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SYSTEM INTEGRATION
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Contents
13.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 2
13.2 Issues to be Addressed for a New Project .................................................................. 3

13.2.1 Water Source .............................................................................................................. 3
13.2.2 Water Analysis and Variation ................................................................................. 3
13.2.3 Effluent Quality and Quantity (Boiler Makeup) ................................................ 6
13.2.4 Environmental Considerations (or Waste Discharge) ....................................... 6
13.2.5 Financial Perspective ............................................................................................... 7
13.3 Pretreatment ..................................................................................................................... 7

13.3.1 Raw Surface Water ................................................................................................... 8
13.3.2 Well Water .................................................................................................................. 8
13.3.3 Sea Water .................................................................................................................... 9
13.3.4 City Water ................................................................................................................... 9
13.4 Demineralization (Ion Exchange/Reverse Osmosis) .............................................. 10

13.4.1 Low Pressure Boilers and Light Industrial Applications, e.g., Laundries .. 10
13.4.2 Medium Pressure Boilers and General Industrial Applications .................. 11
13.4.3 High Pressure Boilers and Steam Turbines ....................................................... 12
13.4.4 Condensate Polishers ............................................................................................. 13
13.4.5 Examples ................................................................................................................... 14
34a_m13_r0 13-1 System

Integration
Module 13
SYSTEM INTEGRATION
13.1 Introduction
During the development of any new water treatment project, many equipment issues
have to be addressed. These issues include the capacity, performance, environmental
compliance, capital cost, operating cost, waste volume, and footprint of the water
treatment equipment. In addition to the “hard” equipment issues,“soft” issues such
as customer preferences must also be addressed.
For new water treatment projects, several process areas must be considered,
including pretreatment, demineralization, and condensate polishing (if applicable),
as well as any ancillary components necessary to form a complete system. The
purpose of systems integration is to select the best unit operations that address the
issues identified in the first paragraph and assemble them into a functioning system.
This module provides a brief overview of the most significant factors affecting the
design of a complete water purification system. It is not intended to provide a
definitive discussion of the topic but rather to serve as a starting point for those
without systems integration experience. Any system design should be checked by an
experienced process engineer to ensure that no subtle design issues are overlooked.

table of contents Integration
13.2 Issues to be Addressed for a New Project
13.2.1 Water Source
The first step in designing a water treatment system is to identify the source of the
water to be treated. This information has a direct bearing on the amount of
pretreatment required and also influences the selection of equipment.
The following list identifies the common sources of feedwater for water treatment
projects:
• Surface water, i.e., rivers, lakes, and reservoirs

• Well water
• Municipal water from well or surface source
• Sea water
• Process fluids such as brine
• Condensate
• Blended feed: This is a combination of several streams e.g., surface water and
condensate or well water and municipal water.
It is also important to determine if there is any existing pretreatment of the raw

water, e.g., municipal clarification and/or filtration.
13.2.2 Water Analysis and Variation
Once the source of the feedwater has been identified, a complete analysis of the
water must be obtained. To properly analyze the feedwater, samples should be
collected over a period of time, preferably several years. A single sampling is not
effective, as it does not provide the necessary information regarding seasonal
variations in water quality. This information is required so that any variations in the
concentrations of individual ions (or other dissolved or suspended material) can be
accommodated in the system design. A design feedwater analysis is prepared that
presents the water composition that is used to select and size the treatment
equipment.

The design feedwater analysis should not consist of all of the maximum values of
each individual ion that have been recorded over time. A water supply would never
have all ions at the maximum observed values at the same time. Using maximum
values could result in overly large equipment. It is more appropriate to use the
average value of each individual ion as the design basis or even two-thirds of the
maximum value of each individual ion. The total exchangeable cations and total
anions, expressed as ppm CaCO3, excluding silica and carbon dioxide, are balanced
by adding sodium or chloride ions as needed.
The composition of well waters is typically more stable than the composition of
surface waters. Well waters generally do not vary significantly over time.
The design feedwater analysis should include the following information as a

minimum:
• Total dissolved solids (TDS)

• Total suspended solids (TSS)
• Total organic carbon (TOC)
• Iron and manganese
• Hardness and alkalinity (these may be calculated from other ions)
• Barium and strontium
• All major cations and anions
• Silica, reactive and total
• Carbon dioxide (this can be calculated from pH and alkalinity)
• Conductivity
• pH
• Turbidity
• SDI (Silt Density Index)
• Free chlorine
• Minimum and maximum temperatures

Table 13.2-1 below is an example of a typical water analysis reporting form on which
an operator records the amount of these substances present in each sample taken
from the feedwater source. From this data, the design feedwater analysis can be
determined as previously explained. The various columns can be used to define
samples taken at different times or from different sources. They can also be used to
indicate the manner in which the water is changed as it passes through different
treatment processes.
Water Analysis Report
Constituent Analysis in A B C D
ppm as
Calcium (Ca2+) CaCO3 43 0 0 0
Magnesium (Mg2+) CaCO3 12 0 0 0
Sodium to balance (Na2+) CaCO3 28 0.2 0.2 0.2
Hydrogen = FMA (H+) CaCO3 56.8 56.8
Potassium (K+) CaCO3
TOTAL CATIONS CaCO3 83 57 57 0.2
Bicarbonate (HCO3-) CaCO3 26 0 0 0
Carbonate (CO32-) CaCO3
Hydroxide (OH--) CaCO3 0.2
Sulfate (SO42-) CaCO3 41 41 41 0
Chloride (Cl-) CaCO3 15 15 15 0
Nitrate (NO32-) CaCO3 1 1 1 0
Phosphate (PO42-) CaCO3
TOTAL ANIONS CaCO3 83 57 57 0.2
Carbon Dioxide, Free (CO2) CaCO3 3 29 5 0
Silica (SiO2) CaCO3 7 7 7 0.2
EXCHANGABLE ANIONS CaCO3 93 93 69 0.4
Table 13.2-1: Water Analysis Report

13.2.3 Effluent Quality and Quantity (Boiler Makeup)
The effluent quality required from the treatment system is determined by the
intended use of the treated water. For example, boilers that operate at higher
pressures require purer feedwater than those operating at lower pressures. Boiler
manufacturers have water purity specifications that may include conductivity,
sodium, silica, dissolved oxygen, pH, etc.
The flow rate of feedwater required by an application, such as the boiler mentioned
above, depends on the system’s average consumption of water, the peak
consumption rate, the length of the peak, and the amount of storage available. For
example, a boiler requiring a 200-gpm average flow on a continuous basis would
have a different water treatment system than a boiler requiring a 200-gpm average
flow but with 2000-gpm peak consumption rates.
In most applications, the client determines and specifies both the quantity and the
final quality of water required.
13.2.4 Environmental Considerations (or Waste Discharge)
The generation and discharge of waste materials are also important considerations
when designing a water treatment system. Various options can be explored
depending on the client’s needs and requirements, for example:
• The use of process equipment that generates less waste such as reverse osmosis,
packed bed ion exchangers, or electrodeionization (EDI) technology
• The application of a rinse recycle step to reduce the waste volume
• The application of combinations of weak and strong ion exchange resins to
reduce chemical usage
• The use of non-regenerable ion exchangers or exchangers that are regenerated
off-site
• The reuse of waste generated by the water treatment system for other in-plant
purposes such as dust suppression or in the scrubber or cooling tower

Different geographic regions have varying regulations and restrictions on the levels
of pollutants that can be discharged into waterways. These regulations place limits
on the composition of the waste streams that can be discharged. Some of the items
that are regulated are listed below as examples; however, the prevailing local
regulations must be checked to ensure full compliance with the law.
• Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

• Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
• pH
• Sulphate ion
• Chloride ion
• Sodium ion
• Mass of dissolved solids (mass based discharge)
In some jurisdictions, no net addition of any pollutant is permitted while in others,

no liquid discharge is permitted from the facility at all. This latter requirement is
commonly referred to as a Zero Discharge Plant.
13.2.5 Financial Perspective
To select the proper treatment process for any given system, the client’s financial
perspective must also be considered. Some of the non-process factors that influence
equipment selection are:
• Capital cost versus operating cost

• Anticipated life of the plant
• Cost of money (outright purchase versus lease)
13.3 Pretreatment
The pretreatment process involves all equipment upstream of the demineralizing

equipment. The purpose of pretreatment is to condition the water by removing
contaminants and constituents that may foul or plug downstream equipment.
Some examples of impurities that are removed in the pretreatment section of a water
system are TSS, turbidity, color, organics (TOC), iron, and chlorine.
The raw water source heavily influences the choice of pretreatment equipment. The
following sections provide an overview of the variations in equipment design that
may be necessary for four common water supplies: raw surface water, well water, sea
water, and city water.

13.3.1 Raw Surface Water
With the exception of waste water reclamation projects, raw surface water is
generally the poorest quality of water that has to be treated; therefore, it requires the
greatest quantity of pretreatment equipment to make it suitable for treatment by one
of the demineralizing processes.
The potential pretreatment processes that may be employed to treat this type of raw
water are listed below:
• Chlorination to control bacteria is almost always a mandatory requirement

• Clarification (alum) and filtration (gravity filters) to reduce the TSS and Turbidity
• Lime softening if water has high hardness levels
• Organic scavenger if the level of total organic carbon (TOC) is high
• Activated carbon filtration or a sodium bisulfite feeder to remove free chlorine
The need for an organic scavenger is determined by the type of equipment used in
the downstream demineralization system. If the demineralizing plant includes a
reverse osmosis (RO) unit, the TOC limit would be approximately 3 ppm; however, if
ion exchange is used, the TOC can be no more than 1 ppm. Higher levels of TOC
cause fouling of the downstream equipment and require time consuming cleaning
procedures.
If the downstream equipment is reverse osmosis, activated carbon filters are not
recommended as they can be a source of bacteria and can also pass carbon dust onto
the membranes. Chlorine removal by injection of sodium bisulfite is fast and less
costly than carbon filtration.
13.3.2 Well Water
Well water normally requires less pretreatment than surface water and also has less
variation in its constituents; therefore, the level of pretreatment required is minimal.
The following list indicates pretreatment processes that can be used for well water:
• Multi-media filtration for TSS reduction

• An ion exchange softener upstream of reverse osmosis for hardness reduction
and to decrease the reverse osmosis cleaning frequency
• Greensand filters for iron and manganese removal. The limit for these
contaminants is 0.3 ppm (total) if the water is to be processed by ion exchange,
and 0.05 ppm (iron) if RO is used. The limit for RO is greatly influenced by the
pH and by the amount of oxygen in the water.

13.3.3 Sea Water
Sea water is extremely high in dissolved solids (i.e., 30,000 to 40,000 ppm)
depending on the region of the world. It also contains suspended solids, which can
increase dramatically during storms, and, on occasion, oil if the intake is near a
shipping lane.
In the water treatment industry, reverse osmosis with sea water membranes
desalinates the water prior to further purification with brackish water reverse
osmosis membranes. The equipment used to pretreat the sea water upstream of the
RO is listed below:
• Chlorination to control bacteriological growth is a mandatory requirement

• Ultrafiltration can be used as an alternative to media filtration to reduce TSS.
Ultrafiltration is normally higher in capital cost but lower in operating cost than
media filtration
• Multi-media filtration to reduce TSS. Normally, two levels of filtration are
required especially if an open sea intake is used, i.e., roughing filters and
polishing filters. Polymer is fed upstream of both sets of media filters to enhance
their performances
• Cartridge filtration to protect the RO membranes
• Dechlorination using sodium bisulfite
13.3.4 City Water
City water, or municipal water, is potable and is generally of reasonable quality.

However, it is normally chlorinated and may contain suspended solids, turbidity,
organics, and iron and manganese, all of which must be removed or reduced to
acceptable levels prior to the demineralization equipment.
Possible treatment processes are listed below. All of these must be evaluated based
on the quality and constituents of the city water.
• Multi-media filtration to reduce TSS

• Dechlorination using either activated carbon filtration or sodium bisulfite feed
• Greensand filtration for iron and manganese removal
• Sodium cycle softening to reduce hardness and decrease the frequency of RO
cleanings

13.4 Demineralization (Ion Exchange/Reverse Osmosis)
The demineralization section of the water treatment system is where the ionic
content, or total dissolved solids (TDS), of the water is reduced to the levels required
by the user.
Demineralization can be performed by ion exchange (IX), reverse osmosis (RO) or

electrodeionization (EDI) equipment. Some combination of these basic processes is
often used to obtain the optimum treatment process to meet the client’s
performance, financial, and environmental needs.
The TDS of the raw water and the quality of treated water required influence the
process equipment selection. Some examples of equipment selections are listed
below to show the complexities that can be encountered.
13.4.1 Low Pressure Boilers and Light Industrial Applications, e.g., Laundries
Simple softening can produce water for this service. The residual hardness level will
determine the type of softener that should be used. The options are as follows:
• Sodium cycle softener, co-current regenerated, produces less than 1 ppm

hardness
• Sodium cycle softener, counter current regenerated, produces less than 0.5 ppm
hardness
• Packed bed sodium cycle softener, counter current regenerated, produces less
than 0.5 ppm hardness with less than half of the waste generated by a co-current
regenerated system or a conventional counter current system
34a_m13_r0 13-10 System

13.4.2 Medium Pressure Boilers and General Industrial Applications, e.g.,
Automotive
Water used in this application normally requires some degree of demineralization to

reduce the dissolved solids to acceptable levels. The quality of treated water required
determines the treatment processes. Examples of equipment that may be used to
treat the water for this application are given below:
• Two-bed demineralizer (cation/anion co-current regenerated) produces treated

water with an average of 5 to 10 micro-Siemens per centimeter (µS/cm)
conductivity and 50 ppb silica. A forced draft decarbonator may be incorporated
between the cation and anion exchangers to remove carbon dioxide from the
decationized water and thereby reduce the ionic load on the anion exchanger.
• Two-bed demineralizer (cation/anion counter current regenerated): This

produces treated water with an average of 1 to 3 (µS/cm) conductivity and 10 to
20 parts per billion (ppb) of silica. A forced draft decarbonator may be
incorporated between the cation and anion exchangers to remove carbon dioxide
from the decationized water and thereby reduce the ionic load on the anion
exchanger.
• Reverse osmosis followed by a decarbonator and mixed bed ion exchange: This
produces treated water with an average of 1 µS/cm conductivity and 10 to 20 ppb
silica.
• Two-bed packed bed demineralizer (cation/anion counter current regenerated):

Produces treated water with an average of less than 1 µS/cm conductivity and 10
to 20 ppb silica and with less waste than the other systems; however, the inlet
turbidity must be less than 1 NTU. This system can be used with or without a
decarbonator.
• Two-bed sandwich packed bed demineralizer (cation/anion counter current

regenerated): These units have both weak and strong cation and anion resins to
provide optimum chemical efficiency and reduce operating costs. They produce
treated water with an average of less than 1 µS/cm conductivity and 10 to 20 ppb
silica and with less waste than the other systems; however, the inlet turbidity
must be less than 1 NTU. This system can be used with or without a
decarbonator.
34a_m13_r0 13-11 System

13.4.3 High Pressure Boilers and Steam Turbines
For this application, the highest water quality is required to prevent scaling of the
boiler tubes and turbine blades. To achieve higher quality, a polishing demineralizer
is added to the process equipment arrangement. The polishing demineralizer can be
a mixed bed, a polishing cation exchanger, or an electrodeionization unit. The
following equipment examples indicate the range of systems that can be provided to
produce high quality demineralized water.
• Conventional two-bed co-current cation/anion exchangers followed by mixed

bed ion exchange. This produces treated water with an average of 1 µS/cm
conductivity and 10 to 20 ppb silica.
• Reverse osmosis followed by decarbonation and mixed bed ion exchange. This
produces treated water with an average of 1 µS/cm conductivity and 10 to 20 ppb
silica. The RO is normally a single pass design; however, a double pass RO
system could be used to increase the run length of the mixed bed.
• Reverse osmosis followed by decarbonation and EDI. This produces treated

water with an average of less than 0.1 µS/cm conductivity and less than 10 ppb
silica. The RO system can be either a single or double pass system depending on
the raw water TDS. In some cases a non-regenerable mixed bed is positioned
after the EDI unit for added insurance.
• Two-bed packed bed demineralizer (cation/anion, counter current regenerated)

followed by a cation polisher. This produces treated water with an average of less
than 0.5 µS/cm conductivity and 10 to 20 ppb silica and with less waste than the
other systems; however, the inlet turbidity must be less than 1 NTU. This system
can be used with or without a decarbonator.
• Two-bed packed bed demineralizer (cation/anion counter current regenerated)

followed by a mixed bed exchanger. This produces treated water with an average
of less than 0.1 µS/cm conductivity and less than 10 ppb silica. A decarbonator
may be used between the cation and the anion units to reduce the operating
costs and in some cases also reduce the capital cost of the system.
Any of the above systems that use two-bed demineralizers could be changed to four-
bed systems with weak and strong resins in the cation and anion exchangers if the
composition of the raw water is suitable.
34a_m13_r0 13-12 System

13.4.4 Condensate Polishers
Condensate, which is steam that has condensed back to water after giving up its
heat, can be reused in a boiler. Condensate picks up ionic contaminants from
cooling water in-leakage and condenser leakage, along with corrosion products such
as iron and copper oxides.
In some applications, the condensate is returned from a steam host that uses the
steam in the manufacturing process. In such cases, the condensate may contain
other contaminants picked up from the product (e.g., pulp fiber from a paper mill).
These contaminants must also be removed before the condensate can be reused.
There are several different types of condensate polishers. A brief summary of the
available types is given below (Module 10 has complete details).
• Sodium cycle polisher: This is a cation only polisher that is used to polish
condensate at temperatures up to 275o F in applications for which silica reduction
is not a concern. This type of polisher removes trace hardness ions in exchange
for sodium ions and also filters out particulate matter.
• Amine cycle polisher: This is also a cation only polisher that is used to polish
condensate at temperatures up to 275o F in applications where silica reduction is
not a concern but where the addition of sodium is not acceptable. This type of
polisher removes trace hardness ions in exchange for amine ions and also filters
out particulate matter.
• In-situ regenerated deep bed polisher: This is a mixed bed polisher used in-line
(full flow polisher) or side-stream (partial flow polisher), at temperatures up to
120oF but preferably not higher than 100oF (to control silica leakage). This type of
polisher has a potential for leakage of regenerant into the process stream. It also
has a higher degree of cross-contamination and therefore produces lower quality
treated condensate than that produced by externally regenerated polishers.
• Externally regenerated deep bed polisher: This is also a mixed bed polisher used
in-line or side-stream, at temperatures up to 120oF but preferably not higher than
100oF (to control silica leakage). These units are normally found in central
utilities such as nuclear power plants for which the highest quality is required,
particularly for supercritical boilers.
34a_m13_r0 13-13 System

13.4.5 Examples
The following examples are intended to represent the types of systems used in
modern water treatment systems. They show typical processes, based on the type of
raw water source, the water analysis, and the required performance guarantee. It
must be stressed that each new system must be selected or designed based on the
prevailing water analysis and the “hard” and “soft” parameters dictated by the
prospective client. There may be more than one “right” answer to a design problem,
and there may be subtle conditions that shift the preference from one design to
another.
34a_m13_r0 13-14 System

Example 1 Source: Well Water
Water Analysis
Cations ppm as CaCO3 Anions ppm as CaCO3

Calcium 583 Bicarbonate 115
Magnesium 161 Sulfate 656
Sodium 48 Chloride 21
Total Cations 792 Total Anions 792
Carbon Dioxide 10
Silica 20
TEA 822
Other Contaminants
pH 10.4
TSS 50 ppm
Temperature 104oF
Performance (Product Quality) Guarantee

Conductivity 20 mmho/cm
Sodium 2 ppm as Na
Silica 0.5 ppm as SiO2
Recommended Equipment
Multi-media filter
Co-current strong acid cation exchanger
Co-current strong base anion exchanger
Selection Factors
1. The high level of TSS in the raw water requires the use of filtration. Since iron and
chlorine are not present, multi-media filtration is selected.
2. The required effluent quality is not particularly stringent and can be achieved using a
basic two-bed demineralizer, which is simple to operate and maintain and which is also
low in capital cost.
3. The client has prior experience with similar equipment.
Comments
• At first glance, the TDS in the raw water would suggest the use of RO instead of ion
exchange; however, the reported water temperature is already at the maximum operat-
ing temperature for RO membranes. Therefore, ion exchange is selected.
34a_m13_r0 13-15 System

Example 2 Source: City Water
Water Analysis

Total Cations 37 Total Anions 37
Carbon Dioxide 11.4

Silica 10
TEA 58.4
Other Contaminants
pH 6.5
Free Chlorine 1.0 ppm
Temperature 50 to 70oF
Performance (Water Quality) Guarantee

Conductivity 0.5 mmho/cm
Sodium 0.1 ppm as CaCO3
Recommended Equipment Selection

Sodium bisulfite feeder
10 micron nominal cartridge filtration
Co-current strong acid cation exchanger
Co-current strong base anion exchanger
Mixed Bed Exchanger
Selection Factors
1. The very low level of TDS in the feedwater makes this water ideal for treatment by ion
exchange.
2. The required treated water quality indicates a need for final polishing using a mixed bed.
3. The client requires filtration before the ion exchange beds.
4. The free chlorine level is greater than 0.2 ppm and must be reduced. A bisulfite feeder
is selected as the most cost-effective method.
Comments
• As an alternative to the sodium bisulfite feeder and cartridge filtration, activated carbon
filtration could be used; however, this would increase the capital cost and require more
floor space.
• The cartridge filter is not indicated by the feedwater data (since particulate matter can be
backwashed out of a co-current ion exchange unit), but the client is concerned about
particulate loading.
• Other forms of ion exchange could be used, such as a packed two-bed system (cation
and anion exchangers) with a high flow cation polisher. This choice would simplify the
operation and possibly reduce the capital cost of the plant; however, the client prefers
the more traditional approach of using a mixed bed demineralizer.
34a_m13_r0 13-16 System

Example 3 Source: Surface Water (River)
Water Analysis (Clarifier Outlet)

Potassium 5 Nitrate 10
Total Cations 235 Phosphate 1
Total Anions 236
Carbon Dioxide 25
Silica 5
TEA 266
Other Contaminants
pH 7.0
Organics 10 ppm TOC
Turbidity 7 NTU
Performance Guarantee
Conductivity 1 mmho/cm
Silica 0.1 ppm as CaCO3
Equipment Selection
Multi-media filter
Sandwich packed bed weak/strong acid cation exchanger
Forced draft decarbonator
Sandwich packed bed weak/strong base anion exchanger
Selection Factors
1. Because the feedwater turbidity is greater than 1 NTU, filtration is required. No iron or
chlorine is present, so multi-media filtration is selected as the least costly alternative.
2. The analysis favors the use of weak cation resin since there is a substantial quantity of
hardness in the water and a reasonable ratio of hardness to alkalinity. The weak resin is
very chemically efficient and greatly reduces the ionic load that the strong resin must
subsequently remove.
3. A forced draft decarbonator is required since more than 50% of the feed to the anion
exchanger is carbon dioxide. By removing this carbon dioxide, the decarbonator
reduces the volume of strong base resin needed in the anion exchanger and also
reduces the use of caustic.
4. The load on the anion resin is 89% mineral acids and only 11% weak acids. This strongly
suggests the use of weak base anion resin to improve chemical efficiency.
5. An additional factor in selecting weak base anion resin is the presence of up to 10 ppm
of TOC. This high concentration would quickly foul any strong base resin and is also
much higher than any weak resin can handle on a consistent basis. Adjusting the perfor-
mance of the clarifier should control this high level of TOC.
6. Counter current regeneration of the strong ion exchange beds is required to achieve the
required quality of treated water.
34a_m13_r0 13-17 System

Comments
• If clarifier performance cannot be improved such that the TOC is greatly reduced, then
consideration should be given to the addition of an organic scavenger upstream of the
cation unit. This would change the analysis of the water being fed into the cation
exchanger, especially during the early portion of the service run, when the scavenger is
exchanging sulfate and bicarbonate ions for chloride ions. This may alter the ratio of
weak and strong cation resins or may eliminate the weak resin altogether, since the weak
resin only removes the hardness associated with alkalinity.
• Because counter current technology is required to meet the required quality, packed
beds are used to reduce the waste volume. If waste is not an issue, other forms of
counter current ion exchange could be used; however, the packed bed approach is
probably the least costly and most elegant approach.
• Depending on the system and its size, a forced draft decarbonator could be added. This
addition reduces operating costs, although it may increases the capital cost of the
system.
34a_m13_r0 13-18 System

Example 4 Source: Well Water
Water Analysis

Calcium 152.8 Bicarbonate 460
Magnesium 114.4 Carbonate 20
Sodium 448.2 Chloride 238.7
Potassium 32.1 Nitrate 1.8
Total Cations 747.5 Sulfate 14.6
Hydroxide 2
Fluoride 0.4
Total Anions 737.5
Carbon Dioxide 22.6

Silica 65.1
TEA 825.2
Other Contaminants
pH 7.75 Barium 0.05 mg/l
Organics 7.2 ppm TOC Iron 0.15 mg/l
Turbidity 1.5 NTU Manganese 0.20 mg/l
Temperature 60 to 80oF Copper 0.01 mg/l
Color 5 APHA TSS 15 mg/l
H2S < 0.1 mg/l
Sodium 0.02 ppm as Na
Silica 0.01 ppm as CaCO3
TDS 0.04 mg/l as CaCO3
Iron 0.01 mg/l as Fe
Copper 0.01 mg/l as Cu
Equipment Selection
Manganese greensand filtration with potassium permanganate (KmnO4) feed
Organic scavenger
Acid feed system
Antiscalant feed system
RO prefilter – 5 micron nominal
Single pass RO
Mixed bed exchanger
34a_m13_r0 13-19 System

Selection Factors
1. The feedwater turbidity is greater than 1 NTU, there is 15 ppm of TSS and 0.35 mg/l of
Fe + Mn, making filtration mandatory. Manganese greensand filters are selected to
remove the Fe and Mn. When the TSS is substantial, a layer of anthracite is placed on
top of the greensand to increase the run time and prevent plugging.
2. Reverse osmosis is selected as the roughing demineralizer technology due to the very
high level of TDS.
3. A forced draft decarbonator is required to remove the carbon dioxide generated by the
addition of acid upstream of the RO.
4. A mixed bed ion exchanger is required to achieve the required treated water quality.
Comments
• Particular attention must be paid to the pretreatment upstream of the reverse osmosis
unit due to the presence of iron, barium, H2S and substantial amounts of TOC. The
greensand filters remove iron, manganese, TSS and possibly some of the color (TOC).
• The analysis reports less than 0.1 mg/l of H2S in the feed. This probably means that the
concentration of H2S is below the detection limit of the laboratory performing the
analysis. If H2S is present, it would preclude the use of any oxidizing agents, since they
would convert the H2S into elemental sulphur that plugs up filters and RO membranes.
• To reduce the scaling potential of the feedwater, acid is fed upstream of the RO to lower
the LSI to a negative value. The acid injection, in turn, converts some of the bicarbonate
ions to carbon dioxide, which is not removed by the RO. This carbon dioxide would very
quickly exhaust the mixed bed were it not for the decarbonator that reduces the CO2 to
between 5 and 10 ppm at the mixed bed inlet.
• The very high level of reactive silica in the feedwater requires the addition of an
antiscalant specifically designed to prevent silica scaling (e.g., ARGO SI300).
34a_m13_r0 13-20 System

Example 5 Source: Municipal Supply
Water Analysis

Total Cations 579 Phosphate 1
Fluoride 1
Total Anions 579
Carbon Dioxide 2
Silica 10.5
TEA 591.5
Other Contaminants
pH 7.5 to 8.3 Barium 0.08 mg/l
Organics 1 ppm TOC Iron 0.13 mg/l
Turbidity 1 NTU Manganese 0.01 mg/l
Temperature 36 to 77oF Aluminum 0.3 mg/l
Free Chlorine 0.12 mg/l SDI 5
Sodium 0.01 ppm as Na
TDS 0.2 mg/l
Equipment Selection
Acid feed system
Antiscalant feed system
Sodium bisulfite feed system
Single pass reverse osmosis
E-CellTM electrodeionization unit
Selection Factors
1. The level of suspended solids (indicated by turbidity) in the feedwater does not justify
the addition of media filtration; therefore, only conventional cartridge filtration is pro-
vided upstream of the RO.
2. RO is selected as the roughing demineralizer due to the moderately high TDS of the
feedwater.
4. To achieve the required treated water quality, a mixed bed ion exchanger or EDI unit is
required. EDI is selected to reduce the onsite storage and handling of chemicals.
34a_m13_r0 13-21 System

Comments
• The raw water analysis indicates a silt density index (SDI) of 5 in the feedwater. This is
the maximum value for RO feed, so the value should be rechecked and confirmed.
Higher values require the addition of media filtration to protect the RO and the cartridge
filters.
• Since an RO is being used, sodium bisulfite is the preferred method of chlorine removal.
The membranes have a chlorine tolerance of 1000 ppm-hours.
the LSI to a negative value. This, in turn, converts some of the bicarbonate ions to
carbon dioxide, which is not removed by the RO. The carbon dioxide would quickly
exhaust the final ion exchanger were it not for the decarbonator, which reduces the level
of carbon dioxide in the water to 5 ppm.
• An antiscalant is fed upstream of the RO as additional protection against scaling.
34a_m13_r0 13-22 System

Example 6 Source: Sea Water
(Open Sea Intake)
Water Analysis

Ammonia 4 Total Anions 35376
Total Cations 35376
Carbon Dioxide 9
Silica 26
TEA 35411
Other Contaminants
pH 8.1 to 8.3
Equipment Selection
Coagulant feeder
Coagulant aid feeder
Primary multi-media filtration
Polishing multi-media filtration
Acid feeder
Antiscalant feeder
Sodium bisulfite feeder
Single pass sea water reverse osmosis
Brackish water reverse osmosis
Mixed bed demineralizer
34a_m13_r0 13-23 System

Selection Factors
1. Since the feed is an open sea intake, two levels of media filtration are required.
2. Coagulant or polymer is fed before each filtration stage.
3. The seawater RO is provided with an energy recovery turbine to reduce power costs.
5. To further reduce the ionic load prior to the final demineralization step, a brackish-water
RO is needed after the seawater RO, due to the extremely high level of TDS that sea
water contains.
6. A mixed bed demineralizer is used to achieve the final water quality.
Comments
• Ultrafiltration could have been used instead of media filtration for the pretreatment of
the seawater. This would have resulted in lower operating costs but higher capital costs.
• Thermal evaporation could have been used in place of the seawater RO, but in this case
thermal evaporation has higher capital and operating costs.
• Since an RO is being used, sodium bisulfite is the preferred method of chlorine removal.
The membranes have a chlorine tolerance of 1000 ppm hours.
the LSI to a negative value. This, in turn, converts some of the bicarbonate ions to
carbon dioxide, which is not removed by the RO. The carbon dioxide would very quickly
exhaust the final ion exchanger were it not for the decarbonator that reduces the level of
carbon dioxide in the feed to 5 ppm.
• An antiscalant is fed upstream of the RO as additional protection against scaling.
• The permeate from the sea water RO is still high in TDS, (approximately 500 ppm);
therefore, a second RO pass is required prior to final demineralization.
• The final water quality can be met using either conventional mixed bed ion exchange or
EDI technology. Since chemicals are already being used for other parts of the plant
(e.g., condensate polishing), the conventional approach is desirable.
34a_m13_r0 13-24 System

Example 7 Source: Condensate
Water Analysis
Conductivity 10 to 15 mmho/cm
Hardness 5 to 7.5 ppm as CaCO3
Iron 0.1 to 0.2 mg/l as Fe
Copper 0.02 to 0.1 mg/l as Cu
pH 8.0 to 8.5
Hardness 0.1 ppm as CaCO3
Iron 0.02 ppm as Fe
Equipment Selection
Sodium cycle condensate polishers
Selection Factors
1. Since the operating temperature is very high and no silica reduction is required, a simple
sodium cycle cation polisher is the process of choice.
Comments
• An amine cycle polisher could also be used for this application; however, the client has
no concerns about the sodium content of the treated condensate.
34a_m13_r0 13-25 System

Example 8 Source: Condensate
Water Analysis
Total non-volatile
dissolved solids 50 ppb
Suspended
Solids 20 ppb
Ammonia 800 to 1200 ppb as CaCO3
Iron 10 ppb as Fe
Copper 5 ppb as Cu
Silica 20 ppb as SiO2
Sodium 5 ppb as CaCO3
Chloride 5 ppb as CaCO3
TDS 25 ppb
TSS 10 ppb
Cation Conductivity 0.1 mS/cm
Total Iron 5 ppb as Fe
Total Copper 2 ppb as Cu
Silica 5 ppb as SiO2
Sodium 1 ppb as Na
Chloride 2 ppb as Cl
Equipment Selection
Externally regenerated mixed bed condensate polishers
Selection Factors
1. The required performance guarantee requires the use of a mixed bed condensate
polisher.
Comments
• To maintain the low levels of cross-contamination required by this process, external
regeneration of the mixed bed condensate polisher is used.
34a_m13_r0 13-26 System


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SYSTEM INTEGRATION

13.2 Issues to be Addressed for a New Project .................................................................. 3

13.3 Pretreatment ..................................................................................................................... 7

13.4 Demineralization (Ion Exchange/Reverse Osmosis) .............................................. 10

34a_m13_r0 13-1 System

34a_m13_r0 13-2 System

13.2.1 Water Source

• Surface water, i.e., rivers, lakes, and reservoirs

It is also important to determine if there is any existing pretreatment of the raw

13.2.2 Water Analysis and Variation

34a_m13_r0 13-3 System

The design feedwater analysis should include the following information as a

• Total dissolved solids (TDS)

34a_m13_r0 13-4 System

Water Analysis Report

Calcium (Ca2+) CaCO3 43 0 0 0

Magnesium (Mg2+) CaCO3 12 0 0 0

Sodium to balance (Na2+) CaCO3 28 0.2 0.2 0.2

Hydrogen = FMA (H+) CaCO3 56.8 56.8

Potassium (K+) CaCO3

TOTAL CATIONS CaCO3 83 57 57 0.2

Bicarbonate (HCO3-) CaCO3 26 0 0 0

Carbonate (CO32-) CaCO3

Hydroxide (OH--) CaCO3 0.2

Sulfate (SO42-) CaCO3 41 41 41 0

Chloride (Cl-) CaCO3 15 15 15 0

Nitrate (NO32-) CaCO3 1 1 1 0

Phosphate (PO42-) CaCO3

TOTAL ANIONS CaCO3 83 57 57 0.2

Carbon Dioxide, Free (CO2) CaCO3 3 29 5 0

Silica (SiO2) CaCO3 7 7 7 0.2

EXCHANGABLE ANIONS CaCO3 93 93 69 0.4

Table 13.2-1: Water Analysis Report

34a_m13_r0 13-5 System

13.2.4 Environmental Considerations (or Waste Discharge)

34a_m13_r0 13-6 System

• Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

In some jurisdictions, no net addition of any pollutant is permitted while in others,

13.2.5 Financial Perspective

• Capital cost versus operating cost

The pretreatment process involves all equipment upstream of the demineralizing

34a_m13_r0 13-7 System

• Chlorination to control bacteria is almost always a mandatory requirement

13.3.2 Well Water

• Multi-media filtration for TSS reduction

34a_m13_r0 13-8 System

• Chlorination to control bacteriological growth is a mandatory requirement

13.3.4 City Water

City water, or municipal water, is potable and is generally of reasonable quality.

• Multi-media filtration to reduce TSS

34a_m13_r0 13-9 System

Demineralization can be performed by ion exchange (IX), reverse osmosis (RO) or

• Sodium cycle softener, co-current regenerated, produces less than 1 ppm

34a_m13_r0 13-10 System

Water used in this application normally requires some degree of demineralization to

• Two-bed demineralizer (cation/anion co-current regenerated) produces treated

• Two-bed demineralizer (cation/anion counter current regenerated): This

• Two-bed packed bed demineralizer (cation/anion counter current regenerated):

• Two-bed sandwich packed bed demineralizer (cation/anion counter current

34a_m13_r0 13-11 System

• Conventional two-bed co-current cation/anion exchangers followed by mixed

• Reverse osmosis followed by decarbonation and EDI. This produces treated

• Two-bed packed bed demineralizer (cation/anion, counter current regenerated)