JMEPEG (2014) 23:3523–3533 ASM International

DOI: 10.1007/s11665-014-1158-6 1059-9495/$19.00

Fractographic Analysis of Weld Metal and HAZ Regions

of API X-80 Steel Subjected to Simulation
of the Reel-Lay Method
M.A.N. Beltrão and F.L. Bastian

(Submitted December 14, 2013; in revised form June 11, 2014; published online July 29, 2014)

The reel-lay method is a process commonly used for rigid riser installation. During this process, riser
materials are subjected to high strain levels and associated plastic damage which can affect their structural
integrity. The aim of this work was to evaluate the fracture surfaces at weld metal and heat-affected zone
regions of API X-80 steel three-point bend specimens, SE(B), subjected to reel-lay method simulations. The
pre-existence of circumferential planar defects at 12 oÕclock position was considered and the J-integral was
used to simulate the reel-lay condition at the defects. Different strain levels considering conditions less and
more severe than the real one were also studied. The results showed a great influence of J magnitude on
fracture surface morphology. The increase of J magnitude led to a greater local surface damage on the
specimens and stable crack growth during reel-lay simulation. High loading conditions should be avoided in
the operation in order to prevent further structural damage of the materials.

Keywords API X-80 steel, circumferential welded joint, fracto- Nomenclature

graphic analysis, J-integral, reel-lay method simula-
tion a Crack length/crack size (mm)
aef Effective crack size (IrwinÕs first order correction)
(mm)
an Machined notch length (mm)
b Uncracked ligament (mm)
1. Introduction B Specimen thickness (mm)
BM Base material
Reel-lay method is a commonly used process for rigid riser BM(L) Tensile test specimen of base material (longitudinal to
installation. The process takes place in four stages: reeling, rolling direction)
unreeling, aligning, and straightening of the riser, as shown in BM(T) Tensile test specimen of base material (transversal to
Fig. 1. As a result, high strain levels can be introduced in the rolling direction)
material. This effect can influence some mechanical properties da/dN Fatigue crack propagation rate (mm/cycle)
of the riser like its fatigue behavior and may increase the E¢ Elastic modulus for plane stress (GPa)
dimensions of pre-existing defects. According to Ahmed (Ref EPRI Electric Power Research Institute
1), high strain levels which take place under reel-lay procedure, GTAW Gas tungsten arc welding
for example, may impact the yield and tensile stresses along h Notch height (mm)
with strain hardening and ductility through work hardening of h1 Function for Jp according to EPRI procedure
the steel. It was also mentioned that fatigue behavior under high HAZ Heat-affected zone
R ratio is not changed under high levels of plastic strain. The J Fracture resistance in terms of J-integral
author mentioned that, for high quality welds, the fatigue crack Je Elastic component of J (kJ/m2)
growth may present no noticeable impact when the steel Jp Plastic component of J (kJ/m2)
catenary riser welds are subjected to reel-lay conditions. The Jtot Sum of elastic and plastic components of J (kJ/m2)
influence of reel-lay process on the mechanical properties of the K Strain hardening exponent from Ramberg-Osgood
pipes is also pointed out by Higuchi and Shitamoto (Ref 2). The equation
KI Stress intensity factor in mode I of loading (MPa m1/2)
n Strain hardening coefficient from Ramberg-Osgood
M.A.N.Beltrão, Laboratory of Fracture Mechanics, Metallurgical and equation
Materials Engineering Program (PEMM)/COPPE, Federal University P Load (N)
of Rio de Janeiro, Center of Technology, I-222, Rio de Janeiro, RJ CEP P0 Reference load (N)
21941-972, Brazil and Welding Technology Center of SENAI-RJ, Rua R Stress ratio
Sao Francisco Xavier 601, Rio de Janeiro CEP 20550-011, Brazil; and S Distance between specimen rollers equal to 4W (mm)
F.L.Bastian, Laboratory of Fracture Mechanics, Metallurgical and
SMAW Shielded metal arc welding
Materials Engineering Program (PEMM)/COPPE, Federal University
of Rio de Janeiro, Center of Technology, I-222, Rio de Janeiro, RJ CEP SE(B) Three-point bending specimen
21941-972, Brazil. Contact e-mail: manbeltrao@gmail.com. SEM Scanning electron microscopy

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance Volume 23(10) October 2014—3523

 W Specimen width (mm)
responsible for 1-mm-long stable crack growth during pipeline
WM Weld metal
installation. Based on this, it can be seen that an evaluation of
WM(L) Tensile test specimen of weld metal region
the structural integrity of rigid risers subjected to reel-lay
(longitudinal to weld direction)
process is important.
WM(T) Tensile test specimen of weld metal region (transversal
The aim of this work is to show how the loading process
to weld direction)
associated to the reel-lay installation procedure can influence
a Constant of Ramberg-Osgood equation
the structural damage of the welded joint regions. The fracture
DK Stress intensity factor range (MPa m1/2)
surfaces at the WM and HAZ regions of API X-80 steel three-
efracture Strain at fracture
point bend specimens, SE(B), subjected to reel-lay process
e0 Strain at yield point
simulations of the actual conditions of riser operation at 12
rYS(upper) Upper yield strength (MPa)
oÕclock position were studied.
rYS(lower) Lower yield strength (MPa)
The existence of circumferential planar defects was consid-
rTS(upper) Tensile strength (MPa)
ered. Less severe and more severe than actual loading
r0 Stress at yield point (MPa)
conditions were also studied. For this purpose, elastic-plastic
fracture mechanics concepts (J-integral) were used as an aid to
simulating the reel-lay condition on a pre-existing defect.

authors performed full-scale reeling simulations on API X-65

steel in order to investigate the influence of cyclic deformation
2. Experimental Procedure
on the mechanical properties of the pipe. Longitudinal tensile
specimens extracted from 12 and 6 oÕclock positions revealed 2.1 Materials
changes on the mechanical properties. The results concerning WM and HAZ regions of circumferential welded joints of an
12 oÕclock showed lower yield stress values than in as-delivered API X-80 pipeline steel (323.9 and 20.6 mm outer diameter and
condition due to Bauschinger effect (final strain cycle in thickness, respectively) for rigid risers were used for the
compression). However in the 6 oÕclock case, higher yield investigation. The welded joints were obtained by GTAW (weld
stresses were observed due to the work hardening (last strain root) and SMAW (fill and cap weld) processes. The main
cycle in tension). Nyhus et al. (Ref 3) investigated via large characteristics of the processes and the type of groove weld
scale testing on 12¢¢ seamless API X-60 pipeline (19.3-mm- employed (and its dimensions) are shown in Table 1 and Fig. 2,
thick) the effect of pre-straining during reel-lay operation, respectively. Half V groove-welded joint was chosen because it
considering the existence of defects at 12 and 6 oÕclock is the best for the evaluation of HAZ behavior, for its easiness
positions (same geometry). The pipelines were aged for one in locating the fatigue pre-cracks at this region before
hour at 250 C. The results showed that the occurrence of strain simulating the reel-lay method. Additional information of the
aging was responsible for the increase of the crack driving force welding processes employed in this study is presented in
(CTOD) as well as decrease of the fracture toughness compared Table 2. The chemical composition of BM and WM are
to the unstrained material. In another work, Østby et al. (Ref 4) presented in Table 3. Mechanical properties of BM, WM, and
analyzed the pre-deformation effect on the ductile tearing HAZ regions are presented in Table 4 and Fig. 3 (one curve for
resistance of SENT specimens of an 18¢¢ X-65 parent material each condition is shown here). Tensile tests were performed in
with a thickness of 15.9 mm, extracted from a 90 sector accordance with ASTM E8M standard recommendations (Ref 6).
opposite to the axial seam weld of the pipe. Pre-loading in The tests were carried out under crosshead speed of 1 mm/min.
compression and tension were considered. The results revealed
that the pre-deformation in compression had no effect on the Table 1 Main characteristics of the circumferential
tearing resistance curve. On the other hand, a local reduction in welding
tearing resistance was noticed in tension pre-loading followed
by compression before tensile reapplication. The authors Welding Interpass
pointed out that the observed effect was more pronounced by consumableÕs Current temperature
the increasing of pre-loading level. Olsø et al. (Ref 5) evaluated Process diameter (mm) (A) Voltage (V) (°C)
the integrity of weld metal (WM) and heat-affected zone (HAZ)
regions of pipelines with different defect sizes subjected to reel- GTAW 3.25 100-160 12-15 150
SMAW 110-160 20-26 180-220
lay process. The authors concluded that the reel-lay process was

Fig. 1 Stages of reel-lay installation method

3524—Volume 23(10) October 2014 Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Five round tension test specimens for each condition were crack (defect) by the bending of the tube during reeling stage.
employed in those tests. Their dimensions are presented in This corresponds to an overall strain of 3% on the riser. The
Fig. 4. same J modulus value of 175 kJ/m2 was employed for the three
subsequent stages of the reel-lay operation, having in mind that
2.2 Reel-lay Process Simulation the value was positive in the first and third and negative in the
second and fourth stages. The effect of residual stresses on J
The actual condition during the stages of the reel-lay method
magnitude was not considered in this paper. It is also important
was estimated by Ruggieri and Donato (Ref 8) through
to mention that the reeled risers are not subjected to relief
numerical simulations based on the original dimensions of the
treatments in order to remove residual stresses. Consequently,
riser (as pointed out in 2.1) and mechanical properties of its
the present study reproduces the actual conditions of the reeled
welded joint regions (Table 4). The existence of a planar
risers.
circumferential defect, compatible to undetected defects during
non-destructive inspection (a  3.5 mm), at 12 oÕclock position
where the maximum bending is achieved during the reel-lay
installation (uniaxial tensile field) was considered. This defect
is representative of a welding flaw generated during the
welding of the riser. Based on elastic-plastic fracture mechanics
concepts (J-integral), the results showed that the value of
J = 175 kJ/m2 in SE(B) specimens is the experienced one by
the riser during the actual reeling stage operation (first stage).
This value represents the J value generated at the tip of the

Fig. 2 Half V groove used in the welding process Fig. 3 Stress-strain curves of the welded joint regions

Table 2 Additional information of the welding processes

employed in this work
Layer Process Number of passes Total of passes

1 and 2 GMAW 1 21
3 SMAW 1
4 SMAW 2
5 SMAW 3
6 and 7 SMAW 4
8 SMAW 5 Fig. 4 Dimensions of the tensile test specimens employed in this
work

Table 3 Chemical composition of API 5L X-80 base material and WM investigated (wt.%)
C Si Mn P S Cr Ni Mo Cu V Al B Ti V Nb

BM 0.10 0.37 1.47 0.012 0.002 0.09 0.01 0.07 0.008 0.078 … … 0.003 0.078 …
WM 0.09 0.42 1.30 0.010 <0.01 0.07 2.10 0.03 0.06 0.02 <0.005 <0.005 0.02 … <0.005

Table 4 Mechanical properties of circumferential welded joints of API X-80 steel

Region rYS(upper) (MPa) rYS(lower) (MPa) rTS (MPa) efracture n(a) K(a) a(a)

BM(L) 550±15.47 552 ± 11.68 663 ± 13.44 0.24 ± 0.06 8.59 ± 0.29 967 ± 24.69 0.73 ± 0.01
BM(T) 547 ± 24.75 547 ± 2.64 667 ± 3.32 0.30 ± 0.01 9.14 ± 1.25 957 ± 32.6 0.736 ± 0.01
WM(L) 638 ± 15.26 605 ± 15.00 691 ± 8.82 0.24 ± 0.02 7.44 ± 0.19 1045 ± 8.33 0.645 ± 0.01
WM(T) 530 ± 6.22 553 ± 6.76 631 ± 4.76 0.17 ± 0.01 11.29 ± 0.61 871 ± 13.94 0.740 ± 0.03
HAZ 555 ± 7.96 538 ± 7.26 626 ± 9.32 0.32 ± 0.03 7.40 ± 0.06 946 ± 11.39 0.74 ± 0.02
(a)From the Ramberg-Osgood equation (Ref 7)

Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance Volume 23(10) October 2014—3525

 Situations that characterize more or less severe conditions an INSTRON 1332 servo-hydraulic machine with 25 kN load
than actual were also studied. For this purpose, lower (11 and cell capacity in accordance with ISO 12108 standard recom-
12 kJ/m2) and higher (458 and 1570 kJ/m2) values of J were mendations (Ref 9). All specimens were pre-cracked at ambient
employed, respectively. In this case, more severe condition than air temperature under load control, frequency of 15 Hz and
actual means that the overall strain the material is subjected to stress ratio of 0.4.
is higher than the actual one, i.e., more than 3% of plastic After fatigue pre-cracking, the reel-lay method was simu-
strain, while in less severe than actual, the overall strain that the lated following the load sequence presented in Fig. 5. The
material is subjected to is lower than the actual one, i.e., less bending loads corresponding to the specific J values applied to
than 3% of plastic strain. It should be pointed out that these the specimens were calculated following the EPRIÕs procedure
values were chosen because they represent situations which are (Ref 10) where Jtot is the sum of elastic and plastic components,
well below and well above than those usually experienced. It is Eq 1
important to take these situations into account in order to better
Jtot ¼ Jel þ Jpl ðEq 1Þ
understand the influence of different strain levels during the
reel-lay method on the fatigue crack propagation from a pre- From EPRIÕs procedure (Ref 10), the elastic and plastic
existent circumferential defect at 12 oÕclock position. The components were calculated from Eq 2 and 3:
fatigue behavior itself was not studied in the present paper. At
the moment we have been working on a paper concerning it. KI2 ðaef Þ
Jel ¼ ; ðEq 2Þ
At 12 oÕclock position, reel-lay stages correspond to E0
sequences of tension (reeling), compression (unreeling), tension  nþ1
(aligning), and compression (straightening) loadings, respec- P
Jpl ¼ ae0 r0 bh1 : ðEq 3Þ
tively. The load scheme performed in the simulation is shown P0
in Fig. 5. All stages were simulated on fatigue pre-cracked
Based on the literature (Ref 10), in Eq 2 and 3, aef, P0 and
specimens by three-point bending loads (crosshead speed of
KI for SE(B) specimens were calculated using Eq 4, 5, and 6,
0.5 mm/min). The bending procedure was performed on an
respectively:
EMIC DL 10000 electromechanical machine with 10 kN load
capacity.   
The dimensions and geometry of the SE(B) specimens used 1 1 n  1 KI ðaÞ 2
aef ¼ a þ ; ðEq 4Þ
for reel-lay simulation (Fig. 6) follow the ISO 12108 standard 1 þ ðP=P0 Þ2 bp n þ 1 r0
recommendations (Ref 9). The starter notch was made by
electrical discharge machining (EDM) procedure. These spec- 1:072Bb2 r0
imens were chemically etched with Nital 2% solution to reveal P0 ¼ ; ðEq 5Þ
S
the joint regions and notch positioning. Figure 7 shows a
schematically the notch location in the specimens. P
K ¼ g 101:5 ; ðEq 6Þ
2.2.1 Methodology of the Reel-Lay Method Simula- BW 1=2 W
tion. Initially, a fatigue pre-cracking procedure (sinusoidal where
loading) was employed in order to produce cracked specimens
(material with defect) to be subject to the three reel-lay a 6a=W 1=2
simulation conditions studied: actual, less severe than actual g ¼
W ½ð1 þ 2a=W Þð1  a=W 3=2 Þ
and more severe than actual reel-lay loading conditions. Crack
growth was monitored by the compliance method. Fatigue pre-  ½1:99  a=W ð1  a=W Þð2:15  3:93a=W þ 2:7ða=W Þ2 Þ:
cracking procedure in SE(B) specimens was performed using ðEq 7Þ

Fig. 5 Scheme of reel-lay method simulation performed. P0 means not loaded. P1, P2, P3, and P4 represent the bending loads during instal-
lation

Fig. 6 Dimensions of SE(B) specimens following the ISO 12108 standard

3526—Volume 23(10) October 2014 Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Fig. 7 Notch location in SE(B) specimens for reel-lay process simulation (a) WM region and (b) HAZ region (out of scale)
Fig. 8 Macrography of the welded joint (scale in mm)
Mechanical properties (mean values) presented in Table 4
were used to calculate J. Regarding WM region, WM(T) values
were taken into account. The maximum difference on J values
due to the scattering of the mechanical properties compared to
the employed ones was ±200 kJ/m2 (WM—more severe than
actual condition), followed by ±20 kJ/m2 (HAZ—more severe
than actual condition), ±8 kJ/m2 (HAZ—reel-lay case), 3 kJ/
m2 (WM—reel-lay case) and ±0.1 kJ/m2 for both WM and
HAZ regions for the less severe than actual condition case.
Those values correspond to differences of 12, 4, 4.6, 1.7%,
and less than 1% in relation to the employed J values,
respectively. The range of J values regarding the more severe
case due to mechanical properties scattering was still higher
than the range related to reel-lay condition which is also higher
than less severe one. Although the J values are influenced by
the mechanical properties scattering, the main purpose of the
paper is to show how the loading associated to the reel-lay
installation process can influence the structural damage of the
materials.
Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance
After the reel-lay simulation, the same sinusoidal fatigue
loading as during pre-cracking procedure was applied to the
specimens in order to allow a clear visual definition of the region
affected by the reel-lay simulation on the fracture surface of the
specimens. The specimen region where reel-lay method was
simulated was analyzed by stereo and SEM microscopies.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Microstructural Observations
The macrography of the welded joint is shown in Fig. 8.
From this figure, the dimensions of both WM and HAZ regions
can be inferred, since the scale is presented (in mm). Figure 9
presents the microstructures of WM and HAZ regions close to
the location where the study was carried out. WM region is
composed of high fractions of acicular ferrite. Fractions of ferrite
with non-aligned second phase, ferrite with aligned second
Volume 23(10) October 2014—3527
Fig. 9 Microstructures of (a) WM and (b) HAZ regions close to the location where the study was carried out
Fig. 10 Stereoscopic microscopy of fracture surfaces where actual reel-lay condition was simulated. (a) WM and (b) HAZ regions
phase, intergranular polygonal ferrite, and grain boundary ferrite
are also present. On the other hand, fractions of acicular ferrite
(lower than WM), ferrite with non-aligned second phase and
ferrite with aligned second phase are present in HAZ micro-
structure. Bajic et al. (Ref 11) mentioned that during the welding
procedure with low alloyed metal, the formation of polygonal
ferrite within the primary austenite grains can be affected by the
greater operating power. According to them, the thermal cycle of
the welding in the high-temperature field may promote mor-
phological modifications of the ferrite. Their investigation on
X65 steel showed that the formation of acicular ferrite in weld
region was improved when filled metal alloyed with Ni during
SMAW process was employed. The authors also pointed out that
the structure of the HAZ region is dependent on the parent metal
properties, cooling speed, and heat input.
It is well known that the microstructure and mechanical
properties of the welded joints are dependent on the process
parameters employed during the welding. Surian et al. (Ref 12)
analyzed the influence of the heat input on the microstructure and
mechanical properties of high strength ferritic steels. The results
of cold, medium, and hot welds produced by SMAW process
revealed that the increase of heat input was responsible for an
increase of width of the austenitic primary grain as well as in the
area fraction of the reheated zone at the expense of primary
3528—Volume 23(10) October 2014
ferrite. The increasing of acicular ferrite at the expense of primary
ferrite was also noticed. Regarding mechanical properties,
reduction in yield stress, tensile strength, and hardness was
observed when the heat input increases. According to the authors,
the heat input influenced the microstructural development which
affected the austenitic primary grain and the fraction of the
reheated zone. However, in another work (Ref 13), the influence
of the welding current in SMAW process on the mechanical
properties of low carbon steel was evaluated and different results
were seen. The results revealed the increasing of the hardness and
strength and decreasing of the impact strength when the welding
current and consequently the heat input is increased.
3.2 Stereoscopic Analysis
Figure 10(a) and (b) show the fracture surface images of
reel-lay simulation of actual conditions in WM and HAZ
regions, respectively. The results of reel-lay simulation of less
severe than actual situation for the same welded joint regions
are shown in Fig. 11(a) and (b), respectively. The results of
WM (Fig. 12(a)) and HAZ (Fig. 12(b)) regions simulated in
more severe than actual situation are present as well.
The simulation of the actual reel-lay condition, Fig. 10(a) and
(b), shows that the reel-lay promoted the formation of stretch zones
Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance
Fig. 11 Stereoscopic microscopy of fracture surfaces where less severe than actual reel-lay condition was simulated. (a) WM and (b) HAZ
regions
Fig. 12 Stereoscopic microscopy of fracture surfaces where more severe than actual reel-lay condition was simulated. (a) WM and (b) HAZ
regions
which are more visible in HAZ than WM region (in this case almost
imperceptible). In the HAZ region, Fig. 10(b), the stretch zone
results from a small stable crack growth (ductile tearing).
On the other hand, in the less severe than actual condition,
the fracture surfaces presented in Fig. 11(a) and (b) reveal very
small stretch zones, almost imperceptible, similar to the ones
found in API X-70 steel welded joints subjected to low-
magnitude overloads (Ref 14). This behavior was expected in
function of the low J values employed. These stretch zones are
less visible than those in specimens loaded in conditions
simulating actual installation, as shown in Fig. 10(a) and (b).
Figure 12(a) and (b) (more severe than actual situation)
show that in both WM and HAZ regions the stretch zones are
more perceptible than in the other conditions and also that a
large region is affected by the reel-lay simulation. In most
cases, crack extension caused by the simulation of reel-lay
stages is well defined on the fracture surface of the specimens,
mainly in the HAZ region (Fig. 12(b)). The occurrence of
ductile tearing promoted by reel-lay simulation is also
observed.
3.3 SEM Analysis
Figure 13(a), (b) and Fig. 13(c), (d) present the results of
SEM analysis of the fracture surfaces of specimens loaded
under conditions simulating actual reel-lay installation (WM
Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance
and HAZ regions, respectively). SEM analysis of WM and
HAZ regions under less severe than actual loading process are
shown in Fig. 14(a), (b) and 14(c) and (d), respectively. The
fracture surface images concerning more severe than actual
conditions for WM and HAZ regions are shown in Fig. 15(a),
(b) and 15(c), (d), respectively.
In the simulation of the actual reel-lay process, Fig. 13(a),
(b), (c) and (d) reveal the presence of dimples in both WM and
HAZ regions due to the deformation process that took place in
this condition. These figures also show larger dimples in HAZ
than in WM region, which could be an indication of higher
deformation in the former region. Crack extension promoted by
the simulation of reel-lay stages is well defined by the stretch
zones created and an increase in pre-existing defect dimensions
may result. Figure 13(a), (b), (c) and (d) also show a greater
damaged area produced by reel-lay process simulation in HAZ
than in WM specimens.
The images of Fig. 14(a), (b), (c) and (d) (less severe than
actual condition) show no significant difference between
fracture surface profiles of WM and HAZ specimens. Both
damaged regions are small and present low dimple content,
indicating that the deformation and resulting damage produced
by this condition is small. The appearance of the regions
affected by the simulation, shown in Fig. 14(a), (b), (c) and (d),
is very similar to those of structures subjected to low-
magnitude overloads, corroborating the results of stereoscopic
analysis previously presented. Stable crack growth is not
Volume 23(10) October 2014—3529
Fig. 13 SEM images of fracture surface in WM (a and b) and HAZ (c and d) regions where the actual reel-lay process was simulated

Fig. 14 SEM images of fracture surface in WM (a and b) and HAZ (c and d) regions where reel-lay process was simulated. Less severe than
actual condition

detected in neither of the regions of the welded joint in this WM and HAZ fracture surfaces and extensive damage, indicating
condition. that excessive plastic deformation during the reel-lay operation
In the case of more severe than actual situation, Fig. 15(a), (b), will induce ductile crack growth in front of pre-existing defects in
(c) and (d) show the presence of a large amount of dimples in both the welded joint. In comparison to other situations presented

3530—Volume 23(10) October 2014 Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance

Fig. 15 SEM images of fracture surface in WM (a and b) and HAZ (c and d) regions where reel-lay process was simulated. More severe than
actual condition
before, the greatest ductile tearing and consequently the greatest
increase of defect dimensions are detected.
3.4 Structural Damage
The results of stereoscopic analysis presented so far showed,
with no exception, that the simulation of reel-lay process was
responsible for the formation of stretch zones at the tip of the
crack pre-existing defect. It was also shown that these stretch
zones were more pronounced when higher levels of J were
applied (reel-lay simulation of the more severe than actual
condition). Furthermore, depending on J magnitude, SEM results
showed the occurrence of different fracture morphological
aspects (little or large amount of dimples, different dimple sizes,
and different extension of ductile crack growth, for example).
In the less severe than actual condition (lowest J magni-
tude), SEM results revealed the occurrence of few dimples in a
small region of reel-lay damage. When this condition was
compared to the highest J one, the damage extension for the
highest magnitude was larger and more dimples are observed.
Larger dimple sizes were also seen. The simulation of actual
condition presented an intermediate behavior in comparison to
the other two situations. From these results, it is clear that the
increase of J magnitude in the reel-lay simulation leads to
higher levels of plastic strain, greater local plastic damage, and
ductile crack growth. That is, the riser life might be potentially
reduced if the structure damage is high.
It is well documented in literature (Ref 15-19) that the
initiation of ductile fracture is divided in three stages: void
(dimple) nucleation, void growth, and void coalescence. From
SEM results, Fig. 13-15, all these three stages may be inferred
depending on the J magnitude employed in the simulation. For
Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance
example, in the situation that represents the less severe than
actual condition (lowest J magnitude), Fig. 14(a), (b), (c) and
(d), only few and small dimples are observed (dimple
nucleation stage) and no stable crack growth can be detected.
On the other hand, in the simulations of actual reel-lay method
(Fig. 13(a), (b), (c) and (d)) and more severe than actual
(Fig. 15(a), (b), (c) and (d)) conditions, all three stages are
present. In these cases, microvoid coalescence is the mecha-
nism responsible for the stable crack growth.
Mechanical propertiesÕ results (Table 4) show that HAZ
region presents higher strain at fracture value, efracture, than WM
region (transversely to welding direction). This behavior can be
explained by the microstructural features of WM and HAZ
regions. The microstructure of WM region presents high
fractions of acicular ferrite that provides high toughness (Ref
20-23) to the microstructure as well as high dislocation density
responsible for retarding the movement of the dislocations (Ref
22) and consequently for higher resistance to deformation. The
comparison between HAZ and WM regions shows that the
former region presents larger grain size and smaller amount of
acicular ferrite than the latter. Based on this, the deformation
process is easier in HAZ region than in WM. Concomitantly, it
can be inferred from the SEM results that the structural damage
was more significant in HAZ than in WM region. In HAZ
region, for similar J values (in actual reel-lay case) both the
local stable crack growth occurrence and associated greater
plastic damage (higher dimple content) were more extensive
than in WM region. Similarly, the same behavior is observed in
the more severe than actual case, even for the lower J value that
HAZ region was subjected if compared to WM one. However,
for the lowest J magnitude (less severe than actual condition)
this behavior is very similar in both regions.
Volume 23(10) October 2014—3531
Table 5 Fracture surface damage extension observed
from SEM analysis in WM and HAZ regions at different
simulated conditions, except for less severe than actual
case
Damage extension (lm)
Regions Reel-lay More severe
WM 24 300
HAZ 315 724
It is known from the literature that residual stress fields
might significantly elevate the crack tip constraint, increasing
the possibility of cleavage fracture (Ref 24). However, all the
analysis carried out at the damage area in all studied conditions
did not detect any cleavage features which might indicate brittle
behavior induced by residual stresses. In all fracture surfaces,
mainly on actual reel-lay condition and more severe than actual
conditions, the results indicate a ductile behavior of WM and
HAZ regions. Some works in the literature studied the influence
of external loading combined with residual stresses originated
from welding procedures on the crack tip stress field (Ref 24-26).
They show that the effect of residual stresses becomes negligible
at high external loads due to the resulting decrease of the crack tip
constraint induced by the residual stresses. This results from the
deformation process at the crack tip caused by those loads.
The extension of the surface damage due to the different
simulated conditions, except for the less severe than actual case
is shown in Table 5. The surface damage extension in less
severe than actual situation was not measured, since it was not
well defined in the analysis carried out due to the small damage
feature observed in both regions. However, it is clear that the
lowest surface damage extension is very small and it was
observed on the lowest J value case.
4. Conclusions
The fracture surface of WM and HAZ regions of a circum-
ferential welded joint of an API X-80 steel subjected to reel-lay
process simulations was studied. Pre-existing circumferential
planar defects were present in those regions, and the reel-lay
process severity was simulated through different J magnitudes.
The results presented show a large influence of J magnitude
on the specimen fracture surface morphology. Depending on J
magnitude, little dimple content and smaller dimple sizes resulted
from less severe than actual situation whereas larger dimples and
ductile tearing could be observed for more severe than actual
situations. The increase of J magnitude led to a greater local
surface damage and a larger increase of the defect dimensions.
For the simulation of the less severe than actual condition, only
nucleation of voids was observed. On the other hand, for the
actual and more severe than actual conditions, nucleation,
growth, and coalescence of voids were present. Void coalescence
is the mechanism responsible for the ductile crack growth
observed. WM region showed less local structural damage and
stable crack growth than HAZ for actual and more severe than
actual condition. For the lowest J magnitude, the behavior of both
regions was similar. It can be inferred from the results that high
loading conditions should be avoided in the operation in order to
prevent further structural damage of the materials.
3532—Volume 23(10) October 2014
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank PETROBRAS especially Dr.
Guilherme Donato and Dr. Eduardo Hippert, the Fracture Mechan-
ics and Structural Integrity group of University of São Paulo
especially Prof. Claudio Ruggieri and Gustavo Donato, Dr.
Marcelo Moraes from NUCLEP and CNPq and FAPERJ.
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Volume 23(10) October 2014—3533