ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

MAIN ENDOCRINE GLANDS

1.Pineal Body

2.Pitiuitary Gland

3.Thyroid Gland

4.Para -thyroid Gland

5.Adrenal Gland

6.Pancreatic islets

7.Ovaries

8.Testes In Males

LIPID BASED HORMONES PEPTIDE HORMONES

Steriods Adrenaline ,Noradrenaline,Insulin,Glucagon

Glucocortecoids
Mineral Corticoids
Thyroid Hormone

Positive Feedback Mechanism

Amplification of a particular stimulus and increasing release of hormone until a particular process is
complete and the stimulus ceases(stop).eg release of oxytocin during labour.

Negative Feedback Mechanism

A Hormone is released in response to a specific stimulus and usually its action reverses or negates
through a negative feedback mechanism.This may be controlled either indirectly through the release
of hormone by hypothalmus and anterior pituitary gland.eg steroid and thyroid hormones,insulin
and glucagon are determined by plasma glucose levels.

Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus

Location- Lies in hypophyseal fossa of the sphenoid bone below the hypothalamus.

1.Anterior Pituitary- Adeno-hypophysis (upgrowth of glandular epithelium form pharynx)

2.Posterior Pituitary-Neuro-hypophysis (a downgrowth of nervous tissue from brain )

ANTERIOR PITUITARY

1.Growth Hormone
Stimulates growth and division of most body cells ,also regulates metabolism in many organs . It
release in stimulated by growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) and suppressed by growth
hormone releasing hormone (GHRIH) also known as stomatostatin.

Secretion of GH is greater at night during sleep and also stimulated by hypoglacemia (low blood
sugar),exercise,and anxiety

Target gland or tissue -Most tissues many organs (GH) ,thyroid gland ,pancreatic islets,most
tissues(GHRIH)

2. Thyroid Stimulating hormone (0.4 and 4.0 milliunits per

liter (mU/L),
Stimulated by thyrotrophin releasing hormone.Stimulates growth and activity of thyroid gland.

Secretes T4(thyroxine) T4 is 4.5 to 11.2 micrograms per decilitre

T3 (Tri-iodothyronine) T3 is 100 to 200 nanograms per deciliter,
Target cells -Thyroid gland

3 Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH )

This increases the concentration of cholesterol and steroids within the adrenal cortex and
output of steroids hormone especially cortisol
Target cells-Adrenal cortex

4.Prolactin
Secreted during pregnancy to prepare breasts for lactation.

Stimulated by prolactin releasing hormone(PRH).

Suckling stimulates prolactin secretion and lactation .

Target cells-Breast

5.Gonadotrophins
Two gonadotrophins are secreted in gradually increasing amounts by anterior pitiuitary in response
to luteinising hormone releasing hormone(LHRH) also known as gonadotrophin releasing hormone
(GnRH)

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

Stimulated production of sperm in testes (in males),stimulation secretion of oestrogen by ovaries
,maturation of ovarian follicles (in females)

Lutenising hormone(LH)
Stimulates secretion of testosterone by testes ,stimulates secretion of progesterone by corpus
luteum.

Target cells- Ovaries and testes

SUMMARY OF HORMONES SECRETED BY ANTERIOR PITUITARY AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
HORMONES BY ANTERIOR PITUITARY FUNCTIONS

1. Growth Hormone Regulates metabolism,promotes tissue growth especially

of bones and muscles.

2.Thyroid Stimulating Stimulates growth and activity of thyroid gland and

hormone(TSH) secretion of t4 and t3.

3.Adrenocorticotrophic (ACTH) Stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids

4.Prolactin Stimulates growth of breast tissue and milk production

5.Follicle stimulating hormone(FSH) Stimulates production of sperm in testes ,stimulates

secretion of oestrogen by ovaries ,maturation of ovarian
follicles ,ovulation

6.Lutenising hormone Stimulates secretion of testererone by testes ,stimulates

secretion of progesterone by corpus luteum..

ANTERIOR PITUITARY

 GROWTH HORMONE
 TSH
 ADRENOCORTICOTROPHIC (ACTH)
 PROLACTIN
 FSH
 LH
POSTERIOR PITUITARY
1.Oxytocin
Positive feedback mechanism
2.ADH,VASOPRESSIN(Anti diurectic hormone)
To reduce urine output
ADH secretion is determined by osmotic pressure of blood circulation .As osomotic pressure
rises for example in dehydration secretion of ADH increases .More water is reabsorbed and
the urine output is reduced and vice versa .
Alternative name is vasopressin (work in severe blood loss ADH causes smooth muscle
contraction especially vasoconstriction in small arteries.

THYROID GLAND
Location -Neck in front of larynx and trachea at the level of 5 th,6th and 7th cervical and 1st
thoracic vertebrae

1.Thyroxine and tri-iodothyronine

Thyroxine T4 has four atoms and T3 Has three atoms .
Iodine is essential for the formation of these hormones .
The release of T3 Aand T4 these hormones is stimulated by TSH from anterior pituitary .

Secretion of TSH is stimulated by thyrotrophin releasing hormone (TRH) from hypothalamus

Secretion of TRH is stimulated by stress, exercise,malnutrion ,low plasma glucose

T4 is more abundant .T3 is less potent (which is more physiologically important )
They increase or decrease protein synthesis .
They enchance the effect of other hormone ,adrenaline and noradrenaline .
T3 and T4 affect most cells of the body :
Increasing the basal metabolic rate ,regulation metabolism of carbohydrates ,proteins and
fats .
They are essential for normal growth and development
2.Calcitonin
Secreted by C-CELLS in thyroid gland .
Calcitonin lowers raised blood calcium (Ca2+)by
1.Bone cells promoting their storage of calcium.
2.kidney tubules inhibiting the reabsorption of calcium.
Release of calcitonin is stimulated by increased blood calcium levels.

Parathyroid Gland
1.There are 4 small parathyroid glands.
Function
These glands secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH).
Secretion is regulated by blood calcium levels .When they fall secretion of PTH is increased .
Main function -To increase blood calcium levels .

Adrenal Glands (Location ; the two adrenal glands are situated on upper
pole of each kidney

Adrenal cortex Adrenal Medulla

Adrenal Cortex -The adrenal cortex produces three groups of steroid hormones from
cholesterol .They are collectively called as adrenocorticocoids (corticosteroids).

 Glucocorticoids
 Mineralcorticoids
 Sex hormone (androgens)
 Glucocorticoids
Cortisol is the main glucocorticoids.
Glucorticoids have widespread metabolic effect .
Hyperglycemia
Lipolysis (breakdown of triglycerides into fatty acids)
Stimulating breakdown of protein
Promoting absorption of sodium and water
Mineralcorticoids
Aldosterone is main mineralcorticoids
Blood potassium levels regulate aldosterone secretion by adrenal cortex.
RENIN -ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM
When renal blood flow is reduced or blood sodium levels falls the enzyme renin is
secreted by kidney cells .Renin converts the plasma proteins angiotensinogen
produced by liver to angiotensin 1.
Sex Hormones
Androgens (male sex hormone)

ADRENAL MEDULLA
The medulla is completely surrounded by the adrenal cortex .
Release hormone Adrenaline and Noradrenaline
Together they work by
 Increasing heart rate
 Increasing bp
 Dilating pupils
 Diverting blood to essential organs including heart ,brain and skeletal organs
 Increasing metabolic rate

Adrenaline has greater effect on the heart and metabolic processes whereas
noradrenaline has more influence on blood vessel diameter.

Response to Stress
The short term response is given by sympathetic nerves and adrenal medulla .The
long term is response is given by anterior pituitary and adrenal cortex by mineral and
glucocorticoids
 Hypothalamus

Short term response long term response

Sympathetic centres Anterior Pituitary

Sympathetic nerves, Adrenal Medulla Adrenal Cortex

(Noradrenalin ,Adrenalin ) Mineral Glucocorticoids,Glucorticoids

Pancreatic Islets
Main types of cells

 α alpha cells which secretes glucagon

 β beta cells secrete insulin
 δ delta which secrete somatostatin (GHRIH)
NORMAL BLOOD GLUCOSE 3.5 to 8mmol/litre (63 to 144 mg/dl)
Glucagon increase blood glucose levels
Insulin reduces blood glucose levels.

Insulin
Polypeptide(50 amino acids)

Glucagon
Glucagon increase blood glucose levels
gluconeogenesis
the synthesis of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources, such as amino acids
and glycerol. It occurs primarily in the liver and kidneys whenever the supply of carbohydrates is
insufficient to meet the body's energy needs. Gluconeogenesis is stimulated by cortisol and other
GLUCOCORTICOIDS and by the thyroid hormone thyroxine. Formerly called glyconeogenesis

NON CARBOHYDRATE SOURCES FORMATION OF GLUCOSE

glycogenolysis
Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen (n) to glucose-6-phosphate and glycogen
(n-1).

Glycogenolysis, process by which glycogen, the primary

carbohydrate stored in the liver and muscle cells of animals, is broken down
into glucose to provide immediate energy and to maintain blood glucose
levels during fasting.
glycogen breakdown to glucose

Somatostatin (GHRIH )
This hormone produced by hypothalamus inhibits the secretion of both insulin
and glucagon in addition to inhibiting the secretion of Growth Hormone form
anterior pituitary .

Pineal Gland
Melatonin is the main hormone secreted by pineal gland .

Organs with Secondary endocrine

functions
 Kidney secretes hormone erythropoietin in red bone marrow and its function is
stimulation of red blood cell production

 Adipose tissue secrets hormone leptin in hypothalamus and other tissues which
provides feeling of fullness (satiety )after eating needed for GnRh and gonadtrophin
synthesis.
 Ovary and testis secrets hormone inhibin where its site of action is anterior
pituitary and its function is inhibits secretion of FSH.

 Heart secrets atrial natriuretic peptide hormone which acts of kidney tubules and
decreases reabsorpotion of sodium and water in renal tubules..

 Placenta secrets hCG in ovary and stimulates secretion of oestrogen and

progesterone during pregnancy.

 Thymus secrets thymosin in white blood cells and its function is development of T-
lymphocytes

 GI tract and gastric mucosa and intestinal mucosa secretes gastric secretin
cholecystokinin (CCK) in gastric glands /stomach and pancreas /gall bladder and
pancreas and its function is stimulate secretion of gastric juice /pancreatic juice
(slow emptying of stomach ),stimulates release of bile and pancreatic juice.