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Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 1295–1301

www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Modelling of wind/Diesel/battery hybrid power systems

for far North Cameroon
E.M. Nfah a,*, J.M. Ngundam b
a
I.U.T. Fotso Victor, University of Dschang, P.O. Box 134, Bandjoun, Cameroon
b
School of Engineering, University of Yaounde I, P.O. Box 8390, Cameroon

Received 23 May 2007; accepted 6 January 2008

Available online 5 March 2008

Abstract

Wind/Diesel/battery hybrid power systems have been modelled for electrification of typical rural households and schools in remote
areas of the Far North Province of Cameroon. The wind resource of Maroua Salak for the period 1991–1995 was used in this modelling.
The diurnal and monthly patterns of wind speeds at Maroua show that wind speeds in the range 3–6 m/s occur from 9:00 to 15:00 for
eight months. The time duration of wind speeds in this interval was found to be 36.1%. The annual capacity factors computed for low
start up wind turbines from China were found to be in the range 20–40%. Two wind turbines with rated powers 180 W and 290 W
attained acceptable capacity factors of 38 and 40% and were used in sizing wind hybrid systems for typical rural households energy needs
in the range 70–300 kWh per year. It was also found that a wind/Diesel hybrid power system based on a combination of two wind tur-
bines rated 290 W and a 5 kW single phase generator operating at a load fraction of 70% required only 106 generator hours/yr to supply
2585 kWh/yr or 7 kWh/day to a typical secondary school. The renewable energy fractions attained in feasible systems were in the range
70–100%. These results show that there is a possibility to increase the access rate to electricity in the Far North without recourse to grid
extension or more thermal plants in the northern grid or more independent Diesel plants supplying power to remote areas of the
province.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Rural electrification; Hybrid power systems; Renewable energy fraction; Low start up wind turbines; Capacity factor

1. Introduction effort to minimise their dependence on fossil based non-

It is estimated that two billion people in small villages in
developing countries currently lack grid based electricity
service. In many cases, grid extension is impractical
because of dispersed populations, rugged terrain or both.
Thus, small off grid stand alone renewable energy systems
represent an important option for narrowing the electricity
gap in rural parts of the developing world [1,2].
Since the oil crises of the early 1970s, utilization of
solar and wind power has been increasingly significant/
attractive/cost effective. Many countries are pursuing the
option of wind energy conversion systems (WECS) in an
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +237 9688 2160; fax: +237 3334 2449.
E-mail address: em_nfah@yahoo.fr (E.M. Nfah).
renewable fuels. Also, thousands of photovoltaic (PV)
systems are in use worldwide, providing power to small,
remote grid independent or stand alone applications.
The performance of most commercial WECS is limited
by high cut in wind speeds (3.5–4.5 m/s), while the
performance of PV systems is limited by variable sun
shine hours. A mixture of solar and wind energy in a
hybrid generation system can attenuate their individual
fluctuations; increase overall energy output, reduce energy
storage requirements and Diesel fuel consumptions con-
siderably [3].
The utilisation of off grid hybrid generation systems is
not known in Cameroon, which has 70% of its popula-
tion in rural areas that are not grid connected nor have
independent generating plants [4]. The main reason for

0196-8904/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2008.01.007
1296 E.M. Nfah, J.M. Ngundam / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 1295–1301
Nomenclature
P(w = wi) probability of ith wind speed
f(wijmk) frequency of ith wind speed in kth month
wi ith wind speed
mk kth month
j year in which ith wind speed occurs
k month in which ith wind speed occurs
n number of years of wind data
m number of measurable wind speeds at site
/(w = wi) time duration of ith wind speed
p(w = wi) power output wind turbine at ith wind speed
Cbank battery bank capacity (kWh)
Nbp minimum battery parallel connection number
Nbs minimum battery serial connection number
Cbatt nominal capacity of battery cell (kWh)
d days of autonomy
DOD maximum depth of discharge of battery bank
gdch discharge efficiency of battery bank
ginv efficiency of battery inverter
D(k) energy demand in kth month
this is the reliance on a central generation system based
on large scale hydroelectric plants located at Edea and
Songloulou in the southern grid and at Lagdo in the
northern grid. Electrical energy produced by these power
stations is supplied to urban and some rural areas mainly
through grid extension. For over ten years now, nation-
wide power cuts have adversely affected the economy
[5], demonstrating the limits of a centralised generation
system. In 2002, it was reported that only 40% of city
dwellers and 2000 villages out of 30,000 villages in Cam-
eroon had access to electricity, making a total of about
11% [6].
In spite of the shortage in power production capacities,
limited coverage of the nation by existing electric net-
works and low access rate to electricity, off grid renewable
energy options are yet to be considered for electrification
of the parts of Cameroon that have reasonable solar and
wind resources. However, some research efforts to encour-
age the use of renewable energy have been conducted
without institutional support and interest. These include
the estimation of the solar energy potential of Cameroon
[7], the situation of renewable energies in Cameroon [8]
and the assessment of the wind energy potential in the
Adamaoua, North and Far North Provinces of Cameroon
[4,9,10]. Tchinda et al. [10] have evaluated the wind
energy potential of selected sites in Northern Cameroon
using a 22 kW wind turbine with a cut in wind speed of
3.5 m/s. In this evaluation, a hypothetical village compris-
ing 50 households and essential facilities (such as a hospi-
tal, school and cottage industry) requiring some 70 kWh/
day was considered. The results of this study show that
the wind energy conversion systems (WECS) performed
d(k) number of days in kth month
Vob operating voltage of battery bank
Vnb nominal output voltage of battery cells in bat-
tery bank
z Number of wind turbines in wind hybrid system
gwe efficiency of wind controller
gbatt round trip efficiency of battery bank
E(k) energy generated by wind turbine in kth month
q load factor of Diesel generator
h number of generator hours required per year
Pg power rating of selected Diesel generator
C customer in energy survey
Pw nominal power of selected wind turbine
PT power rating of wind farm
N number of batteries in battery bank
T total energy generated by wind farm
Eg energy generated by Diesel generator
E total energy generated by wind hybrid system
RF renewable energy fraction
better at Maroua Salak (10°280 N, 14°160 E) than at
Garoua (9°200 N, 13°230 E) and Ngaoundere (7°170 N,
13°190 E). However, the low capacity factors obtained at
the various sites excludes the installation of this turbine
in this region.
In China, renewable energy systems based on small
wind turbines (100–300 W) manufactured locally have
been evaluated for rural household energy needs in the
Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (IMAR) [2]. The
wind resource of the IMAR in the range 4–6 m/s was
found to be suitable for community based and small scale
wind systems that can profitably compete with conven-
tional gen-sets to meet the needs of off grid rural users.
In a much earlier study, Barley et al. [11] have simulated
wind hybrid systems for the IMAR using Hybrid2, the
wind resource of the IMAR and the wind power curves
of some selected turbines. The results obtained showed
that low start up wind turbines with cut in wind speeds
in the range 1–3 m/s from China performed cost effec-
tively at low hub heights in the range 5–8.5 m [11] com-
pared to other wind turbines that were considered in the
study.
The objective of this work is to model wind/Diesel
hybrid power systems using the long term wind resource
of Maroua for electrification of isolated rural households,
schools or small villages in the Far North of Cameroon.
The wind/Diesel hybrid systems under consideration are
expected to increase the rate of access to electricity in
the Far North province, which was 7.1% in 2001, and,
consequently, reduce the incidence of poverty, which
was 56.3% in 2001, being the highest in the country
[12].
 E.M. Nfah, J.M. Ngundam / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 1295–1301 1297

6 Contrary to the counting method proposed by some

authors for evaluation of the probability wind distribution
5 function for a site [13], the following relationship has been
proposed in this paper
Mean wind speed in (m/s)

Pn
4 1 X12
f ðwi j mk Þ
P ðw ¼ wi Þ ¼ Pn j¼1 Pm ð1Þ
12 k¼1 j¼1 i¼1 f ðwi j mk Þ
3
where wi is the ith wind speed, mk the kth month, f(wijmk)
the frequency of the ith wind speed in the kth month, j the
2 year in which the ith wind speed occurs, n the number of
1991 years of wind data and m the number of measurable wind
1992
1 1993 speeds at the site.
1994
1995
The wind energy generation of a wind turbine at a site is
0
usually computed using the power curve of the wind
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 machine and the probability wind distribution function
Hours of the day [14–21]. The wind power characteristic of the turbine is
Fig. 1. Diurnal mean wind speed for Maroua (1991–1995). used to determine the power output at any mean wind
speed, while the probability wind distribution is used to
determine the time duration (in hours per year) for each
6
wind speed at the site. The time duration of mean wind
1991
speeds for 3 hourly wind speed data can be computed from
1992 the probability wind distribution function with the relation
5 1993
1994 /ðw ¼ wi Þ ¼ 2920  P ðw ¼ wi Þ ð2Þ
1995
Mean wind speed (m/s)

4 The energy output of selected wind turbines can be com-

puted with the expression
3 Eðw ¼ wi Þ ¼ pðw ¼ wi Þ  /ðw ¼ wi Þ ð3Þ
where p (w = wi) is the power output of the wind turbine
2 for the ith wind speed and / (w = wi) is the time duration
of each wind speed.
1 The annual capacity factor of the wind turbine can be
evaluated with the relation [26]
0 actual annual energy output
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 cf ð%Þ ¼  100 ð4Þ
Month rated capacityðkWÞ  8760
Fig. 2. Monthly mean wind speed for Maroua (1991–1995).

30
2. Wind energy characterization

25
In order to model wind energy systems for applications
Probability of ocurrence (%)

in the Far North Province, the wind speed data of Maroua

Salak (10°280 N, 14°160 E) for the period 1991–1995 was 20

obtained from the Cameroon Meteorological Department

since this data has been used in previous research work 15
[4,10]. The diurnal and monthly variation of the 3 hourly
wind speeds measured at a height of 10 m at Maroua from
10
1991 to 1995 are shown in Figs. 1 and 2, respectively. It is
observed in Fig. 2 that the wind speeds are higher during
the dry season as opposed to low wind speeds during the 5

wet season. It is also observed that the diurnal wind speeds

are higher than 3 m/s from 9.00 to 15.00 for more than 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
eight months of the year. Electricity generation during
Wind speed (m/s)
these hours with storage could be used to supply the low
energy needs of typical rural households. Fig. 3. Probability distribution of wind speed for Maroua (1991–1995).
1298 E.M. Nfah, J.M. Ngundam / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 1295–1301

The capacity factor at good wind sites, is expected to be in

the range 25–33%. A very good capacity factor would be
40% [22].
Using Eq. (1), the probabilities of winds speeds up to
9 m/s were computed for Maroua, and the results obtained
are shown in Fig. 3. The time duration for these wind
speeds computed with Eq. (2) are shown in Fig. 4. The
wind power characteristics of selected turbines are shown
in Table 1 and their per unit curves in Fig. 5 [11]. The
monthly energy generations of selected turbines are pre-
sented in Table 2. It is observed in Table 2 that the capacity
factors attained in the wind turbines are in the range 20–
40%.

Fig. 5. Per unit wind power characteristics of selected wind turbines.

Table 2
Energy generation and capacity factors of selected wind turbines
Month FD100 FD200 FD300 FD2kW
Jan 64.60 108.70 92.40 511.90
Feb 64.50 106.40 93.40 523.80
Mar 73.70 117.80 105.60 609.70
Apr 64.00 102.00 93.50 540.30
May 61.20 98.60 91.70 530.80
Jun 64.10 103.60 93.30 532.90
Jul 42.20 69.70 63.20 363.60
Aug 26.70 45.80 40.10 220.70
Sep 25.80 41.60 39.30 227.70
Oct 24.90 42.40 38.60 220.10
Nov 45.70 81.70 65.50 333.90
Fig. 4. Time duration of mean wind speeds at Maroua. Dec 56.20 98.30 80.50 423.10
kWh/yr 613.60 1016.60 897.10 5038.50
c.f. 38.91 40.02 21.34 20.54
Table 1
Wind-power characteristics of selected Chinese wind turbines
w (m/s) FD100 FD200 FD300 FD2kW
3. Wind/Diesel/battery hybrid power system
0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
2 0.0 0.0 0.8 19.4
In wind hybrid power systems, a battery bank is
3 1.6 2.5 20.2 201.8 required for storage of intermittent wind energy. A backup
4 35.7 71.3 54.8 230.5 Diesel generator is also necessary during periods of low
5 70.3 161.1 99.0 400.0 wind speed. The battery bank capacity can be evaluated
6 124.1 186.0 156.9 748.1 with the expression:
7 161.8 203.3 201.0 1237.5
8 180.0 212.5 245.7 1846.1 C bank ¼ N bp N bs C batt ð5Þ
9 178.9 234.8 328.0 2292.5
10 147.6 234.8 406.9 2547.3 where Nbp is the minimum parallel connection number of
11 128.6 240.2 425.3 2630.8 battery cell strings, Nbs is the serial connection number of
12 83.3 250.9 458.7 2728.4 battery cells and Cbatt is the nominal capacity of a battery
13 58.2 250.9 479.8 2799.6
cell. The minimum parallel connection number of battery
14 0.0 263.8 445.2 2690.2
15 0.0 275.7 418.1 2500.8 cell strings in the battery bank and the serial connection
16 0.0 290.0 399.5 2371.0 number of battery cells can be computed with the relations
17 0.0 284.3 376.8 2143.8 [23]
18 0.0 195.5 345.7 1523.6 " !#
19 0.0 116.5 292.6 1184.2 d X12 X12

20 0.0 0.0 243.7 933.3 N bp ¼ int DðkÞ= dðkÞ

N bs C batt DODgdch ginv k¼1 k¼1
21 0.0 0.0 52.3 175.7
22 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 ð6Þ
 E.M. Nfah, J.M. Ngundam / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 1295–1301 1299

and The computation of the generator hours is based on the

V ob
N bs ¼ ð7Þ
V nb
where d is the number of days of autonomy, DOD is the
maximum depth of discharge of the battery bank, gdch is
the discharge efficiency of the battery bank, ginv is the effi-
ciency of the battery inverter, Vob is the operating voltage
of the battery bank, Vnb is the nominal output voltage of
the battery cell.
To evaluate the contribution of the backup Diesel gen-
erator to total energy generation of the wind/Diesel hybrid
system, the hours of generator operation were computed
with the relation
" #
X12   50% maximum depth of discharge was chosen for the bat-
 DðkÞ  zg wc g batt g inv EðkÞ 
h ¼ int   ð8Þ
k¼1
q  Pg
where h is the number of generator hours required per year,
D (k) is the energy demand in the kth month, z is the num-
ber of wind turbines in the wind farm, gwc is the efficiency
of the wind controller, gbatt is the round trip efficiency of
the battery bank, ginv is the efficiency of the battery inver-
ter, q is the load factor of the Diesel generator and Pg is the
power rating of the selected Diesel generator.
energy deficit per month, the rated power of the selected
Diesel generator and the generator load factor. It is
assumed here that the generator operates at a constant load
factor during the hours of operation. A good load factor
for Diesel generators with ratings less than 12 kW would
be 70% [24].
Using Eqs. (5)–(8), and the energy demands of some low
voltage grid connected customers shown in Fig. 6, feasible
wind hybrid systems were evaluated. This energy data has
recently been used in the modelling of solar hybrid systems
for this region [23]. In this evaluation, the efficiency of the
battery inverter is assumed to be 0.90, while the discharge
efficiency of the battery bank is assumed to be 0.85. A
tery bank with a nominal output of 24 V. These values have
been used, by other authors [23,25]. In accordance with the
results obtained in Ref. [25], two days autonomy were used
in the computation of the battery bank capacity. It is also
assumed that the efficiency of the wind controller is 0.99,
and that the round trip efficiency of the battery is 0.85.
Two Diesel generator sizes 2.5 kW and 5 kW are consid-
ered in the wind hybrid systems since the lowest power rat-
ing for low voltage grid connected households in
Cameroon is 2.2 kW. The results obtained for feasible wind
hybrid systems are presented in Table 3.
In Table 3, C is the customer number, Pw the rated
power of the wind turbine, PT the rated power of the wind
farm, N the number of batteries in the battery bank, D the
annual energy demand of the customer, T the annual
energy generation of the wind farm, Eg the annual energy
generation of the backup Diesel generator, h the Diesel
generator operating hours per year, E the total energy gen-
eration per year of the wind/Diesel hybrid system and RF
the renewable energy fraction in the hybrid system. The
battery bank was formed using the Trojan T-105 deep cycle
battery with a rated battery voltage of 6 V and a battery
capacity of 225 AH at the 20 h rate.

4. Results and discussion

It is observed in Fig. 1 that diurnal wind speeds at Mar-

oua are higher than 3 m/s for 6 h between 9 am and 3 pm.
Fig. 6. Average monthly energy demand of typical low voltage grid In Fig. 2, the annual average wind speeds are greater than
connected customers [23]. 3 m/s for eight months of the year, from November to

Table 3
Wind hybrid system for low voltage grid connected customers
C Pw z PT Pg N Cbank D T h Eg E RF
1 180 1 180 2.5 0 0 65.1 465 0 0 465 1.00
2 180 1 180 2.5 4 5.4 246.5 465 2 3.5 469 0.99
3 180 1 180 2.5 4 5.4 256.7 465 4 7.1 473 0.98
4 180 1 180 2.5 4 5.4 314.7 465 12 21.1 487 0.96
5 180 1 180 2.5 8 10.8 607.9 465 113 198 663 0.70
6 290 1 290 2.5 12 16.2 1079.9 771 182 319 1089 0.71
7 290 2 580 2.5 20 27 2027.2 1540 296 518 2059 0.75
8 290 3 870 5 28 37.8 2585.1 2310 110 385 2695 0.86
1300 E.M. Nfah, J.M. Ngundam / Energy Conversion and Management 49 (2008) 1295–1301
June. The annual average diurnal and monthly wind speeds
computed for Maroua were both found to be 3 m/s. This
agrees with results obtained by other authors [4]. The peri-
ods with diurnal wind speeds greater than 3 m/s can be
exploited in low energy applications such as water pumping
and battery charging. This occurs during the day when
most rural households conduct agricultural activities. The
energy stored in the batteries can be used by rural house-
holds in the evening for lighting. This would allow children
to study at night under better light conditions, and wind
electric pumping of water would reduce the time that rural
women and children spend to draw water for household
duties. Wind pumped water could also be used for irriga-
tion of farmland to increase agricultural productivity.
The little energy generated would, thus, change the living
conditions of remote households.
In this work, usable mean wind speeds were considered
to be wind speeds other than calm with a probability of
occurrence greater than 1%. In this case, the highest mean
wind speed with such probability was 8 m/s. Probabilities
of wind speeds equal to or greater than 9 m/s were less than
1% and so were assigned to 9 m/s. The cumulative proba-
bilities of wind speeds in the intervals 0–3, 3–6 and 6–
9 m/s were found to be 57%, 36.2% and 6.8%, respectively.
These results show that exploitable mean winds for low
wind energy applications are in the interval 3–6 m/s and
occur between 9 am and 3 pm. The probability distribution
curve is similar to the time duration curves that have been
obtained in the wind power cost assessment at 20 locations
in the kingdom of Saudi Arabia [13].
In Table 2, it is observed that the capacity factors of the
selected wind turbines are in the range 20–40%. Since
the capacity factor at good wind sites is expected to be in
the range 25–33% [22], the FD100 and FD200 wind
machines could be economically exploited in wind/Diesel
hybrid power systems at Maroua. Such wind energy systems
could be used for electrification of isolated rural households
as opposed to only water pumping and mechanical applica-
tions for annual wind speeds in the range 2.6–4 m/s [26].
In Table 3, the renewable energy fractions evaluated for
all wind/Diesel hybrid systems are greater than 70%. For
the evaluated wind hybrids systems, only the FD100 and
FD200 wind turbines were selected. The annual operating
hours of the Diesel generator were found to be in the range
of 2–296 h depending on which Diesel generator was
selected. The Diesel generator in the wind/Diesel system
for the largest customer that requires some 7 kWh/day is
used for only 110 h/yr.
This analysis shows that wind/Diesel hybrid systems
based on the FD100 and FD200 wind turbines can be used
to meet the energy need of remote households and schools
in the Far North Province.
5. Conclusion
It has been demonstrated that small wind turbines (100–
300 W) manufactured in China can economically be used in
wind/Diesel/battery hybrid power systems at Maroua for
electrification of typical rural households and a secondary
school with energy demands in the range 70 kWh–
2585 kWh/yr. These results show that there is a possibility
to increase the access rate to electricity in the Far North
without recourse to grid extension or more thermal plants
in the northern grid or more independent Diesel plants sup-
plying power to remote areas of the province. However, the
effect of battery systems has not been investigated as well as
the unit cost of energy produced by the wind/Diesel system.
An economic analysis of power supply options involving
grid extension, a conventional Diesel generator plant and
a wind/Diesel hybrid power system is yet to be done to
encourage the use of wind/Diesel hybrid power systems
that have been modelled for Far North Cameroon.
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