have since
declined considerably. In 2017 primary
Table 2 Great Britain: Summary of aggregates sales for Great Britain were
aggregates supply, 2017. 176.3 million tonnes, comprising 114.5 million
Sources: Mineral Products Association and tonnes of crushed rock and 61.8 million tonnes
Crown Estate. of sand and gravel, including marine dredged.
Notes: Sales of primary aggregates, including marine-

1. Landed at GB ports, excluding for beach nourishment. dredged landings, for the period 1972–2017
In addition, 1.6 million tonnes were used for beach in England, Wales and Scotland are shown in
nourishment. Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4 respectively
2. Data by rock type are not available. (note: the vertical axis are not to the same
3. Data for secondary and recycled aggregates are not scale in these three Figures). Crushed rock
routinely collected, are difficult to obtain and the published aggregates account for about 65% of the total
reports are inconsistent in their methodology. The figure for Great Britain. In England and Wales the
provided here is an estimate published by the Mineral principal source of crushed rock is limestone
Products Association. (including dolomite), whereas in Scotland
igneous rock is the dominant source of crushed
rock, reflecting its underlying geology. No
marine dredged sand and gravel is landed in
Total aggregates Scotland, whilst in England and Wales marine
supply sources accounted for 25% and 40% of total
251.8 Mt sales of sand and gravel, respectively.
The effects of the 2008/2009 global recession

Recycled/Secondary Primary can clearly be seen in Figures 2 to 4 by the
75.5 Mt 176.3 Mt significant drops in sales of aggregates. Sales
(30%) (70%) in England fell by 36 per cent between 2007
and 2010. In Wales sales fell by 39 per cent,
and in Scotland they fell by 23 per cent over the
Crushed rock Sand & gravel
61.8 Mt
same period. Although there have been some
114.5 Mt
(65%) (35%) increases and decreases in aggregates sales
since 2010, sales have not yet reached 2007
levels. In England sales in 2017 are 11% below
Land-won Marine 2007, in Wales they remain 33% lower and in
Limestone/ Igneous
dolomite
Sandstone
rock
extraction landings Scotland they are 22% down.
47.5 Mt 14.3 Mt
In 2009 the former Department for

Figure 1 Great Britain: Aggregates supply Communities and Local Government (DCLG)
chain, 2017. published the National and Regional Guidelines
5 Aggregates
Sand and gravel Crushed rock Total primary
(land won and marine) aggregates
Thousand tonnes
North East 1 872 5 084 6 955
North West 2 788 5 357 8 145
Yorks & the Humber 2 489 10 949 13 438
East Midlands 6 046 27 206 33 252
Aggregates
West Midlands 6 166 4 419 10 585
East of England 13 483 0 13 483
South East 13 125 51 13 176
London 4 839 0 4 839
South West 3 491 25 895 29 386
England 54 298 78 961 133 259
Wales 1 654 12 319 13 973
Scotland 5 859 23 190 29 049
Great Britain 61 811 114 469 176 280
Northern Ireland 2 610 10 060 13 900
UNITED KINGDOM 64 421 124 529 190 000
Table 3 UK: Sales of primary aggregates by English Region and country, 2017.
Sources: Mineral Products Association for Great Britain and Department for the Economy, Northern
Ireland. (The figures for crushed rock in Northern Ireland are somewhat overstated because sales
for non–aggregates use are not separately disclosed. Figures for Northern Ireland are dependent on
the number of returns and estimates are not made for missing returns.)
for Aggregates Provision in England for 2005 or revised but are still available on the
to 2020. These Guidelines forecast that total Government’s website.
aggregates provision during this period would
be: Trade
Million tonnes The UK has large resources of rocks that can

Land-won sand and gravel 1 028 be profitably worked for use as aggregates.
Land-won crushed rock 1 492 Historically, therefore, the UK has been self-
Marine-dredged sand and gravel 259 sufficient in the supply of primary aggregates
Alternative materials 993 and imports have not been necessary. The
Net imports to England 136 UK is a net exporter of aggregates. This is
primarily due to exports of sand and gravel
Of the forecast demand for aggregates for the dredged on the UK Continental Shelf but
period 2005 to 2020 of 3908 million tonnes, landed at foreign ports, principally in the
the DCLG assumed that 36% would be sup- Netherlands, Belgium, France and Denmark.
plied from alternative sources. The national According to the Crown Estate, exports
guidelines for England are split to region landings of sand and gravel were 3.1 million
level. These national figures are allocated (or tonnes in 2017, about 18% of the total marine
apportioned) by region and Mineral Planning production. These figures for sand and gravel
Authority area in order that they can be exports are, however, different from the
incorporated into local planning strategies. figures officially reported by HM Revenue and
The guidelines are no longer being reviewed Customs (Table 4).
Aggregates 6
300
Official trade statistics indicate that the UK is
250 a net exporter of crushed rock, with exports
200 being 4.4 million tonnes against imports of
Million tonnes
0.4 million tonnes in 2017 (Table 4). Imports,

150 comprising crushed rock aggregates and
100
armourstone, are mainly from Norway
and the EU, particularly Ireland and the
50 Netherlands. However, in the past there has
been some uncertainty about the accuracy of
0
the data2. Armourstone is believed to have
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
been classified as ‘granite, crude or roughly
Crushed rock Sand and gravel Primary aggregates trimmed’ in trade accounts in some years. Most
Figure 2 England: Sales of primary aggregates, of the imports are landed in the South East,
1972–2017. including London, although landings are made
Source: Annual Minerals Raised Inquiry, ONS to elsewhere in England.
2014; Mineral Products Association 2015 to 2017
Currently imports account for <1% of total
30
aggregates supply in Great Britain.
25
Consumption
20
Million tonnes
Aggregates are extracted in larger quantities

15
in the UK than any other mineral. According
10 to data from the UK Minerals Yearbook, of the
283 million tonnes of minerals extracted in
5
the UK in 2017, primary aggregates accounted
0 for about 68%. For comparison the extraction
of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas combined)
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
amounted to 27%.
Crushed rock Sand and gravel Primary aggregates
Figure 3 Wales: Sales of primary aggregates, Apparent consumption of primary aggregates
1972–2017. (production plus imports minus exports) in the
Source: Annual Minerals Raised Inquiry, ONS to UK was about 188 million tonnes in 2017, with
2014; Mineral Products Association 2015 to 2017 a per capita consumption of less than three
tonnes. This is low by international standards
40
and compares to a European average of five
35 tonnes per capita.
30
Million tonnes
25 Consumption of aggregates is fundamentally

20 driven by activity in the construction sector.
However, whilst the value of construction
15
activity is increasing in real terms, consumption
10
of primary aggregates has declined
5 substantially from a peak consumption of
0 about 300 million tonnes in 1989. A measure
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
of the intensity of use of primary aggregates is

provided in Figure 5, which shows aggregates
Crushed rock Sand and gravel Primary aggregates
consumption per £1000 of construction new
Figure 4 Scotland: Sales of primary aggregates,
1972–2017.
Source: Annual Minerals Raised Inquiry, ONS to 2 The role of imports to UK aggregates supply. British
2014; Mineral Products Association 2015 to 2017 Geological Survey Commissioned Report. CR/05/041N.
7 Aggregates
Thousand tonnes
Exports 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Sand and gravel 6 082 5 413 4 572 4 327 3 518 2 223 2 446 2 410
(of which marine
5 192 5 413 4 548 4 089 2 995 2 153 2 767 3 127
S&G)
Crushed rock 4 911 5 387 4 251 4 897 4 966 4 252 3 816 4 353
Total exports 10 993 10 800 8 823 9 224 8 484 6 475 6 261 6 763
Imports
Sand and gravel 344 358 519 493 550 722 879 632
Crushed rock 1 896 1 705 1 273 430 382 281 433 357
Total Imports 2 240 2 063 1 792 923 932 1 003 1 312 989
Crude granite 271 283 997 1 190 1 938 2 684 3 002 2 307
Table 4 UK: Imports and exports of natural aggregates (and imports of crude granite), 2010–2017.
Source: HM Revenue & Customs and the Crown Estate Commissioners
work in 2017 constant values. This is different shown in Figure 5, the intensity of use will rise
from previous versions of this ‘intensity of use’ if more investment is put into particular types of
graph because the Office for National Statistics construction, e.g. transport infrastructure, flood
(ONS) has substantially changed the way it prevention and house building.
records construction output. The values used
here are for ‘new work’ only and ignore the
Tonnes per £1000 of construcon new work (2017 constant prices)
construction output generated by repair and 3.0

maintenance.
2.5
Declines in the quantity of primary aggregates
consumed per unit of construction new work,
2.0
may be caused by several reasons:
▪▪ changes in the structure of the economy with 1.5

a decline in manufacturing and growth in
service industries;
1.0
▪▪ a decline in road construction;
▪▪ a decline in house building;
▪▪ the introduction of environmental taxation 0.5
(the Landfill Tax and the Aggregates
Levy) and increasing usage of alternative 0.0
aggregates, mainly construction and
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
2016
demolition waste; Crushed Rock Sand and Gravel Total Aggregates

▪▪ changes in construction methods with
increased use of steel and glass externally Figure 5 Great Britain: Intensity of use
and plasterboard for internal walls; and of primary aggregates per unit (£1000) of
▪▪ less waste of construction materials at construction new work, in 2017 constant
construction sites. values, 1970-2017.
Sources: Office for National Statistics; Mineral
Declines in the intensity of use of primary Products Association; values adjusted for
aggregates cannot continue indefinitely because inflation using Bank of England calculator; BGS
all construction still requires aggregates. As calculations.
Aggregates 8
Whilst the UK is self-sufficient in primary Sales of primary aggregates in the UK were some
aggregates, and indeed is a net exporter, there 190 million tonnes in 2017 with an estimated
are significant regional imbalances in supply, value of £2258 million based on ex-quarry values.
which require large inter-UK and inter-regional However, this figure considerably undervalues
movement of aggregates. Regional imbalances the contribution that aggregates make to the
are greatest in London, the North West and construction industry and to the economy as a
South East (Table 5; includes data for England whole. For example, transport is a key element of
and Wales only; similar data for Scotland or the supply process and of the delivered price of
Northern Ireland are not available). The main aggregates, and a substantial industry is required
sources for these net regional imports are the to move aggregates to the market.
East Midlands, South West England and North
Wales. More importantly, however, aggregates are
at the start of the supply chain and are sold
Economic importance in a number of value-added products. Table
6 shows the value of sales of some of the
As noted above, aggregates are extracted in principal value-added products that contain
larger quantities than any other mineral in the aggregates as an essential raw material. These
UK. Consequently, ensuring a sufficient supply too are near the start of the supply chain and
of aggregates forms a fundamental part of the the ultimate value of aggregates resides in their
UK Mineral Strategy, published in July 2018 by use by the construction industry in buildings
the UK minerals and mineral products industry. and infrastructure.
Aggregates are also essential to the delivery
of the UK Industrial Strategy, published by the The construction industry is a critical sector of
UK Government in November 2017 and the the national economy. The Gross Value Added
associated Construction Sector Deal published (GVA) of the construction industry in 2016 was
in July 2018. £104.7 billion, accounting for 6.0% of total UK
GVA.
Region Sales of primary Consumption of primary Net imports as a

aggregates (thousand aggregates (thousand percentage of consumption
tonnes) tonnes)
South West 25 362 18 995 -
South East 14 279 19 197 26%
London 5 054 9 573 47%
East of England 12 568 16 118 22%
East Midlands 30 407 17 819 -
West Midlands 9 651 12 043 20%
North West 8 419 15 363 45%
Yorkshire & Humber 11 549 12 265 6%
North East 5 575 6 118 9%
England 122 864 127 489 4%
South Wales 9 043 7 150 -
North Wales 5 095 2 798 -
Wales 14 138 9 948 -
England and Wales 137 002 137 438 0%
Table 5 Sales and consumption of primary aggregates in England and Wales, 2014.
Source: Collation of the results of the 2014 Aggregate Minerals Survey for England and Wales, BGS.
9 Aggregates
Industry Total sales of the majority of the aggregates industry. This trade
principal products association also represents the cement, asphalt,
of the industry concrete, dimension stone, lime, mortar and
£ Million silica sand industries, as well as aggregates.
The British Marine Aggregates Producers
Ready-mix concrete 1 907
Association, a constituent body of the MPA,
Mortars 241 represents the marine dredging industry.
Coated roadstone 1 040
Aggregates
The British Aggregates Association (BAA)
Concrete products for 2 283 represents independent and privately-owned
construction purposes quarry companies throughout the UK, some of
Total 5 471 its members are also members of the MPA.
Table 6 UK: Total manufacturing sales of Resources

selected mineral-based industries, 2017.
Source: ProdCom, ONS. The UK has large resources of material suitable
for use as aggregates and in comparison with
other mineral resources in the UK they are
relatively widespread. Historically, therefore,
The GVA for construction in 2009 declined by the UK has been self-sufficient in the supply of
18.9% compared to 2007, as a result of the primary aggregates (crushed rock, sand and
recession, but this had followed a period of gravel). However, the geological distribution
continuous growth which amounted to 111.6% of primary aggregates resources is uneven.
between 1997 and 2007. From 2009 to 2016 the In particular, there is an almost total absence
GVA of the construction industry grew by 35.8%. of hard rock suitable for crushed rock
aggregates in southern, eastern and parts of
In 2007 the GVA of the construction industry central England, where demand represents a
was £95.1 billion, which amounted to 6.8% of significant proportion of the UK’s total.
the UK’s total GVA. In 2009 this had fallen to
£77.1 billion, or 5.5% of the UK’s total GVA. Crushed rock aggregates
This suggests that the construction industry
was hit harder during the 2008/09 recession A variety of rocks are, when crushed, suitable
than the UK economy as a whole. for use as aggregates. Their technical suitability
for different aggregates applications depends
Structure of the industry on their physical characteristics, such as
crushing strength, porosity and resistance
There are about 1400 aggregates quarries in the to impact, abrasion and polishing. Higher
UK, roughly split 45:55 between sand and gravel quality aggregates are required for demanding
sites and crushed rock. There are also a large applications, such as in road pavements and
number of aggregates producers, which range in concrete. Lower quality aggregates may
from single quarry owners to multi-national be acceptable for other applications, such as
companies operating many sites throughout constructional fill, capping layers, local variants to
the country. In 2018, five large companies type 1 sub-base and in situations of low intensity
(four of which are part of global construction of use. Most hard rocks are potentially suitable
materials groups) accounted for just over 70% for coarse aggregates. However, high quality
of total output, they are: Tarmac (owned by crushed rock aggregates are commonly derived
CRH plc), Hanson (owned by the Heidelberg from hard, dense and cemented sedimentary
Cement Group), Aggregate Industries (owned by rock (most limestones and certain sandstones)
Lafarge Holcim), Cemex and Breedon. The Brett and the tougher, crystalline igneous rocks.
Group are also an important producer.
Limestone
The Mineral Products Association (MPA) is the Limestones (Figure 6) are sedimentary rocks
principal trade association representing the composed mainly of calcium carbonate
Aggregates 10
soft and porous and generally unsuitable for
Limestone Resources aggregates use.
# Active Quarry
Cretaceous (Kentish Ragstone)
In Great Britain, limestone (including dolomite)
Jurassic
Permian (Magnesian Limestone)
provided 52% of the crushed rock aggregates
Carboniferous #
produced in 2014. Limestones of Carboniferous
Other limestones
age are the major source of limestone
aggregates and it represents one of the largest
resources of good-quality aggregates in
#
#
Britain. These limestones are commonly thickly
#
#
bedded and consistent which enable them
#
to be quarried extensively and economically.
#
# They typically produce strong and durable
aggregates, with low water absorption, suitable
#
for roadstone (sub-base and lower layers)
#
# and concreting aggregates. The quality of
the limestone resources and their ease and
#
# #
#
#
#
economy of working may be affected by a
#
#
#
#
# # ### #
#
#
# #
# number of geological factors (such as waste
# # #
# #
#
#
## #
# ##
##
##
#
content, alteration by dolomitisation, degree of
## #
#
faulting and folding etc).
### #
## # ##
# #
# ##
#
#
##
## ##
## ## #
#
##
##
##
#
#
#
The two main producing areas, the Mendips
# #
# # # ###
#
#### #
#
##
#
(in Somerset) and Derbyshire, are distinctly
# # ###
#
####
##
###
different due to major differences in local
# # #
#
# # #
# # geology. The limestones of the Mendips are
#
# #
### #
#### # # ##
#
faulted and folded with many clay-filled fissures
# # ## # # # ## #
#
#
#### ###
# # ##
#
#
#
# contaminating the resource. These limestones
##
are ideal for large scale quarrying for crushed
## ##
# ## #
## ##
#
##
# ###
#
######
#
# ### #
#
rock aggregates but are generally unsuitable
##
#
##
###
# for high purity industrial uses. In contrast, the
#
limestones of Derbyshire are flat-lying and noted
for their chemical uniformity and consistency
over wide areas. They are quarried for industrial
Figure 6 Distribution of limestone resources use as well as for aggregates. A significant
and quarries in the UK. proportion of Mendip limestone output is
exported to south-east England, mostly by train,
from two large quarries in eastern Mendips.
(CaCO3). With an increase in magnesium
carbonate (MgCO3) content they grade into Other major limestones being worked for
dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2). Most limestones and aggregates include the Devonian limestones
dolomites are hard and durable and useful of south Devon, the Permian Magnesian
for aggregates. They are common rock types Limestone of north-eastern England and to a
and consequently widely extracted for use as lesser extent Silurian limestones of the Welsh
aggregates. Limestone is also used for cement Borders. Certain of the harder, less porous
manufacture (see Cement Raw Materials Jurassic and Cretaceous (the Chalk) limestones
Factsheet) and both limestone and dolomite are also quarried for less demanding
are valued for a range of industrial uses aggregates applications.
which, like cement manufacture, utilise their
chemical properties (see Industrial Limestone The Permian limestone, which crops out in a
and Industrial Dolomite Factsheets). Chalk narrow, easterly-dipping belt for some 230 km
is a form of fine-grained limestone but is between Newcastle and Nottingham, is mainly
11 Aggregates
dolomites and calcareous dolomites, but
Igneous & Metamorphic
in places there is gradation into limestone. Rock Resources #
#
These Permian limestones and dolomites are ##

#
# Active quarry
highly variable, are much softer than typical Mafic intrusive igneous rocks,
##
Carboniferous limestone and have a higher including dolerites

Felsic intrusive igneous rocks,
porosity. Hence, they are generally quarried including granites and diorites
for their industrial uses or for lower quality Extrusive igneous rocks,
including basaltic, andesitic and
aggregates applications. However, some beds rhyolitic lavas and tuffs #
are sufficiently strong, sound and durable to Gneiss

#
##
#
#
#
be used as concreting aggregates and several Schists and quartzites #

#
#
quarries near Maltby, South Yorkshire and near ##

# # #
#
# # #
#
# ##
#
#
#
#
#
# # #
#
Durham produce high-quality aggregates.
#
# # #
#
# ##
##
#
# # # # #
##
#
Igneous and metamorphic rock #
#
# #
#
#
##
#
#
# #
Igneous rocks (Figure 7) tend to produce strong # #
# # #
# #
# # # ##
aggregates with a degree of skid resistance # #

#
#
## #
#
#
##
# #
#
and are hence suitable for many road surfacing

# # ##
# # #
# #
##
#
applications, as well as for use in the lower # #
##
parts of the road pavement. Aggregates for the # ##

#
#
#
# #
### #
most demanding road surfacing applications #
#
#
#
are, however, often produced from durable ##
# #
# #
sandstones. The high strength and attrition

resistance of certain igneous rocks results in
## #
their use as railway ballast. In Great Britain #
#
# #
igneous and metamorphic rock accounted for
#
# # ##
##
# #
39% of the crushed rock aggregates produced #
#
in 2014. #
#
#
#
Resources of igneous and metamorphic rocks #

#
are predominantly concentrated in Scotland
and Northern Ireland, mostly in remote upland # # # #
# #
areas of the Highlands where demand is # ##
limited. In England and Wales resources are #
more localised and only occur in the north,

midlands and west. Figure 7 Distribution of igneous rock
resources and quarries in the UK.
Quarrying of igneous rocks is centred on the
outcrops that are best placed to serve the main
markets, unless they have a coastal location of dolerite, such as the Whin Sill in northern
with seaborne access. The small outcrops of England, but similar types of bodies occur in the
Precambrian/Cambrian igneous rock (slightly Midland Valley of Scotland, the Welsh Borders
metamorphosed diorite and granodiorite and the South West. Volcanic rocks (extrusive
intrusions) in Leicestershire provide a source of lavas or tuffs) are generally more variable
hard rock in the Midlands, which is well placed in quality. However, Palaeogene basalts are
to serve markets in the South East. The deposits worked in Northern Ireland and Carboniferous
are of economic importance out of proportion volcanics in central Scotland. A very high PSV
to their relatively small size. They are worked in (skid resistant) stone is produced from the
large quarries at Bardon, Croft, Mountsorrel and Borrowdale Volcanic Group in the Lake District.
Cliffe Hill, all of which are rail-linked.
In the western Highlands of Scotland there
Elsewhere extraction is mainly concentrated are large intrusions of granite and these
on fine to medium-grained intrusions, mostly are worked at a few localities for crushed
Aggregates 12
rock aggregates. Of particular importance related to mode of formation and geological
is the Strontian Granite on the north-west history. Thus the mineralogical composition,
side of Loch Linnhe and here, at Glensanda, grain size, degree of grain sorting, nature and
the granite is quarried on a large scale for degree of cementation, degree of compaction
aggregates production, all of which is exported and weathering state are fundamental rock
by ship primarily to markets in London, south- properties which directly affect the end-use
east England and north-west Europe. The performance of the sandstone and its economic
Aggregates
granite aggregates from Glensanda are high potential. Individual sandstone units also vary
quality materials used for roadstone, rail ballast in thickness and lateral extent.
and concreting aggregates.
Many types of sandstone are too porous
Sandstone and weak to be used other than as sources
Sandstones (Figure 8) are sedimentary rocks of constructional fill. In general, older more
consisting of sand-sized particles composed indurated sandstones (subjected to tectonic
predominantly of quartz but with variable compression) exhibit higher strengths and are
amounts of feldspar and rock fragments set in suitable for more demanding aggregates uses.
a fine-grained matrix or cement.
Compositional differences,
Sandstone Resources
both of the sand grains and the
#Active Quarry
matrix, give rise to different ##
#
Sandstone and greywacke
rock names under the general suitable for road surfacing
#
heading of ‘sandstone’, such as Sandstone suitable for

aggregates uses and building
quartzite, greywacke, gritstone, stone #
#
##
Sandstone suitable for crushed
and arkose. rock and building stone #
# ##
# #
Sandstones of various geological

ages occur extensively in Britain ###
#
and comprise about 15% of the

#
#
surface outcrops, including a few

in the geologically younger sur- #
# #
face rocks of south-east England.

#
They differ widely in their thick-
#
#
#
# # # #
ness and physical properties, #
#
#
#
#
#
#
and thus resource potential. #

#
# ## #
#
##
##
#
##
# ## #
# # #
# #
## #
Sandstones have traditionally #

# ##
#
# ##
## # # ##
#
#
## ##
#
## #
#
# # #
been valued as sources of ## #
#
#
#
##
#
#
#
building stone (see Building
# #
# # # ###
## ##
## # ##
####
# ##### ### # #
## ## #
Stone Factsheet). In 2014 only
# ## ##
# ##
# ## #
## ##
about 3% of total production was ## ###

##
#
# #
for this purpose and sandstone #
##
##
#
is now used mainly as crushed

#
# #
# #
##
rock aggregates, although it only ## #
# #
#
###
#
# # #
accounted for approximately ## #
# #
##
##
#
10% of the crushed rock

# #
aggregates produced in Great #
##
#
##
#
#
# #
#
#
#
Britain in 2014.
#
# #
The suitability of a sandstone for

aggregates use mainly depends
on its strength, porosity and Figure 8 Distribution of sandstone resources
durability. These qualities are and quarries in the UK.
13 Aggregates
Some sandstones (greywackes) also have a quarried for the production of high specification
high polishing and abrasion resistance and are road surfacing aggregates for distribution
particularly valued for road surfacing where throughout England.
they provide resistance to skidding. They are
the premium products of the crushed rock Many sandstone deposits contain beds of clay,
quarrying industry. mudstone and siltstone which may make up
a significant proportion of the deposit. These
Aggregates
The Upper Carboniferous Pennant Sandstone materials create difficulties during quarrying and
of the South Wales Coalfield is one of the best processing and create a substantial amount of
natural road-surfacing materials available waste that may need to be disposed of on site.
in Britain. These sandstones are indurated Processing of hard sandstones to produce the
greywackes, which have been subjected to required aggregates sizes may also give rise to
compression, and are typically highly resistant large quantities of fines that have to be deposited
to polishing (very high PSV)4 and in most in tips and settlement lagoons within the site.
cases they combine durability (low AAVs, low
LAAVs) with good strength (low ACV). Despite Sand and gravel
the considerable thicknesses, lateral variability
and widespread distribution of the Pennant Sand and gravel (Figure 9) are defined on the
sandstones, the aggregates properties of basis of particle size rather than composition.
these sandstones are remarkably uniform. In current commercial practice, following the
The major cause of variation in aggregates introduction of new European standards from
properties is the degree of weathering. 1st January 2004, the term ‘gravel’ (or more
Weathering weakens the aggregates and correctly coarse aggregates) is used for general
reduces durability. All surface exposures and concrete applications to define particles
of Pennant Sandstone are weathered to between 4 and 80 mm and the term ‘sand’ (or
some degree and the depth of weathering is fine aggregates) for material that is finer than
controlled by the distribution of joints and 4 mm, but coarser than 0.063 mm. For use in
other rock discontinuities. Pennant sandstones asphalt, 2 mm is now taken as the dividing
also occur in the small coalfields of the Forest point between coarse and fine aggregates.
of Dean, Gloucestershire and Bristol area.
The sandstones are similar to those in South Sand and gravel deposits are accumulations of
Wales but are not as widely exposed and are the more durable rock fragments and mineral
quarried mainly for building stone. grains, which have been derived from the
weathering and erosion of hard rocks mainly
The Precambrian Longmyndian rocks forming by glacial and river action, but also by wind.
relatively high ground around Shrewsbury The properties of gravel, and to a lesser extent
are also important resources of road sand, largely depend on the properties of the
surfacing aggregates. These sandstones are rocks from which they were derived. However,
subgreywackes and produce a particularly water action is an effective mechanism for
high quality roadstone which is utilised in high wearing away weaker particles, as well as
specification applications. In western North separating different size fractions. Most sand
Yorkshire, Lower Palaeozoic rocks occur in a and gravel is composed of particles that are
series of inliers unconformably overlain by durable and rich in silica (quartz, quartzite
Carboniferous limestones near Settle and and flint). Other rock types, mainly limestone,
Ingleton. These rocks are strongly folded and may also occur in some land-won deposits
comprise a mixed sequence of greywackes, including deleterious impurities such as lignite,
siltstones, arkoses and conglomerates. They are mudstone, chalk and coal.
Sand and gravel was the principal source of

4 PSV- Polished Stone Value; AAV -Aggregates Abrasion primary aggregates until 1979, when crushed
Value; LAAV — Los Angeles Abrasion Value; ACV — rock output exceeded it for the first time. Its
Aggregates Crushing Value. relative importance has declined since then
Aggregates 14
Sand & Gravel Resources Superficial deposits comprise all those
# Sand or sand and gravel quarry #
sediments laid down during the last two million
! Marine sand and gravel wharf years. They mainly comprise river sands
River terrace deposits and gravels which take the form of extensive
Glaciofluvial deposits
spreads that occur along the floors of major
Raised marine deposits
#
river valleys, generally beneath alluvium, and
Blown sand ##
Basal Permian sandstone ## #

#
#
as river terraces flanking the valley sides. River
#
Cretaceous sands # terraces are the dissected, or eroded, remnants

Crag #
### of earlier abandoned river floodplains.
### ##
## # ##
# # ##
Yellow sands formation # # # # ### # ##
# # ## #
# ##
Other sands and gravels
# #
#
# # # # Deposit thickness varies from less than 1 m to
#
##
#
#
#
maximum values of around 10 m. Sand to gravel
ratios are variable, but river deposits typically
## #
# #
# # #
# ##
## ##
#
#
#
# #
are relatively clean with a lower fines content
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
# ##
##
#
# ##
(silt and clay) than glacial deposits. Important
#
# #
# # # #
# resources are associated with the Thames, Trent
##
#
# ## ##
##
#
#
#
#
#
!
!
and Severn and their tributaries, but many other
## ##
## !
##
## # ## #
########
#
#
!
!
#
#
#
## ##
#
# # #
##
## river deposits are also worked. In general, the
# ## #! !!
##
#
## # # composition of the sand and gravel of a river
# ## # #
basin reflects that of the rocks in the uplands

# #
#### # #
# #
# #
#
# #
#
#
#
#
# ##
#
# !!
#
#
# drained by the river and its tributaries. The River
## ## # #
Trent sands and gravels, for example, contain a
! # #
##
# #
!!
! ## ###
# #
###
## ##
high proportion of well sorted quartzite pebbles
# # ## #
# # #
# # ## # #
# # # # ##
#
# ### #
##
## ##
derived from the Triassic Sherwood Sandstone
# #
### #
# ##
## ## ## ##
## # ##
# ## # # # # ## #
# ## # # #
## # ## # #
# ##
#
Group of the north Midlands. In contrast,
# # ##
# ## ## #
#
## # #
# ## #
##
# # # # # #
## # ### ## # # ##! #
# #
#
# #
#
##
#
# ## ## # ## !
## #
##
### the River Thames gravels are predominantly
# ## # # # ## #
!
!!
#
!
!! #
!
!
###### ### #
#
#
##
# # ####
##
###
###
##
# # !!
#
! !!##!!!#
! ###!
! #
#
composed of flint derived from the Chalk
#
## # # # # ! ! !
uplands of south-east England, except in its

# !
# ## #
# ## # # ##
! ##
!!
upper reaches in Oxfordshire where the gravels

## ## # #
##
## #
# #!! ##
# ! ! # !!! !
# ## # #! !
## ### !
##!
###
# are largely derived from the Jurassic limestones
of the Cotswolds.
The other major group of resources are

Figure 9 Distribution of sand and gravel glaciofluvial sands and gravels. These deposits
resources and quarries in the UK were associated with glacial action and laid
down by the glacial meltwaters issuing from, or
flowing on top, within and beneath, ice sheets
and in 2017 sand and gravel accounted for and glaciers. The deposits are commonly
35% of total primary aggregates supply. Sand associated with till (boulder clay), and may
and gravel is derived from both land-won exhibit complex relationships, occurring as
and marine dredged sources, the latter being sheet or delta-like layers above till deposits,
particularly important to supply in the South or as elongate, irregular lenses within the
East and London. till sequence. As a result, the distribution of
glaciofluvial deposits is less predictable in
Land-won sand and gravel geographical extent than river sand and gravel
Sand and gravel resources can be conveniently deposits. They may also exhibit considerable
classified into two major categories depending lateral variations in thickness, composition
on their age and geology: and particle size distribution, generally contain
more fines (silt and clay) and frequently contain
▪▪ superficial, or ‘drift’ deposits, and a larger amount of over-sized materials.
▪▪ bedrock, or ‘solid’ deposits. Thicknesses of over 30 m have been reported
but overburden thicknesses can also be high.
15 Aggregates
As Britain has been subjected to several tidal currents. They represent a range of former
periods of glaciation, their distribution is depositional environments, including fluvial
complex. Resources may occur in all parts of channel-fill or terrace deposits, glaciofluvial
the country except southern and southwest meltwater plain deposits, sea-bed lag gravels
England which were not glaciated. and degraded shingle beach or spit deposits,
as well as modern marine tidal sand banks and
Other onshore resources of sand and gravel sandwave deposits. The gravels are generally
Aggregates
include storm beaches, such as on Dungeness in not replenished after extraction, though some
Kent, but deposits are only of local importance. sand deposits may be replenished, depending
Dune sands are usually too fine grained to be on the local sediment transport regime.
used to make concreting aggregates but they
are sometimes used in mortar although their Sand and gravel deposits occur in many
narrow size range is an inhibiting factor. offshore areas around Britain, although
gravel-bearing resources are more limited.
Bedrock deposits of sand and/or gravel are Traditionally, most dredging has taken place
important sources of supply in some areas. in coastal waters less than 25 km offshore and
They occur as bedded formations, ranging in water depths of between 18 m and 35 m
in age from Permian to Palaeogene, and are but in recent years there is a trend towards
relatively unconsolidated and easily worked. working further offshore and at potentially
Some deposits such as the Lower Cretaceous greater depths. However, the current dredging
Folkestone Formation of the Weald and the fleet is not able to extract material from water
Permian Yellow Sands of Durham, consist depths in excess of 60 m. There is currently no
entirely of sand. The sandy pebble beds extraction off Scotland and Northern Ireland,
(conglomerates) of the Triassic Sherwood the limiting factors being resource availability
Sandstone Group in the Midlands and in Devon and market demand.
are important sources of coarse concrete
aggregates. Bedrock deposits are generally Extraction is locally constrained by proximity
much thicker than most superficial deposits to the shoreline, gas pipelines or cable
and thus yields per hectare are much greater. routes, offshore wind farms, fisheries, or by
the navigational requirements of shipping
Marine sand and gravel lanes. The multiple use of UK seas means that
Britain has one of the world’s most developed there is competition for sea space. As marine
marine sand and gravel industries, which aggregates extraction is spatially constrained by
makes an important contribution to overall resource distribution, resources can be sterilised
provision of aggregates, notably in London and by other activities. The current licensed
the South East. dredging areas are (in descending order of
tonnages removed): the east coast (offshore
Sand and gravel resources are unevenly Great Yarmouth-Southwold), the south coast
distributed on the continental shelf but are (around the Isle of Wight), the Humber-Wash
similar to their land-based equivalents, area, the east English Channel (off Eastbourne),
occurring as small patches separated or covered the south west coast (chiefly the Bristol
by extensive areas of uneconomic deposits. Channel), the Thames Estuary (including off the
They vary in their thickness, composition and east coast as far north as Orford) and the north
grading, and in their proximity to the shore. west coast (chiefly Liverpool Bay — Irish Sea).
The origins of gravel-bearing sediments There are considerable regional variations

offshore are directly comparable to those of in the composition of the sand and gravel
terrestrial deposits. They are relict Quaternary deposits. For example, the gravelly deposits
deposits formed by fluvial (river) or glaciofluvial offshore Great Yarmouth are mostly flint
processes but modified by the major postglacial gravels of fine pebble size, whereas gravels
sea-level rise (which took place up to 5000 from the Humber area are much coarser, are
years ago) and subsequently re-worked by principally composed of igneous, metamorphic
Aggregates 16
or hard sandstone types, and are derived from industry annual arisings were roughly 4 million
former glaciofluvial deposits. Gravels from tonnes of sand and 3 million tonnes of rock
the south coast area are principally composed but more recent data are not available. The
of flint and they similarly show regional industry ‘stockpile’ of material that is ‘possibly
variations in grain size. The Bristol Channel usable’ has previously been estimated to be
area and Liverpool Bay-Irish sea area contain approximately 150 million tonnes but it could be
large volumes of sand and only relatively small substantially different to this figure. The main
Aggregates
amounts of gravel. Dredging here is for sand problems with expanding sales is the distance
for concrete production as there are regional to the major markets, inadequate local transport
shortages of suitable land-won materials. links, limited railway line and wharf capacity
and the higher demand for cement when this
Recycled aggregates material is used in concrete. The latter is related
to the high surface area of the sand particles.
Demolition and construction waste is inorganic
material, such as concrete and masonry. It In the extraction and processing of slate very
is, by far, the largest source of alternative little of the material extracted is used for
aggregates to natural sources. Major sources quality slate products. The majority of slate
include large demolition and construction waste that is generated each year is in North
operations within urban areas (redevelopment Wales, with further small quantities arising
or ‘brownfield’ site clearance) with the in north west and south west England. Slate
advantage of being close to existing markets. waste is being increasingly used as aggregates
Other, more remote, sources are the removal mainly in road construction but also as fine
of major infrastructure facilities (runways, old aggregates in concrete. Usage is modest and,
hospitals, old military bases) in the countryside. as with china clay, a major problem is distance
to major markets. Particle shape for slate waste
There are also substantial cost advantages to can also cause problems in certain uses, e.g.
disposing of waste on site at construction sites concrete, because flat or ‘flaky’ particles have a
(as hardstanding, beneath ‘block and beam’ larger surface area.
floors, and in landscaping bunds). Much of
the potential arisings from old infrastructure Although clay and shale would not normally
is already being utilised and as a result the UK be considered as a source of aggregates they
is close to achieving maximum recovery and may be used for bulk fill. Colliery spoil is a
usage of this material. Stricter guidance on the by-product of mining and processing coal. It
disposal of contaminated demolition waste consists mainly of mudstones and siltstones,
may limit future arisings. which are only suitable as a source of low value
bulk fill. Critical factors in the use of colliery
Other important sources of recycled aggregates spoil are quality and consistency, the presence
include asphalt road planings, which are of sulphates and location with respect to
removed from the road surface prior to markets. With a contraction in deep coal mining,
maintenance resurfacing or full reconstruction. the availability is now much reduced and many
Spent railway track ballast is also recycled of the historical spoil heaps are restored and
into lower grade uses. Other minor sources of unavailable for extraction. However, lightweight
recycled aggregates are spent foundry sand, aggregates produced by heating certain clays
waste glass and fired ceramic ware. at high temperature can produce good quality
aggregates for concrete block manufacture.
Secondary aggregates
Blastfurnace and steel slags are by-products of
The extraction and processing of china clay in iron and steelmaking respectively and both have
south west England involves the production for many years been used as sources of second-
of large quantities of mineral waste. The ary aggregates. Blastfurnace slag, in particular,
coarse waste consists of sand (mainly quartz) can be used directly as an alternative to natural
and rock (unaltered granite). In 2008 the total aggregates for more demanding applications.
17 Aggregates
Ash used as secondary aggregates is derived years supply at an average rate of output. The
primarily from burning pulverised coal in area is usually an individual Mineral Planning
coal-fired power stations. Incinerator bottom Authority or groups of Authorities. The
ash (IBA), produced from burning municipal minimum length of a landbank reflects the time
wastes can be used but it is only produced in needed to obtain planning permission and to
small quantities and generally has inconsistent bring a site into full production.
qualities. Most of the ash produced in coal-
Aggregates
fired power stations is a fine powder called Information on permitted reserves of aggregate
pulverised fuel ash (PFA), which can be used minerals (sand & gravel and crushed rock)
as a cement making material, as fill and in in England and Wales is published by the
ground remediation. Furnace bottom ash (FBA) Aggregates Working Parties (AWPs).
is a coarser agglomerated ash, which is sold
as a lightweight aggregates in concrete block For England and Wales, detailed information
manufacture. on permitted reserves of primary aggregates
in active and inactive sites, by region and
Reserves environmental designation is published in four-
yearly Aggregate Minerals Surveys. The most
In UK mineral planning, the term ‘reserves’ recent survey was carried out in 2014 and the
or ‘mineral reserves’ refers to material that results are summarised in Table 7. A similar
has a valid planning permission for mineral survey for Scotland was published in 2015,
extraction. Without a valid planning permission containing 2012 data (Table 8). There has not
no mineral working can legally take place. been an equivalent survey in Northern Ireland.
Commonly a ‘landbank’ is quoted for aggregate
minerals, which is the sum of all permitted Of the total permitted reserves of 3906 million
reserves in active and inactive sites (but not tonnes in England and Wales in 2014, crushed
‘dormant’ sites) at a specified time, and for a rock accounted for 88.3%. The distribution
given area. It is usually expressed in terms of of reserves is very uneven, with 25.0% of all
Thousand tonnes
Region Sand & gravel Crushed rock Total
South West 28 924 817 669 846 593
South East 67 214 52 171 119 385
London 702 0 702
East of England 123 588 4 807 128 395
East Midlands 59 687 918 592 978 279
West Midlands 88 822 268 919 357 741
North West 25 480 257 817 283 298
Yorkshire & the Humber 25 209 239 233 264 442
North East 18 198 219 723 237 920
England 437 823 2 778 932 3 216 756
South Wales 3 392 511 814 515 206
North Wales 16 091 157 592 173 683
Wales 19 483 669 406 688 889
England & Wales 457 306 3 448 338 3 905 645
Table 7 Total permitted reserves of land-won aggregate minerals in active and inactive sites in
England and Wales, 2014.
Source: Collation of the results of the 2014 Aggregate Minerals Survey for England and Wales, BGS.
(This data excludes non-aggregates uses, and also excludes ‘dormant’ sites).
Aggregates 18
Thousand tonnes
Region Sand & gravel Crushed rock Total
Argyll & Bute S S S
Forth Valley S 0 S
Highland & Moray 5 430 23 205 28 635
North East Scotland 4 151 240 792 244 943
Aggregates
Orkney & Shetland Islands 0 S S
SESplan 16 768 21 809 38 577
TAYplan 10 460 17 193 27 653
West Central Scotland A 18 791 81 627
West Central Scotland B &
S 18 131 S
Dumfries & Galloway
Western Isles 123 2 770 2 893
Total 60 842 410 427 471 269
S = suppressed to preserve confidentiality
Table 8 Estimated consented reserves in active sites in Scotland, 2012

Source: Scottish Aggregates Survey 2012 (published 2015), Scottish Government
Notes: Forth Valley = Stirling, Falkirk and Clackmannanshire areas; North East Scotland = the majority of Aberdeenshire;
SESplan = East Central Scotland including West, Mid- and East Lothian and the Scottish Borders; TAYplan = parts of Fife, Angus
and Perth and Kinross; West Central Scotland A = Glasgow and the Clyde Valley; West Central Scotland B = North, South and
East Ayreshire. See map within the published document for details of the divisons.
reserves being located in the East Midlands The gross figures for permitted reserves are
and 21.7% in the South West. The South East potentially misleading for a number of reasons.
and East of England have very limited reserves For example, the output of a site is primarily
of crushed rock. Sand and gravel reserves are an expression of the demand for aggregates
much smaller, in relation to average annual and a function of its production capacity to
land-won sales (equivalent to about 11 years contribute towards that demand and not the
at 2014 levels of output), than crushed rock size of reserves. Crushed rock quarries in
reserves, which are usually measured in terms very rural areas with very large reserves and
of a few decades (42 years at 2014 levels of potentially large production capacity can have
output). low production rates and a large landbank.
In contrast sand and gravel quarries near
In Scotland, of the total permitted reserves major demand centres may have relatively
of 471 million tonnes in active sites in 2012, large outputs but, even with frequent new
crushed rock amounted to 87.1%. As with permissions to replace extracted reserves, may
England and Wales, the distribution of these have small landbanks.
reserves is very uneven, with 52.0% of all
Scottish aggregates reserves being located Gross figures for aggregates reserves also
in North East Scotland. This distribution does mask important detail about their suitability
not align with levels of production in Scotland for specific applications. Despite overall large
because only 7% of output in 2012 came from reserves there may be deficiencies for specific
this area. In contrast 35% of production in 2012 markets. For example, some 32% of aggregates
came from Highland & Moray while 26% was sales in 2014 were for concrete and in some
produced in the area labelled as ‘West Central areas there is a deficiency of material that is
Scotland A’. suitable for this use.
19 Aggregates
In most years, the quantities associated with Sand and Gravel Crushed rock
new planning permissions are lower than total Designation Thousand % of Total Thousand % of Total
aggregates sales. In 2017, for example, 24% of Tonnes Reserves Tonnes Reserves
sales of sand and gravel were replenished with
National Park 4 788 0.1% 351 329 10.2%
new planning permissions. Using a ‘rolling
10-year average’ the replenishment rate was AONB 21 904 4.8% 259 576 7.5%
53%. For crushed rock, the figure for 2017 was
3%, while the rolling 10-year average was 69%. SSSI 42 728 9.3% 876 206 25.4%
(These figures are taken from the 7th Annual
SPA and SAC 13 914 3.0% 199 861 5.8%
Mineral Planning Survey report, published by
the Mineral Products Association). Total Reserves 457 306 3 448 338
Relationship to environmental designations Table 9 Reserves in environmental

designations within England and Wales at 31
The increasing number and extent of December 2014
landscape, nature conservation and other Source: Collation of the results of the 2014
designations of international, national and local Aggregate Minerals Survey for England and
importance, in conjunction with constraints Wales, BGS.
relating to other factors (groundwater,
market location, airports, archaeology), has
significantly reduced the choice of potential quality are more likely to arise. Much of the
sites for the extraction of aggregates. river terrace sand and gravel in the Thames
Aggregates can, however, only be extracted Valley is overlain by high quality agricultural
where the geological resources exist. land. In contrast, a substantial part of the ‘dry’
high level terrace gravels and solid sands and
The hard and resistant nature of the rocks that gravels in areas such as Dorset, Berkshire and
are suitable for use as crushed rock aggregates Hampshire are overlain by very poor quality
means that they also give rise to some of land, but designated as SSSIs, SPAs and SACs
Britain’s most attractive and spectacular upland because of heathland.
scenery. Some of these areas are also valued
for their nature conservation importance. Green Belts around the major conurbations
In particular, Carboniferous limestone is cover substantial areas of aggregates reserves,
one of the principal sources of crushed rock notably sand and gravel (19.4% of sand and
aggregates in Britain, but more than half of gravel reserves and 4.6% of crushed rock
the outcrop in England is covered by National reserves in 2014). Working aggregates in such
Parks, Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty locations near major centres of demand would
(AONBs) and Sites of Special Scientific Interest accord with sustainability principles, but such
(SSSIs), some of which are also designated as extraction will only comply with Green Belt
Special Protection Areas (SPAs) and Special policy if it maintains openness.
Areas of Conservation (SACs) under EU
legislation. Other hard rocks, such as igneous Local landscape, habitat and archaeological
rocks also form highly attractive scenery in the designations provide a further range of
Lake District, Snowdonia and Scotland. The constraints. In some areas an almost complete
volumes of primary aggregates reserves within mosaic of overlapping designations exists.
the main Environmental Designations is shown
in Table 9. Bird Strike Safeguarding Zones now require
13 km buffers around some airfields in which
Although sand and gravel is not as development that will lead to increased bird
heavily constrained by national landscape movement may be resisted. This has marked
designations, there are many other constraints implications for river sand and gravel where
on their working, notably in river valleys where ‘wet’ extraction typically leaves water bodies
issues of archaeology and agricultural land that are attractive to birds. In the past many
Aggregates 20
of these sites would be restored with waste. particle sizes between 28 mm and 40 mm),
However, restrictions on landfilling, both in 20/28 mm, 14/20 mm, 6/10 mm, 4/6 mm and
tipping into water and shortfalls in arisings 0/4 mm. Some rock is also sold as mixes of
of inert waste, have significantly reduced the sizes often referred to as ‘all in’ or crusher run.
potential to restore such shallow workings.
Landfill of waste to restore ‘dry’ deep quarries The particle size of the crusher product will
may also attract birds and if such works are determine the yield of saleable product. Particle
Aggregates
required to restore the site then that also may shape may be an important consideration and,
have implications on extraction in such zones. together with the type of rock involved, this will
affect the type and range of processing plant
Exhausted aggregates quarries are in a unique required. Considerable quantities of crushed
position to develop recreation, education, and rock go to value-added processing, such as the
conservation sites through high quality and production of coated roadstone.
innovative restoration. A significant number of
SSSIs are located close to, or within, past and Processing produces fines which can be
current aggregates sites and a proportion of difficult to sell. In addition, rock that is
these are a direct result of the mineral working. contaminated with clay (known as ‘scalpings’)
is screened out and may be sold as a low-
Extraction and processing grade, low value product. To some extent
this has become more difficult because of
Crushed rock competition from recycled materials, which
Crushed rock is produced from quarries that have a cost advantage being exempt from
are much larger and deeper than sand and the Aggregates Levy. Washing plants are,
gravel quarries. They typically have outputs therefore, being specially built to treat this
in the range 100 000 t/y up to 5 000 000 t/y. material and upgrade its quality.
Investment in plant and equipment can,
therefore, be very large. Sand and gravel
Typically sand and gravel operations
Overburden thicknesses vary considerably have outputs in the range 10 000 t/y up to
from almost nil to over 30 m in some 1 000 000 t/y. However, sites larger than
operations and is removed by a combination 500 000 t/y are rare and most fall in the range
of hydraulic excavators, ripping and blasting. 100 000 to 300 000 t/y. Sand and gravel
Generally it is used for restoration and extraction initially involves the removal of
landscaping. Blasting is normally required to overburden which usually consists of soil,
extract the required rock and this is carried out peat and clay (e.g. boulder clay), although,
in one or more benches. After blasting, and in the case of bedrock sands, these may
any secondary breaking of larger blocks by include mudstone or limestone. Overburden
drop-ball or hydraulic breaker, a mechanical thicknesses range from almost nil to over
excavator loads the rock into dump trucks for 10 m, but rarely over 15 m. The thickness of the
transfer to either a fixed primary crusher or a overburden is very important as this controls
mobile crusher on the quarry floor. what is economically viable to work but other
factors also have influence — geological style of
Processing typically involves screening off deposit, its quality (e.g. gravel content), whether
clays and fines followed by a series of crushing the deposit can be worked dry or requires
and screening stages designed to produce dewatering, whether the deposit is a new site
material with specified size grades, but with or an extension and the location of the deposit
the associated minimum production of fines. with respect to markets. Overburden to mineral
Products include both ‘single sizes’ and material ratios are also highly variable and although it is
containing a range of sizes. The European commonly quoted that they should not exceed
specifications that came into force on 1 January 2:1, higher ratios are worked even down to sand
2004 contain standard sizes for aggregates and gravel thicknesses of 1 m. Careful removal
which are typically produced: 28/40 mm (with of overburden is important so that topsoil,
21 Aggregates
subsoil and other overburden are kept separate less for clay as it is more difficult to remove.
for eventual use in restoration. Gravel containing clay (hoggin), used for
constructional fill, may be produced ‘as dug’.
River gravel deposits, by their nature, are
often below the ground water table. Extraction Most sand washing plants for the production
therefore usually involves dewatering the of concreting, asphalting and building sand
site by pumping, although sometimes it is involves the dispersion of sand in water and
Aggregates
feasible to work the site wet. Dry working has the separation of fines in a cyclone, which
the advantage that it allows more selective delivers a partially dewatered coarser product.
extraction. Some bedrock sands may also be The unwanted fines are allowed to settle
worked below the water table. out in lagoons, from which process water is
recirculated, or may be dewatered further
Processing of sand and gravel for concrete using various types of filter-press. Building
aggregates consists of washing and scrubbing sand can also be produced by passing the
to remove clay, separation of the sand fraction, excavated sand over a screen to remove
grading the gravel into different sizes, sand oversize material, without the use of water
classification and dewatering, and crushing (dry screening).
of oversize gravel to produce smaller more
saleable material. Crushing is now a common Processing provides scope for adjusting the
feature at many sand and gravel operations and grain-size distribution of the ‘as-dug’ material
is necessary to maximise saleable product. The to match market requirements for the final
washing process removes fines (silt and clay) saleable product. Blending of material from
defined as < 63 µm adhering to the particles or the same and different sites is becoming
present as clay bound agglomerates that need increasingly common in order to adjust
breaking down. The ‘fines’ content of a sand grain size to meet user requirements and to
and gravel deposit is an important parameter maximise the use of resources. The greatest
in determining the viability of a deposit. Fines demand is for sand and 4/10 mm, 10/20 mm
should not be greater than 25% for silt but and 20/40 mm gravel.
Sand and gravel stockpiles.
Aggregates 22
Aggregates
Sand and gravel processing plant.
Marine sand and gravel aggregates tend to have a low fines content,
Marine sand and gravel deposits are but processing is comparable to land won
essentially similar in origin to those on land sand gravel. Gravels are initially washed with
but became submerged due to rising sea fresh water to reduce the sodium chloride
levels after the most recent ‘ice age’. The UK’s content.
sand and gravel dredging fleet has an average
age of 22 years, a capacity of between 1250 to Arisings from extraction and processing
10 000 tonnes per vessel and operating cycles Aggregates extraction and processing will
of between 12 and 48 hours. Most extraction usually generate material that is not suitable
in UK waters is by trailer suction dredging, for sale. Historically this material would have
where a suction pipe is pulled across the been classified as ‘waste’ because it was not
seabed at slow speed. The total area actually sold as a ‘product’, but since the enactment
dredged in any one year is always significantly of the European Mine Waste Directive this
less than the area licensed. For example in material is no longer strictly considered to
2017: 1057.37 km2 of the sea bed was licensed be a ‘waste’. This is because the definition
for marine sand and gravel dredging and of of that term implies the material has no use,
that only 90.94 km2 was actually dredged (or when actually this material is very important
8.6% of the area licensed). for the restoration of aggregates quarries. The
proportion of material generated will depend
If environmentally acceptable in a particular on the geology of the specific deposit. These
location, primary screening takes place on materials are produced from:
board the dredger but the main processing
takes place after it is discharged at the wharf. ▪▪ Overburden and interburden removal (soils
A major advantage of marine deposits is that and clays that overlie the aggregates or form
high quality sand and gravel can be landed bands between layers of rock required for
directly into areas of high demand. Marine aggregates);
23 Aggregates
▪▪ Washing of sand and gravel to remove or by-product at sites where building and
fines (generally <63 µm) and disposed of in dimension stones are extracted.
lagoons;
▪▪ Scalping of rock to remove fines and clay; As securing planning permission for new min-
▪▪ Crushing, where fines result from crushing eral extraction becomes increasingly difficult,
for the production of specific sizes of it is important that the use of all resources are
aggregates; and maximised. Some deposits that would not be
Aggregates
▪▪ Dry screening of sand, segregating clay and viable on their own may be workable in asso-
rock. ciation with other minerals.
These materials generated by aggregates Alternatives/recycling

extraction are inert and non-hazardous. There
has been no systematic quantification of the The principles of sustainable development
amount of these materials generated as a result require that suitable alternative materials of
of primary aggregates production. In some all sorts should be considered as resources
circumstances, this material may be considered in the same way as primary minerals.
as a resource (e.g. some scalpings are clean Encouraging the efficient use of materials
enough to meet specifications for Type 1 sub- through construction practices and methods
base, or the material will have potential to that consume less material is an important
be used as fill). However, some can only be element of this strategy. For example, in-situ
marketed following additional processing, the soil stabilisation techniques using cement/lime
economic viability of which will depend on a hydraulic binders may replace capping layers
number of factors, but mainly the availability of in road construction. However, the issues
local markets. Other materials can only be used are complex and alternative construction
on-site, for example as screening bunds or as materials, such as cement, lime, steel and
part of restoration. glass are all energy intensive to produce and
transport.
Co- and by-products
The extent to which changing construction
With the major exception of limestone and practice is currently influencing aggregates
dolomite, crushed rock aggregates producers demand is not fully understood. However,
have limited opportunities for producing changes in materials used (use of steel and
co-products or by-products. However, almost all glass instead of concrete) seem to primarily
crushed rock quarries are capable of producing reflect fashion and architectural/engineering
building stone to a greater or lesser extent, and design considerations rather than sustainable
small amounts of basalt are used to produce development considerations. Similarly the
rock wool insulation. However, a significant use of plasterboard instead of concrete block
number of limestone and dolomite quarries also for internal walling is driven by cost, speed of
produce material for industrial and agricultural construction and cleaner working conditions
applications. About 13% of total Great Britain and not by a desire to reduce consumption of
production of limestone and dolomite in 2014, aggregates.
or 7.8 million tonnes, was sold for a range of
industrial applications and for agricultural lime The availability and production of recycled
(excluding for cement manufacture). Almost and secondary aggregates has been covered
all of this will be associated with aggregates elsewhere in this factsheet. With aggregate
production as a co-product. minerals, physical properties such as strength
and abrasion resistance are not changed
Many silica sand quarries also produce irreversibly in use, except for an element of
construction sand from specific beds, including decay. Aggregates can, therefore, be recovered,
overburden, and from oversize material that for example, from construction and demolition
cannot be processed to produce marketable waste or asphalt planings, and reused at least
silica sand. Aggregates can also be a co- for less demanding applications.
Aggregates 24
Aggregates
Limestone quarry extracting material for both industrial minerals and aggregates.
However, it should be recognised that Primary aggregates are, where possible, pro-
potentially recyclable materials are relatively duced close to major centres of demand so as to
limited in their arisings (production) from a minimise costs. Large aggregates resources that
single source. They also need to be sourced are distant from major markets and with poor
carefully if consistent properties are to be transport links may be only worked on a small
assured to users. Moreover, it is increasingly scale. However, good transport links, notably by
recognised that their use is fast approaching rail and sea, and economies of scale may sup-
their ceiling. Further, resources such as port the development of resources located con-
crushed concrete from old runways represent siderable distances from demand centres.
a diminishing resource that cannot be replaced
once broken up. The availability of construction Transport is a key element of the supply
and demolition waste, the main source of process. There are two main issues associated
recycled aggregates, depends on the quantity with the transport of aggregates. First are
of buildings or other structures that are being the environmental impacts of the supply of
demolished. aggregates in the immediate vicinity of the
quarry (the environmental impacts of more
Transport issues distant transport movements are generally
dissipated within the whole transport system).
Aggregates are low value high weight/volume Second, since aggregates are probably the
products. Most aggregates are transported lowest value materials that are transported by
by road, the average delivered distance being road, rail and sea, the cost of transport is an
about 43 km (27 miles). In 2017 approximately important element of the final delivered cost of
17% of primary aggregates were moved by the aggregates.
non-road means for part of their delivery jour-
ney, although local deliveries from rail depots The uneven distribution of aggregates
or wharves are also carried out by road. The resources means that there is substantial
non-road movement of aggregates includes: movement of aggregates within the UK.
rail (11%) and coastal or inland waters (6%). Although most of this is by road, many large
25 Aggregates
Construction
quarries are rail linked and large quantities are without environmental impacts. Rail depots
moved by rail, including from the Mendips and (where aggregates are delivered by rail) and
Leicestershire to London and the South East. wharves (for landing marine dredged sand
and gravel and/or crushed rock) also create
Marine dredged sand and gravel is commonly visual impact, noise and dust. Moreover,
landed within major centres of demand, although some wharves are rail connected,
notably in London and the South East. Crushed or can tranship aggregates to barges for
Aggregates
rock is also transported by ship from a few movement closer to the market, this is the
coastal quarries principally to destinations in exception and most aggregates will still have
England, but again mainly to London and the to be finally distributed by road. Often there
South East. The precise quantity is not known. are rail network capacity constraints (e.g. line
Significant tonnages are shipped from Britain’s capacity limitations, weight limits) to increased
only large coastal quarry at Glensanda on Loch rail movement of aggregates and the future
Linnhe in western Scotland, principally to the availability of wharves may be a constraint on
Isle of Grain in Kent (although it is believed increased coastal shipments.
that this represents less than one quarter of
the total output from the quarry in most years). Transport issues are likely to increase in
From the Isle of Grain some aggregates are importance in the future: for example (1) as
transhipped onto barges for movement up the rail borne traffic competes with passenger
Thames to Tilbury as well as to other ports traffic on congested rail routes, and (2) where
in southern and eastern England. Shipments there are concerns about the adequacies of
from Glensanda are also made to other UK port and wharf infrastructure that are both
terminals. Domestic shipments of rock are also capable of taking seaborne shipments and have
made from Northern Ireland and in smaller associated transport links to move the material
quantities from other regions. to the market.
Seaborne imports of aggregates, including Economic instruments

sand, gravel or armourstone as well as crushed
rock, are principally from Denmark, Ireland, Two economic instruments affect the supply
Netherlands, Spain, Belgium and Norway of aggregates; the Landfill Tax and the
and are mainly landed in the South East. Aggregates Levy.
Aggregates are also transported by barge on
the Trent, Severn and Thames. Wharves for The Landfill Tax was introduced on 1 October
handling aggregates may well be underutilised 1996 as a tax on waste disposal at landfill
in comparison with income from general cargo, sites. The purpose of the tax is to encourage
other quayside industry and marinas. They may business and consumers to produce less waste,
be incompatible with adjoining uses and there is to discourage landfill and encourage waste
a significant danger that they may be lost. minimisation and investment in other forms of
material recycling and/or resource recovery.
The supply of recycled aggregates generally There are two rates of tax:
has the advantage of being closer to the
market, indeed some recycled aggregates are ▪▪ £2.90 per tonne (from 1st April 2019) for
generated and used on the same construction inactive or inert waste listed in the Landfill
site. However, some secondary aggregates, Tax (Qualifying Material) Order 1996.
notably china clay and slate wastes, are remote These are wastes which do not give rise to
from major centres of demand. This is a major gases and have no potential for polluting
disincentive to their greater use. Modest groundwater;
quantities of china clay aggregates are moved ▪▪ £91.35 per tonne (from 1st April 2019)
by sea. applying to all other taxable waste.
Although alternative methods to road These rates are subject to an escalator and
transport have clear advantages they are not increase every year.
Aggregates 26
Some types of waste are exempt from the issued in 2012 and revised in 2018. Additional
Landfill Tax, including mine and quarry wastes. guidance is provided in National and regional
Inert waste used in the restoration of active guidelines for aggregates provision in England
mineral workings and landfill sites was also 2005–2020 and in online guidance.
given an exemption from the Landfill Tax in 1999.
Comparable planning policy for Wales is set
The Aggregates Levy was introduced in April out in Section 5.14 of Planning Policy Wales
Aggregates
2002 and is currently £2 per tonne. It applies and supplemented by Minerals Technical
to sand, gravel and crushed rock subjected Advice Notes. In Scotland minerals planning
to commercial extraction in the UK, including policy is set out in the Scottish Planning
aggregates dredged from the seabed and Policy and Supplemental Planning Guidance
also to aggregates imported from overseas. documents published by individual regions
It is intended to address the environmental of Scotland. Northern Ireland has a Strategic
costs associated with quarrying operations Planning Policy Statement, with specific
(noise, dust, visual intrusion, loss of amenity mineral related policies contained within
and damage to biodiversity) in line with Regional Planning Policies.
the Government’s statement of intent on
environmental taxation. Its objective is to All these documents recognise that an
reduce demand for virgin aggregates and adequate and steady supply of aggregates
encourage the use of recycled materials and is essential to support sustainable economic
secondary aggregates such as china clay growth and quality of life. Policy aims to ensure
waste, slate waste and colliery spoil, which are this steady and adequate supply of aggregates
exempt. There are other exemptions such as with minimum impact on the environment.
arisings from navigation dredging or material
arising from the ground during the construction Managed Aggregates Supply System in
of highways, railways or building foundations. England
Although there are a number of supply sources
Aggregates that are exported from the UK are for aggregates, including marine dredged,
entitled to relief from the Levy, as is material that secondary and recycled materials, the majority
is not used for construction (e.g. material used of aggregates demand is met from land-
for beach replenishment or removed to landfill). based extraction. However, in the UK there
are significant geographical imbalances in the
The imposition of the Levy resulted in a occurrence of suitable resources for natural
number of market ‘distortions’ (some of which aggregates, particularly for crushed rock, and
were partially addressed by the exemptions the areas where they are most needed.
noted above) and it led to challenges in the
European courts, principally by the British For over 35 years, these imbalances in supply
Aggregates Association. In March 2019, the and demand have been met through the
Government announced a comprehensive Managed Aggregates Supply System. The
review of the Levy including its current design, underpinning concept of this System is that
its effectiveness in meeting its objectives and Mineral Planning Authorities which have
the impact it has on business. The review will adequate resources make an appropriate
consider potential reforms that could be made. contribution to national as well as local supply,
The UK Government is also committed to although this must be balanced with the
devolving the Levy to the Scottish Parliament. need to minimise environmental impacts of
extraction. Mineral Planning Authorities that
Planning issues are comparatively resource-poor are expected
to continue to contribute to meeting supply
National policy needs in their areas, where this can be done
Government planning policy on the provision sustainably. However, ultimately these areas
of construction aggregates in England is set will receive significant quantities of aggregates
out in the National Planning Policy Framework imported from other areas.
27 Aggregates
The System comprises a number of elements: locally to demand centres is a significant issue
because of the direct implications on fuel
▪▪ A Local Aggregates Assessment, prepared for consumption and greenhouse gas production
each Mineral Planning Authority containing if aggregates are transported over greater
details of demand and supply options for distances by road. There are also the indirect
aggregates in its area. These assessments effects related to vehicle life, amenity, accidents
should be evidence-based, linked to Local and the degradation of the road system. Other
Aggregates
Plans and reviewed on an annual basis. modes of transport such as rail and sea are
▪▪ Aggregates Working Parties comprising more sustainable over long distances, but such
groups of Mineral Planning Authorities options are limited. At present, it is unlikely
together with representatives from industry that any new coastal quarry will be developed
and other organisations if appropriate. The in the UK. Rail linked quarries are few and
role of these Working Parties is to monitor potential rail connections are constrained by
the operation of the System and provide limited rail capacity.
technical advice.
▪▪ National and Sub-National Guidelines for The minimisation of harm to landscape
Aggregates Provision published by the and habitats is an important sustainable
Government in 2009 to provide an indication development consideration. This can be done
of the total amount of aggregates provision through the location of quarries and good
that the Mineral Planning Authorities, environmental management of sites. Since
collectively within each Aggregates Working aggregates extraction is a temporary use of land,
Party, should aim to provide to 2020. albeit a sometimes protracted use, effective and
▪▪ National Aggregates Co-ordinating Group imaginative restoration will bring the site back
convened by the Ministry of Housing, into beneficial use. It is now widely accepted that
Communities and Local Government this has the capacity to create new opportunities
(MHCLG) to provide guidance to the for habitats, biodiversity and geodiversity.
Aggregates Working Parties, to monitor the
overall provision of aggregates in England Relationship between primary and secondary
and to provide advice to Government. aggregates resources
▪▪ Aggregates landbanks which are a monitoring Sustainability and resource efficiency
tool to alert Mineral Planning Authorities to considerations require that the use of recycled
the possibility of disruption to the provision and secondary aggregates is maximised before
of land-won aggregates. The landbank is the primary aggregates are utilised. Currently
sum of all permitted reserves divided by the some 30% of total aggregates demand is
average sales over a 10 year period. Landbanks supplied by alternative materials, mainly
of at least 7 years should be maintained for construction and demolition waste, and Britain
sand and gravel and at least 10 years for is one of the leading countries in Europe in
crushed rock, although longer periods may be this regard. However, it is thought that most
appropriate in certain circumstances. of the material that is suitable for aggregates
use is being recovered and used. There are
A more detailed description of the System large resources of some secondary materials,
is included in the BGS report Managing such as china clay sand and slate waste, but
aggregates supply in England: A review of the these are remote from major markets and there
current system and future options (BGS Open are significant economic obstacles to creating
Report OR/08/042). the transport infrastructure to overcome this
problem. Consequently primary aggregates
Transport and locational considerations will continue to be required to supply a major
The planning system and sustainable proportion of UK demand.
development objectives relate to aggregates
extraction and supply in a number of ways. In Safeguarding
considering the overall use of resources, the Ensuring that sufficient reserves of the right
extent to which aggregates can be sourced quality are permitted to meet demand will
Aggregates 28
continue to be a real challenge for the planning are also assessed by the planning process.
system. Part of that process is the application of These include noise, mud and dust from
effective safeguarding mechanisms to prevent the operations and transport, vibration and
the unnecessary sterilisation of aggregates flyrock from blasting, pollution, visual impact,
resources so that they may be available in effect on groundwater including the impact of
the future. These mechanisms include the dewatering and discharge, stability, lighting
definition of ‘Mineral Safeguarding Areas’ associated with night-time operations, and
Aggregates
in local plans, together with associated local adequacy of the highway network.
policies. Prior extraction may be an option
to avoid sterilisation of resources by non- Restoration
mineral development. The safeguarding of key The extraction of aggregates can provide
minerals infrastructure, such as rail depots and valued assets during and after extraction, and
wharves, is also essential to ensure options in conservation terms the UK would be poorer
for reducing road transport remain available. without such assets. Many SSSIs, and some
Further information on safeguarding can be SPAs and SACs, have their origins in quarrying
found in Mineral safeguarding in England: good because the quarry restoration has provided a
practice advice (BGS Open Report OR/11/046) range of habitats and ecological niches (ponds,
and in Mineral safeguarding practice guidance rock faces, reed beds, etc.) that are either rare
(published by the Mineral Products Associations in the UK or lost by other development. Even
and Planning Officers’ Society in April 2019). during working, quarries can provide valuable
nesting sites for birds on rock faces or in sand
Landbanks faces and a range of habitats and associated
Landbank policies have been an important flora and fauna on silt and clean water ponds.
element of aggregates planning for many years Bare mineral surfaces in many quarries provide
at both national and local level. Landbanks ideal conditions for ground nesting birds or rare
relate to both years of supply and tonnage colonising plant species that can only survive
of supply in permitted reserves over that when not overwhelmed by more vigorous
specified period. The purpose of these policies species that grow on more productive land.
is twofold. First they set out a provision that A continuity of such surfaces is, therefore,
is considered the minimum amount required desirable. It is now recognised that restored
to maintain supply to the construction mineral workings can make a major contribution
industry. Secondly they can provide a guide to both biodiversity and geodiversity.
against which planning applications for
extraction may be determined subject to Restoration of agricultural land, either with
detailed considerations. Separate landbanks or without importation of waste, can achieve
are maintained for crushed rock and for sand high standards. As the restoration works
and gravel. These may be further divided, will remove any major variation in substrate
where practical and necessary, to deal with it is possible to increase the quality of the
different materials within those two groups. restored land compared to that before working.
For example, reserves of sand and gravel in Restored aggregates quarries also provide
a Mineral Planning Authority area might be a range of recreation facilities that would
dominated by sand with an extreme shortage otherwise be unavailable.
of gravel. It would not be desirable to ignore
that shortage of gravel in landbank calculations Licensing of marine dredging of aggregates
as that could lead to supply problems for that The Crown Estate owns virtually all the seabed
specific commodity. within the UK’s territorial waters (12 nautical
mile limit), but has the rights to explore for
Environment and amenity impacts and extract sand and gravel in the whole of
The relationship and constraints flowing from the UK Continental Shelf. It also owns about
designations have been described above. In 55% of the foreshore (between mean high and
considering aggregates extraction proposals mean low water) and approximately half of
a range of detailed external amenity impacts the beds of estuaries and tidal rivers in the UK.
29 Aggregates
Almost all marine extraction, therefore, takes Strategy. https://www.gov.uk/government/
place from licences on seabed owned by The publications/industrial-strategy-building-a-
Crown Estate. These properties and rights are britain-fit-for-the-future
managed by the Crown Estate Commissioners
(for areas offshore of England, Wales and UK Construction Sector Deal, published 2018.
Northern Ireland) or Crown Estate Scotland (for Department for Business, Energy and Industrial
areas offshore of Scotland). Strategy. https://www.gov.uk/government/
Aggregates
publications/construction-sector-deal
The Marine and Coastal Access Act (2009)
established a new system of marine planning in UK Minerals Strategy, published 2018. UK
the UK which is devolved to the four countries. minerals and mineral products industry. https://
All public authorities taking decisions related mineralproducts.org/documents/UK_Minerals_
to the UK marine area are required by this Act Strategy.pdf
to do so in accordance with the UK Marine
Policy Statement. Each country has developed, National and Regional Guidelines for
or is developing, a Marine Plan to manage all Aggregates provision in England for the period
marine activities for its part of UK’s waters. 2005–2020. Department for Communities and
Local Government, published in 2009. https://
Applications for the extraction of marine www.gov.uk/government/publications/national-
minerals are administered by the Marine and-regional-guidelines-for-aggregates-
Management Organisation for England; provision-in-england-2005-to-2020
the Marine and Fisheries Division of the
Department of Agriculture, Environment and National Planning Policy Framework.
Rural Affairs for Northern Ireland; Marine Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local
Scotland; or the Marine Licensing Team at Government. 2019. https://www.gov.uk/
Natural Resources Wales; as appropriate. government/publications/national-planning-
Each application will require an environmental policy-framework--2
impact assessment and extensive consultation
with stakeholders, including the fishing Other guidance on mineral planning in
industry. In some cases a coastal impact study England can be found here: https://www.gov.
may also be required. Once the appropriate uk/government/collections/planning-practice-
organisation has issued a Marine Licence, guidance
the Crown Estate will then issue a Production
Agreement. Planning Policy Wales. Welsh Government.
2018. https://gov.wales/planning-policy-wales
Environmental impacts associated with marine
dredged sand and gravel relate to habitats, Minerals Technical Advice Note (Wales). 1:
archaeological and heritage assets including Aggregates. Welsh Government, 2004. https://
wrecks, and potential effects on other uses gov.wales/minerals-technical-advice-note-
of the sea including fisheries, navigation, mtan-wales-1-aggregates
wind farms and recreation. Coastal impact
assessments assess whether the rates of coastal Scottish Planning Policy. The Scottish
erosion and deposition are likely to be adversely Government, 2014. https://www.gov.scot/
affected. Licences are subject to conditions and publications/scottish-planning-policy/
monitoring arrangements to ensure that the
environmental impacts are minimised. Strategic Planning Policy Statement for
Northern Ireland (SPPS). Department of the
Further information Environment, 2015. https://www.planningni.
gov.uk/index/policy/spps.htm
UK Industrial Strategy, published 2017, with
an associated progress report, published 2018. Regional Planning Policies: Minerals,
Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Northern Ireland Planning Portal. https://www.
Aggregates 30
planningni.gov.uk/index/policy/rural_strategy/ Mineral Safeguarding Practice Guidance, 2019.
psrni_regional_policies/psrni_minerals.htm Mineral Products Association and Planning
Officers’ Society. https://mineralproducts.
UK Marine Policy Statement. HM Government, org/documents/MPA_POS_Minerals_
Northern Ireland Executive, Scottish Safeguarding_Guidance_Document.pdf
Government, Welsh Assembly Government.
2011. https://assets.publishing.service.gov. Managing aggregates supply in England:
Aggregates
uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/ A review of the current system and future
attachment_data/file/69322/pb3654-marine- options, 2008. BGS Open Report OR/08/042.
policy-statement-110316.pdf http://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/start.
cfm?id=1372
Further details about the Aggregates Levy
can be obtained from: https://www.gov. The strategic importance of the marine
uk/government/publications/excise-notice- aggregate industry to the UK. 2007. BGS Open
agl1-aggregates-levy/excise-notice-agl1- Report OR/07/019.
aggregates-levy#scope-of-the-levy https://bmapa.org/documents/BMAPA_
download.pdf
Information about the review of the
Aggregates Levy can be obtained from: https:// Primary Aggregates Reserves in England 1990-
www.gov.uk/government/publications/review- 2004, published 2006. BGS Commissioned
of-the-aggregates-levy Report CR/06/168. http://www.bgs.ac.uk/
downloads/start.cfm?id=1298
Aggregates Working Parties (AWPS) were
established in the English Regions and Wales The role of imports to UK aggregates supply,
in January 1976 with membership drawn from 2005. BGS Commissioned Report CR/05/041N.
Mineral Planning Authorities, the aggregates www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/start.cfm?id=1300
industry and Government. The remit of the
Working Parties is to provide information The Economic Importance of Minerals to
and guidance on planning and related issues the UK, 2004. BGS Commissioned Report
concerned with the provision of aggregates CR04/070N. http://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/
in their region. The AWPS carry out annual start.cfm?id=1301
monitoring of the supply of aggregates in their
region and permitted reserves of aggregates. Mineral Products Association
The results are published as monitoring https://mineralproducts.org/ /
reports.
British Aggregates Association
United Kingdom Minerals Yearbook. 2019. http://www.british-aggregates.com/
BGS Open Report OR/19/018. http://www.bgs.
ac.uk/mineralsuk/statistics/ukStatistics.html British Marine Aggregates Producers
Association. http://www.bmapa.org/
Collation of the results of the 2014 Aggregate
Minerals Survey for England and Wales. The Crown Estate
Produced by the BGS on behalf of Department http://www.thecrownestate.co.uk/
for Communities and Local Government and
the Welsh Government. https://www.gov.uk/ Crown Estate Scotland
government/publications/aggregate-minerals- https://www.crownestatescotland.com/
survey-for-england-and-wales-2014
Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local
Mineral Safeguarding in England: good Government.
practice advice, 2011. BGS Open Report https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/
CR/11/046. https://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/ ministry-of-housing-communities-and-local-
start.cfm?id=2069 government
31 Aggregates
Authorship and Acknowledgements
This factsheet was originally produced by

the British Geological Survey for the then
Department for Communities and Local
Government as part of the research project
‘DCLG-BGS Joint Minerals Programme.’
Aggregates
This factsheet was revised by Teresa Brown
(British Geological Survey), from an original
compiled by David Highley, David Harrison,
Don Cameron and Paul Lusty (BGS) and
John Cowley (Mineral & Resource Planning
Associates), with the assistance of Deborah
Rayner (BGS).
The advice and assistance provided by the

industry is gratefully acknowledged.
Contains public sector information licensed

under the Open Government Licence v3.0.
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-
government-licence/version/3/
Unless otherwise stated all illustrations and

photographs used in this factsheet are
BGS © UKRI. All rights reserved.
Mineral Planning Factsheets for a range of

other minerals produced in Britain are available
for download free of charge from http://www.
bgs.ac.uk/mineralsUK/
Aggregates 32

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Mineral Planning Factsheet

Secondary aggregates are usually defined as

Recycled aggregates are an important source

Mineral Planning Factsheet

Principal uses Thousand tonnes

Table 1 Great Britain: Sales of primary aggregates by major end-use, 2014.

Mineral Planning Factsheet

Mineral Planning Factsheet

Mineral Planning Factsheet

Primary aggregates supply by region and

Notes: Sales of primary aggregates, including marine-

The effects of the 2008/2009 global recession

In 2009 the former Department for

Mineral Planning Factsheet

Million tonnes The UK has large resources of rocks that can

Mineral Planning Factsheet

0.4 million tonnes in 2017 (Table 4). Imports,

Aggregates are extracted in larger quantities

25 Consumption of aggregates is fundamentally

of the intensity of use of primary aggregates is

Mineral Planning Factsheet

construction output generated by repair and 3.0

▪▪ changes in the structure of the economy with 1.5

demolition waste; Crushed Rock Sand and Gravel Total Aggregates

Mineral Planning Factsheet

Region Sales of primary Consumption of primary Net imports as a

Mineral Planning Factsheet

Table 6 UK: Total manufacturing sales of Resources

Mineral Planning Factsheet

Mineral Planning Factsheet

These Permian limestones and dolomites are ##

Carboniferous limestone and have a higher including dolerites

are sufficiently strong, sound and durable to Gneiss

be used as concreting aggregates and several Schists and quartzites #

quarries near Maltby, South Yorkshire and near ##

aggregates with a degree of skid resistance # #

and are hence suitable for many road surfacing

parts of the road pavement. Aggregates for the # ##

sandstones. The high strength and attrition

Resources of igneous and metamorphic rocks #

limited. In England and Wales resources are #

more localised and only occur in the north,

Mineral Planning Factsheet

heading of ‘sandstone’, such as Sandstone suitable for

Sandstones of various geological

and comprise about 15% of the

surface outcrops, including a few

face rocks of south-east England.

and thus resource potential. #

Sandstones have traditionally #

about 3% of total production was ## ###

is now used mainly as crushed

10% of the crushed rock

The suitability of a sandstone for

Mineral Planning Factsheet

Sand and gravel was the principal source of

Mineral Planning Factsheet

Basal Permian sandstone ## #

Cretaceous sands # terraces are the dissected, or eroded, remnants

basin reflects that of the rocks in the uplands

uplands of south-east England, except in its

upper reaches in Oxfordshire where the gravels