04 - Metal Forming

MENG 210
Manufacturing Processes I
Metal FORMING
BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES
1. Rolling
2. Forging
3. Extrusion
4. Wire and Bar Drawing
Note 4 - 2 UOB, Mechanical Engineering Department, Dr Osama Al-Jamal, ©2019 Metal Forming
1
Bulk Deformation
▪ Metal forming operations which cause significant

shape change by deforming metal parts whose initial
form is bulk rather than sheet
▪ Starting forms:
▪ Cylindrical bars and billets,
▪ Rectangular billets and slabs, and similar shapes
▪ These processes stress metal sufficiently to cause
plastic flow into desired shape
▪ Performed as cold, warm, and hot working
operations
Importance of Bulk Deformation
▪ In hot working, significant shape change can be

accomplished
▪ In cold working, strength is increased during shape

change
▪ Little or no waste - some operations are near net

shape or net shape processes
▪ The parts require little or no subsequent
machining
2
Four Basic Bulk Deformation Processes
1. Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed between

opposing rolls
2. Forging – work is squeezed and shaped between

opposing dies
3. Extrusion – work is squeezed through a die

opening, thereby taking the shape of the opening
4. Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire or bar is

reduced by pulling it through a die opening
Rolling
▪ Deformation process in which work thickness is

reduced by compressive forces exerted by two
opposing rolls
The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling)
3
The Rolls
Rotating rolls perform two main functions:

▪ Pull the work into the gap between them by friction
between workpart and rolls
▪ Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce its cross

section
Types of Rolling
▪ Based on workpiece geometry :

▪ Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a
rectangular cross section
▪ Shape rolling - square cross section is formed
into a shape such as an I-beam
▪ Based on work temperature :
▪ Hot Rolling – most common due to the large
amount of deformation required
▪ Cold rolling – produces finished sheet and plate
stock
4
Hot Rolling
▪ Ingot is placed in a furnace for many hours until it

has reached a uniform temperature throughout
▪ For steel – the desired temperature for rolling is
around 1200 C
▪ Soaking is the heating operation
▪ Soaking pits are the furnaces in which the operation
is carried
▪ From soaking to rolling mills – ingot is rolled into one
of the three intermediate shapes called blooms (150
 150 mm), billets (40  40 mm), or slabs (25040
mm)
Rolled Products Made of Steel
Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill
10
5
Diagram of Flat Rolling
▪ Side view of flat

rolling, indicating
before and after
thicknesses, work
velocities, angle of
contact with rolls,
and other features
11
Flat Rolling Analysis
▪ Draft = amount of thickness reduction

d =t o −t f
where d = draft; to = starting thickness;
and tf = final thickness
▪ Reduction = draft expressed as a fraction of starting
stock thickness:
d
r=
to
where r = reduction
12
6
▪ Spreading – rolling usually increases work width

while reducing thickness – volume conservation:
to wo Lo = t f w f L f
▪ Similarly, before and after volume rates of material
flow must be the same:
to wo vo = t f w f v f
where wo and wf are before and after work widths (mm);
Lo and Lf are before and after work lengths (mm); to and tf
are before and after work thicknesses (mm); and vo and vf
are entering and exiting velocities of the work (m/s)
13
▪ Rolls contact the work along a contact arc defined

by angle 
▪ Each roll has radius R, and its rotational speed

gives it a surface velocity vr (vo < vr < vf)
▪ No-slip point (or neutral point) – one point along the

arc where work velocity equals roll velocity
▪ On either side of the point, slipping and friction

occur between roll and work
14
7
▪ Forward slip (s) – a measure amount of slip

between rolls and work:
v f − vr
s=
vr
▪ True strain () – based on before and after stock

thickness:
to
 = ln
tf
15
▪ Average flow stress (Y ) – applied to work material

f
in flat rolling:
K n
Yf = (MPa)
1+ n
Where K is strength coefficient (MPa) and n is strain
hardening exponent
▪ Average flow stress ( Y ) is used to compute estimate

f
of force and power in rolling
16
8
▪ Friction in rolling occurs in certain coefficient of

friction ()
▪  in rolling depends on lubrication, work material,
and working temperature
▪ Friction force between rolls and work equals to 
multiplied by compression force of the rolls
▪ On entrance side – friction force is in one direction
▪ On the other side – it is in the opposite direction and
of smaller value than on entrance
▪ Net force pulls the work through the rolls due to
larger friction force on entrance
17
▪ Maximum possible draft that can be accomplished

in flat rolling with a given :
d max =  2 R (mm)
▪ Rolling force (F) can be approximated by:

F = Y f wL (N)
where wL is roll-work contact area (mm2). w is width of
work being rolled (mm), and L in length of contact between
rolls and work (mm) and it can be calculated as follow:
L = R(to − t f ) (mm)
18
9
▪ Torque in rolling can be estimated by assuming that

the roll force is centered on work as it passes
between rolls, and that it acts with a moment arm of
one-half the contact length. Torque for each roll is:
𝑇 = 0.5𝐹𝐿 (𝑁. mm)
▪ Power (P) required to drive each roll is:
Power = Angular velocity × Torque
𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑁T (J/s or W)
where N is rotational speed of the roll (rev/min)

▪ 1 hp = 745.7 W
19
Summary
d =t o −t f to wo Lo = t f w f L f
r=
d to wo vo = t f w f v f
to
d max =  2 R (mm)
v f − vr
s= F = Y f wL (N)
vr
t L = R(to − t f ) (mm)
 = ln o
tf 𝑇 = 0.5𝐹𝐿 (𝑁. mm)
K n
Yf = (MPa) 𝑃 = 2𝜋𝑁T (J/s or W)
1+ n
20
10
Example
▪ A 300-mm-wide strip 25 mm thick is feed through a

rolling mill with two powered rolls each of radius = 250
mm. The work thickness is to be reduced to 22 mm in
one pass at a roll speed of 50 rev/min. The work
material has a flow curve defined by K = 275 MPa and
n = 0.15, and the coefficient of friction between the
rolls and the work is assumed to be 0.12. Determine if
the friction is sufficient to permit the rolling operation
to be accomplished. If so, calculate the roll force,
torque, and horsepower.
21
Solution
22
11
Solution
23
Shape Rolling
▪ Work is deformed into a contoured cross section

rather than flat (rectangular)
▪ Accomplished by passing work through rolls that

have the reverse of desired shape
▪ Products include:
▪ Construction shapes such as I-beams, L-beams,
and U-channels
▪ Rails for railroad tracks
▪ Round and square bars and rods
24
12
Shape Rolling
▪ Shaping rolls are more complicated

▪ Work – usually starting as a square shape
▪ To achieve final cross section – work requires
gradual transformation through several rolls
▪ Roll-pass design – designing the sequence of
intermediate shape to achieve uniform deformation
throughout the cross section in each reduction
▪ Warping and cracking of rolled product can be the
consequence of nonuniform reduction
25
Rolling Mills
▪ Equipment is massive and expensive

▪ Rolling mill configurations:
▪ Two-high – two opposing rolls
▪ Three-high – work passes through rolls in both
directions
▪ Four-high – 2 backing rolls support 2 smaller work
rolls
▪ Cluster mill – multiple backing rolls on smaller rolls
▪ Tandem rolling mill – sequence of two-high mills
26
13
Two-High Rolling Mill
▪ Rolls diameter in range of 0.6 – 1.4 m
▪ Can be reversing or nonreversing mills
▪ Reversing mill – allows direction of roll rotation to be

reversed
▪ Nonreversing mill –
rolls always rotate in
same direction and
work always passes
through from same
side
27
Three-High Rolling Mill
▪ The three rolls are in a vertical column

▪ Direction of rotation of each roll remains unchanged
▪ Series of reductions –
work can be passed
through from either
side by raising or
lowering strip after
each pass
▪ Need of elevator
mechanism to raise or
lower the work
28
14
Four-High Rolling Mill
▪ Roll-work contact length is reduced by reducing roll

diameter to gain advantage
▪ This leads to lower forces,

torques, and power
▪ Backing rolls are to
support the smaller rolls
that would deflect
elastically between their
end bearings due to high
roll forces
29
Cluster Mill
▪ Multiple backing rolls allow even smaller roll

diameters
30
15
Tandem Rolling Mill
▪ A series of rolling stands in sequence

▪ Typical tandem rolling mill may have eight or ten
stands
▪ Each stand makes a reduction in thickness or a

refinement in shape of work passing through
▪ Advantages include elimination of soaking pits,
reduction in floor space, and shorter manufacturing
lead time
31
2. Forging
3. Extrusion
32
16
Forging
▪ Deformation process in which work is compressed

between two dies, using either impact or gradual
pressure to form the part
▪ Oldest of the metal forming operations, dating from
about 5000 B.C.
▪ High-strength components: engine crankshafts,
connecting rods, gears, aircraft structural
components, jet engine turbine parts
▪ Also, basic metals industries use forging to establish
basic form of large parts that are subsequently
machined to final shape and size
33
Classification of Forging Operations
▪ Cold vs. hot forging:

▪ Hot or warm forging – most common, due to the
significant deformation and the need to reduce
strength and increase ductility of work metal
▪ Cold forging – advantage: increased strength that
results from strain hardening
▪ Impact vs. press forging:

▪ Forging hammer - applies an impact load
▪ Forging press - applies gradual pressure
34
17
Types of Forging Dies
▪ Degree to which the flow of the work metal is

constrained by the dies
▪ Open-die forging - work is compressed between two
flat dies, allowing metal to flow laterally with
minimum constraint
▪ Impression-die forging - die contains cavity or
impression that is imparted to workpart
▪ Metal flow is constrained so that flash is created
▪ Flashless forging - workpart is completely
constrained in die
▪ No excess flash is created
35
Open-Die Forging
36
18
Impression-Die Forging
37
Flashless Forging
38
19
Open-Die Forging
▪ Compression of workpart between two flat dies

▪ Similar to compression test when workpart has
cylindrical cross section and is compressed along its
axis
▪ Deformation operation reduces height and
increases diameter of work
▪ Common names include upsetting or upset
forging
39
Open-Die Forging with No Friction
▪ If no friction occurs between work and die surfaces,

then homogeneous deformation occurs, so that
radial flow is uniform throughout workpart height and
true strain is given by:
ho
 = ln
h
where ho= starting height (mm); and h = height at some

point during compression (mm)
▪ At h = final value hf, true strain is maximum value
40
20
▪ Homogeneous deformation of a cylindrical workpart under

ideal conditions in an open-die forging operation:
▪ (1) start of process with workpiece at its original length and
diameter, (2) partial compression, and (3) final size
41
Open-Die Forging – Estimate of Force
▪ The force required to continue the compression at

any given height h during the process can be
obtained by:
F = Yf A
where F = force (N); Yf = flow stress corresponding to
strain  (MPa); and A = cross-sectional area (mm2)
Y f = K n
where K is strength coefficient (MPa) and n is strain

hardening exponent
42
21
▪ Area (A) continuously increases during the operation

as height is reduced
▪ Flow stress (Yf) also increases as a result of work
hardening, except when the metal is perfectly plastic
(in hot working)
▪ When n = 0, then Yf = Y (metal’s yield strength)
▪ At the end of the forging stroke, both area and flow
stress are at their highest values
▪ Force reaches its maximum values
43
Open-Die Forging with Friction
▪ Friction between work and die surfaces constrains

lateral flow of work, resulting in barreling effect
▪ In hot open-die forging, effect is even more
pronounced due to heat transfer at and near die
surfaces, which cools the metal and increases its
resistance to deformation
▪ Hotter metal in the middle of the part flows more
readily than the cooler metal at the ends
▪ As the diameter-to-height (D/h) ratio increases it
becomes more significant due to greater contact
area at work-die interface
44
22
▪ Actual deformation of a cylindrical workpart in open-die

forging, showing pronounced barreling: (1) start of process,
(2) partial deformation, and (3) final shape
45
▪ Due to friction and D/h ratio, the actual upsetting

force is greater than what is predicted earlier.
▪ An approximation force is:
F = K f Yf A
where Kf = forging shape factor, defined as:
0.4 D
K f = 1+
h
where  = coefficient of friction; D = workpart diameter or
other dimension representing contact length with die
surface (mm); and h = workpart height (mm)
46
23
Example
▪ A cylindrical workpart is subjected to a cold upset

forging operation. The starting piece is 75 mm in
height and 50 mm in diameter. It is reduced in the
operation to a height of 36 mm. The work material has
a flow curve defined by K = 350 MPa and n = 0.17.
Assume a coefficient of friction of 0.1. Determine the
force as the process begins, at intermediate heights of
62 mm, 49 mm, and at the final height of 36 mm.
47
48
24
▪ Compression of workpart by dies with inverse of

desired part shape
▪ Flash is formed by metal that flows beyond die cavity
into small gap between die plates
▪ Flash must be later trimmed, but it serves an
important function during compression:
▪ As flash forms, friction resists continued metal flow
into gap, constraining material to fill die cavity
▪ In hot forging, metal flow is further restricted by
cooling against die plates
49
▪ Sequence in impression-die
forging:
▪ (1) just prior to initial contact with
raw workpiece,
▪ (2) partial compression, and
▪ (3) final die closure, causing flash
to form in gap between die plates
50
25
Impression-Die Forging Practice
▪ Several forming steps often required, with separate

die cavities for each step
▪ Beginning steps redistribute metal for more
uniform deformation and desired metallurgical
structure in subsequent steps
▪ Final steps bring the part to final geometry
▪ Impression-die forging is often performed manually
by skilled operator under adverse conditions
51
Advantages and Limitations
▪ Advantages of impression-die forging compared to

machining from solid stock:
▪ Higher production rates
▪ Less waste of metal
▪ Greater strength
▪ Favorable grain orientation in the metal
▪ Limitations:
▪ Not capable of close tolerances
▪ Machining often required to achieve accuracies
and features needed
52
26
Impression-Die Forging Analysis
▪ Force formula is the same as previous for open-die

forging, but its interpretation is slightly different
▪ An approximation force is: F = K f Yf A
where A = projected area of the part including flash
(mm2); Yf = flow stress of material (MPa); and Kf = forging
shape factor
▪ Selecting Yf is difficult because strain varies

throughout workpiece for complex shapes
▪ Problem of specifying proper Kf value for a given
workpart limits accuracy of estimating F
53
Flashless Forging
▪ Compression of work in punch and die tooling whose

cavity does not allow for flash
▪ Starting workpart volume must equal die cavity
volume within very close tolerance
▪ Process control more demanding than
impression-die forging
▪ Best suited to part geometries that are simple and
symmetrical
▪ Often classified as a precision forging process
54
27
Flashless Forging
▪ Flashless forging:
▪ (1) just before initial contact with workpiece,
▪ (2) partial compression, and
▪ (3) final punch and die closure
55
Forging Hammers (Drop Hammers)
Apply impact load against workpart

▪ Two types:
▪ Gravity drop hammers - impact energy from
falling weight of a heavy ram
▪ Power drop hammers - accelerate the ram by
pressurized air or steam
▪ Disadvantage: impact energy transmitted through
anvil into floor of building
▪ Commonly used for impression-die forging
56
28
Drop Hammer Details
▪ Diagram showing details of a drop hammer for

impression-die forging
57
Forging Presses
▪ Apply gradual pressure to accomplish compression

operation
▪ Types:
▪ Mechanical press - converts rotation of drive
motor into linear motion of ram
▪ Hydraulic press - hydraulic piston actuates ram
▪ Screw press - screw mechanism drives ram
58
29
Trimming After Impression-Die Forging
▪ Trimming operation (shearing process) to remove the flash

after impression-die forging
59
3. Extrusion
60
30
Extrusion
▪ Compression forming process in which work metal is

forced to flow through a die opening to produce a
desired cross-sectional shape
▪ Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out of a
toothpaste tube
▪ In general, extrusion is used to produce long parts of
uniform cross sections
▪ Two basic types:
▪ Direct extrusion
▪ Indirect extrusion
61
Direct Extrusion
Do
L Df
62
31
Comments on Direct Extrusion
▪ Also called forward extrusion

▪ As ram approaches die opening, a small portion of
billet remains that cannot be forced through die
opening
▪ This extra portion, called the butt, must be separated
from extrudate by cutting it just beyond the die exit
▪ Starting billet cross section usually round
▪ Final shape of extrudate is determined by die
opening
63
Hollow and Semi-Hollow Shapes
▪ (a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or semi-hollow cross

sections; (b) hollow and (c) semi-hollow cross sections
64
32
Indirect Extrusion
Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a solid cross ▪

section and (b) a hollow cross section
65
Comments on Indirect Extrusion
▪ Also called backward extrusion and reverse

extrusion
▪ Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by
▪ Lower rigidity of hollow ram
▪ Difficulty in supporting extruded product as it exits
die
66
33
Advantages of Extrusion
▪ Variety of shapes possible, especially in hot

extrusion
▪ Limitation: part cross section must be uniform
throughout length
▪ Grain structure and strength enhanced in cold and
warm extrusion
▪ Close tolerances possible, especially in cold
extrusion
▪ In some operations, little or no waste of material
67
Hot vs. Cold Extrusion
▪ Hot extrusion - prior heating of billet to above its

recrystallization temperature
▪ Reduces strength and increases ductility of the
metal, permitting more size reductions and more
complex shapes
▪ Special lubricant that are effective under harsh
conditions is critical in hot extrusion
▪ Cold extrusion - generally used to produce discrete
parts
▪ The term impact extrusion is used to indicate high
speed cold extrusion
68
34
Extrusion Ratio & True Strain
▪ Also called the reduction ratio, it is defined as

Ao
rx =
Af
where rx = extrusion ratio; Ao = cross-sectional area of
the starting billet; and Af = final cross-sectional area of
the extruded section
▪ Applies to both direct and indirect extrusion
▪ True strain in extrusion – with no friction and no
redundant work – determined by:
Ao
 = ln rx = ln
Af
69
Ideal Deformation
▪ Pressure applied by the ram (no friction and no

redundant work) to compress the billet through the
die opening can be computed as follows:
p = Y f  = Y f ln rx
▪ Average flow stress (MPa) during deformation:

K n
Yf =
1+ n
70
35
Actual Deformation
▪ In fact, extrusion is not a frictionless process. Thus,

extrusion strain can be estimated by:
▪  x = a + b ln rx (Johnson’s formula)
▪ Values of a and b tend to increase with increasing

die angle (a = 0.8 and b = 1.5)
▪ The ram pressure to perform:
▪ Indirect pressure p = Yf  x
 2L 
▪ Direct pressure p = Y f   x + 
 Do 
71
Actual Deformation
▪ 2L/Do accounts for the additional pressure

▪ where L is the billet length remaining to be extruded
and Do the original diameter of the billet
▪ Ram force (N) in indirect and direct extrusion is:
F = p Ao
▪ where Ao is the billet area
▪ Power required to carry out extrusion operation:
P=Fv
▪ where v is the ram velocity in m/s
72
36
Example
▪ A billet 75 mm long and 25 mm in diameter is to be

extruded in a direct extrusion operation with extrusion
ratio rx = 4.0. The extrudate has a round cross section.
The die angle (half-angle) = 90. The work metal has a
strength coefficient = 415 MPa, and a strain hardening
exponent = 0.18. Use the Johnson’s formula with a = 0.8
and b = 1.5 to estimate the extrusion strain. Determine
the pressure applied to the end of the billet as the ram
moves forward
73
Extrusion Die Features
▪ (a) Definition of die angle in direct extrusion;

▪ (b) effect of die angle on ram force
74
37
Comments on Die Angle
▪ Low die angle - surface area is large, which

increases friction at die-billet interface
▪ Higher friction results in larger ram force
▪ Large die angle - more turbulence in metal flow
during reduction
▪ Turbulence increases ram force required
▪ Optimum angle depends on work material, billet
temperature, and lubrication
75
Orifice Shape of Extrusion Die
▪ Simplest cross section shape is circular die orifice

▪ Shape of die orifice affects ram pressure
▪ As cross section becomes more complex, higher
pressure and greater force are required
▪ Effect of cross-sectional shape on pressure can be
assessed by means the die shape factor Kx
76
38
Complex Cross Section
▪ A complex extruded cross section for a heat sink
77
Extrusion Presses
▪ Either horizontal or vertical

▪ Horizontal more common
▪ Extrusion presses - usually hydraulically driven,
which is especially suited to semi-continuous direct
extrusion of long sections
▪ Mechanical drives - often used for cold extrusion of
individual parts
78
39
79
Wire and Bar Drawing
▪ Cross-section of a bar, rod, or wire is reduced by

pulling it through a die opening
▪ Similar to extrusion except work is pulled through die
in drawing (it is pushed through in extrusion)
▪ Although drawing applies tensile stress,
compression also plays a significant role since metal
is squeezed as it passes through die opening
80
40
Wire and Bar Drawing
Drawing of bar, rod, or wire
81
Area Reduction in Drawing
▪ Change in size of work is usually given by area

reduction:
Ao − Af
r=
Ao
where r = area reduction in drawing; Ao = original

area of work; and Ar = final work
▪ The draft is simply the difference between original

(Do) and final stock (Df) diameters
▪ d = Do – Df (mm)
82
41
Analysis of Drawing
▪ If no friction or redundant work occurred in drawing,

true strain () determined by:
𝐴𝑜 1
𝜀 = ln = ln
𝐴𝑓 1−𝑟
▪ The stress that results from this ideal deformation is

given by
 = Yf 
K n
Yf =
1+ n
83
Analysis of Drawing
▪ In presence of friction and inhomogeneous deformation

of work metal, the actual stress is larger than in ideal
case
𝐴𝑜 1
𝜀 = ln = ln
𝐴𝑓 1−𝑟
▪ The actual stress which is suggested by Schey:

   A
 d = Y f 1 +  ln o (MPa)
 tan   Af
▪ where  = die-work coefficient of friction;
▪  = die angle (half-angle)
▪  = factor accounts for inhomogeneous deformation
84
42
Analysis of Drawing
▪ Factor accounts for inhomogeneous deformation:

D
 = 0.88 + 0.12
Lc
▪ where Lc = contact length of the work with the draw die
▪ D = average diameter of work during drawing
𝐷𝑜 − 𝐷𝑓
𝐿𝑐 =
2 sin 𝛼
𝐷𝑜 + 𝐷𝑓
𝐷=
2
85
Analysis of Drawing
▪ The corresponding draw force (F) is the area of the

drawn cross section (Af) multiplied by the draw stress
(d):
F = Af  d
▪ The power required in a drawing operation is the draw

force multiplied by exit velocity of the work
86
43
Example
▪ Wire is drawn through a draw die with entrance angle =

15. Starting diameter is 2.5 mm and final diameter = 2.0
mm. The coefficient of friction at work-die interface =
0.07. The metal has a strength coefficient K = 205 MPa
and a strain hardening exponent n = 0.20. Determine the
draw force in this problem.
87
88
44
Maximum Reduction per Pass
▪ As the reduction increases, draw stress increase

▪ If reduction is large enough, draw stress will exceed the
yield strength of the existing metal
▪ In that case, the drawn wire will simply elongate
instead of new material being squeezed through die
opening
▪ However, to successfully drawn wire, maximum draw
stress must be less than the yield strength of the
existing metal
89
Maximum Reduction per Pass
▪ Maximum possible draw stress (d) – assuming

perfectly plastic metal (n = 0), no friction, and no
redundant work:
Ao A 1
 d = Y f ln = Y ln o = Y ln =Y
Af Af 1− r
▪ Maximum possible strain, max = 1.0

▪ when Ao/Af = 1/(1-r) = e [ln(e) = 1]
e −1
▪ Maximum possible reduction rmax = = 0.632
e
90
45
Wire Drawing vs. Bar Drawing
▪ Difference between bar drawing and wire drawing is

stock size
▪ Bar drawing - large diameter bar and rod stock
▪ Wire drawing - small diameter stock - wire sizes
down to 0.03 mm are possible
▪ Although the mechanics are the same, the methods,
equipment, and even terminology are different
91
Drawing Practice and Products
▪ Drawing practice:
▪ Usually performed as cold working
▪ Most frequently used for round cross sections
▪ Products:
▪ Wire: electrical wire; wire stock for fences, coat
hangers, and shopping carts
▪ Rod stock for nails, screws, rivets, and springs
▪ Bar stock: metal bars for machining, forging, and
other processes
92
46
Bar Drawing
▪ Accomplished as a single-draft operation - the stock

is pulled through one die opening
▪ Beginning stock has large diameter and is a straight
cylinder
▪ Requires a batch type operation
93
Bar Drawing Bench
Hydraulically operated draw bench for drawing metal bars
94
47
Wire Drawing
▪ Continuous drawing machines consisting of multiple

draw dies (typically 4 to 12) separated by
accumulating drums
▪ Each drum (capstan) provides proper force to
draw wire stock through upstream die
▪ Each die provides a small reduction, so desired
total reduction is achieved by the series
▪ Annealing sometimes required between dies to
relieve work hardening
95
Continuous Wire Drawing
96
48
Draw Die Details
Draw die for drawing of round rod or wire
97
Features of a Draw Die
▪ Entry region - funnels lubricant into the die to prevent

scoring of work and die
▪ Approach - cone-shaped region where drawing
occurs
▪ Bearing surface - determines final stock size
▪ Back relief - exit zone - provided with a back relief
angle (half-angle) of about 30
▪ Die materials: tool steels or cemented carbides
98
49
Preparation of Work for Drawing
▪ Annealing – to increase ductility of stock

▪ Cleaning - to prevent damage to work surface and
draw die
▪ Pointing – to reduce diameter of starting end to allow
insertion through draw die
99
SHEET METALWORKING
1. Cutting Operations
2. Bending Operations
3. Deep Drawing
100
50
Sheet Metalworking Defined
▪ Cutting and forming operations performed on

relatively thin sheets of metal
▪ Thickness of sheet metal = 0.4 mm to 6 mm
▪ Thickness of plate stock > 6 mm
▪ Operations usually performed as cold working
101
Sheet and Plate Metal Products
▪ Sheet and plate metal parts for consumer and

industrial products such as
▪ Automobiles and trucks
▪ Airplanes
▪ Railway cars and locomotives
▪ Farm and construction equipment
▪ Small and large appliances
▪ Office furniture
▪ Computers and office equipment
102
51
Advantages of Sheet Metal Parts
▪ High strength
▪ Good dimensional accuracy
▪ Good surface finish
▪ Relatively low cost
▪ Economical mass production for large quantities
103
Sheet Metalworking Terminology
▪ Punch-and-die - tooling to perform cutting,

bending, and drawing
▪ Stamping press - machine tool that performs most
sheet metal operations
▪ Stampings - sheet metal products
104
52
Basic Types of Sheet Metal Processes
1. Cutting
▪ Shearing to separate large sheets
▪ Blanking to cut part perimeters out of sheet
metal
▪ Punching to make holes in sheet metal
2. Bending
▪ Straining sheet around a straight axis
3. Drawing
▪ Forming of sheet into convex or concave shapes
105
Sheet Metal Cutting
▪ Shearing of sheet metal between two cutting edges:

▪ (1) just before the punch contacts work
▪ (2) punch begins to push into work, causing plastic
deformation
106
53
Sheet Metal Cutting
▪ Shearing of sheet metal between two cutting edges:
▪ (3) punch compresses and penetrates into work causing
a smooth cut surface
▪ (4) fracture is initiated at the opposing cutting edges
which separates the sheet
107
Sheet Metal Cutting
▪ If the clearance (c) between punch and die is correct,

the two fracture lines meet – clean separation of
work into two pieces
▪ Rollover – depression at top of cut surface made by
the punch in the work prior to cutting - initial plastic
deformation
▪ Burnish – relatively smooth region just below the
rollover – results from penetration of punch into work
before fracture began
▪ Fractured zone – relatively rough surface
▪ Burr – sharp corner on bottom edge
108
54
Shearing, Blanking, and Punching
▪ Three principal operations in pressworking that cut

sheet metal:
1. Shearing
2. Blanking
3. Punching
109
Shearing
▪ Sheet metal cutting operation along a straight line

between two cutting edges
▪ Typically used to cut large sheets
▪ Shearing operation: (a) side view of the shearing

operation; (b) front view of power shears equipped with
inclined upper cutting blade
110
55
Blanking and Punching
▪ Blanking - sheet metal cutting to separate piece

(called a blank) from surrounding stock
▪ Punching - similar to blanking except cut piece is
scrap, called a slug
(a) Blanking and (b) punching

111
Clearance in Sheet Metal Cutting
▪ Distance between punch cutting edge and die cutting

edge
▪ Typical values range between 4% and 8% of stock
thickness
▪ If too small, fracture lines pass each other,
causing double burnishing and larger force
▪ If too large, metal is pinched between cutting
edges and excessive burr results
112
56
Clearance in Sheet Metal Cutting
▪ Recommended clearance is calculated by:

c = Ac t
where c = clearance (mm); Ac = clearance
allowance; and t = stock thickness (mm)
▪ Allowance Ac is determined according to type of
metal
113
Sheet Metal Groups Allowances
Metal group Ac
1100S and 5052S aluminum alloys, all 0.045
tempers
2024ST and 6061ST aluminum alloys; 0.060
brass, soft cold rolled steel, soft
stainless steel
Cold rolled steel, half hard; stainless 0.075

steel, half hard and full hard
114
57
Punch and Die Sizes
▪ For a round blank of diameter Db:

▪ Blanking punch diameter = Db - 2c
▪ Blanking die diameter = Db
where c = clearance
▪ For a round hole of diameter Dh:
▪ Hole punch diameter = Dh
▪ Hole die diameter = Dh + 2c
where c = clearance
115
Punch and Die Sizes
• Die size
determines blank
size Db; punch
size determines
hole size Dh.; c =
clearance
116
58
Angular Clearance
Purpose: allows slug or blank to drop through die

▪ Typical values: 0.25 to 1.5 on each side
117
Cutting Forces
▪ Important for determining press size (tonnage)

F=StL
where,
S = shear strength of metal
t = stock thickness (mm)
L = length of cut edge (mm)
118
59
Example
• A round disk of 150-mm diameter is to be blanked from a

strip of 3.2-mm, half-hard cold-rolled steel whose shear
strength = 310 MPa. Determine (a) the appropriate punch
and die diameters, and (b) blanking force
• Solution: (a) The clearance allowance for half-hard cold-

rolled steel is Ac = 0.075
• c = 0.075  3.2 mm = 0.24 mm
• The blank is to have a diameter = 150 mm, and a die size
determines blank size. Therefore,
• Die opening diameter = 150.00 mm
• Punch diameter = 150 – 2(0.24) = 149.52 mm
119
Example
• (b) To determine the blanking force, we assume that the

entire perimeter of the part is blanked at one time. The
length of the cut edge is
• L = Db = 150  = 471.2 mm
• and the force is,
• F = 310  471.2  3.2 = 467,469 N
120
60
SHEET METALWORKING
3. Deep Drawing
121
Sheet Metal Bending
▪ Straining sheet-metal around a straight axis to take a

permanent bend
▪ Metal is plastically deformed
▪ Upon removal of stresses – the bend takes a
permanent set
t : metal thickness
R : bend radius
 : bend angle
w : workpiece width
122
61
Sheet Metal Bending
▪ Metal on inside of neutral plane is compressed,

while metal on outside of neutral plane is stretched
▪ Bending produces little or no change in the
thickness of the sheet metal
Both compression and

tensile elongation of
the metal occur in
bending
123
Types of Sheet Metal Bending
▪ Bending operations are performed using punch and

die tooling
▪ V-bending - performed with a V-shaped die
▪ Edge bending - performed with a wiping die
124
62
V-Bending
▪ V-shaped punch and die – angles ranging from very

obtuse to very acute
▪ For low production
▪ Performed on a press brake
▪ V-dies are simple and inexpensive
125
Edge Bending
▪ Involves cantilever loading on the sheet metal

▪ Pressure pad required to hold the base of the part
against the die
▪ For high production
▪ Dies are more complicated and costly
126
63
Stretching during Bending
▪ If bend radius is small relative to stock thickness,

metal tends to stretch during bending
▪ Important to estimate amount of stretching, so final
part length = specified dimension
▪ Problem: to determine the length of neutral axis of
the part before bending – bend allowance
127
Bend Allowance Formula
α
Ab = 2π ( R + K ba t )
360
▪ where Ab = bend allowance;  = bend angle; R =
bend radius; t = stock thickness; and Kba is factor to
estimate stretching
▪ If R < 2t, Kba = 0.33
▪ If R  2t, Kba = 0.50
128
64
Springback
▪ Increase in included angle of bent part relative to

included angle of forming tool after tool is removed
▪ Reason for springback:
▪ When bending pressure is removed, elastic
energy remains in bent part, causing it to recover
partially toward its original shape
129
Springback
 
▪ Springback in bending is seen as a decrease in bend angle and

an increase in bend radius: (1) during bending, the work is
forced to take radius Rb and included angle b' of the bending
tool, (2) after punch is removed, the work springs back to radius
R and angle ‘
130
65
Bending Force
Maximum bending force estimated as follows:
K bf TSwt 2
F=
D
where F = bending force; TS = tensile strength of

sheet metal; w = part width in direction of bend
axis; t = stock thickness; and D = die opening
For V- bending, Kbf = 1.33;
For edge bending, Kbf = 0.33
131
Die Opening Dimension
Die opening dimension D: (a) V-die, (b) wiping die
132
66
Example
▪ A sheet-metal blank is to be bent as shown in the

figure. The metal has a modulus of elasticity = 205103
MPa, yield strength = 275 MPa, and a tensile strength
= 450 MPa. Determine (a) the starting blank size and
(b) the bending force if a V-die is used with a die
opening dimension = 25 mm.
133
Solution
▪ (a) The starting blank = 44.5 mm wide

▪ Its length = 38 + Ab + 25 (mm)
▪ Since R < 2t, then Kba = 0.33
60
Ab = 2 ( 4.75 + 0.33  3.2) = 6.08 mm
360
▪ Length of the blank = 38 + 6.08 + 25 = 69.08 mm
▪ (b) Force F obtained using Kbf = 1.33 (V- bending)

1.33 × 450 × 44.5 × 3. 22
𝐹= = 10.909 kN
25
134
67
SHEET METALWORKING
3. Deep Drawing
135
Drawing
▪ Sheet metal forming to make cup-shaped,

box-shaped, or other complex-curved,
hollow-shaped parts
▪ Sheet metal blank, which held flat against the die by
blankholder, is positioned over die cavity and then
punch pushes metal into opening
▪ Products: beverage cans, sinks, cooking pots
ammunition shells, automobile body panels
▪ Also known as deep drawing (to distinguish it from
wire and bar drawing)
136
68
Drawing
▪ Cup-shaped part is the basic drawing operation
▪ (a) Drawing of
cup-shaped part: (1)
before punch
contacts work, (2)
near end of stroke
▪ (b) workpart: (1)

starting blank, (2)
drawn part
137
Mechanics of Drawing
▪ Blank of diameter (Db) is drawn into a die by means

of a punch of diameter (Dp)
▪ Punch and die must have corner radii, Rp and Rd
▪ If Rp and Rd = 0, then the operation would be hole-
punching (not a very good one)
▪ Sides of punch and die separated by a clearance c
given by: c = 1.1 t
▪ In other words, clearance is about 10% greater than
stock thickness (t)
138
69
Tests of Drawing Feasibility
▪ It is important to assess the limitations on the

amount of drawing that can be accomplished
▪ This is guided by a simple measures
▪ Drawing ratio
▪ Reduction
▪ Thickness-to-diameter ratio
139
Drawing Ratio DR
▪ Most easily defined for cylindrical shape:

Db
DR =
Dp
where Db = blank diameter; and Dp = punch diameter
▪ Indicates severity of a given drawing operation
▪ Upper limit: DR  2.0
▪ It depends on Rp and Rd, friction conditions, depth
of draw, and characteristics of sheet metal
140
70
Reduction r
▪ Very closely related to drawing ration

▪ Defined for cylindrical shape:
Db − Dp
r=
Db
▪ Value of r should be less than 0.50
141
Thickness-to-Diameter Ratio t/Db
▪ Thickness of starting blank divided by blank diameter

▪ Desirable for t/Db ratio to be greater than 1%
▪ As t/Db decreases, tendency for wrinkling increases
142
71
Forces
▪ Drawing force (F) required to perform the operation

can be estimated roughly by:
F = DP t TS ((Db/Dp) – 0.7) (N)
▪ F varies throughout the downward movement of the
punch, reaching its maximum value at about one-
third the length of the punch stroke
▪ Holding force (Fh) can be estimated by:
Fh = 0.015 Y  { Db2 – (Dp + 2.2t + 2Rd)2}
where, Y: yield strength (MPa)
143
Blank Size Determination
▪ For final dimensions of drawn shape to be correct,

starting blank diameter Db must be right – to supply
sufficient metal to complete the cup
▪ Solve for Db by setting starting sheet metal blank
volume = final product volume
▪ To facilitate calculation, assume negligible thinning
of part wall
144
72
Example
▪ A drawing operation is used to form a cylindrical cup

with inside diameter = 75 mm and height = 50 mm.
The starting blank size =138 mm and the stock
thickness = 2.4 mm. Based on this data, is the
operation feasible?
▪ If so, determine (a) drawing force and (b) holding
force, given that the tensile strength of the sheet
metal (low-carbon steel) = 300 MPa and yield strength
= 175 MPa. The die corner radius = 6 mm.
145
Solution
▪ To assess feasibility, we determine the drawing ratio,

reduction, and thickness-to-diameter ratio
DR = 138 / 75 = 1.84
r = (138 – 75) / 138 = 0.4565 = 45.65%
t/Db = 2.4 / 138 = 0.017 = 1.7%
▪ According to these measures, the drawing operation is
feasible. The drawing ratio is less than 2.0, the
reduction is less than 50%, and the t/Db ratio is greater
than 1%. These are general guidelines frequently used
to indicate technical feasibility
146
73
Solution
▪ (a) Maximum drawing force,

F = (75)(2.4)(300)(1.84 – 0.7) = 193.4 kN
▪ Holding force ,
Fh = 0.015(175) (1382 – (75 + 2.2  2.4 + 2  6)2)
= 86.824 kN
END of CHAPTER
147
74

04 - Metal Forming

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04 - Metal Forming

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MENG 210

BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES

▪ Metal forming operations which cause significant

Importance of Bulk Deformation

▪ In hot working, significant shape change can be

▪ In cold working, strength is increased during shape

▪ Little or no waste - some operations are near net

1. Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed between

2. Forging – work is squeezed and shaped between

3. Extrusion – work is squeezed through a die

4. Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire or bar is

▪ Deformation process in which work thickness is

The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling)

Rotating rolls perform two main functions:

▪ Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce its cross

▪ Based on workpiece geometry :

▪ Ingot is placed in a furnace for many hours until it

Rolled Products Made of Steel

Some of the steel products made in a rolling mill

▪ Side view of flat

Flat Rolling Analysis

▪ Draft = amount of thickness reduction

▪ Spreading – rolling usually increases work width

Flat Rolling Analysis

▪ Rolls contact the work along a contact arc defined

▪ Each roll has radius R, and its rotational speed

▪ No-slip point (or neutral point) – one point along the

▪ On either side of the point, slipping and friction

▪ Forward slip (s) – a measure amount of slip

▪ True strain () – based on before and after stock

Flat Rolling Analysis

▪ Average flow stress (Y ) – applied to work material

▪ Average flow stress ( Y ) is used to compute estimate

▪ Friction in rolling occurs in certain coefficient of

Flat Rolling Analysis

▪ Maximum possible draft that can be accomplished

▪ Rolling force (F) can be approximated by:

▪ Torque in rolling can be estimated by assuming that

where N is rotational speed of the roll (rev/min)

▪ A 300-mm-wide strip 25 mm thick is feed through a

▪ Work is deformed into a contoured cross section

▪ Accomplished by passing work through rolls that

▪ Shaping rolls are more complicated

▪ Equipment is massive and expensive

▪ Rolls diameter in range of 0.6 – 1.4 m

▪ Can be reversing or nonreversing mills

▪ Reversing mill – allows direction of roll rotation to be

Three-High Rolling Mill

▪ The three rolls are in a vertical column

▪ Roll-work contact length is reduced by reducing roll

▪ This leads to lower forces,

▪ Multiple backing rolls allow even smaller roll

▪ A series of rolling stands in sequence

▪ Each stand makes a reduction in thickness or a

BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES

▪ Deformation process in which work is compressed

Classification of Forging Operations

▪ Cold vs. hot forging:

▪ Impact vs. press forging:

▪ Degree to which the flow of the work metal is

▪ Compression of workpart between two flat dies

Open-Die Forging with No Friction

▪ If no friction occurs between work and die surfaces,