Unit II

UNIT-II
ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY

Concept of an ecosystem – Structure and function of an ecosystem – Producers,
consumers and decomposers – Energy flow in the ecosystem – Ecological succession – Food
chains, food webs and ecological pyramids – Introduction, types, characteristic features,
structure and function of the (a) Forest ecosystem (b) Grassland ecosystem (c) Desert
ecosystem (d) Aquatic ecosystems (ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries) –
Introduction to Biodiversity – Definition: genetic, species and ecosystem diversity –
Biogeographical classification of India – Value of biodiversity: consumptive use, productive
use, social, ethical, aesthetic and option values – Biodiversity at global, National and local
levels – India as a mega-diversity nation – Hot-spots of biodiversity – Threats to biodiversity:
habitat loss, poaching of wildlife, man-wildlife conflicts – Endangered and endemic species of
India – Conservation of biodiversity: In-situ and Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity.
Field study of common plants, insects, birds

Field study of simple ecosystems – pond, river, hill slopes, etc
ECOSYSTEM
Ecology is the science which deals with the various principles which govern the relationship and
interdependence between organism and the environment.
Ecosystem is defined as any unit that includes all of the organisms in a given area interacting with the physical
environment (exchanging energy and matter).
Kinds of ecosystem:
An ecosystem can be natural or artificial, permanent or temporary and large or tiny.
Major types are:

ecosystem
Natural ecosystem Artificial ecosystem:

They are known as man-made or
These type of ecosystem will man engineered ecosystem.
operate on their own accord They are maintained by man.
without the interference of Ex:- croplands like sugarcane, rice
fields, orchards, dams, etc.
Based on the living habitat it can
be classified as
Terrestrial ecosystem – forest, grasslands, Aquatic ecosystems

etc.
Fresh water ecosystem marinewater ecosystem-

ocean and estuary
Running wager ecosystem : Standing water ecosystem :
Also known as lotic Also known as letic
Ex – spring, river, etc Ex – lake, pond, etc

STRUCTRE AND FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEM
STRUCTURE:
The structure of an ecosystem is basically a description of the species of the organisms that are present.
It include the information about the living and non living things , amount and distribution of nutrients.
An ecosystem has the following components:
S.NO COMPONTENT FUNCTION EXAMPLE

.
1. ABIOTIC
COMPONENT
I Physical Helps in the growth and Climate, soil, water. air, light, temperature, etc
maintenance
Ii Chemical Helps in the survival of the INORGANIC - C, H, O N, P, S, K,etc
members - Nitrates, phosphates and
sulphates
ORGANIC - such as proteins, carbohydrates,
lipids, amino acids, humic substances, etc.
2. BIOTIC
COMPONENT
i Producers Provides food for the Green plants, trees, shrubs, grasses, etc.
various members
Ii Consumers Consumes the food and
maintain the balance
Primary Provides food for These are herbivores.
consumers secondary consumers Grazing animals like cows, buffaloes, deers,
sheep, rabbit,etc
Secondary Provides food for tertiary They are top carnivores
consumers consumers Snakes, birds, lizards, fox.etc.
Tertiary Gives diversity for the These are top carnivores that eat carnivores of
consumers ecosystem and maintain secondary consumers.
the ecological balance. Tiger, lion, Eagle, hawks, etc
Iii DECOMPOSERS
Decomposes dead They are also known as reducers.
consumers and maintain Includes fungi (coprinus, bacteria(bacillus) and
the ecological cycle. actinomycetes.
FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEM:
It can bed classified as follows:
Primary function:
The primary function of the ecosystem is to prepare food for the members.
Secondary function:
The secondary function of the ecosystem is to distribute the energy in the form of food.
Tertiary function:
After the life end of the living being in the ecosystem the member should decompose and the cycle must be in
balance to maintain the ecological balance.
ENERGY FLOW OR TRANSFER:
The transfer of energy from one tropic level to another tropic level in the ecosystem is known as energy flow of
energy transfer.
The producers synthesize and store energy. The consumers get the energy from them and the energy is now
transferred to the various member of the ecosystem.
The flow of energy in an ecosystem is unidirectional i.e., of flows from the producer to consumer and never
gets reversed.
When the herbivores eat the producers the energy transferred is only minimal amount. The maximum amount
of the energy is lost through many methods to the environment.
A large amount of energy is lost at each tropic level. It is estimated that 90% of the energy is lost when it is
transferred from one trophic level to another. So the energy goes on decreasing from one tropic level to
another.
When the food chain is short, the final consumer gets large amount of energy. When the food chain is long the
final consumer gets only very less energy.
TROPHIC LEVEL I TROPHIC LEVEL TROPHIC LEVEL

LIGHT
PRODUCER
II (consumer I) III (consumer II)
ENERGY
LOST
The energy flow in the ecosystem follows the two laws of thermodynamics.
FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:
It states that energy can neither be created nor be destroyed. It can be converted from one form to another.
Light energy from the sun is converted into chemical energy during photosynthesis.
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:
It states that during energy transfer large part of energy is degraded into heat and dissipates.
When energy is transferred from one trophic level to another large amount of energy (90%) is lost as heat.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION:
Definition:
The development of the community on the environment leading to the establish ent of new species is known as
succession.
An ecosystem is not ideal in nature it goes nb changing time to time. These changes w\are very orderly and can
be predicted. It is observed that on \e type of community is totally replaced by another type of community
over a period of time and several changes also occur in the environment.
Causes:
There are three main causes for succession. They are:
Initiating causes:
These are climate as well as biotic in nature. The climatic causes include factors such as erosion, wind
temkperature, etc. caused by destroy the existing population in an area.
Continuing causes:
These are processes as migration, aggregation, compedtition, etc., which cause change of population in the
area.
Stabilizing cause:
These include factors such as climate of the area which result in the stabilization of the community.
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
The cyclical path of the elements from the abiotic system to the biotic system and back is called biogeochemical
cycle.
These chemicals form the components fo the food, these cycles are called nutrient cycles.
Types
Biogeochemicalm cycles are classified into two main types . they are:
Gasous cycles:
chemicals: gaseous in nature
Reservoirs: mainly atmosphere and ocan
Ex: : carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, oxygen cycle, etc
Sedimentary cycles
Chemicals: not only in gasous form
Reservoirs: mainly soil and rocks
Ex: sulphur, phosphorus cycle, etc.
NITROGEN CYCLE:
The Nitrogen Cycle

 All life requires nitrogen-compounds, e.g., proteins and nucleic acids.
 Air, which is 79% nitrogen gas (N2), is the major reservoir of nitrogen.
 But most organisms cannot use nitrogen in this form.
 Plants must secure their nitrogen in "fixed" form, i.e., incorporated in compounds such as:
o nitrate ions (NO3−)
o ammonia (NH3)
o urea (NH2)2CO
 Animals secure their nitrogen (and all other) compounds from plants (or animals that have fed
on plants).
Four processes participate in the cycling
of nitrogen through the biosphere:
 nitrogen fixation
 decay
 nitrification
 denitrification
Microorganisms play major roles in all

four of these.
Nitrogen Fixation
The nitrogen molecule (N2) is quite
inert. To break it apart so that its atoms
can combine with other atoms requires the input of substantial amounts of energy.
Three processes are responsible for most of the nitrogen fixation in the biosphere:
 atmospheric fixation by lightning

 biological fixation by certain microbes — alone or in a symbiotic relationship with some plants
and animals
 industrial fixation
Atmospheric Fixation
The enormous energy of lightning breaks nitrogen molecules and enables their atoms to combine with
oxygen in the air forming nitrogen oxides. These dissolve in rain, forming nitrates, that are carried to
the earth.
Atmospheric nitrogen fixation probably contributes some 5– 8% of the total nitrogen fixed.
Industrial Fixation
Under great pressure, at a temperature of 600°C, and with the use of a catalyst, atmospheric nitrogen
and hydrogen (usually derived from natural gas or petroleum) can be combined to form ammonia
(NH3). Ammonia can be used directly as fertilizer, but most of its is further processed to urea and
ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3).
Biological Fixation
The ability to fix nitrogen is found only in certain bacteria and archaea.
 Some live in a symbiotic relationship with plants of the legume family (e.g., soybeans, alfalfa).
 Some establish symbiotic relationships with plants other than legumes (e.g., alders).
 Some establish symbiotic relationships with animals, e.g., termites and "shipworms" (wood-
eating bivalves).
 Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria live free in the soil.
 Nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria are essential to maintaining the fertility of semi-aquatic
environments like rice paddies.
Biological nitrogen fixation requires a complex set of enzymes and a huge expenditure of ATP.
Although the first stable product of the process is ammonia, this is quickly incorporated into protein
and other organic nitrogen compounds.
Decay
The proteins made by plants enter and pass through food webs just as carbohydrates do. At each trophic
level, their metabolism produces organic nitrogen compounds that return to the environment, chiefly in
excretions. The final beneficiaries of these materials are microorganisms of decay. They break down
the molecules in excretions and dead organisms into ammonia.
Nitrification
Ammonia can be taken up directly by plants — usually through their roots. However, most of the
ammonia produced by decay is converted into nitrates. This is accomplished in two steps:
 Bacteria of the genus Nitrosomonas oxidize NH3 to nitrites (NO2−).

 Bacteria of the genus Nitrobacter oxidize the nitrites to nitrates (NO3−).
These two groups of autotrophic bacteria are called nitrifying bacteria. Through their activities (which
supply them with all their energy needs), nitrogen is made available to the roots of plants.
Both soil and the ocean contain archaeal microbes, assigned to the Crenarchaeota, that convert
ammonia to nitrites. They are more abundant than the nitrifying bacteria and may turn out to play an
important role in the nitrogen cycle.
Many legumes, in addition to fixing atmospheric nitrogen, also perform nitrification — converting
some of their organic nitrogen to nitrites and nitrates. These reach the soil when they shed their leaves.
Denitrification
The three processes above remove nitrogen from the atmosphere and pass it through ecosystems.
Denitrification reduces nitrates to nitrogen gas, thus replenishing the atmosphere.
Once again, bacteria are the agents. They live deep in soil and in aquatic sediments where conditions
are anaerobic. They use nitrates as an alternative to oxygen for the final electron acceptor in their
respiration. Thus they close the nitrogen cycle.
Are the denitrifiers keeping up the nitrogen cycle in balance?
Probably not. Certainly, there are examples of nitrogen enrichment in ecosystems. One troubling
example: the "blooms" of algae in lakes and rivers as nitrogen fertilizers leach from the soil of adjacent
farms (and lawns). The accumulation of dissolved nutrients in a body of water is called
eutrophication.
Carbon cycle:
In all biotic systems, carbon is the most essential ingredient from the point of energy floow and
matrial sysnthesis.
Organic compoiunds are carbon compounds.
Flow of carbon into the biotic system:
Production of carbon in the cycle is by following ways:
Natural and Respiration:
Evolution of carbon di oxide due the respiration of the plants is on of the sources.
Evolution of carbon di oxide by the animals and the human being during respiration process.
Volcanic eruptions will also release carbon di oxide.
Man made proicess:
The main evolution of carbon in the envrioment or in the atmosphere is due to the combustin of
fossil fuels from the automobiles and from industries.
Carbon di oxide sink:
After the production the sinkage of the carbon di oxide is mainly by following methods:
Photosynthesis:
Casrbon enters biotic system through photosysnthesis.
Green planrts utilize CO2 and produce carbohydrates.

Reaction:’
6CO2 + 6 H2O - C6H12O6 +6O2.
Sinkage in sea water (productin of shell):
CO2 dissolved in seawater is utilized by the marine animals like protzoans, corals, algae, egt. For
the construnction of shell.
Reaction:
CO2 + H2O  H2CO3 (carboinic acid)
H2CO3  H+ + HCO3- (bicarbonate)
HCO3- + Ca+  H+ + CaCO3 ( calcium carbonate)
Decomposition:
When plants and animals die, the dead bodies are decomposed into CO 2 by decomposers like
bacteria, algae etc.
Carbondioxide in the
atmosphere
Due to the combustion of

Respiration by animals
fossile fuels from the
automobiles
Respiration by human beings

Production of CO2 by the
industries.
Respiration by plants
Volcanic eruptions
CO2 sainkagein the sea CO2 sinkage by the process

water. photosynthesis
Deompostion of dead matter by

bacteir and fungi produces CO2
Phosphorus cycle:
Phosphorus can be found on earth in water, soil and sediments.
Unlike the compounds of other matter cycles phosphorus cannot be found in air in the gaseous
state. This is because phosphorus is usually liquid at normal temperatures and pressures.
Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plants and animals in the form of ions PO 43- and HPO42-. It
is a part of DNA-molecules, of molecules that store energy (ATP and ADP) and of fats of cell
membranes. Phosphorus is also a building block of certain parts of the human and animal body,
such as the bones and teeth.
It is mainly cycling through water, soil and sediments. In the atmosphere phosphorus can mainly
be found as very small dust particles.
Phosphorus moves slowly from deposits on land and in sediments, to living organisms, and than
much more slowly back into the soil and water sediment.
The phosphorus cycle is the slowest one of the matter cycles that are described here.
Phosphorus is most commonly found in rock formations and ocean sediments as phosphate salts.
Phosphate salts that are released from rocks through weathering usually dissolve in soil water and
will be absorbed by plants. Because the quantities of phosphorus in soil are generally small, it is
often the limiting factor for plant growth. That is why humans often apply phosphate fertilizers on
farmland. Phosphates are also limiting factors for plant-growth in marine ecosystems, because
they are not very water-soluble. Animals absorb phosphates by eating plants or plant-eating
animals.
Phosphorus cycles through plants and animals much faster than it does through rocks and
sediments. When animals and plants die, phosphates will return to the soils or oceans again
during decay. After that, phosphorus will end up in sediments or rock formations again, remaining
there for millions of years. Eventually, phosphorus is released again through weathering and the
cycle starts over.
A schematic representation of the phosphorus cycle:

PROCESSES OF SUCCESSION:
The process of succession takes place by the following process:
Nudation:
It is the development of bare area without any life form.
The causes of bare area are of three main types:
Topographic: Due to erosion by gravity, water or wind, landslide, volcanic activity, etc.
Climataic: dry seasons, frost, fire etc. may also destroy community.
Biotic: Man forms a most important biotic factor, for destroying forests, grasslands for industry and
other purposeses. Other reasons are diseases, fungi,etc., whihch destroy the population.
Invasion:
It is the successful establishemt of one or more species on a bare area through dfispersal or migration followed
by establishement.
As the growth and reproduction start, these pioneer species increase in number and form groups or
aggregations.
Competition and coactions:
As the number of individuals grows there is competiton, both inter specific (between different species ) and
intra specific (with in the same species) for various factors like water, soil, and nutrition. They influence each
ogther ina number of ways called coactions.
Reaction:
The living organisms grow, use water and nutrients and in turn , they have astrong influence on the
environment whihch is modified to a large extent and this is known as reaction.
Stabilization:
The succession ultimately culminates in a more or less stable community called climax which is in equilibrium
with the environment.
TYPES:
Primay succession:
If an area in any of the environment is colonized by organisms for the firsgt time the succession is called
primary succession.
Secondary succession:
If the area under colonization has been cleared by any factors like burning, grazing, sudden change in climate,
etc., of the previous plants, it is called secondary succession.
Autogenic succession:
If the modification occurs due to the reaction in the community itself, then that is known as autogenic
succession.
Allogenic succession:
In somjke cases, replacement of one community by another is largely due to force other than the effects of
communities on the environment. Example pollutants or nutrients from outside enter and modifiy the
environement and the community. Itn isnknown as allogenic succession.
Induced succession:
Activities like overgrazing frequent scraping, shigfting cultivation or industrial pollution may cause deterioration
of an ecosystem.
HYDROSERE (HYDRARCH):
Should given
FOOD CHAIN:
A food chain shows how each living thing gets its food. Some animals eat plants and some animals eat other
animals. For example, a simple food chain links the trees & shrubs, the giraffes (that eat trees & shrubs), and the
lions (that eat the giraffes). Each link in this chain is food for the next link. A food chain always starts with plant
life and ends with an animal.
1. Plants are called producers because they are able to use light energy from the Sun to produce
food (sugar) from carbon dioxide and water.
2. Animals cannot make their own food so they must eat plants and/or other animals. They are
called consumers. There are three groups of consumers.
a. Animals that eat ONLY PLANTS are called herbivores (or primary consumers).
b. Animals that eat OTHER ANIMALS are called carnivores.
 carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers
 carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers

e.g., killer whales in an ocean food web ... phytoplankton → small fishes →
seals → killer whales
3. Animals and people who eat BOTH animals and plants are called omnivores.
4. Then there are decomposers (bacteria and fungi) which feed on decaying matter.
These decomposers speed up the decaying process that releases mineral salts back into the
food chain for absorption by plants as nutrients.
you know why there are more herbivores than carnivores?
In a food chain, energy is passed from one link to another. When a herbivore eats, only a
fraction of the energy (that it gets from the plant food) becomes new body mass; the rest of the
energy is lost as waste or used up by the herbivore to carry out its life processes (e.g.,
movement, digestion, reproduction). Therefore, when the herbivore is eaten by a carnivore, it
passes only a small amount of total energy (that it has received) to the carnivore. Of the energy
transferred from the herbivore to the carnivore, some energy will be "wasted" or "used up" by the
carnivore. The carnivore then has to eat many herbivores to get enough energy to grow.
Because of the large amount of energy that is lost at each link, the amount of energy that is
transferred gets lesser and lesser ...
1. The further along the food chain you go, the less food (and hence energy) remains
available.
The above energy pyramid shows many trees & shrubs providing food and energy to giraffes. Note that as we go
up, there are fewer giraffes than trees & shrubs and even fewer lions than giraffes ... as we go further along a
food chain, there are fewer and fewer consumers. In other words, a large mass of living things at the base is
required to support a few at the top ... many herbivores are needed to support a few carnivores
TYPES OF FOOD CHAIN:
Food chains can be divided into two types. They are
grazing food chain
detritus food chain
GRAZING FOOD CHAIN:
This food chain starts from the living green plants goes through herbivores and ends on to carnivroes.
Ecosystem with this type of food chain are directly dependent on the capture of the soalr energy, because
the green plants can produce food by using solar energy.
Most of the ecosystem in the nature have this type of food chain.
PLANTS  HERBIVORES PRIMARY CARNIVORES  SECONDARY CARNIVORES
Grazing food chain can be classified into two types.
Parasitic food chain – in this the animals of grazing food chain are infected by parasites.
Predator food chain – in this one animal captures and devour another animal.
DETRITUS FOOD CHAIN:
It starts from dead organic matter and ends in inorganic compounds. Detrivores are the class of organisms
that feed only on dead bodies of animals and plants.
Detrivores include algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoans, insects,etc.
DEAD ORGANIC MATERIALS  DETRIVORES – INORGANIC MATIRIAL
The best example of detritus food chain is mangrove ecosystem.
Detritus food chain is a sub component of another ecosystem.
Both grazing and detritus food chains cannot operate independently. They are interconnected at various
levels.
The detritus feeders obtain energy from the dead bodies of animals and plants which are components of the
graziong food chain.
Again some of detritus feeders are eaten by the consumers of the grazing food chain.
For example in the pond ecosystem, the earthworm belonging to the detritus food chain is eaten by fish
belonging to the grazing food chain.
FOOD WEB
Definition and explanation:
Most animals are part of more than one food chain and eat more than one kind of food in order to meet their food
and energy requirements. These interconnected food chains form a food web.
The linear arrangement of the food chains hardly occurs and they are interconnected under natural conditions.
Thus, these are found alteration in nature.
Simply, one organism forms food for more than one organisms of the higher trophic level.
Example:
In a grazing food chain of a grass land, in the absence of rabbit, grass also been eaten by mouse. The mouse
may in turn be eaten directly by hawk or by snake first.
These are five linear food chains in the grass land.
Grass  grasshopperhawk
Grass  grasshopperlizard hawk
Grass  rabbithawk
Grass  mousehawk
Grass  mouse snake hawk
GRASSHOPPER
LIZARD
GRASS HAWK
RABBIT
MOUSE SNAKE
All these five chains are interlinked with each other at different points forming a food web.
Difference between food chain and food web
S.NO. FOOD CHAIN FOOD WEB

Sequence of transfer of food in the Interlocking of various food chains known as food
ecosystem is known as food chain web.
If one species become extinct, then the If one species gets affected, it does not affect other
species in the subsequent tropic level tropic levels.
will gets affected
No other choice for the lower tropic Many choices for the lower tropic level species.
level species
Significance of food chain and food web:
Food chain food web both maintains balance in the ecosystem for the survival of the all the living organism of
the system.
Energy flow takes place through food web and chain.
Nutrient flow takes place through food chain and web.
They have biomagnifications property. The non biodegradable materials keep on passing from one tropic to
another tropic level. At each level the concentration keep on increasing. This is known as biomagnifications.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS:
An Ecological Pyramid (or Trophic pyramid) is a graphical representation designed to show the
relationship between energy and trophic levels of a given ecosystem.
This relationship is demonstrated through the number of individuals at a given trophic level, the amount
of biomass at a given trophic level, or the amount of energy at a given trophic level. It is worth noting
that all Ecological Pyramids begin with producers on the bottom and proceed through the various
trophic levels, the highest of which is on top.
Pyramid of Biomass
An Ecological Pyramid of Biomass shows the

relationship between energy and trophic level by
quantifying the amount of biomass present at
each trophic level (dry mass per trophic level).
As such, is assumed that there is a direct
relationship between biomass and energy
In a Pyramid of Biomass, the skeleton and beak would still be quantified even though it does not
contribute to the overall flow of energy into the next trophic level.
Each rectangle represents the mass of the organisms per unit area or volume.
secondary consumer
primary consumer
producer
Pyramid of Energy
An Ecological Pyramid of Energy is the most useful of the three types, showing the direct relationship
between energy and trophic level. It measures the number of calories per trophic level. As with the
others, this graph begins with producers and ends with a higher trophic level.
When energy is transferred to the next trophic level, only 10% of it is used to build body mass,
becoming stored energy (the rest going to metabolic processes). As such, in a Pyramid of Energy,
each step will be 10% the size of the previous step (100, 10, 1, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001 etc.).
Pyramid of numbers:
Te number of individuals at the trophic levels decreases from the producer level to the consumer level. That s,
in an ecosystem the number of producers is far high.
The number of herbivores is lesser than the producers. Similarly, the number of carnivores is lesser than the
herbivores.
ECOSYSTEM
Forests occupy 40 per cent of the land. In India, the forests occupy roughly one tenth of the total land area.
Types :
Tropical rain forests:
Characteristics:
High temperature
High humidity
High rainfall.
All through the year climate remains more or less uniform.
Flowers of the forest trees are very large, colourful, fragrant and attractive
Example:
Silent valley in kerala
Tropical deciduous forests:
Characteristics:
Warm climagte
Rain occurs durin only monsson

Mostly, large part the year remains dry.
Trees losed their leaves during dry season.
Example:
Found little away from the equator.
Tropical scrub forest:
Characteristics:
Climate is very dry.
Long dry season.
Only small trees and shrubs are found.
Example:
Temperate rain forests:
Characteristics:
Moderate climate
They have adequate rainfall
Dominated by coniferous trees likwe pines, redwoods, etc.,
Example:
Evergreen coniferous forests:
Characteristics:
They have long and cold winter.
Sulight available for only few hours.
Very short summer.
They haved trees like pine, spruce, fir,…etc.
They have tiny, needle shaped leaveshaving waxy coating to withstand sevdere cole and drought.
Example:
Found near south of arctic tundra.
Components of forest ecosystem:

.
1. ABIOTIC
COMPONENT
I Physical Helps in the growth and Climate, soil, water. Air,etc
maintenece
Ii Chemical Helps in the survival of the Inorganic and organic substances present.
members Addtion to this dead orgaic debris (litter) is also
present
2. BIOTIC
COMPONENT
i Producers Provides food for the Trees, shrubs, flowers and fruits
various members Trees depend on the type of the forest.
Examples are:

consumers secondary consumers Ants, flies, leafhoppers, bugs, spiders,
elephants, deer, squirrels,mongooses,etc.

the ecological balance. Lion, tiger,etc
Iii DECOMPOSERS
Decomposes dead Includes fungi(coprinus, bacteria(bacillus) and
consumers and maintain actinomycetes.
the ecological cycle.
GRASS LAND ECOSYSTEM:
Grassland approximately occupies 19 percent of the earth’s surface.
Types:
Tropical grasslands:
Characteristics:
In dry season, fires are quite common.
Termite mounds are common.
They are also knonwn as savannas.
They have tall grasses with scattered shrubs and some trees
Example:
Found in Africa.
Temperate grasslands:
Charactedristics:
Found in slopped hills.
Winters are cold and summers are hot and dry
Summer fires are common.
Wind blowing is more.
Also known as pampas, velds and steppes
Examples:
Found in south America, Africa and some places in asia.
Polar grasslands:
Characteristics:
Severe cold and strong ice and snow.
Short summer.
Thick layer of ice remains frozen under the soil known as permafrost.
Example:
Found in arctic polar region.
COMPONENTS AND FUNCTION OF GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM:

.
1. ABIOTIC
COMPONENT
I Physical Helps in the growth and Climate, soil, water. Air,etc
maintenece
Ii Chemical Helps in the survival of the INORGANIC - C, H, O N, P, S, K,etc
members - Nitrates, phosphates and
sulphates
ORGANIC - some organic chemicals also
present.
2. BIOTIC
COMPONENT
i Producers Provides food for the Mainly grasses, some trees and shrubs also
various members found

consumers secondary consumers Grazing animals like cows, buffaloes, deers,
sheep, rabbit,etc
the ecological balance. Eagle, hawks, etc
Iii DECOMPOSERS
Decomposes dead Includes fungi(coprinus, bacteria(bacillus) and
DESERT ECOSYSTEM:
Desert occupy about 17 percent of the land. They have the annual rainfall of less than 25 centimeters.
TYPES
Tropical desert Temperate deserts Cold deserts

Driest of all deserts
Sand dunes are coom Very hot summer Very cold winter
Found in Namib- Africa
Rajastan - India Cold winter Warm summer
Found in Mojave- south Found in Gobi deserts - China

california
.
1. ABIOTIC
COMPONENT
I Physical Helps in the growth and Climate, soil, water. Air etc
maintenece
Ii Chemical Helps in the survival of the Inorganic and organic substances present.
members Inorganic- silicates are mainly preset with some
nutrients
2. BIOTIC
COMPONENT
i Producers Provides food for the Trees, shrubs and some lower plants like lichens
various members are present

consumers secondary consumers Ants, Camels,flies, deer, squirrels, etc.

consumers consumers Snakes, birds, etc.
the ecological balance. Lion, tiger, etc
Iii DECOMPOSERS
Decomposes dead These are very few due to poor vegetation.
consumers and maintain Some fungi and bacteria are present and most
the ecological cycle. of them are thermnophilic.
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
MARINE WATER ECOSYSTEM FRESH WATER ECOSYSTEM
RUNNING WATER (LOTIC) STANDING WATER (LENTIC)
EX: STREAM, RIVERS EX: LAKE, POND
Fresh water ecosystem
POND WSATER ECOSYSTEM
Apart from some simpe living beings some complex forms of life are also present in pond
It is only seasonal.

.
1. ABIOTIC
COMPONENT
I Physical Helps in the growth and heat, light, pH, water. air, etc
maintenece
Ii Chemical Helps in the survival of the Inorganic : calcium, nitrogen, phosphates,etc
members Organic: amino acids, oxygen, humic acid, etc
2. BIOTIC
COMPONENT
i Producers Provides food for the These are autotrohic green plants.
various members Producers are of following types:
Macrophytes:
Large rooted plants, partly submerged or
completely submerged .
Ex: typha, chara, hydrilla, trapa, etc.
Phytoplankton:
They are minute and floating plants.
Volvax, microcysis, oscillatoria, etc
consumers secondary consumers Some types are:
Benthos:
Animals associated with living plants and
renminas lying at the bottom of the pond,
They are known as dedtritivores
Ex: beetles, mites, fish, larvae, etc.
Zooplankton:
Floats freely on the sureface.
Feeds on phytoplankton
Ex: protozoa, ciliates, etc.
consumers consumers Insects, fish, etc.
the ecological balance. Large fishes like game fish.
Iii DECOMPOSERS
Decomposes dead Includes fungi (coprinus, bacteria(bacillus) and
LAKE ECOSYSTEM:
They are large natural shallow water bodies.
TYPES:
ENDEMIC LAKES: DESERT SALT LAKES: VOLCANIC LAKES:

They very deep and have Have high salt concentration Receive water from magma
endemic founa Ex: Sambhar lake in after volcanic eruptions.
Ex: Baikal lake in Russia Rajasthan Ex: Many lake ins Japan
LAKES
EUTROPIC LAKES DYSTROPIC LAKES

Over nourished by nutrients Have low pH.
like N & P High acid content
Covered by algal blooms Brown water
OLIGOTROPIC LAKES: Ex: Dal lake EX: B OG LAKES
Low nutrient concentration
.
1. ABIOTIC
COMPONENT
I Physical Helps in the growth and Heat, light, pH, water. air, etc
maintenece
2. BIOTIC
COMPONENT
various members Producers are of following types:
Macrophytes:
Large rooted plants, partly submerged or
completely submerged .
Ex: typha, chara, hydrilla, trapa, etc.
Phytoplankton:
They are minute and floating plants.
Volvax, microcysis, oscillatoria, etc
consumers secondary consumers Some types are:
Benthos:
Animals associated with living plants and
renminas lying at the bottom of the pond,
They are known as dedtritivores
Ex: beetles, mites, fish, larvae, etc.
Zooplankton:
Floats freely on the sureface.
Feeds on phytoplankton
Ex: protozoa, ciliates, etc.
Iii DECOMPOSERS
River ecosystem:
As compared to lentic freshwaters, lotic waters are more oxygenated and contains more nutrients as they
move to different places.

.
1. ABIOTIC
COMPONENT
maintenece
2. BIOTIC
COMPONENT
various members Phytoplankton, algae, water grasses, etc.

consumers secondary consumers Zooplankton, snails, water insects, fishes, etc.
Iii DECOMPOSERS
MARINE ECOSYSTEM
OCEANS ALMOST COVERS 70% OF THE EARTH’Ssurfaced.
The marine ecosystem is more chemically stable than freshwater system.
Sea water contains around d3% of sodium chloride (3gm in 100ml).

.
1. ABIOTIC
COMPONENT
I Physical Helps in the growth and Heat, light, pH, water. air, etc
maintenece
2. BIOTIC
COMPONENT
i Producers Provides food for the Marine plants like sea weeds,
various members chlorophyceal,etc.
Phytoplankton, algae, etc.

consumers consumers Herring shad, mackerel, etc.
the ecological balance. Large fishes, cod, haddock, etc.
Iii DECOMPOSERS
Decomposes dead Includes fungi (coprinus), bacteria(bacillus) and
ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM:
Estuary is partially enclosed coastal area at the end of the river, where sea water mixes with freshwater.
It is affected by tidal action.
Characgteristics of the water changes with respect to the characteristic of the river water.

.
1. ABIOTIC
COMPONENT
maintenece
2. BIOTIC
COMPONENT
i Producers Provides food for the Phytoplankton, marsh grasses, sea weeds, sea
various members grasses, etc.

Iii DECOMPOSERS
Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the natural variety found in living systems and individuals.
It is the variety and variability among all groups of living organisms and the ecosystem in which they
occur.
It is the diversity of life, which includes the full range of variety and variability within and among
living organisms and the ecological complexes in which they occur.
Significance of bio diversity:

Biodiversity is very important because of following reasons
It has direct consumptive value n agriculture, food, medicine etc.
It has aesthetic and cultural values.
Biodiversity maintains ecological balance.
The indirect ecosystem provided through biodiversity is photosynthesis, pollination, nutrient cycle, soil
maintenance, water system management, etc.
Types of biodiversity:
GENETIC DIVERSITY:
Genetic diversity is a concept of the variability within a species, as measured by the variation in genes
within a particular species.
Genetic diversity is the combination of different genes found within a population of single species and
pattern of variation found within different populations of same species.
For example: all rice varieties belong to species Oryza Sativa, but there are thousand varieties of rice
were cultivated which show variations at the genetic level and differ in their colour, size, shape and
nutrient content. This is genetic diversity of rice.
Genetic variation arises:
In individuals by gene and chromosome mutation and
In population of sexually reproducing organisms by the recombination of genetic material.
SPECIES DIVERSITY
The richness of species in an ecosystem is called as species diversity.
Species diversity is the variety and abundance of different types of individual organisms, which inhabit
an area. A 100 mile area of given zone contains different species that does a similar sized area
elsewhere.
The number of species in a region its species known as ‘richness’ is one often criteria used to measure,
but a more precise measurement known as ‘taxonomic diversity’, also considers the evolutionary
relationship of species to each other.
For example, an island with two species of birds and one species of lizard has greater taxonomic
diversity than an island with three species of bird but with not lizards.
ECOSYSTEM BIODIVESITY:
The variation in species richness in different ecosystems of a geographical area is called ecosystem
biodiversity.
Ecosystem diversity shows variations in ecological place, tropic structure, food webs, nutrient cycling,
etc.,. It also depends on the physical parameters like temperature, altitude, etc…
A global quantitative evolution of ecosystem diversity is not possible. Generally ecosystem diversity is
assessed in terms of the global or continental distribution. So this assessment may include estimation of
richness in particular groups and evaluation o their relative abundance.
SPECIES DIVERSITY IN SPECIES DIVERSITY IN

RIVER ECOSYSTEM LAKE ECOSYSTEM
SPECIES DIVERSITY IN SPECIES DIVERSITY IN

POND ECOSYSTEM GRASSLAND
ECOSYSTEM
ECOLOGICAL
BIODIVERSITY
ENDANGERED SPECIES:
An endangered species is a population of organisms which is at risk of becoming extinct because it is either few
in numbers, or threatened by changing environmental or predation parameters. Also it could mean that due to
deforestation there may be a lack of food and/or water. The International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN) has calculated the percentage of endangered species as 40 percent of all organisms.
Factors that influence the endangered species:
Habitat Destruction
Destruction of habitat by both man made and natural means make many species to be endanged.
Natural causes like forst fire, volcanic eruptions, etc and human causes like deforestation, graing etc,
makes habitat destruction.
Overexploitation
Over expoitation of the natural resources and paching of wild animals also leads to extinct of wild
animals.
Climatic change:
Climatic change is brought about by the accumulatin of green house gases in the atmosphere. Due to
the climatic change, many species become endangered.
Other reasons:
Disease, pollution, and limited distribution are more factors that threaten various plant and animal
species
Facts:
In the United States, 735 species of plants and 496 species of animals are listed as
threatened or endangered.
There are more than 1,000 animal species endangered worldwide.
In India there are 410 species of mammals (8.86% of the world's mammals), which are spread over 186 genera,
45 families and 13 orders out of which nearly 89 species are listed as threatened in the International Union for
Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN).
Control measures:
Conserve Habitats
One of the most important ways to help plants and animals survive is to protect their
habitats permanently in national parks, nature reserves or wilderness areas. There they can live
without too much interference from humans. It is also important to protect habitats outside
reserves such as on farms and along roadsides.
By removing rubbish and weeds and replanting with natives you will allow the native bush
to gradually regenerate. This will also encourage native animals to return.
International treaties on Endangered Species (ITES):
Several international treaties and conventions help to protect endangered wild species. One of
the most important treaty is ‘convention on i9nternatinal trade in endangered species (CITES).
This treaty is signed by 160 countries.
This treaty list many species that cannot be commercially traded.
It also penalizes about the illegal trade that takes place regarding the endangered species
throughout the world.
EXAMPLES:
Some endangered species in India:
Indian Wild Ass

Desert Cat
Himalayan Musk Deer
Jackal
Indian fox,
55 species f butterflies
Andaman wild pig.
Assam rabbit.
VULNERABLE SPECIES - A species particularly at risk because of low or declining

numbers or small range, but not a threatened species. If it occurs continuously, it can be
classifiend as threatened species.
Vulanrable species include:
Species whose population have been seriously depleted and their ultimate securinty is ot
assured.
The species whose population are still abundant but under threat throughout their range.
THREATENED SPECIES – a species whose population is not yet low enough to be in

immediate danger of extinction, but who certainly faces serious problems. If the problems
affecting these species aren’t resolved, it is probable that the species will become
endangered. The eastern indigo snake and the red kangaroo are examples of threatened
species.
EXTINCT SPECIES – an extinct species is one that is no longer living. The passenger
pigeon, the dodo, and the Stegosaurus are examples of extinct species. These animals no
longer exist on the earth.
ENDEMIC SPECIES:
Endemic Species is one that is only found in a particular region and nowhere else in the world. Since
these species are not widespread and may be confined to only one or two protected areas, they are of
great conservation concern.
CLASSIFICATION:
It can be classified as:
Site endemic - e.g. species found inMount everest.
National endemic - e.g. found only in India
Geographical range endemic - e.g. found in the Himalayan region, which however covers several
Himalayan countries and therefore is not a national endemic.
RED DATA BOOK:
A Red Data Book contains lists of species whose continued existence is threatened. Species are
classified into different categories of perceived risk. Each Red Data Book usually deals with a specific
group of animals or plants (e. reptiles, insects, mosses).
They are now being published in many different countries and provide useful information on the threat
status of the species.
The red-listing assessment is a simple logical process to determine the status of threat to a species based
on available information.
India ranks II interms of the number of threatened mammals and VI among the countries with the most
threatened birds.
MEASUREMENT OF BIODIVERSITY:
Following methods are used for the measurement of biodiversity.
Alpha diversity:
It is the number of species in a given area and geographical distribution patterns that result alpha
diversity. It represents the percentages of individuals of each and every species within a community.
There are hundreds of species of tunicates in a
rtic water, 400 species in temperate waters and 600 in tropical seas. So temperature is most important
facto affecting alpha richness of tunicates.
Beta diversity:
It was studied by pim and gittle men.
It is the relative richness of different species along a gradient from one habitat to another habitat with
the community.
It is the turnover of species across space, including the dimensions of a species range.
The ant species found in local regions of North Pole is nearly 10. As we move towards the equiator, it
will have around 2000 species.
Gamma diversity:
It refers to the richness of different species in a range of habitats within a geographical area.
It is the overall diversity at landscape level including both alpha and beta diversity can be measured.
Values of biodiversity:
The value of biodiversity is classified into direct and indirect values. Biodiversity has direct
consumptive value in agriculture, medicine and industry.
Indirect value of biodiversity includes maintenance of ecosystem services that support biological
productivity, regulate, climate, etc.
BIODIVERSTIY
DIRECT VALUES INDIRECT VALUES
Non-consumptive value
Consumptive Productive
Aesthetic value.
value Value
Social value
Cultural value
Ethical value
Optional value
Consumptive value:
This value is assigned where the biodiversity product can be harvested and consumed directly.
Biodiversity provides food for man and others. Plants are consumed by animals as food. The plants form the
food for animals. The plants and animals form food for man.
Ex: rice, wheat, meat, fish, cereals, vegetables, fruit,etc.
Productive value:
These are commercially useable values where the product is marketed and sold in commercial markets, both
national and international.
These may include products like
Tusks from elephants.
Musk from deer.
Silk from silk worm.
Paper is produced from wood.
Sericulture produces silk.
Apiculture produces honey.
Wild plants and animals are used to select useful genes. New varieties of plants and animals are created for
better production.
Indirect values:
Biodiversity also provides critical indirect uses to humans. They are classified as below:
Non-consumptive value:
It involves benefits such as soil formation or protection, climate regulation, west disposal, water and air
purification, ecotourism, medical research, etc.,.
Social and cultural values:
Biodiversity brings us many social and cultural values.
Trees – worshiped as God Ex – banyan tree, neem tree, etc.,.
Flowers, tulsi, some leaves are used for the worship of god.
Lime fruit, banana fruit and many other fruits are used to worship god.
Many animals like cow, snake, bull, peacock, etc, also hold special social importance.
Aesthetic value:
Aesthetic means artistic or pleasant. Biodiversity gives us aesthetic surroundings.
They give the opportunity for recreational activities such as laking, bird watching and nature photography,
which makes us happy and feel pleasant. This is known as aesthetic value.
Ornamental plants are grown in the baskets for decorative purpose that makes surrounding pleasant.
Growing fishes in the home makes good atmosphere.
Zoos and museum with different species of animals, birds, plants,etc attract many people and children.
Trees and flowers with different colours attract many people.
The aesthetic value of watching biodiversity at an undisturbed natural paradise is the current concept of
ecotourism helpful in preserving natural biodiversity.
Ethical value:
It involves the value related to moral justification of conservation of biodiversity. It simply means the moral use
of biodiversity.
It is based on the concept of live and let live and involves ethical issues like all life be preserved. These values
are thus based on the belief that all species have a moral right to exist, independent of our need for them.
These values are deep rooted within our society, religion and culture.
Betel transaction is one of the major ceremonies in the Hindu religion.
Tea and coffee are used to refresh. These are some of the example of ethical values.
Optional values:
There is hundreds of example of known economic and aesthetic benefits of biodiversity. But more is unknown
than known. Yet these cannot be discovered.
Optional value is the value of knowing that there are biological resources existing on existing that may one day
prove to be an effective option for something important in future.
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
The causes of biodiversity loss are known as threats to biodiversity. As nature threats increase, more and more
species are forced towards extinction. As a result, the species become endangered in the area and later it
becomes extinct.
Main threats to the biodiversity are discussed below:

HABITAT LOSS AND DEGRADATION:
The destruction of habitat of animals and plants is called habitat loss. Habitat loss and degradation are the
major causes of species extinction, affecting 89% of all threatened birds and 83% of mammals. The main
factors that influence habitat loss are
Deforestation:
 The loss of habitat is mainly caused by deforestation activities.

 Forests garlands have been cleared for conversion of many developmental projects and for human
Needs.
 This makes large of habitat loss for many species.
Habitat fragmentation:
Sometimes the habitat is degraded by dividing in to small and scattered patches. Thus phenomenon is known
as habitat fragmentation.
Due to this many wild animals and birds will vanish.
Over exploitation:
Over exploitation of forests, timber extraction wil also make habitagt loss. Due to this many varieties of species
lose their habitat and shifted scatterly.
Wild life poaching:
Poaching is the illegal trade of wildlife products by killing it. This is main process emerged iin recent decades.
Due to this many species like tiger became endangered.
The main reason behind poaching is the illegal trade in animal parts which is a world wide problem and
multimillion dollar market.
Poaching is of two types:
Subsistence poaching:
It is the killing of animals to provide enough food for survival of the individual.
Commercial poaching:
It is the killing of species to sell their products (illegal trade).
Examples:
Between 1979 to 1989 the world wide demand for ivory caused elephant population to decline fastly.
In Rwanda male gorilla is hunted for its body parts.

Silver owl is killed for making medicines.
Snakes were killed for making medicines.
Remedies:
Surveys should be done frequently in the buffer regions in order to determine the amount of species so as this
will help in to desgn better protection measures.
Compelte and comprehensive ban on illegal trade on
any species with special emphasis on endangered species should be done.
Bio diversity laws should be strengthened.
MAN WILDLIFE CONFLICTS:
The conflict between man and wild life ahs been fvor ages. Thisn has been occurred because of expansion of
human population, overexploitation for their needs, etc. as the urban areas are increasing, the forest areas are
expoited. so wild life faces problem.
Some important examples are:
Elephant poaching still remains as a problem in Africa. In 1996, Michael fay, an elephant researcher with the
wild life conservation society, was flying his small airplane over a remote forest clearing just outside the
national park in congo. He found a scene of slaughter there lay more than 300 elephant bodies all with their
tusks cutted off. Two moths later fay found 1000 more dead elephants nearby .
In sambalpur, Orissa 195 humans were killed in last five years by elephants. In retaliation the villagers killed 98
elephants and badly injured 30 elephants.
In 2004, a man eating tiger reported to kill 16 nepalese people insede the royal chitwan national park, in south
west of Kathmandu.
In june 2004 gtwo men were killed by leopards in Mumbai. A total of 14 persons were injured at sanjkay
Gandhi national park, Mumbai.
Causes of man –wild life conflicts:
Decreasing of forest areas make the tigers, elephants, etc to move outside and attack the field . human
encroachment into the forest areas raises a conflict between man and the wildlife.
Generally ill, weak and injured animals have a tendency to attack man. Female tigers attack human if she feel
that her newborn are in danger.
Very often the villagers put electric wiring around their ripe crop fields. The elephants get injured and get
violent.
Usage of elephants for many function that is engaged wsith crackers make elephants to get violent.
Due to development of human settlements in
Ear forest areas, the path of wildlife have been disrupted and the animals attack the human.
Remedies for man wild life conflict:
Tiger Conservation Project has made provision for making available vehicles to tactfully deal with any danger.
Adequate crop compensation and cattle compensation scheme must be started for loss of crop field and cash
compensation should be given for human loss.
Solar powered fencing should be provided along with electric current proof trenches to prevent animals from
straying into fields.
Cropping pattern should be changed near the forest borders and adequate food and water should be made
available for the elephants with the forest zones.
Wild life corridors should be provided for mass migration of big animals during unfavorable periods.
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity conservation is defined as the management of human use of the biosphere so that is may yield the
greatest sustainable benefit to present generation while maintain its potential to meet the needs of the future
generations.
Objectives:
To maintain essential ecological process and life supporting systems.
To preserve the diversity of species or the range of genetic material found.
To ensure sustainable utilization of the ecosystem.
There are two broad methods of biodiversity conservation:
In-situ conservation: preserves genes, species and ecosystems in their natural environment
through the implementation of legislation that establishes protected areas and through the
regeneration of degraded areas.
These protected areas vary remarkably in size, design and effectiveness of management. It is an
easy and suitable method for the maintenance of many plant and animal species.
An area is selected and declared to be a protected area and apecial measures are taken to
conserve the biodivdersity.
Protected area is defined as an area of land or sea specially dedicated to the protection and
maintenance of biological diversity and natural resources managed through legal means.
NATIONAL PARKS:
A national park is an area which is strictly reserved to the betterment of the wild life and where
activities such as forestry, grazing or cultivation are not permitted and no private ownership is
allowed.
A national park is meant to the habitat for particular wild animal species like lion, tiger,, etc and
its boundaries are maintained by legislation.
Examples:
Kaziranga – assam
Bandipur – Karnataka
Dachigam J & K
SANCTUARY:
A sanctuary is generally reserved for the conservation of animals only. At present, there are 492
wild life sanctuaries in our country.
Operations such as harvesting of timber, collection of minor forest products and private ownership
are permitted so long as they do not interfere with the animals.
Examples:
Name of the sanctuary State Major wild life
Vedanthangal Tamil nadu Birds
Mudumalai Tamil nadu Tiger, elephants
Hazarbagh Rajasthan tiger
BIOSPEHRE RESERVE:
Biosphere reserves cover large area, more than 5000sq. km. it is used to protect species for long
time.
Biosphere reserves are undisturbed natural areas for scientific study as well as areas where any
sort of disturbance is under control. They are set for ecological research and habitat preservation.
Structure of biosphere reserve:

Buffer zone 2
Buffer zone 1 – it sourrounds the core zone. It

bear the necessary as well as inevitable human
stress and also meets the research.
Core zone – it is strictly protected are to

maintain the ecological diversity..
Some important biosphere reserves in india:
Gul of mannar – tamilNadu
Nanda devi - UP
Sunderbans - West Bengal
Nilgiri - Tamil Nadu.
Advantages of in-situ conservation:
The species will not get any disturbanced because it is treated in natural waay.
It is very cheap and convenient method.
Disadvantages:
It requires large amount of area.
Maintaining the habitats is not proper, because the area is large.
Ex-situ consevation: is the conservation of biodiversity outside of the areas where it occurs
naturally, either within botanical gardens or zoos or within germplasm (e.g. seed) banks.
CRYO TECHNIQUE:
This an important method for the preservation of seeds, pllen of some important agricultural and
horticultural crops.
In this technique the species are preserved by using liquid nitrogen below -100oC.
Varities of rice, turnip, radish, tomato, onion, carrot, etc have been preserved syccessfully in liquid
nitrogen for several years.
National Bureu of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) in New Delhi use this cryo technique to
preserve many crops.
A seed bank at National Bureu of Plant Genetic Resouces (NBPGR) for the preservation of land
races and cultivators.
Tissue culture:
It is the best to preserve the genes through establishment of tissue banks. Tissue culture
ttechnique can be 0065gternded to endangered speci9es or for those which may ogtheriwse
require very varied climatic conditions and can be maingtained at one place.
Advantages:
The organism is assure of food, shelter and security.
Longer life span and breeding.
Human care and secure conditions make the species to feel comfort.
It needs less place.
This method also provides the possibility of using genetic techniques to improve the concerned
species.
Disadvantages:
It can employed only to limited number of species.
It requires large finanace and facilities.
Species will have the difficulty to adopt for the present condition in this method.
BIO DIVERSITY NATIONAL LEVEL:
India is a tropical country. It lie between 68’.7 o and 97’25o east and 8’4o and 37’.6o north to the equator. It
covers a total of 32 million hectares. It is one of the 12 mega diversity centres of the world.
India contains a great wealth of biological diversity in its forests, its wetlands and in its marine areas.
This richness is shown in absolute numbers of species and the proportion they represent of the world
total.
Comparison Between the Number of Species in India and the World.

Group Number of species Number of species SI/SW
in India (SI) in the world (SW) (%)
_____________________________________________________________________
Mammals 350(1) 4,629(7) 7.6
Birds 1224(2) 9,702(8) 12.6
Reptiles 408(3) 6,550(9) 6.2
Amphibians 197(4) 4,522(10) 4.4
Fishes 2546(5) 21,730(11) 11.7
Flowering Plants 15,000(6) 250,000(12) 6.0
_____________________________________________________________________
India is very rich in plant diversity. It has
2000 species of byrophytes (17.80%)
1100 species of Pteridoohytes (8.46%)
64 species of Gymnosperms (8.53%)
17500 species of Angiosperms (7%)
14,500 species of fungi (20.14%
850 species of bacteria (21.5%)
India accounts for 7.31% of global faunal diversity. It has
2577 species of Protista
5070 species of Mollusca.
68389 species of Arthopoda.
8329 species of invertebrates.
209 species of Amphibia.
456 species of Reptilia.
The richness of biodiversity in India is mainly due to the wide variety of climatic and altitudinal conditions
characteristic of this country.
MEGA BIODIVERSITY:
India, being a vast country shows a great diversity in climate, topography and geology and hence the country is
very rich in terms of biological diversity.
Indian has a great diversity of natural ecosystems from the cold and high Himalayan ranges to the sea coasts,
from the wet northeastern green forest to the dry north western arid deserts.
India’s biological diversity is one of the most significant in the world, since india has only 2% of the total land
mass of the world containing about 6% of the world’s wildlife.
Mega diversity countries in the world:
Following 12 countries were known as mega diversity nations:
Austrialia, brazil, china, coloumbia, Ecuador, USA, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, mexico, peru and republic of
congo.
It has around 7.31% of global faunal species and 10.8% of floral species.
India has 10 different biogeographic zones and 26 biotic provinces
S.NO. BIOGEOGRAPHIC ZONES
1. TRNA-HIMALAYAN LADAKH MONTAINS
2. HIMALAYA NORTHWEST, WEST, CEL]NTRAL

AND EAST HIMALYAS
3. DESERT THAT, KUTCH
4. SEM I ARID PUNJAB P[LAINS,M GUJARAT

RAJPUTANA
5. WESTERNB GHATS MALABAR PLAINS,

WESTERM GHATS
6. DECCAN PENINSULAR, CHOTTA NAGPUR,

DECCAN SOUTH
7. GANGETIC PLAINS UPP[ER AND LOWER

GANGETIC PLAINS
8. COAST WEST AND EAST COAST
9. NORTH – EAST BRAHM,APUTRA VALLEY
10. ISLANDS ANDDAMAN AND NICOBAR

Hot spots of biodiversity:
Hot spots are biologically rich areas with high diversity and a large percentage of endemic species.
For example, 20% of the world’s plants are found in amazon forests. Then it is a hot spot.
Conditions:
If a place should be recognized as a hot spot. Then it must full fill all the following conditions:
The richness of the endemic species is the primary condition. For example in the case of plant species, the hot
spot must consist of 0.5% of endemic plants species.
It must consist of significant percentage of specialized species.
The site must be under threat.
Global biodiversity hotspots:
According to the classification of Norman Myres' there are 25 hotspots scattered in different parts of the world.
Even though the 25 biodiversity hotspots together represent 1.4 percent of the earth's land area, they contain 44
percent of all plant species and 35 percent of all terrestrial vertebrate species in the world. Each of these
hotspots is under severe pressure due to anthropogenic interventions and has already lost at least 70 percent of
its original natural vegetation.
25 international biodiversity hotspots have been identified. Hotspots have been identified in:
 North and Central America (3 hotspots)

 South America (5 hotspots)
 Europe and Central Asia (2 hotspots)
 Africa (5 hotspots)
 Mainland Asia (3 hotspots)
 Asia-Pacific (7 hotspots - including Southwest Australia)
REGION HOTSPOT
North and California Floristic Province

Central Caribbean Islands
Madrean Pine-Oak Woodlands
America Mesoamerica
South America Atlantic Forest

Cerrado
Chilean Winter Rainfall-Valdivian
Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena
Tropical Andes
Europe and Caucasus

Central Asia Irano-Anatolian
Mediterranean Basin
Mountains of Central Asia
Africa Cape Floristic Region

Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa
Eastern Afromontane
Guinean Forests of West Africa
Horn of Africa
Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands
Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany
Succulent Karoo
Asia-Pacific Himalaya
Indo-Burma
Japan
Mountains of Southwest China
New Caledonia
New Zealand
Philippines
Polynesia-Micronesia
Southwest Australia
Sundaland
Wallacea
Western Ghats and Sri Lanka
Hot spots in india:
Myers et al recognized 25 hot spots on global level. Two of these hot spots lie in Iindia and extending into
neighboring countries. They are:
The Indo Burma region covering Eastern Himalayas and
Western ghats- Srilanka region.
Eastern Himalayas:
Area and location:
The indo-Burma hot spot covers about 2 million square kilometers of tropical asia east of the Indian
subcontinent.
The hot spot includes all of combodia, Vietnam and Laos and nearly the entire areas of Thailand, Myanmar and
Bhutan as well as part of Nepal far eastern India and extreme southern China. In addition it covers offshore
islands including Mainan islands in the South China Sea, and Andaman and Nicobar islands in the Indian Ocean.
Important biodiversity features:
India’s region – it cantains 5800 plant species of which roughly 2000 (36%) are endemic.
Sikkim region – it has 4250 plant species and 2550 (60%) are endemic.
Nepal region – 7000 plant species and 500 (8%) endemic species.
Bhutan region – 5000 species of plants out of which 750 (15%) are endemic.
Hotspot Original Extent (km 2) 2,373,057

2
Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km ) 118,653
Endemic Plant Species 7,000
Endemic Threatened Birds 18
Endemic Threatened Mammals 25
Endemic Threatened Amphibians 35
Extinct Species† 1
2
Human Population Density (people/km ) 134
2
Area Protected (km ) 235,758
2
Area Protected (km ) in Categories I-IV* 132,283
Western ghats and srilanka:
Area and location:
The hot spot covers the motane forests in the southwestern parts of India and on the neighbouring island of
Srilanka. Although the two forest blocks are separated from each other by about 400 kilometers of land and
water.
The entire extent of hot spot was originally about 182500 square kilometers but due to high population now it
is 12,445 square kilometers or 6.8%.
The western Ghat mountains stretch from India’s southern tip to Gujarat in the north, and run parallel to the
country’s western coast. The wet tropical southerwestern zone of Srilanka is remarkably similar to the western
ghats because of the repeated appearance and disappearance of a land bridge between them over many
thousands of years.
Important biodiversity features:
The predominant vegetation includes deciduous and tropical rain forests, montane forests and grasslands.
There are two main centres of biodiversity, the Agastyamalai hills and the Silent valley/New Amambalam
Reserve basin.
1600 endemic species (40%of total

endemic species in India) are found in this 189,611
region.Hotspot Original Extent (km 2)
Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km 2) 43,611
Endemic Plant Species 3,049
Endemic Threatened Birds 10
Endemic Threatened Mammals 14
Endemic Threatened Amphibians 87
Extinct Species† 20
2
Human Population Density (people/km ) 261
2
Area Protected (km ) 26,130
2
Area Protected (km ) in Categories I-IV* 21,259
Biogeographical classification of India:
From the stand point of biodiversity, India is given the status of a “Mega-diversity” zone. CISSP
There are 10 biogeographic zones witch are distinguished clearly in India. They are as follows—
Biogeographic Zones
Trans-Himalaya: Biotic Province: Ladakh (J&K) and Lahaul-Spiti(Himachal) (1).
Biome: Tundra valley, lakes and marshes.
Wildlife: Chiru, Black-necked Crane, Himalayan pit viper.
Himalaya: Biotic Province: Northwestern Himalaya (2a), Western Himalaya(2b), Central

Himalaya (2c), Eastern Himalaya (2d).
Biome: All alpine, temperate conifer, temperate broadleaf, subtropical Wildlife:
Ibex, red panda, Monal Pheasant.
Indian Desert: Biotic Province: Kutchh (3a), Thar (3b).

Biome: Saltflats, scrublands, desert grasslands.
Wildlife: Wild ass, blackbuck, flamingo, desert monitor.
Semi-arid: Biotic Province: Punjab and Gujarat-Rajwara (4).

Biome: Scrublands, Bhabar forests, wetlands, dry deciduous, hill and thornforests.
Wildlife: Tiger, Asiatic lion, Great Indian Bustard, gharial.
Western Ghats: Biotic Province: Western Ghats (5).

Biome: Evergreen, moistdeciduous, wetlands, Montane forests, grasslands.
Wildlife: Lion-tailed,macaque, Malabar civet, hornbill, draco.
Deccan Peninsula: Biotic Province: Southern Plateau (6a), Central Plateau(6b), Eastern Plateau (6c),
Chhota-Nagpur (6d), Central Highlands (6e).
Biome: Dry deciduous, thorn forests, wetlands, subtropical, moist deciduous.
Wildlife: Swamp deer, Jerdon’s Courser, mugger.
Gangetic Plains: Biotic Province: Lower and upper Gangetic plains (7).
Biome: Alluvial plain, wetlands, rivers.
Wildlife: Rhino, otter, Gangeticdolphin, terrapin.
Northeast India: Biotic Province: Assam Plains (8a), Shillong Plateau (8b).
Biome: All plain grasslands, woodlands, Bhabar terai, evergreen moist
deciduous, wetlands and rivers, subtropical temperate.
Wildlife: Pygmy hog, Bserow, Yellow-backed Sunbird.
Islands: Biotic Province: Andaman and Nicobar (9a), Lakshadweep (9b).
Biome: Evergreen, moist deciduous, subtropical temperate wetlands, coastal
habitat.
Wildlife: Dolphin, Narcondam Hornbill, olive ridley turtle.
Coasts: Biotic Province: West Coast (10a), East Coast (10b).

Biome: Mangrove, brackish lakes and lagoons, mudflats, sandy or rocky
littoral.
Wildlife: dugong, Brahminy Kite, sand skink.

Unit II

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Unit II

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UNIT-II

ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY

Field study of common plants, insects, birds

An ecosystem can be natural or artificial, permanent or temporary and large or tiny.

Major types are:

Natural ecosystem Artificial ecosystem:

Terrestrial ecosystem – forest, grasslands, Aquatic ecosystems

Fresh water ecosystem marinewater ecosystem-

Running wager ecosystem : Standing water ecosystem :

Also known as lotic Also known as letic

Ex – spring, river, etc Ex – lake, pond, etc

An ecosystem has the following components:

S.NO COMPONTENT FUNCTION EXAMPLE

It can bed classified as follows:

ENERGY FLOW OR TRANSFER:

TROPHIC LEVEL I TROPHIC LEVEL TROPHIC LEVEL

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:

There are three main causes for succession. They are:

chemicals: gaseous in nature

Reservoirs: mainly atmosphere and ocan

Ex: : carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, oxygen cycle, etc

Chemicals: not only in gasous form

Reservoirs: mainly soil and rocks

Ex: sulphur, phosphorus cycle, etc.

The Nitrogen Cycle

Microorganisms play major roles in all

 atmospheric fixation by lightning

 Bacteria of the genus Nitrosomonas oxidize NH3 to nitrites (NO2−).

Are the denitrifiers keeping up the nitrogen cycle in balance?

Organic compoiunds are carbon compounds.

Flow of carbon into the biotic system:

Production of carbon in the cycle is by following ways:

Natural and Respiration:

Volcanic eruptions will also release carbon di oxide.

Man made proicess:

Carbon di oxide sink:

Casrbon enters biotic system through photosysnthesis.

Green planrts utilize CO2 and produce carbohydrates.

6CO2 + 6 H2O - C6H12O6 +6O2.

Sinkage in sea water (productin of shell):

CO2 + H2O  H2CO3 (carboinic acid)

H2CO3  H+ + HCO3- (bicarbonate)

HCO3- + Ca+  H+ + CaCO3 ( calcium carbonate)

Due to the combustion of

Respiration by human beings

CO2 sainkagein the sea CO2 sinkage by the process

Deompostion of dead matter by

Phosphorus can be found on earth in water, soil and sediments.

A schematic representation of the phosphorus cycle:

The process of succession takes place by the following process:

It is the development of bare area without any life form.

The causes of bare area are of three main types:

Competition and coactions:

b. Animals that eat OTHER ANIMALS are called carnivores.

 carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers

 carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers

you know why there are more herbivores than carnivores?

TYPES OF FOOD CHAIN:

Food chains can be divided into two types. They are

grazing food chain

detritus food chain

GRAZING FOOD CHAIN: