Introduction

 A mathematical model is a set of equations that represents the

dynamics of the system accurately, or at least fairly well.

 A mathematical model is not unique and system may be

represented in many different ways.

 The dynamics of many systems may be described in terms of

differential equations, which can be obtained by using physical
laws governing a particular system (Newton’s laws for mechanical
systems and Kirchhoff’s laws for electrical systems).

 In obtaining a mathematical model, compromise is made between

the simplicity of the model and the accuracy of the results of the
analysis.
 Introduction

 In deriving a reasonably simplified mathematical model, certain

inherent physical properties of the system are ignored.

 A system is said to be linear if the principle of superposition

applies, i.e.,

 Differential equations are classified as linear time-invariant

(constant coefficient) systems, and linear time-varying systems
(coefficients are functions).
 Introduction

 A system is non-linear if the principle of superposition does not

apply.
 Laplace Transformation

 Laplace transformation is a useful mathematical tool in

solving control problems.

 Then the Laplace transform of f(t) is given by

 The inverse Laplace transform can be found from F(s) by the

following inversion integral:
 Laplace Transformation

Example: Obtain the Laplace transform of f (t ) = Ae − at

 The Laplace transform of many functions are given in the

table below.
Laplace transform table
 Partial Fraction Expansion

 To find the inverse of complicated functions, PFE is used to

express the function as a sum of simpler functions.

 Case 1: Real and distinct roots

Consider

F(s) can be expanded to

and all coefficient can be obtained.

Example
 Partial Fraction Expansion
 Case 2: Real and repeated roots

Consider the following

F(s) can be expanded to

and all coefficient can be obtained using balancing of coefficient
technique, so
 Partial Fraction Expansion
 Case 3: Complex roots

Consider the following

the denominator polynomial can be factored as

By simple manipulation,

From Laplace table

 Partial Fraction Expansion
The given F(s) can be written as a sum of a damped sine and a
damped cosine function:
 Partial Fraction Expansion by MATLAB

Example: Consider the following transfer function

For this function

gives the following result:

The command

So,
 Transfer Function

 The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant, differential equation

system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the
output (response function) to the Laplace transform of the input
(driving function) under the assumption that all initial conditions are
zero.
 Transfer Function
 Consider the following differential equation

where y is the output of the system and x is the input

 The transfer function of this system is

 Transfer Function
Example: Consider the DE

d 2 y (t ) dy (t )
2
+ 3 + 2 y (t ) = 5u (t )
dt dt
dy (0)
With initial conditions y(0) = -1 and =2
dt (0)
So, the Laplace transform is

1
s Y ( s ) − sy (0) − y (0) + 3sY ( s ) − 3 y (0) + 2Y ( s ) = 5.
2

s
− s2 − s + 5 − s2 − s + 5 5 5 3
Y ( s) = = Y ( s) = − +
s( s + 3s + 2) s( s + 1)( s + 2)
2
2 s s + 1 2( s + 2)

Take inverse Laplace of Y(s)

5 −t 3 − 2t
y (t ) = − 5e + e
2 2
 Transfer Function
Example:
Transfer Function
 Transfer Function
Example:
Transfer Function
 Transfer Function

 Transfer function represents system dynamics by algebraic

equations in s.

 If the highest power of s in the denominator of the transfer function

is equal to n, the system is called an nth-order system

 If the transfer function of a system is known, the output or

response can be studied for various forms of inputs with a view
toward understanding the nature of the system.
 Transfer Function
Convolution Integral
 For a linear, time-invariant system the transfer function G(s) is

and hence,

 multiplication in the complex domain is equivalent to convolution in

the time domain, i.e.,

where both g(t) and x(t) are 0 for t < 0.

 Transfer Function
Impulse Response Function

 Consider the output (response) of a linear time invariant system to

a unit-impulse input when the initial conditions are zero.

 The inverse Laplace transform of G(s) is called impulse response,

i.e.,
 Modeling of Mechanical Systems

 Mechanical systems involve three main elements. These are

Mass, Damper, and spring.

 These elements are defined by physical laws. These are given by:

Mass:

Friction:

Spring:
 Modeling of Mechanical Systems
Example

Consider the mechanical systems shown below. Determine the transfer

function of the system.

Draw the FBD of the mass and show all forces and

Apply Newton second law.

Taking Laplace transfer with initial conditions equal

to zero,

The transfer function

 Modeling of Mechanical Systems
Example

Consider the mechanical systems shown below. Determine the transfer

function of the system.
Mass M1 :

Mass M2:

Taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions,

 Modeling of Mechanical Systems
The transfer function between F(s) and X1(s) can be obtain by
 Modeling of Mechanical Systems
Example

Consider the torsional pendulum shown below. Determine the transfer

function between the torque and angular displacement.

Draw the free body diagram and solve

Take Laplace transform and manipulate, the

transfer function is
 Modeling of Mechanical Systems
Example
Obtain the equivalent spring constants for the systems shown in Figures
below.

a) Springs in Parallel:

b) Springs in series
,, eliminate y
 Modeling of Mechanical Systems
Example
Obtain the equivalent dampers constants for the systems shown in Figures
below.

a) Springs in Parallel:

b) Springs in series
 Modeling of Electrical System
 There are three main elements in electrical circuits. These are resistance,
capacitance and inductance. These are modeled as follows:

 In electrical circuit modeling,

Kirchoff’s voltage and

current laws are used.

 Modeling of Electrical System
Example: Determine the transfer function between the input and the
output voltages of the circuit shown.

Applying Kirchhoff law, and the take Laplace transform:

Isolate I(s), we get,

→
 Modeling of Electrical System
Impedance Approach
 Mathematical models and transfer functions for electrical circuits can be
obtained using the impedance approach.
 This method is valid only when the initial conditions are equal to zero.
V (s)
 The impedance of various electrical elements Z ( s ) = are given in
the figure below, i.e., I (s)
1 1
Z R (s) = R , Z C ( s ) = and Z C ( s ) =
Cs Cs
Impedances in series

Ze = Z R + ZC + Z L
Impedances in Parallel

1 1 1 1
= + +
Ze Z R ZC Z L
 Modeling of Electrical System
Example
For the circuit shown, determine the transfer function between the input
and the output voltages.

First determine the equivalent impedance

Of the parallel RC components.

1
For R, Z R ( s ) = R and for C, Z C ( s ) =
Cs

The total impedance is

And G(s) is given by
Vo Z P R
G (s) = = =
V Z RLCs 2 + Ls + R
 Modeling of Electromechanical System
Example
Consider the servomotor shown below. Determine the transfer function
between the input voltage and the angular displacement.

The back EMF voltage em is

generated due to the motion of

armature in the magnetic flux,

where K is motor

parameter, Φ is magnetic flux and

θ is angular displacement. Since the flux is constant is can be combined

with K, we get ,

where Km is motor constant.

 Modeling of Electromechanical System
Taking Laplace transform,

For armature we can write,

The torque applied by the motor is given by

, KT is torque constant

For mechanical load, the torque equation is given by

, taking Laplace
 Modeling of Electromechanical System
The system block diagram is constructed as shown below

The motor transfer function is given by

If Lm is ignored, and approximated G(s) is given by

,
 Modeling of Liquid-Level System
Resistance of Liquid-Level Systems
 The resistance R (depends on type of flow) for liquid flow in such a pipe
or restriction is defined as the change in the level difference necessary to
cause a unit change in flow rate; that is,

 For laminar flow the resistance

in given by

 For turbulent flow the resistance

in given by
 Modeling of Liquid-Level System
Capacitance of Liquid-Level Systems
 The capacitance C of a tank is defined to be the change in quantity of
stored liquid necessary to cause a unit change in the potential (head);
that is,

Liquid-Level Systems - Example

Consider the system shown in figure below.
 Modeling of Liquid-Level System
The variables are defined as follows:

Since the inflow minus outflow during the small time interval dt is equal to
the additional amount stored in the tank, we see that;

the relationship between qo and h is given by

 Modeling of Liquid-Level System
The differential equation for this system for a constant value of
becomes

Taking the Laplace transforms of both sides and assuming the zero
initial condition, we obtain,

and

If, however, qo is taken as the output, the input being the same, then
the transfer function is

Where
 Modeling of Liquid-Level System
Liquid-Level Systems with Interaction - Example
Consider the system shown in figure below.

In this system, the two tanks interact. Thus the transfer function of the
system is not the product of two first-order transfer functions.
 Modeling of Liquid-Level System
Considering each tank, the following equations can be obtained,

If q is considered the input and q2 the output, the transfer function of the
system is
 Modeling of Liquid-Level System
The block diagram can be constructed as
 Modeling of Liquid-Level System
The block diagram can be reduced as
 Modeling of Thermal System
 Thermal systems are those that involve the transfer of heat from one
substance to another.

 There are three different ways heat can flow from one substance to
another: conduction, convection, and radiation. Most thermal processes
in process control systems do not involve radiation heat transfer.
 For conduction or convection heat transfer
 Modeling of Thermal System
Thermal Resistance and capacitance
 The thermal resistance R for heat transfer between two substances may
be defined as follows

 The thermal resistance for conduction or convection (R is constant) heat

transfer is given by

 The thermal capacitance C is defined by

 Modeling of Thermal System
Thermal System: Example
Consider the system shown below. It is assumed that the tank is insulated to
eliminate heat loss to the surrounding air, the temperature of the inflowing
liquid is kept constant. It is also assumed that there is no heat storage in the
insulation and that the liquid in the tank is perfectly mixed so that it is at a
uniform temperature. Thus, a single temperature is used to describe the
temperature of the liquid in the tank and of the out-flowing liquid.

If the heat input rate to the system

is suddenly changed from H to
H + hi where hi represents a small
change in the heat input rate the
heat outflow rate will then
change gradually to H + ho
 Modeling of Thermal System
Thermal System: Example
The heat-balance equation for this system is
dh
hi = ho +
dt
dh where
= hi − ho
dt

Substituting,

(Laplace) →
 Modeling of Thermal System
Thermal System: Example
In practice, the temperature of the inflowing liquid may fluctuate and may act
as a load disturbance. If the temperature of the inflowing liquid is suddenly
changed by θi , while the heater supply and the liquid flow rate G are kept
constant, then the heat balance equation for this case is

If the present thermal system is subjected to changes in both the

temperature of the inflowing liquid and the heat input rate, while the liquid
flow rate is kept constant,

dh θi θ
hF + hi = ho + where hF = Gcθ i = , and ho = Gcθ =
dt R R

→
Modeling of Thermal System
 Block Diagram Manipulation
 Block diagram is a pictorial representation of physical systems. It is a
tool used to reduce block and hence obtain the transfer functions of
various systems.
 Block diagrams consist of three main elements. These are functional
block, summing point and take-off (branching) point.

Functional Block: this represents the transfer between input to output

Summing Point: used to sum up Take-off Point: used to Branch

signals.
 Block Diagram Manipulation
 A fundamental block diagram configuration is a single feedback system
shown below. Tracing the signals, we get

C ( s ) = G ( s ) E ( s ) = G ( s )[ R( s ) − B( s )]

B( s ) = H ( s )C ( s )

C ( s ) = G ( s ) R( s ) − G ( s ) H ( s )C ( s )
C ( s )[1 + G ( s ) H ( s )] = G ( s ) R( s )
G (s)
C (s) = R( s)
1 + G ( s) H ( s)

The closed loop transfer function T(s) is

C (s) G (s)
T (s) = =
R( s) 1 + G ( s) H ( s)
 Block Diagram Manipulation
 A fundamental block diagram configuration is a single feedback system
shown below. Tracing the signals, we get

C ( s ) = G ( s ) E ( s ) = G ( s )[ R( s ) − B( s )]

B( s ) = H ( s )C ( s )

C ( s ) = G ( s ) R( s ) − G ( s ) H ( s )C ( s )
C ( s )[1 + G ( s ) H ( s )] = G ( s ) R( s )
G (s)
C (s) = R( s)
1 + G ( s) H ( s)

The closed loop transfer function T(s) is

C (s) G (s)
T (s) = =
R( s) 1 + G ( s) H ( s)
Block Diagram Manipulation
Block Diagram Manipulation
Block Diagram Manipulation
 Block Diagram Manipulation
Example: Simplify the block diagram shown below.

Solution
Block Diagram Manipulation
 Block Diagram Manipulation
Example: Simplify the block diagram shown below.

Solution
Block Diagram Manipulation
 Block Diagram Manipulation
Example: Obtain the transfer function of the system below using block
diagram reduction.
Solution:
 Modeling in State Space
 Many modern control systems are MIMO systems. It is more convenient
to use state space approach in in the analysis and design of MIMO
systems.
 The state of a dynamic system is the smallest set of variables (called
state variables) such that knowledge of these variables at t = t0 ,
together with knowledge of the input for t ≥ t0 , completely determines
the behavior of the system for any time t ≥ t0 .

 In state space analysis we three variables are considered, in the

modeling of dynamical systems. These are :
1. Input variable u(t)
2. Output variable y(t)
3. State variable x(t)

All these three variables are vectors.

 Modeling in State Space
 Any linear time-invariant system can be described by

where
A(t) : state matrix
B(t) : input matrix
C(t) : output matrix
D(t) : direct transition matrix (Usually = 0)
 A block diagram representation of the state space equations above is
shown as
 Modeling in State Space
Example
Consider the mechanical system shown. Derive the state space equation
of the system.

From the physical diagram, the governing DE is given by

Define the variables

Then we obtain

And the output

Modeling in State Space
 Modeling in State Space
State-Space Representation of Linear Differential Equations with no
derivatives in the Forcing Function:

Consider the nth order system

Let us define

→
 Modeling in State Space
or, we can write
 Modeling in State Space
And the output is

System TF is given by
 Modeling in State Space
Example
Obtain the state space model of the system below.

Obtain the DE from TF

and

and
 Modeling in State Space
Example
Obtain the state space model of the system below.
The equations for this system are

and

Take Laplace transform

 Modeling in State Space
Eliminate I1 and I2 from the equations,
 Modeling in State Space
State-Space Representation of Linear Differential Equations with
derivatives in the Forcing Function:
Consider the nth order system

define the following n variables as a set of n state variables

Modeling in State Space
 Modeling in State Space
With the present choice of state variables, we obtain
 Modeling in State Space
Rearrange
 Modeling in State Space
or

Where

System TF is given by
 Modeling in State Space
Example
For the system shown below, obtain the state space model.

Applying Newton’s second law to the present

system and noting that the cart is
massless, we obtain

Taking the Laplace transform of this last equation, assuming zero initial
condition, gives

→
 Modeling in State Space
Obtain the DE

Compare with standard form

and
 Modeling in State Space
Correlation Between Transfer Functions and State-Space Equations.

Let us consider the system whose transfer function is given by

and

Take Laplace transforms of state space equations above

→
 Modeling in State Space
Example
Determine the transfer function of the system shown
 Modeling in State Space
Example:
Obtain a state-space model of the system shown

X2 X1

X3
 Modeling in State Space

By taking the inverse Laplace transforms of the preceding four equations,

we obtain

a state-space model of the system in the standard form is given by